CHA PTE Rx Amplitude Modulation Transmission CHAPTER OUTLINE 41 Introduction 46 ‘Trapezoidal Patterns 42> Principles of Amplitude Modulation 4-7 ° Carrier Shift 48 'AM Envelopes Produced by Complex Nonsimusoidal Signals 43. AM Modulating Circuits 44 Linear-Integrated-Circuit AM Modulators - 4-9 4S AM Transmitters ‘Quadrature Amplitude Modulation Define amplitude modulation Describe the AM envelope : Describe the AM frequency spectrum and bandwidth Explain the phasor representation of an AM wave ; Define and explain the following terms: coefficient of ‘modulation and percent modulation Derive AM voltage distribution ‘Analyze AM in the time domain Derive AM power distribution Explain AM current calculations no Describe AM with a complex information si : cil genio Describe AM modulator circuits andthe difference between low: #00 high-level Describe linear-integrated circuit AM modulators Peete ina neat cite OM rence between ow and igh ev) (oe Describe trapezoidal patterns and their significance in analy7in6 Define carrier shift Describe 119‘ : is ae beewoon atransmiter and afecV2F OVEC Some fan 42 PRINCIPLES OF AMPLITUDE MOD! 120 inal i ion signals are seldom in af . the original information S18 minaton dium. Hot raraforl they must be transformed from ther orginal table for transmission. The process of impressing low-trequee fr signal is called modulation. Demodui i i hefrequency cari a information signals onto a big! K De eaatee 2 inthe reverse process where the received signals are (r 0 thee og ion he purpose ofthis chapter is to introduce the reader to the fundamental concep ‘amplitude modulation (AM) Information signals are transpo transmission 1m into a form that is more su! ULATION sess of changing the amplitude of a relatively high fp. the instantaneous value of the modulating sign latively inexpensive, low-quality form of mo. oth audio and video signals. Api nications, SUCH a8 citizen, “Amplitude modulation is the process quency carrer signal in proportion with information). Amplitude modulation is & el dint tha is used for commercial broadcasting of b tude modulation is also used for two-way mobile radio commu io. band aoa are nonlinear devices with wo inputs and one output One iipuis, single, high-frequency carrier signal of constant amplitude and the second input is com, prised of relatively low-frequency information signal that may be a single frequency oy complex waveform made up of many frequencies Frequencies that are high enough to efficiently radiated by an antenna and propagated through free space are commonly called radio frequencies, ot simply RFs. In the modulator, the information acts on or modula, the RF carrier producing a modulated waveform. The information signal may bea sng of frequencies. For example, typical voice-grade frequency or more likely consist of a range i ge of information frequencies between 300 Hz and communications systems utilize a ranj $000 Hz. The modulated output waveform from an AM modulator is often called an AM envelope. 4-2-1. The AM Envelope ‘Although thee are several types of amplitude modulation, AM double sideband flea ‘jer (DSBFC) is probably the most commonly used. AM DSBFC is sometimes called cr ventional AM or simply AM. Figure 4-1 illustrates the relationship among the carrier (V, sin {2x f2) the modulating signal (Vp, Sin{2x fufl), and the modulated wave (Van {A for con: ventional AM. The figure shows how an AM waveform is produced when a single- frequency modulating signal acts on a high-frequency carrier signal. The output ‘waveform contains all the frequencies that make up the AM signal and is used to transport the infor mation through the system. Therefore, the shape of the modulated wave is called the AM envelope. Note that with no modulating signal, the output waveform is simply the caret signal, However, when a modulating signal is applied, the amplitude of the output wave varies in accordance with the modulating signal. Note that the repetition rate of the enve- lope is equal tothe frequency of the modulating signal and that the shape of the envelope is identical to the shape of the modulating signal. 4-2-2 AM Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth ‘An AM modulator is a nonlinear device. Therefore, nonlinear mixing occurs, and the ou put envelope is a complex wave made up of a dc voltage, the carrier frequency, and the Sut (f, +f) and difference (f. ~ f,) frequencies (i.e., the cross products). The sum and differ cence frequencies are displaced from the carrier frequency by an amount equal to the ulating signal frequency. Therefore, an AM signal spectrum contains frequency comp nents spaced f,, Hz on either side of the carrier. However, it should be noted that modulated wave does not contain a frequency component that is equal to the modulating Chapter 4 an‘Amplitude ‘Upper sideband Lower side frequencies | Upper side frequencies. Frequency fe Senin fe fe tater FIGURE 4-2 Frequency spectrum of an AM DSBFC wave signal frequency. The effect of modulation is to translate the modulating signal inthe fre- quency domain so that it is reflected symmetrically about the carrier frequency. Figure 4.2 shows the frequency spectrum for an AM wave. The AM spectrum extends from f. — fran) 0 f+ Srmaxye Where f. isthe carrier frequency and fagmax isthe highest modulating signal frequency. The band of frequencies between fe ~ fmimax) 14 f is called the lower sideband (LSB), and any frequency within this band is called a lower side fre- ‘quency (LSF). The band of frequencies between