Philosophical scepticism and political conversation In his essay, Philosophy and Politics, Russell's object is to consider the relationship of different philosophies to different political systems, and to inquire how far it is a valid relationship. Most philosophy, says Russell, has been a reaction against scepticism, though there have been exceptions. The most notable exceptions were Protagoras in antiquity and Hume in modern times. Both these men were sceptics, and, as a result of scepticism, were politically conservative. They believed that nothing should be done to weaken the popular force of tradition. Then there was Hobbes who, though less sceptical than Hume, was equally convinced that government was not of divine origin and who advocated the path of extreme conservatism. Empiricist - Den Writus and Locke But thorough-going sceptics, such as Protagoras and Hume, have never been influential. The really powerful opponents against whom Plato in ancient times and Hegel in modern times had to contend were not sceptics but empiricists. These empiricists were Democritus in ancient times and Locke in modern times. Plato's political philosophy : Totalitarianism, and Static perfection Plato was of the opinion that all the books of Democritus should be burnt. Democritus was a materialist, a determinist, a free thinker, a utilitarian who disliked all strong passions, a believer in evolution both astrbnomical and biological. He was also an ardent democrat. He was of the view that poverty in a democracy was better than prosperity under despotism. Plato, who opposed the ideas of Democritus, was a man of totalitarian views as we clearly see from his book, the Republic. This book is totalitarian in its political teaching and it advocates an ideal of static perfection. But this ideal of static perfection is now generally believed to be inapplicable to human affairs. Man is a restless animal, not content with the same state however satisfactory it might be. Man needs hope and enterprise and change. Among modern philosophers, the ideal of unending and unchanging happiness has been replaced by that of evolution. Evolution in this sense means an orderly progress towards a goal which is never quite attained. This change of outlook is part of the substitution of dynamics for statics which began with Galileo. The concept of dynamics has affected all modern thinking, whether scientific or political. Hegel's philosophy and it's political implications Hegel's philosophy was so odd that we are surprised how it could have exercised so much influence upon the minds of a multitude of intellectuals even outside Germany. Hegel uses the phrase “the Absolute Idea” to convey his notion of real reality, and his definition of the Absolute Idea may thus be stated: “The Absolute Idea is pure thought thinking about pure thought”. Indeed, Hegel sets out his philosophy with so much obscurity that people thought it must be profound though actually it is absurd. From this absurd philosophy Hegel derives equally absurd political views. From his philosophy Hegel draws the following inferences: (1) that true liberty consists in obedience to an arbitrary authority; (2) that free speech is an evil; (3) that absolute monarchy is good; and (4) that war is good, and an international organization for the peaceful settlement of disputes would be most undesirable. Hegel arrives at these conclusions through a line of reasoning which is far from rational. Hegel's influence on Karl Marx Hegel's philosophy produced a deep effect on Karl Marx who took over some of Hegel's most fanciful tenets. More particularly, Marx took over the belief that history develops according to a logical plan and is concerned to find ways of avoiding self- contradiction. Thus both Hegel and Marx advocated an autocratic system, though the kind of autocracy in the two cases is different. It is only on the basis of unquestioned dogma that an autocratic system can theoretically be justified; it is only if we accept Hegel’s theory of history that we can justify an autocratic system such as was advocated by Hegel. Locks empiricist philosophy and it's connection with the theory of liberal politics Democracy has its theoretical justification in another philosophy altogether; and that philosophy is empiricism. So far as the modern world is concerned, the founder of the philosophy of empiricism was John Locke. Locke makes it clear how closely his philosophy is connected with his views on liberty and toleration, and with his opposition to absolute monarchy. Locke constantly emphasizes the uncertainty of most of our knowledge. He tries to make us aware of the possibility that we may be mistaken in the views we hold and that we should therefore freely discuss our views with men holding different views. His philosophy of empiricism thus leads to the liberal theory of politics. Empricisim recommended on ethical grounds Finally, Russell recommends empiricism not only on the ground of its greater truth but also on ethical grounds. Dogma demands authority, rather than intelligent thought, as the source of opinion. Dogma requires a prosecution of those who do not accept it. Dogma calls upon its followers to suppress natural kindness in favour of systematic hatred. Rival dogmas lead to war because they do not recognize the usefulness of free discussion; and war in our scientific age means universal death. Thus, by sustained logical reasoning, Russell arrives at the conclusion that the modern world needs the philosophy of empiricist liberalism. The modern world is technically unified, but it is politically divided; and the world will not continue for long if beliefs are not held on the basis of this philosophy. Russell convincingly exposes the absurdity of Hegel's philosophy and its disastrous political consequences. In the light of his exposition of Hegel’s philosophy, we really wonder how some of the best minds of Europe fell under Hegel's spell. Similarly, Russell exposes the absurdity of Plato's political beliefs which deceived the world for ages. No right-thinking person can deny the value of empiricism and the liberalism to which it leads in the political sphere. The gist of Russell's entire reasoning in this essay is that we should hold our political beliefs tentatively just as a scientist believes in his theories tentatively. Russell strongly disapproves of a dogmatic holding of beliefs, and this disapproval is fully justified. The dogmatist has a closed mind; he would pay no heed to the new evidence which may become available at any time. It is for this reason that communists are so stubborn and so aggressive. While democracy is tolerant towards its opponents, communism not only does not tolerate opposition but is always ready to persecute and liquidate its opponents. Russell shows himself to be a true liberal, a true democrat, a true lover of freedom, a true humanist. Even his advocacy of democracy is not fanatical; in fact, he gives us concrete historical examples of the evil consequences of a fanatical advocacy of democracy. What can be more broad-minded and large-hearted than the attitude of a strong believer in democracy who yet refuses to offer fanatical support to it ? Philosophy and Politics is an essay which should have a liberalizing effect on everyone who goes through it; at the same time it is an essay which greatly adds to our knowledge by revealing to us how political beliefs are derived from the theories of professional philosophers.