Soft Power in Indian Foreign Policy

Author(s): DAVID M MALONE

Source: Economic and Political Weekly , SEPTEMBER 3-9, 2011, Vol. 46, No. 36
(SEPTEMBER 3-9, 2011), pp. 35-39
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly

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 Soft Power in Indian that which may develop even more strongly
in the future (Abraham 2007).

Foreign Policy What Is 'Soft Power'?

The concept was first formulated by

American scholar and frequent policy-
DAVID M MALONE maker, Joseph S Nye Jr, who defined
it in 1990 as "when one country gets
This other countries to do what
essay addit wants" and

concept year of India in Canada", offered by as "co-optive

of power" (Nye 1990:
sof 166).
The year New yearNewof Delhi asIndiaan opportunity
2011 as has inforan Canada", been opportunity declared offered "the for by He noted:
how it has evo
Canadians to experience the civilisational Today... the definition of power is losing its
examines
pull of that great nation through shows by emphasis one
on military force... The factors of s
top Indian classical and contemporary
India to technology,
projec education and economic growth
artists, even rock bands. Trade shows, lit- are becoming more significant in inter-
east. It thereaf
national power (ibid: 154).
erary festivals and cultural performances
major features
(often overlapping) have been rolling out Later, he described the determinants of
policy,
from coast to coast - across four and a half discuss
soft power as growing out of "a country's
might
time zones! One high point in June: the In- or migh
culture; . . .out of our values - democracy and
dian International Film Awards extrava-
human rights, when we livein
up to them"
and zeroes
ganza that touched down on Toronto in
(Nye 2004). In 2006, he elaborated further:
including the
June this year and created a minor frenzy
Power is the ability to alter the behaviour of
may
in the city. All distingui
of this came on the heels of others to get what you want, and there are
diplomacy" an
the announcement late last year of the basically three ways to do that: coercion
for a Canada-India (sticks), payment (carrots) and attraction
start of negotiations concepti
their
economic cooperation agreement. (soft power) (Nye 2006).
foreign policy. The million or so Canadians of Indian ex- He also mentioned the key role of civil
society in generating us soft power "from
traction - a number that is five times greater
proportionately than that in the United
Hollywood to Harvard".1
States (us) - are undoubtedly pleased by Discussion of the "soft power" ingredi-
ents in India's international relations took
all the attention. But for others, the ques-
tion arises as to why India is courting
off parallel to Nye's evolving views. C Raja
Mohan argued as early as 2003 that "India
Canada culturally, when Canada pursues its
could always count itself among the few
(mostly commercial) aims in India without
nations with strong cards in the arena of
much attempt to woo wider Indian public
opinion through the arts or otherwise. soft power", asserting that India's biggest
This essay addresses, first, how the con-
"instrument" of soft power was its diaspora.
India's diaspora is certainly an asset, but
cept of soft power emerged, how it has
evolved, then examines one significant
far from the only one. Beyond its cultural
and civilisational riches, its vibrant (if at
effort by India to project soft power to the
times chaotic) democracy, its free media,
east. It thereafter looks at some major fea-
its mostly independent judiciary, its
tures of Indian foreign policy, discusses
dynamic civil society, and the impressive
how soft power might or might not relate
to them, and zeroes in on how Indians,
struggle for human rights since independ-
including the Indian government, mayence all make it attractive to publics in
much of the world where these character-
distinguish between "public diplomacy"
and soft power in their conceptions of
istics of its national experience are known.
The author is very grateful to Niranand Kumar Indian foreign policy. In addition, India's largely non-violent
for research assistance with this paper. The article is indebted to an earlier one
defeat of colonialism served as an impor-
David M Malone ( dmalon@idrc.ca ) is a that appeared in this journal by Itty Abra- tant beacon for freedom movements and
Canadian public servant and scholar at the ham in 2007, who discussed several newly independent countries elsewhere in
International Development Research Centre. aspects of the wider suite of instrumentsthe 1950s and 1960s.
He is the author of Does the Elephant Dance?
and phenomena that together contribute Shashi Tharoor, briefly minister of state
Contemporary Indian Foreign Policy.
both to India's soft power today and tofor external affairs, 2009-10, spoke and