f_ and f + finnax) is called the upper side- band (USB), and any frequency within this band is called an upper side frequency (USF). Therefore, the bandwidth (B) of an AM DSBFC wave is equal to the difference between the highest upper side frequency and the lowest lower side feast ‘or two vee es meet modulating signal frequency (.e., B = 2fumax)- For radio wave propass and all Rene rae “ upper: andlower ‘sidebands must be high enough to be suf- ficiently propagated through Earth's atmosphere. ‘Transmission 121122 Example 4-1 Focan AMDSBFC modulator with a cartier frequency f. = 100 KHz and « maximum modulating yi nal frequency fagmaxy = 5 KHz, determine ‘a, Frequency limits forthe upper and lower sidebands. b. Bandwidth. . Upper and lower side frequencies produced when the modulating signal is single-Fequey 3-KHz tone. ‘Then 4. Draw the output frequency spectrum. ‘Solution a. The lower sideband extends from the lowest possible lower side frequency to the carer frequency o¢ LSB = [fe ~ firmus] 0 fe = (100 — 5) KHz to 100 kHz = 95 kHz to 100 kHz “The upper sideband extends from the carrier frequency to the highest possible upper side frequency USB = 0 f+ Snomass) = 100 KHz to (100 + 5) kHz = 100 kHz to 105 kHz b. The bandwidth is equal to the difference between the maximum upper side frequency and the min- imum lower side frequency or B= 2Frmax) = {5 kHz) = 10 kHz c. The upper side frequency is the sum of the carrier and modulating frequency or Sost = fe + fm = 100 kHz + 3 KHz = 103 kHz “The lower side frequency is the difference between the carrier and the modulating frequency or Sie = fe — mn = 100 kHz — 3 KHz = 97 kHz 4. ‘The output frequency spectrum is shown in Figure 4-3, 42-3 Phasor Representation of an Amplitude-Modulated Wave For a single-frequency modulating signal, an'AM envelope is produced from the vector , Addition of the carrier and the upper and lower side frequencies. The two side frequet cies combine and produce a resultant component that combines with the carrier vectot: Figure 4-4a shows this phasor addition. The phasors for the carrier and the upper and lowel side frequencies all rotate in a counterclockwise direction. However, the upper side fe quency rotates faster than the carrier (yer > @,), and the lower side frequency rotles slower (4 < @,). Consequently, if the phasor for the carrier is held stationary, the phas™ for the upper side frequency will continue to rotate in a counterclockwise direction relative Chapter 4Vint = voltage ofthe upperside trequancy Via = voltage of the lower side frequency Ve = voltage of the carrier + Van * Ve + Vout + Vie Minn Ve=Vont Vee ~Vnin "Ve + Vut * Vat FIGURE 4.4 Phasor addition in an AM DSBFC envelope: (8) phasor addition of the carrier and the ‘upper and lower side frequencies; (b) phasor addition producing en AM envelope to the carrier, and the phasor for the lower side frequency will rotate in a clockwise diree- tion. The phasors for the carrier and the upper and lower side frequencies ‘combine, some- times in phase (adding) and sometimes out of phase (subtracting). For the waveform shown in Figure 4-4b, the maximum positive amplitude of the envelope occurs when the carrier and the upper and lower side frequencies are at their maximum positive values at the same time (+ Vie = Vz + Vays + Vi) Te minimum positive amplitude of the envelope Oo when the cartier ig at ity maximum positive value atthe same time thatthe UPpes and lower Side frequencies are at their maximum negative values (+ Vnun = Ve = Vass ~ Via). The max imum negative amplitude occurs when the carrier and the upper and lone i ee ae at their maximum negative values atthe same time (Vinx © Oo eg The minimum negative amplitude occurs when the carrer is at maximum neg aoe the same time that the upper and lower side frequencies are at their maxim ES (—Vinin = Ve + Vase + Vist ~ "etuaton Teanamission 123124 ; i nt Modulation 42-4 Coefficient of Modulation and Perce ’ Coeficient of modulation is aterm used to describe the amount of amplitude change agg ulation) present in an AM waveform. Percent modulation is simply the Coefficient of may ulation stated as a percentage, More specifically, percent modulation gives the percentage change in the amplitude ofthe output wave when the carrier is acted on by a modula, signal. Mathematically, the modulation coefficient is 7 modulating En : E. y where _m = modulation coefficient (unitless) E,, = peak change in the amplitude of the output waveform voltage (volts) E, = peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier voltage (volts) Equation 4-1 can be rearranged to solve for E,, and E, as ‘ m 42) = 43 and percent modulation (M) is = £2 x 100 or simply m x 100 “4 The relationship among m, E, and E, is shown in Figure 4-5. If the modulating signal is a pure, single-frequency sine wave and the modulation Process is symmetrical (ie., the positive and negative excursions of the envelope's ampli- tude are equal), then percent modulation can be derived as follows (refer to Figure 45 for the following derivation): 1 Em = 5 (Vaux ~ Vein) : Co) AA Ly AUNT LN NUIT y ty | W1 Fe (Vaes + Vou) / “o Therefore, a = 12s ~ Vy) Vim Fg) * 19 = Vaan ~ Vnia) Wa * Vag) * 100 em where Vinx = E, + Ey, Vein = Ee ~ Em ‘The peak change inthe amplitude ofthe ouput wave (Ei th sumo te volages from and lower side frequencies, Therefor, since Ey = Ey + Ey and Ey = Eup then = 5, = Em W/%Vau ~ Vein) 1” Baa = Big = 3 = SSE = (Vas ~ Vai) “ where Eye = peak amplitude of the upper side frequency (volts) Exc = peak