Economic & Political weekly B3Q September 3, 2011 vol xlvi no 36 35

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 PERSPECTIVES = =

ideology of bigotry
wrote aboutand hatred which Recognising the needsoft
to shed earlier
drives terrorism"
"Hard power(ibid: 10). Nevertheless, in notions of cultural superiority,
witho India has
contrast to the us at times, India's official since the early 1990s engaged more
resentments and prag-
without
view has not wavered that democracyhard pow
can- matically with Asians on cultural and other
weakness"
not be "imposed from outside" (ibid: 13). issues, (Tharoo
relying as much on contemporary
tion In sum, there is a growing consensus art forms
might as those relating to its heritage:
apply as
India,that the both
power of attraction exerted by India's
countri
film stars like Amitabh Bachchan,
to cultural affinities and shared values can
project Aishwarya Rai or Shah Rukh Khan have
internatio
and greatly contribute to international credi- become icons of India's
tolerant secula cultural image. If,
today their 'presence' in millions of homes
awashbility. India's
in soft power potential
conflict lies, st
across south-east Asia is a source of joy and
generate
among other things, in its democratic comity
cre- fellow feeling, then their contribution to w
success in
dentials, secular values, pluralistic society, weavin
enhancing the comfort level between India
considerable pool ofreligious,
ethnic, skilled English- and south-east Asia cannot be insignificant c
speaking professionals, varied culture (Deware 2006: 171).
within its society
(particularly Bollywood movies), and its Cricket has also fostered strong rela-for
advertisement
food and handicrafts. India, over millen- tions betweenhoweve
experiment, India and some other Asian
nia, has offered refuge
against and, more impor- nations beyond its immediate neighbour-in
poverty
The
abject
tantly, religious and cultural freedom, tohood. The new Indian 20/20 League, in
failure
Jews, Parsis,
period of several varietiesemergency
of Chris- which New Zealand and Australian play-
tians, and Muslims, a factor that should be ers participate,
repudiated by has attracted widethe
interest
better known internationally than
growing it hasin those countries and in some otherinte
sense Asian
been to date (Tharoor
during nature2009). nations. The October 2010 Commonwealth
of In
an As argued by Sunil Khilnani, India's Games in Delhi - in spite of gross organisa-
interpretation
nent anchor
greatest asset remains its "accumulatedtional shortcomings
of - proved a meaning-
its
political legitimacy"
region, rather than any ful selling point with the
albeit many Asian and
still o
poverty, Pacific Commonwealth countries.3
hypothetical or real accumulation ofsocial ch
violence, lies at All of these
power.2 And political legitimacyis now factors generate "pull" for w
the core of "soft power" for any state.
reinforcing India, in ways
thethat have little to do withint
narrative of
economic its
growth or military might. a
South-east and Wider Asia India's youth is a crucial the
asset in Asia.
growth as of e
has In 2010, Uma Purushothamam
thus noted
become"Itthe
is the power and energy of our human a k
saliency of Indian
India's capital, young and old, that has been
"soft power" in south-
internationa
S D Muni, central
east Asian countries, describing them as to the Indian transformation"
in a use
the democracy (Nilekani 2009: 26-27). Thus, unsurpris-
"civilisational neighbours" (while also dim
eign noting
policy,that, helpfully, unlike several ingly,
con- in Singapore, the finance and infor-
examin
of democracy mation technology (it) sectors
tiguous neighbours, none of the south- has welcome n
themeeast Asian countries
of entertain border dis- Indians with open arms and many
India's
young in
putes with India).
possibly companies, banks and financial institu- of
because
"Some analysts
In the post-Independence tions have started visiting top Indian cam-
period, India ha
Med to make the most
India's of its cultural ties
policy tofor recruitment purposes (Duttagupta
puses of n
drew its rationale from anti-colonialism 2008). Indeed, India has emerged as an im-
the Asian region. Indeed, its cultural diplo-
and anti-imperialism", in connection with macy then was perceived as somewhat
portant source of skilled workers in much
which "democracy promotion might have gauche in Asia, insofar as it seemed to suggest of Asia (Kaur 2009: 84).
breached the solidarity of the anti-colonial that some south-east Asian countries were In south-east Asia, efforts are afoot to
and anti-racial movement led by India India's "cultural colonies". Moreover; Indian promote
under the umbrella of non-alignment" foreign policy initiatives arguing for Asian networking of universities [by] the linking
(Muni 2009: 8). More recently, however, solidarity failed to gain traction because east of Indian higher education institutions with
the asean University Network, cooperating
India has joined in a number of multilater- and south-east Asian nations had no desire to
on accreditation, joint research, exchange
al democracy promotion forums, includ- subordinate their national identities to high- of professors and students in information
ing the Community of Democracies of minded notions of Asian regional unity; nor technology, biotechnology, biomedics, and
which it became a founding member in did they agree with the claim that India was the social sciences, including economics
(Deware 2006: 172).
2000. Muni quotes Prime Minister Atal the "mother of all civilisations" in Asia (ibid).
Behari Vajpayee in 2001 as stating: "TheAnd India was then seen primarily as eco- Moreover, India provides numerous
shape of our new world order will be nomically lagging (in contrast to the early scholarships for Asian students in India,
determined by the success of pluralistic success of the 'Asian Tigers"), and not yet particularly through the Indian Council
democratic societies in destroying the much of a geostrategic player. for Cultural Relations (iccr). The Indian