amplitude ofthe lower side frequency (volts) From Equation 4-1, it can be seen that the percent modulation goes to 100% when E,, = Ee, This condition is shown in Figure 4-6d. It can also be seen that at 100% modula- tion, the minimum amplitude of the envelope Via = 0 V. Figure 4-6c shows a 0% modu signal; (b) unmod: of en AM DSBEC ervelope! {simone FIGURE 4-6 Percent modulation of nF Clos cere: (e) 50% modulated wave (3) 70% 125 "°0e Modulation Tranemiesion4126 lated envelope: the peak change in the amplitude of the envelope is, amplitude of the unmodulated wave. The maximum percent modu} posed without causing excessive distortion is 100%. Sometimes, pressed asthe peak change inthe voltage ofthe modulated wave with amplitude of the unmodulated carrier (j.c., percent change = AEJE. w 7 Example 4-2 For the AM waveform shown in Figure 4-7, determine ‘a, Peak amplitude of the upper and lower side frequencies, 1. Peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier, © Peak change inthe ample ofthe eavelope. Solution a. From Equation 4-8, Fag = Eg = 418-2) = 4V 1b. From Equation 4-6, £.= tas +2) =10V . From Equation 4-5, 1 Fa = 7(18 - 2) =8V 47. AM envelope for Example 2 Chapter 4 100), bas ee at cay s ropes4. From Equation 4-1, . From Equation 4-4, M = 08 x 100 = 80% and from Equation 4-7, w-2 18 +2 * 100= 80% 42-5 AM Voltage Distribution ; An unmodulated carrier can be described mathematically as veld) = E, sin nf) . as) v(t) = time-varying voltage waveform for the carrier E, = peak carrier amplitude (volts) f_ = cartier frequency (hertz) Ina previous section, it was pointed out that the repetition rate ot an AM envelope is equal to the frequency of the modulating signal, the amplitude of the AM wave varies pro- portional to the amplitude of the modulating signal, and the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave is equal to E, + E,. Therefore, the instantaneous amplitude of the modu- lated wave can be expressed as where Vam(t) = (Eq + Em Sin(2R frat Siti 27 fet)} (4-10) where [E, + Ey Sin(2n fyf)] = amplitude of the modulated wave E,, = peak change in the amplitude of the envelope (volts) f, = frequency of the modulating signal (hertz) If mE, is substituted for Ey» Vamt) = (Eq + mE, sin(2n fy I{sin(2x f.} @11) where [E, + mE, sin(2x fyf)] equals the amplitude ofthe modulated wave, Factoring E, from Equation 4-11 and rearranging gives Von(t) = U1 + msin(2e, fet ME. sin(2m fF) (4-12) where [1+ m sin(2n faf)] = constant + modulating signal [E, sin(2x 0] = unmodulated carrier it ji | contains a constant component In Equation 4-12, it can be seen that the modulating sien ; ; (and vs sinusoidal component atthe modulating signal frequency (msin{2m, ef. Took fo lowing analysis will show how the const ant component roca the pants ompo tn the modulated wave and the sinusoidal ‘component produces the side freq . plying out Equation 4-11 or ¢ yields Van(t) = Ee sin(2 fl) + (mE. sin(2n ff) [sin(2n J) (4-13) ‘Therefore, iE. - 1 Von(t) = Ee sin(2nft) — Ment + fal + roman Sd) 10 "he 127 . Modulation Transmission428 Carrier Vohage (Ve) here E_sin(Qn ft) = carrier signal (volts) oe mE eos! Y, + = upperside equency signal (volts) (mE L2)cos{2n (f, ~ fn] = lower side frequency signal (volts) Several interesting chrvacteristics about double-sideband full-carric: ampliuée modulation can be pointed out from Equation 4-14. First, note that the amplitude >f the x. ‘ier after modulation is the same as it was before modu!ation (E). Ther the smp!itng sf the carrier is unaffected by the modulation process. Second, the amplitude ofthe ape: and lower side frequencies depends on both the carrier amplitude and the coefficient ¢ modulation. For 100% modulation, m = 1, and the amplitudes of the upper and tower sie frequencies are each equal to one-half the amplitude of the carrier (E/2), Therefore. 100% modulation, E. Vou = E, -E nd ina = B= From the relationships shown above and using Equation 4-14, it is evident that, & long as we do not exceed 100% modulation, the maximum peak amplitude of an AM eave lope Vimux = 2E., and the minimum peak amplitude of an AM envelope Vieiay = OV. Ths telationship was shown in Figure 4-64. Figure 4-8 shows the s oliage spectrum for 2n AM DSBFC wave (note that all the voltages are given in peak values» Also, from Equation 4-14, the relative phase rel upper and lower side frequencies i the upper side frequency tion. Also, the envelope is a repetitive the envelope, the carrier is 90° ut of phase with both the upper and lower side frequen and the upper and lower side frequencies are 180° out of phese with cach other, This PB relationship can be seen in Figure 4-9 for f. = 25 Hz andf,, = 5 Hz. Example 4.3 ond inp es ata AM daar SOL cane with an ampinde of 20 Vp THe ond input is a 10-kHz modulating Signal that is of sufficient amplitude to cause a change in te Put wave of *7.5 V,. Determine '% Upper and lower side frequencies, 'b. Modulation coefficient and percent modulation, ©. Peak amplitude of the modulated cartier and the upper and lower side frequency voltages- 4 Maximum and minimum amplitudes ofthe envelope, Chapter 41 Mi tine 10 rroeeenned 20 Tretia ene FIGURE 4-9 Generation ofan AM DSEFC envelope shown in the time domain: (0) —} cost2x304s (0) sint2x? 50%: ) +4 costex20 (6 summation of eh {), end (c) ‘e. Expression for the modulated wave. Then {. Draw the output spectrum. Sketch the output envelope. Solution a. “The upper and lower side frequencies are respectively: simply the sum and difference frequencies, fun = S00 Kez + sO KE = SIO RIS “far = 500 KHZ — 10 kHz = 490 kHz sk The modulation coetiient is eerie from Equation 41: 15 mae = 0315 Percent modulation is determined from Equation 4% M = 100% 0375 = 5S 4238130 »y, 278% => 410 Ouep.t spec (FIGURE ro] se bal -ov FIGURE 411 AM envelope for Example 43 ‘© The peak amplitude of the modulated-carrier and the upper and lower side frequencies is E{modulsted) = E,(camodulated) = 20 V, mE_ _ (0375)(20) 2 fun ben = 375v, @ The maximum and minimum amplitudes of the envelope are determined as follows: Vem = E, +E, = 20+75=275V, Vou) = Ee Eq = 20-75 = 125, . ‘The expression forthe modulated wave follows the format of Equation 4-14: Yantt) = 20 sin(2xS00k:) — 3.75 cos(2x510k1) + 3.75 cos(2xA90k2) © The conpet spectrum is shown in Figure 4-10, © The mocilated eavelope is shown in Figure 4-11. _ Cartioe = v.48) = E, sin(2n250) ws ‘modulating signal = vii) = 5 sin(2n5i) (H8 Substituti i 3 Substituting Equations 415 ‘and 4-16 into Equation 4-14, the expression for the module Yat) = E,sin(2n2s1) — recon 301) + ccostanmn) — HH” ee where, Soma fs Sin(2x25¢) = carrier (volts) +(mE. en = /DPer side frequency (volts) ) = lower side frequency (volts) loner tie opens Ye fr he instanncoue lt care, 86 7 Sen ana te Ee Chapter 4Amniint- 20+ os +04 +05 ° ; 0405 0.405 ¢ a 0.155 0.405 LL »” +05 +0155 i fo 0.155 " a 2 0 0.405 <0 +0155 ° a +0405 a 040s -181 ” +0155 9 0.405 0 » os + +0155 +131 Cy +0. as, 9 100 seas a +0155 009 ito ae 0.405 ° 1” ais % 0.405 +019 10 aes 40.155 0 Py oy - +05 o 150 oss +0155 ° ea ena ol ~040s +049 i +0405 0 aoe re tm 75 a +0185 069 0 won 4 +05 o 20 oe “1 +055 +131 210 +0405 0 sg : 20 as 3 00s -11 0 +0405 ° oe ; = +0155 + oss oe aa in 10-ms intervals, are substituted into Equation 4-17. The unmodulated carrier voltage E, = 1 Vz and 100% modulation is achieved. Te comesponding waveforms are shown i2 Figure 4-5. Note that the maximum envelope voltage is 2 V (2) and thatthe minimum en- velope voltage is 0 V. ; 7 Th Figure 49, note that the time between similar zero crossings within the envelope is constant (Le, T; = Ty = T and soon)-Also not thatthe amplitudes of successive peaks verthin the envelope are not equal. This indicates tha a cycle within the envelope is pot & i ‘must be comprised of more than ont fre- de of the carrier does not vary but, rather, thatthe amplitude of the modulating signal. This is accomplished by the carrier waveform. also shows that the amplitu : the envelope varies in accordance with the mo ‘addition of the upper and lower side frequencies tothe 4-2-7 AM Power Distribution ; In any electrical circuit, the power dissipated is equal tothe voltage sae vied ty saeunce, Thus, the average power dissipated ina Toad By an unmodulated carers oe fo the rms carrier voliage squared divided by the load resistance. Mathematically, power in an unmodulated carrier is (0.707E.)? R ey (+18) 2R 431132 = carrier power (watts) some e a cal canis voltage (volts) R = load resistance (ohms) . ‘The uper and lowe sideband powers are expressed maematcally ag (mE/2)? Pa * Pin ™ OR where mE,/2isthe peak voltage of the upper and lower side frequencies, Rearranging a mE: Pow = Pb = ER ay Where Pag, = upper sideband power (watts) Pi = lower sideband power (watts) Rearranging Equation 4-19 gives w Pow = Pin = (6 Substituting Equation 4-18 into Equation 4-19 gives mP, Pea Pia. (4 Itis evident from Equation 4-21 that for a modulation coefficient m = 0, the pover in the upper and lower sidebands is zero, and the total transmitted power is simply the cu- tier power. ‘The total power in’an amplitude-modulated wave is equal to the sum ofthe poven of the carrier, the upper sideband, and the lower sideband. Mathematically, the total pore in an AM DSBFC envelope is P,= Pe + Pus + Pia (¢u) where _P, = total power of an AM DSBFC envelope (watts) P. = carrier power (watts) Pus = upper sideband power (watts) Pip = lower sideband power (watts) Substituting Equation 4-21 into Equation 4-22 yields Pa p+ mee, Pe “a 4 4 Combining terms gives where (m? P,)/2 is the total sideband power, Factoring P. gives us 2 i” P= Pa + z) a a yo From the preceding analysis, a \ n it can be seen that the carrier power in the Mi yi wave is the same as the carrier power in the unmodulated wave, Thus, iis eet Chapter 4FIGURE 4-12 Power spectrum for an AM DSBFC ‘wave with 2 single-frequency modulating signal power of the carrier is unaffected by the modulation process. Also, because the total power in the AM wave is the sum of the carrier and sideband powers, the total power in an AM envelope increases with modulation (i.e., as m increases, P, increases). Figure 4-12 shows the power spectrum for an AM DSBFC wave. Note that with 100% modulation the maximum power in the upper or lower sideband is equal to only one- fourth the power in the carrier. Thus, the maximum total sideband power is equal to one- half the carrier power. One of the most significant disadvantages of AM DSBFC transmis- sion is the fact that the information is contained in the sidebands although most of the power is wasted in the carrier. Actually, the power in the carrier is not totally wasted because it does allow for the use of relatively simple, inexpensive demodulator circuits in the receiver, which is the predominant advantage of AM DSBFC. Example 4-4 For an AM DSBFC wave with a peak unmodulated carrier voltage V- = 10 Vp, a load resistance R, = 10.2, and a modulation coefficient m = 1, determine ‘a. Powers of the’carrier and the upper and lower sidebands. . Total sideband power. . Total