36 SEPTEMBER 3, 2011 VOL XLVI NO 36 ŒJE3 Economic & Political WEEKLY

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 EEEEEE PERSPECTIVES

tourist infrastructure along the circuit mark its high-minded and literate (if sometimes
government also helps in the establishment
its growing significance (ibid: 128-29).
of chairs related to India and its languages disingenuous) interventions. But today, its
in universities of south-east Asia.4 India could attract many more tourists international actions and positions matter
from Asia, but this will require a better more and are perceived differently.
The Indian diaspora is a crucial actor in
India's influence in Asia. South-east Asia understanding of the value-for-money Any country's preoccupations nearly
alone accounts for an estimated 6.7 mil- available in other Asian tourist destinations, inevitably involve immediate neighbours.
lion people of Indian origin (Sridharan and the minimum requirements of comfort It is by them that we are influenced, and
1996). The significant economic resource and facilities that Asian tourists, including them, above all others, we might influ-
represented by diaspora and migrant from China, have come to expect during ence. And views on the neighbourhood
labour remittances back to India has their travels abroad. India's often over- within India vary considerably. In 2006,
priced, subpar hotels, combined with at while making the rounds of official Delhi,
guided much of Delhi's efforts to engage
times chaotic local conditions for tourists, a senior member of the security and foreign
this large community. Between 2007 and
and unsympathetic state bureaucracies in policy establishment introduced me (con-
2008, these remittances increased nearly
charge of many tourist sites, are hardly the fidentially) to two different views of
45%, and they proved robust even during
Asian ideal for family holidays, even when India's neighbourhood: "I think our neigh-
the 2008-09 global economic crisis (Gov-
the archaeological and other attractions bours are mostly thugs and crooks. How-
ernment of India 2009: 5-6). But while
such remittances are much welcomed themselves
by are stupendous. If these con- ever, the prime minister believes that if
cerns remain unaddressed, the "Incredible our neighbours mostly are so, we Indians
India, the treatment of Indian citizens
(and, in the case of Malaysia, citizens India!"
of conveyed in the excellent Indian must have something to do with that."
Indian origin) by host countries can give
tourism promotional campaign is destined to In recent years, in seeking to improve
remain in reality the "incredibly inconven- often very frayed ties with contiguous
rise to criticism within India, often with
considerable justification. ient and expensive" India for many Asians. neighbours, India has been experimenting
But diasporas can also generate inter-Thus, after a weak start in implement- more often with asymmetric diplomacy,
national tensions. The power struggleing its "Look East Policy" in the 1990s, offering more than it would have in the
between ethnic Indians and indigenousIndia's relationships in the area have past in an effort to lay to rest its reputation
intensified greatly during the past decade, as a regional bully.5 (This reputation was
islanders in Fiji over past decades has
in spheres ranging from trade and invest- often undeserved, of course. India was
soured diplomatic relations between the
ment to defence and anti-terrorism coop- often indifferent to most of its neighbours
two countries, not least when the ethnic
eration. India's determined efforts to pro- for long stretches of time.) From Nehru
Indian community was adversely affected
by the coups of 1999 and 2000 in Suva. In its historical, cultural and educational onwards, civilisational and other historic
mote
assets have been an important part of the links were much emphasised in India's
response, the Indian government exerted
mix, but a strategy relying exclusively or declaratory neighbourhood diplomacy,
what diplomatic pressure it could through
bilateral and multilateral channels but principally on civilisational and cultural but it is perhaps only recently that India's
links would have fared poorly (as the early "pull" has become a strong one, with its
with limited effect, culminating in the
Look East Policy did) (Mohan 2007).
closure of the Indian High Commission in economic progress, unmatched to date in
Suva (Sridharan 2008: 83). In fact, India most of the neighbouring countries, elicit-
has scant capacity to guarantee basic Foreign Policy and Soft Power ing mixed emotions. I was told repeatedly
labour rights and promote the interests ofAs a gross generalisation, three factors in Pakistan in early 2010 that what Paki-
shape the foreign policy of most countries: stanis find hard to endure with respect to
its diaspora communities: "given its myriad
history, geography and capability. And India nowadays is a sense of drawing
domestic challenges... it is unrealistic to
each of these has decisively influenced away from them and the fractious family
expect that it [India] can influence events
Indian foreign policy, in different ways at quarrels that constantly beset bilateral
in other countries on behalf of its people"
(Government of India 2009). different times. India's power of attraction, ties between New Delhi and Islamabad.
The flow of tourists between Asia and the foundation of any country's "soft power", Pakistanis lucidly observe New Delhi in-
India has increased both in absolute num- derives from each. creasingly reaching beyond neighbours to
bers and in relative terms in recent years, It is India's newly recognised global eco- secure its place at the global table of influ-
although not yet dramatically (Acharya nomic significance and potential that lends ence (from which Pakistan is often absent,
2008: 15). Tourism, particularly religious weight to the country's international profile. for example in the G-20 forum).
tourism, is a potentially greater asset in Its foreign policy, regional concerns and China is not a neighbour like the others.
India's relations with Asian nations. Bud- geostrategic views have remained largely Including Tibet, its territory is three times
dhist tourism, already a major draw, has unknown to the rest of the world, parti- greater than that of India and its national
significant potential to generate farther cularly to a heedless west, which had economic output also three times that of
arrivals from Asian markets (Koldowski and become comfortable with its interpretation India. Finally, and most tellingly, its per capita
Martin 2008: 128). The launch of a new of India as a none-too-straightforward gross domestic product (gdp) is three times
Buddhist circuit special luxury train in 2007, international performer frequently dis- larger. Thus, China, to which Buddhism and
and Japanese-supported development of rupting cosy multilateral gatherings with many other Indian influences flowed in past