power of the modulated wave. Then d. Draw the power spectrum. €. Repeat steps (a) through (d) for a modulation index m = 0.5 Solution a. The carrier power is found by substituting into Equation 4-18: a1 sw 2(10) ~ 20 ‘The upper and lower sideband power is found by substituting into Equation 4-21: Pe $ PYS) pan ta OID a as b. The total sideband power is 2 Pe ONS) ogy 2 rodulated wave is found by substituting into Equation 4-25: ‘¢. The total power in the m neue ]orsw 133 ‘Amplitude Modulation Transmission134 FAGURE 419 Power spectrum for Bama 44 FIGURE 4-14 Power spectrum for Example 44 4. The power spectrum is shown in Figure 4-13. The carier power is found by substituting into Equation 4-18: 10? _ 100 P= 7010) — 20 ‘The upper and lower sideband power is found by substituting into Equation 4-21: 0.5)XS ane ayweene HS) « osnsw ‘The total sideband power is = 0.625 W ‘The total power of the modulated wave is found by substituting into Equation 4-25: (0.5) P= {i + oe = 5.625 W The power spectrum is shown in Figure 4-14. From Example 4-4, it canbe seen why itis important to use as high 2 PC of medslaion a posible whl being sure not to avermodulate. As Ht ont ows, the carrer power remains the same as m changes. However, te sides, ns eternally when m deceased fom 1 05. Becat sideband Proportional othe square ofthe modulation eoeficient, a eduction in m of on wii in te sideband power of one-fourth (i.e., 0.5? = 0.25) Thay ip between modulation coefficient and power can sometimes be deceiving " Chapter 4total transmitted oes ically affected by changes as italy of caer power andi, therfore, not drama ligence-carrying porti in m. However, it should be noted that the power in the intel- ically by changes in mae bei ‘transmitted signal (ic, the sidebands) is affected dramat- ' For this reason, AM DSBEC systems try to maintain a modulation coefficient between 0.9 telligence signals 84 095 (90% to 95% modulation) forthe highest-ampitue i wae nt Gurrene Calculations the cum ara, odulation, itis very often necessary and sometimes desirable to measure these mesecne aier and modulated wave andthe cael te mulation index from current with and without the mee ade by simply metering the transmit antenna Her cureet cn tothe presence of madlag signal. The elation between ca modulated wave is its (4-26) ‘otal transmit power (watts) -arrier power (watts) total transmit current (ampere) carrier current (ampere) R = antenna resistance (ohms) and é h LIVI? (4-27) l 2 ‘Thus, Taji + a (428) 4.2.9 Modulation by a Complex Information Signal In the previous sections of this chapter, frequency spectrum, bandwidth, coefficient of mod- ulation, and voltage and power distribution for double-sideband full-carrier AM were ana~ lyzed for a single-frequency modulating signal. In practice, however, the modulating sig- nal is very often a complex waveform made up of many sine waves with different amplitudes and frequencies. Consequently, a brief analysis will be given of the effects such ‘a.complex modulating signal would have on an AM waveform. If a modulating signal contains two frequencies (f,1 and fz), the modulated wave will contain the carrier and two sets of side frequencies spaced symmetrically about the car- rier, Such a wave can be written as Vam(t) = sin(2neft) + joostantt — fat) — JeonlanG + fui)t] 4+ Heos{2eth fall ~ peel + a 429) When several frequencies simultaneously amplitude modulate a carter, the com- bined coefficient of modulation is the square root of the quadratic sum of the individual modulation indexes as follows: im, = Vink + am) + mi + mi, (4-30) Amplitude Modulation Transmission 435ient of modulation where a m, = wo of modulation for input signals 1, 2 4 a 1» M3» Mm, = 3s and, oe s coefficient of modulation can be used to determine the total St, ‘and transmit powers as follows: es Pease dh (ay air 5 Pad a res 2 (4a : ; + mm * ‘Thus, - P= PAL +> “aa = total upper sideband power (watts) ce he = teal igret sideband power (watts) “Pay = total sideband power (watts) , = ‘total transmitted power (watts) ; © * ‘Inn AM transmitier, care must be taken to ensue that the combined voltages of . the modulating signals do not overmodulate the carrier. * Eyample 45°. - . For a/AM DSBFC transmitter with an unmodulated carrier power P, = 100 W that is modulated s. * multaneoisly by three modulgting signals with coefficients f modulation m, = 0.2, ms = 04, and +m; = 0.5, determine y ‘ , ‘& Total coefficient of mbdulation. . b. Upper and lower sideband power. * Total transmitted power. Sélution a. The total coefficient of modulation is found by substituting into Equation 4-30 Vor+oF +05. . ' = V0.04 + 0.16 + 0.25 = 0.67 . b. The total sideband power is found by substituting the results of step (a) into Equation 4-32: (0.677100 | >= aah © The total transmitted power is found by substituting into Equation 4-33: 0.677 ie veo( 1 +4) = 122.445 W 43 AM MODULATING CIRCUITS ~ 136 The location i i : ; iow ofa high eset miter where modulation occurs determines whether the cov ae transmitter. With low-level modulation, the modulation takes collector ofthe outpur gn cs final stage of the transmitter in other words Pr output FET in peas pared in a transistorized transmitter, prior to the ora oe transmiter, er, or prior to the plate of the output tube in a vou nite. il seve aight flo¥ level modulation i that less mdalaig signal powers Achieve a high percentage of modulation, Inhigh-level modulators. the modulation Chapter 4inthe final element ofthe final stage where the carer signal sat its maximum amplitude and, ‘thus, requires a much higher amplitude ‘modulating signal to achieve a reasonable percent mod- ; With high-level modulation, the final ‘modulating signal amplifier must supply all the sideband power, which could be as much as 33% ofthe total transmit power. An obvious disad- vantage of low-level modulation is in high-power applications when all the amplifiers that fol- ow the modulator stage must be linear amplifiers, which is extremely inefficient. 43-1 Low-Level AM Modulator Asmall signal, class A amplifier, such as the one shown in Figure 4-15a, can be used to per- form amplitude modulation; however, the amplifier must have two inputs: one for the car- rier signal and the second for the modulating signal. With no modulating signal present, the circuit operates as a linear class A amplifier, and the output is simply the carrier amplified by the quiescent voltage gain. However, when a modulating signal is applied, the amplifier Operates nonlinearly, and signal multiplication as described by Equation 4-10 occurs. In Figure 4-15a, the carrier is applied to the base and the modulating signal to the emitter. Therefore, this circuit configuration is called emitter modulation. The modulating signal varies the gain of the amplifier at a sinusoidal rate equal to the frequency of the modulat- ing signal. The depth of modulation achieved is proportional to the amplitude of the mod- ulating signal. The voltage gain for an emitter modulator is expressed mathematically as A, = Ag U1 + msin(2nf,0)) (434) where A, = amplifier voltage gain with modulatién (unitless) A, = amplifier quiescent (without modulation) voltage gain (unitless) ‘Sin(2n ff) goes from a maximum value of +1 to a minimum value of —1. Thus, Equation 4-35 reduces to A, = A(t m) (435) where m equals the modulation coefficient. At 100% modulation, m = 1, and Equation 4- 35 reduces to Armas) = 2Aq Aveminy = 0 Figure 4-15b shows the waveforms for the circuit shown in Figure 4-15a. The modulat- ing signal is applied through isolation transformer T; to the emitter of Q,, and the carrer is ap- plied directly to the base..,The modulating signal drives the circuit into both saturation and cut- off, thus producing the nonlinear amplification necessary for modulation to occur. The collector waveform includes the carrier and the upper and lower side frequencies as well as acomponent at the modulating signal frequency. Coupling capacitor C; removes the modulating signal fre- quency from the AM waveform, thus producing a symmetrical AM envelope at Vay: With emitter modulation, the amplitude of the output signal depends on the ampli- tude of the input carrier and the voltage gain of the amplifier. The coefficient of modula- tion depends entirely on the amplitude of the modulating signal. The primary disadvantage of emitter modulation is the amplifier operates class A, which is extremely inefficient, Emitter modulators are also incapable of producing high-power output waveforms. Example 4-6 For a low-level AM modulator similar to the one shown in Figure 4-15 with a rele ‘m= 0.8, a quiescent voltage gain A, = 100, an input carrier frequency f = $00 kHz with an tude V, = 5 mv, and a 1000-Hz modulating signal, determine & Maximum and minimum voltage gains 6, Maximum and minimum amplitudes for Vou Gen Modulation Tranemission 137Vex #90 40 ated cai super pe Imposed nto modulating signal cotecto vottage Ye a) FIGURE 4-15 (a) 6) Single transistor, emittar modulator; (b) output waveforms. Sketch the output AM envelope. Solution a. Substituting into Equation 4-34, Aras = 100(1 + 0.8) = 180 Amia = 100(1 — 0.8) = 20 ewumax) = 18040.005) = 0.9 Vewaminy = 2040.05) = 0.1 V . The AM envelope is shown in Figure 4-16. 43-2 Medium-Power AM Modulator Early medium- and high-power AM transmitters were limited to those that used vacuum tubes for the active devices. However, since the mid-1970s, solid-state transmitters have been available with output powers as high as several thousand watts. This is accomplished by pla ing several final power amplifiers in parallel such that their output signals combine in phase and are, thus, additive. Figure 4-17a shows the schematic diagram for a single-transistor medium-power AM modulator. The modulation takes place in the collector, which is the output element of the transistor. Therefore, if this is the final active stage of the transmitter (ie. there are no am- plifiers between it and the antenna), it isa high-level modulator. To achieve high power efficiency, medium- and high-power AM modulators gener- ally operate class C. Therefore, a practical efficiency of as high as 80% is possible. The cir- cuit shown in Figure 4-17a is a class C amplifier with two inputs: a carrier (v,) and a single- frequency modulating signal (v,). Because the transistor is biased class C, it operates nonlinear and is capable of nonlinear mixing (modulation). This circuit is called a collector modulator because the modulating signal is applied directly to the collector. The RFC is a radio-frequency choke that acts as a Short to de and an open to high frequencies. Therefore, the RFC isolates the de power supply from the high-frequency carrier and side frequencies while sill allowing the low-frequency intelligence signals to modulate the collector of Qs. b 4-3-2-1 Circuit operation. For the following explanation, refer to the circuit shown in Figure 4-17a and the waveforms shown in Figure 4-17b. When the amplitude of the carrier exceeds the barrier potential of the base-emitter