Economic & Political weekly H3H September 3, 2011 vol xlvi no 36 37

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PERSPECTIVES

expression to the idea of South-South advertises its own credentials when relat-
millennia, experiences India quite differ-
ently than do its smaller neighbours. cooperation, too long an empty vessel. The ing to other democratic countries, and
emphasis on democratic kinship within this joins in multilateral activity centred on
Only Rival for Bering formation, which might be taken as a dig at democracy, for example, as an early con-
China, should perhaps also be seen as an tributor of $10 million to the United
In the overall scheme of things for Beijing,
effort by India, a more explicit one than Nations Democracy Fund (undef).6 In
New Delhi is its only serious rival for influ-
usual, to develop a "soft power" component addition, India has supported a role for
ence in Asia in decades to come, Japan's
advanced if stagnant economy notwith-
to its diplomacy. the Commonwealth (under the "Harare
standing. The 1962 border war between
In temperament, notably through their Declaration" of 1991) in restoring or im-
the two countries was much easier to individualism, optimism and innate entre- proving democracy in countries experi-
overcome in China, which won, than preneurship,
in Indians resemble Americans encing internal challenges - for example,
India, which lost. And, while the quest more
of than any other nationality I know. Cameroon and Fiji.7 But, unlike western
both countries for natural resources and Their governments ultimately overcame democracies, it avoids promoting democ-
food security beyond their borders might their mutual allergy, rooted in cold war racy publicly vis-à-vis patently undemo-
cause them to rub up against each other, dynamics and India's quest for strategic cratic regimes, for example, Myanmar.
neither is seeking to destabilise the other, autonomy at its time of greatest fragility Under attack from much of Indian civil
China's growing presence in south Asia after Independence, through the success of society and some of the media on its
being motivated above all by the search Indian migration to the us and through the acquiescence in Myanmar's dictatorship, it
for markets and access to the sea for eco- logic of mutually beneficial commercial did recently re-establish personal contact
nomic purposes. with Myanmar opposition leader and
ties, This was also achieved because the us,
The slogan Hindi Chini , Bhai Bhai! newly sobered by the costs and failures of Nobel Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi,
was always more aspirational than con- several post-9/11 ventures, recognised that whose family had strong connections with
vincing, not least because the values its values were strongly reflected in those of India and who won the Jawaharlal Nehru
espoused by the two governments, as ref- Indians and of their government. (The Award for International Understanding in
lected through their political systems, proxy for their rapprochement was the 1995. 8 Overall, criticism of the political
could not have been much more different. us-India nuclear agreement of 2008.) The systems of partner countries does not
And thus, while cultural and other forms result has been positive for both countries, come readily to Indian diplomacy, in stark
of outreach by India to China (and vice particularly at a time when the us recog- contrast to the more strident (and at times
versa) can help inflect a frequently tense nises the reality of a multipolar geo-strategic selective) approach of western countries.
relationship, soft power instruments are dispensation. In this relationship, shared Likewise, India has subscribed to major
not likely to prove particularly effective as values of, above all, democracy have played international human rights treaties (al-
compared to fairly narrow calculations of an important role, at least rhetorically. It though not to those optional protocols
economic and geostrategic self-interest is clear that beyond diplomatic pronounce- that would allow its citizens to appeal at
and mutual accommodation. Growing eco- ments, and with the us accepting to a much the international level when domestic
nomic interdependency is more likely to greater degree the equality of the two states avenues for redress prove fruitless). And
stabilise the relationship than might factors than in the past, the values and interests India, much to its credit, volunteered to be
relating to soft power Seen through a wider that the two parties bring to a negotiating amongst the first to undergo a peer review
lens, Pocha (2003) points out that both table today are more consonant than at at the un's new Human Rights Council in
China and India have been projecting soft any time since India's Independence. Geneva in April 2008, under a process
power globally, but in very different ways In all of these critical relationships, known as Universal Periodic Review. As
- China's principal calling card has been attributes of "soft power" can play varying with any country, India's performance
its economic success, while India has re- roles but, as Nye himself has stressed in under the terms of various un treaties and
lied on a mix of constitutional, political, espousing, as of 2004, the concept of covenants raises questions, but, by and
economic, and cultural assets. "smart power" (involving elements of both large, both official expert bodies consulted
India's emergence as a major actor on the soft and hard power), soft power alone and national delegations have praised
global stage, offering a development model cannot achieve much in an often-contentious India's struggle to enshrine and respect a
that for some years now has been strikingly world. And no amount of cultural promo- number of key human rights, while raising
successful in terms of growth (while failing tion can undo the damage internationally questions about a number of specific
depressingly in terms of distribution) has caused by spectacular corruption scandals issues, including caste discrimination and
allowed it to establish a meaningful partner- such as the alleged 2G spectrum scam cur- the Armed Forces Special Powers Act
ship with two other leading democracies in rently under investigation (Malone 2011). (afspa).9 In addition, restrictions on for-
the developing world, each a dominant eign funding to Indian non-governmental
actor on its own continent. Under the banner Conflicting Impulses organisations (ngos) were mentioned as
of the new ibsa group, India, Brazil and In deciding how to project its values inter- inhibiting research into and activism
South Africa are working hard to build con- nationally, India has, to date, exhibited on certain politically sensitive problems
tent into the concept, at last giving practical a rather clear path. On democracy, it within India, including application of the