junction (approximately 0.7 V fora silicon transistor), Q, turns on, and collector current flows. When the amplitude of the carrier drops below 0.7 V. Q, turns off, and collector current ceases. Consequently, Qi Switches between saturation and cutoff controlled by the carrier signal, collector current flows for less than 180° of each carrier cycle, and class C operation is achieved. Each suc- cessive cycle of the carier tums Q, on for an instant and allows current to flow for a short time, producing a negative-going waveform atthe collector. The collector current and volt age waveforms are shown in Figure 4-17b. The collector voltage waveform resembles @ repetitive half-wave rectified signal with « fundamental frequency equal 0. Amplitude Modulation Transmission feaV2 Vee =—pSeS— £ ' --+------ L — ap Sa THC. Voc a a VEAP EA =OV FIGURE 4-17 Simplified mediumpower transistor AM OSBFC ‘modulator: (a) schematic diagram: (b) collector wavetors ‘wah no moduiating Signal (c} colector waveforms with a modulating signal ‘When a modulating signal is applied tothe collector in series with the de sup" age, it adds to and subtract 140 Chapter 4FIGURE 4-18 Medium-power trensistor AM DSBFC modulator: (a} schematic diagram (Continued) a ____ Amore practical circuit for producing a medium-power AM DSBFC signal is shown i,, Figure 4-18a, with corresponding waveforms shown in Figure 4-18b. This circuit is also a collector modulator with a maximum peak modulating signal amplitude Veymaxy = Vee Operation of this circuit is almost identical to the circuit shown in Figure 4-17a except for the addition of a tank circuit (C, and L,) in the collector of Q,. Because the transistor is op- erating between saturation and cutoff, collector current is not dependent on base drive volt- ‘age. The voltage developed across the tank circuit is determined by the ac component of the collector current and the impedance of the tank circuit at resonance, which depends on the quality factor (Q) of the coil. The waveforms for the modulating signal, carrier, and col- lector current are identical to those of the previous example. The output voltage is a sym- metrical AM DSBFC signal with an average voltage of 0 V, a maximum positive peak am- plitude equal to 2Vco and a maximum negative peak amplitude equal to ~2Vcc. The positive half-cycle of the output waveform is produced in the tank circuit by the flywheel effect. When Q, is conducting, C, charges to Vcc + Vm (a maximum value of 2Vcc), and when Q) is off, C, discharges through L. When L, discharges, C, charges to a minimum value of ~2Veq. This produces the positive half-cycle of the AM envelope. The resonant frequency of the tank circuit is equal to the carrier frequency, and the bandwidth extends from f, — fy t0 f. + fr Consequently, the modulating signal, the harmonics, and all the higher-order cross products are removed-from the waveform, leaving symmetrical AM DSBFC wave. One hundred percent modulation occurs when the peak amplitude of the modulating signal equals Voc Amplitude Modulation Transmission ™Sa av w2\ge Several components shown in Figure 4-18a have not been explained, Ay isthe Nis mess for Q,-R, and Cs form aclamper circuit that produces a teverve sel" bias ann SOugencton with the barrier potential of the transistor, determines the turn-on voltage fo Q; Consequently, Q, can be biased to tum on, only during the most positive peaks ofthe Samer voltage. This produces a narrow collector Current waveform and enhances clanl ficiency. Gisa — eocien that looks like a shart to the modulating signal ee aos. Perveating. ‘ormation signals from entering the de power supply: Cs Sase-to~collector junction capacitance of Q. At redo Getgereton the relatively sia Jeachon capacitances within the transistor are insignificant, If the capacitive reactant Pinca etiicam. the collector signal may bees to the base with suficent a”leaking into the throughout the eee or the modulating signal circuitry and being distributed 433 & Catonltaneous Base and Collector Modulation ulators, and esas Produce a more symmetrical envelope than low-power emitter mod- require a higher ang meaulators are more power efficient. However, collector modulators Cott ou ae tblitude-modulating signal, nd they cannot achieve afl saturation-o- to achieve symme 'ge swing, thus preventing 100% modulation from occurring. Therefore, Power, and cuetrical modulation, operate at maximum efficiency, develop a high output Dower and require as little modulating signal drive power as possible, emiter and collec- ulations are sometimes used simultaneously. toate ‘operation, Figure 4-19 shows an AM modulator that uses a com agineh ofboth bese and collector modulations. The modulating signa is simultaneously £64 tothe collectors of the push-pull modulators (Q, and 0, and tothe collector ofthe fo rapa (2). Collector modulation occurs in Q,; thus, the carrier signal on the base GL: and Qs has already been partially modulated, andthe modulating signal power can luced. Also, the modulators are not required to operate over their entire operating ‘curve to achieve 100%-modulation. 