38 September 3, 2011 vol XLVi no 36 E3223 Economic & Political weekly

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8 Ministry of External Affair's foreign secretary,
of Power: Soft Power in India's Foreign Policy",
Nirupama Rao, met Aung San Suu Kyi on 20 June
Journal of Peace Studies, 17 (2 and 3).
much of an interest in doing so. But India2011 during a high level delegation visit led by
external affairs minister S M Krishna. See Indian
Rahman, Syeda Sana (2010): "The 2010 Common-
can and should open itself more readily to wealth Games: India's Triumph or Disaster?",
media coverage: http://www.thefinancialex-
outside scrutiny by researchers and others.press-bd.com/more.php?news_ ISAS Brief, No 166, 8 July, Singapore: Institute
of South Asian Studies, National University of
Indeed, it has every interest in doing so. id=i4037i&date=20ii-06-24 Singapore (www.isas.nus.edu.sg).
Were India's achievements and remain- 9 See UN Document A/HRC/8/26 of 23 May 2008.
Discussion of caste discrimination in India is of- Sridharan, Kripa (1996): The ASEAN Region in India's
Foreign Policy (Aldershot, UK: Dartmouth Pub-
ing problems better understood inter- ten raised under the International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimina- lishing), pp 79-80.
nationally, including, for example, the tion, which suggests a profound mischaracterisa- - (2008) : "India and South-east Asia in the Context
real if incomplete progress made in com- tion of the phenomenon, and makes it easy for the of India's Rise" in K Kesavapany, A Mani and
Indian government to bat away related questions P Ramasamy (ed.), Rising India and Indian Com-
bating caste discrimination, the country's and criticism. The appreciation of 37 human munities in East Asia (Singapore: ISEAS), 71-86.
image would be even more positive than it rights-related NGOs and independent research Tharoor, Shashi (2009): "Indian Strategic Power:
bodies was less complimentary than that of gov- Soft", Global Brief, 13 May (http://globalbrief.ca/
already is. Further, as India's civil society ernments and UN bodies. See UN document A/ blog/2oo9/o5/i3/soft-is-the-word/), accessed on
and media already lay bare all of the HRC/WG.6/1/IND/3 of 6 March 2008. 11 August 2011.

Economic & Political weekly EESS9 September 3, 2011 vol xlvi no 36 39

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