44 LINEAR INTEGRATED-GIRCUIT AM MODULATORS Linear integrated-circuit function generators use a unique arrangement of transistors and FETs to perform signal multiplication, which is a characteristic that makes them ideally suited for generating AM waveforms. Integrated circuits, unlike their discrete counterparts, can precisely match current flow, amplifier voltage gain, and temperature variations. Linear integrated-circuit AM modulators also offer excellent frequency stability, symmetrical modulation characteristics, circuit miniaturization, fewer components, temperature immu- nity, and simplicity of design and troubleshooting. Their disadvantages include low output power, a relatively low usable frequency range, and susceptibility to fluctuations in the de power supply. The XR-2206 monolithic function generator is ideally suited for performing ampli- tude modulation. Figure 4-20a shows the block diagram for the XR-2206, and Figure 4- 20b shows the schematic diagram. The XR-2206 consists of four functional blocks: a volt- age-contro!led oscillator (VCO). an analog multiplier and sineshaper, a unity-gain buffer, and a set of current switches. The VCO frequency of oscillation f, is determined by the ex- temal timing capacitor (C,) between pins 5.and 6 and by timing resistor (R,) connected between either pin 7 or 8 and ground, Whether pin 7 or 8 is selected is determined by the voltage level on pin 9. If pin 9 is open circuited or connected to an external voltage 2 32 V, pin 7 is selected. Ifthe voltage on pin 9is Vee = Vn I ) fe ® ( dal patterns! 100% AM modulation; (c) more than 427 Tr jidal (a) linear 50% AM modulation; (b) ‘100% AN modlton (proper prace restores 2) nonowrmetnea AM envelope Positive and negative alternations in the AM modulated signal are not equal (i, nosy metrical modulation). Carrier shift may be either positive or negative. Ifthe positive ater nation of the modulated signal has a larger amplitude than the negative alternation, poste carrier shift results. Ifthe negative alternation is larger than the positive, negative art shift occurs. Carrier shift is an indication of the average voltage of an AM modulated signs. lite Positive and negative halves ofthe modulated signal are equal, the average voltage 0V.! the positive half is larger, the average voltage is positive. and if the negativeshal is lage." Sherage voltage is negative. Figure 4-28a shows a symmetrical AM envelope (no cai shift); the average voltage is 0 V. Figures 4-28b c So ei respectively. ei ‘and c show positive and negatw qf + poe ee Mot “. Maximum and minimum voltages for», Then te €. Sketch the modulated envelope. : For the trapezoidal pattern shown below, determine 8. Modulation coefficient, b. Percent modulation, ©. Carrier amplitude. 4. Upper and lower side frequency amplitudes Chapter 4419. 420. 421. 422, 423, 424, 4-28, shetch the approximate trapezoidal patterns forthe following percent modulations and maviv- lation conditions: a 100% 0 SO® . > 100% 4. Improper phase relationship fe. Nonsymmetrical AM modulation. For an AM modulate with a carrier frequency fe = nal frequency facmay) = 10 KHz, determine ‘a, Frequency limits for the upper and lower sidebands. T Unmer and lower side frequencies produced when the modulating signal is a single frequency 7-kH2 tone. = Bestia ‘necessary to pass the maximum modulating signal frequency, 4. Draw the output spectrum. For an unmodulated carrier voltage of 10V, and a determine ‘a, Modulation coefficient. 1b Percent modulation. For a maxi:aum positive envelope voltage Vinx amplitude of +6 V, determine a. Modulation coefficient. b. Percent modulation. ce. Carrier amplitude Foran envelope with + Vmax a. Unmodulated easier amplitude. b. Modulated carrier amplitude ce, Peak charge in the amplitude of the envelope 4, Modulation coefficient. ce. Percent modulation. ‘Write the expression for an AM volta Unmodulated carrier = 20 Vp, Modulation coefficient = 0.4 Modulating signal frequency = 5 kHz Carrier frequency = 200 kHz For an unmodulated carrier amplitude of 12 V, and a the following: a. Percent modulation. 1b Peak voltages of the carrier a 200 kHz and a maximum modulating sig- LV change in amplitude of the envelope, = +20 V and a minimum positive envelope = +30 Vp and +Vnig = +10'V>, determine .ge wave with the following values: modulation coefficient of 0.5, determine nd side frequencies. 159 Amplitude Modulation Transmission160 ‘c. Maximum positive envelope voltage. . ‘d. Minimum positive envelope voltage. 4-26, Sketch the envelope for Problem 4-25. ‘ : ‘427, Foran AM envelope with a maximum peak voltage of $2 and a minimum peak-to-peak iy, age of 24 V, determine the following: © a, Percent modulation. bh Peak voltages of the carrier and side frequencies. ce. Maximum positive envelope voltage. d. Minimum positive envelope voltage. 4.28, One input o'an AM DSBFC modulator is a $00-KHz carrier with a peak amplitude of 32V. Ty second input is a 12-kHz modulating signal whose amplitude is sufficient to produce a 14, change in the amr tude of the envelope. Determine the following: ' ‘a. Upper and lower side frequencies. b. Modulation coefficient and percent snodulation. c. Maximum and minimum amplitudes of the envelope. Then 4. Draw the output envelope. e. Draw the output frequency spectrum. 4-29, For a modulation coefficient of 0.4 and a carrier power of 400 W, determine ‘a, Total sideband power. b, Total transmitted power. 4-30. For an AM DSBFC wave with an unmodulated carrier voltage of 18 V, and a load resistance of 72 Q, determine % ‘a. Unmodulated carrier power. 'b. Modulated carrier power. . Total sideband power. 4. Upper and lower sideband powers. ¢. Total transmitted power. 4-31, Fora low-power AM modulator with a modulation coefficient of 0.8, a quiescent gui of % and an input carrier amplitude of 10 mV,, determine = Mexinona and minimum voltage gains. ximum and minit Ive he imum envelope voltages, ¢. Sketch the AM envelope.