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A leadership approach to criminal justice education: Developing

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A leadership approach to criminal

justice education: developing
tomorrow’s decision makers
a a a
Brian F. Kingshott , Frank Hughes , Kristine Mullendore &
b
Johan Prinsloo
a
Grand Valley State University, School of Criminal Justice, Grand
Rapids, MI, USA
b
Department of Criminal Justice, University of South Africa
(Pretoria), South Africa

Available online: 13 Mar 2008

To cite this article: Brian F. Kingshott, Frank Hughes, Kristine Mullendore & Johan Prinsloo (2008):
A leadership approach to criminal justice education: developing tomorrow’s decision makers,
Criminal Justice Studies, 21:1, 61-77

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 Criminal Justice Studies
Vol. 21, No. 1, March 2008, 61–77

RESEARCH ARTICLE
A leadership approach to criminal justice education: developing
tomorrow’s decision makers
Brian F. Kingshotta*, Frank Hughesa, Kristine Mullendorea and Johan Prinsloob
aGrand Valley State University, School of Criminal Justice, Grand Rapids, MI, USA; bDepartment of
Criminal Justice, University of South Africa (Pretoria), South Africa
Justice delivery in criminal law systems depends on the quality of the decisions of its
Criminal
10.1080/14786010801972712
GJUP_A_297437.sgm
1478-601X
Original
Taylor
102008
21
kingshob@gvsu.edu
BrianKingshott
00000March
and
& Article
Justice
Francis
Francis
(print)/1478-6028
2008
Studies (online)

members; then fair and equitable delivery of justice should be its central goal. Criminal justice
educators need to develop their students into persons who are capable of making these
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decisions. When the knowledge and skills needed to make these tough decisions are examined
they are shown to be the same skills that make someone an effective leader and manager.
Incorporating leadership education and making ‘leadership skills’ an identified outcome of
undergraduate and graduate criminal justice curricula will prepare students to be effective
leaders and managers in creating and administrating a ‘just’ criminal law system for society.
Keywords: criminal justice; law enforcement; culture; liberal education; leadership;
management; citizenship skills

Introduction
The development of social responsibility begins with family and continues with many external
influences that include, but are not limited to, friends, siblings, peers, religious influences, and
societal norms within the society you live. That learning continues as we grow and it is argued
that universities play a central role in continuing to foster social responsibility, citizenship skills,
and leadership skills in their students. To achieve this it is acknowledged that an active learning
pedagogy must be adopted in the nation’s colleges and universities because active learning
methods are effective in helping students develop critical and creative thinking skills as well as
problem-solving skills (Laws, 1999; McDermott & the Physics Education Group, 1996; O’Brien,
1990; Sokoloff, Laws, & Thornton, 1999).
This paper discusses the significance of higher education in developing these skills within the
specific context of criminal justice education. It proposes a developmental continuum that begins
with identifying the significance of higher education, in particular liberal education, in preparing
its graduates to make decisions both as citizens (personal) and leaders (personal and societal).
Those decisions will be made in a diverse and complex world where increased globalization
challenges ethical and cultural perceptions that influence decision making. The continuum for
undergraduate and graduate is further developed along liberal education lines, drawing best
practice identified in other disciplines, with an educational development that facilitates and
enhances social responsibility and leadership in general (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 1998)
but focuses specifically in the context of criminal justice education.
The ideology that underpins this concept is that criminal justice professionals have a core
responsibility and role to play in the introduction, interpretation, implementation, and promo-
tion of social policies and the rules, regulations, and laws that enforce those policies. The final

*Corresponding author. Email: Kingshob@gvsu.edu

ISSN 1478-601X print/ISSN 1478-6028 online

© 2008 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/14786010801972712
http://www.informaworld.com
 62 B.F. Kingshott et al.

part of the continuum will be the implementation of an action to achieve the outlined goal.
One possible mode of criminal justice service delivery that can achieve the objective is that
modeled by a course development in the School of Criminal Justice at Grand Valley State
University (GVSU).
The expectation of employers within the criminal justice field is to hire personnel that
have the benefit of higher education and be effective leaders. Those expectations include the
ability to effectively and efficiently handle the many diverse and complex issues that arise
with the criminal justice arena and to make both difficult personal and corporate decisions
that are an integral part of their role. To meet those expectations the question underlying this
discussion is not whether universities should be developing future leaders, but rather why and
how can criminal justice curricula be designed to impart essential leadership skills to their
students.
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Leadership skills and effective delivery of criminal justice

The term leadership has entered the common vocabulary and been encapsulated into the technical
vocabulary of a science discipline without being precisely redefined (Yukl, 2002). That failure to
redefine has consequences, namely, it creates ambiguity of meanings because it carries extraneous
connotations (Janda, 1960) then what is leadership? A comprehensive review of the literature
concluded that ‘there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have
attempted to define the concept’ (Stoghill, 1974, p. 259). Some of the definitions to be found
include the following:
Leadership is
the behaviour of the individual … directing the activities of a group towards a shared goal. (Hemphill
& Coons, 1957, p. 6)
a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective effort, and causing willing effort to
be expended to achieve purpose. (Jacobs & Jacques, 1990, p. 281)
the ability to step outside the culture … to start evolutionary change processes that are more adaptive.
(Schein, 1992, p. 2)
the process of making sense of what people are doing together so that people will understand and be
committed. (Drath & Palus, 1994, p. 4)
about articulating visions, embodying values, and creating the environment within which things can
be accomplished. (Richards & Engle, 1986, p. 199)
the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute towards the effec-
tiveness and success of an organization. (House et al., 1999, p. 184)
Funk (2004) identifies Leadership characteristics to include: ‘being brave, caring, creative,
courageous, committed, confident, energetic, healthy, honest, industrious, introspective, intui-
tive, knowledgeable, open-minded, passionate, pragmatic, reflective, responsible, risk-taking,
trustworthy, and well-informed.’ In addition she identifies ‘Essential leadership roles that these
women school executives described were: analyzer, change agent, communicator, delegator,
dreamer, hirer, nurturer, reader, risk-taker, and team-builder.’ It is of interest that Funk then iden-
tifies Qualities of leadership to include ‘character, integrity, vision, courage, and passion,’ whilst
Critical skills identified are those of ‘visioning, determining the real needs for their districts,
communicating, hiring the right people, delegating, developing team support, working effec-
tively with people, and producing meaningful and lasting change.’
It may be argued that the various adjectives used would support Gilligan’s perspective
(1982) on feminist ethics1 with a more caring, nurturing role being suggested in the leadership
 Criminal Justice Studies 63

and management roles. In discussing leadership and management the question is raised, why
should this be a gender issue? Surely Western leadership and ethical conduct is not bound
by gender?
Ethicist Alison Jaggar (1992) faults traditional Western ethics for failing women in five
related ways. First, it shows little concern for women’s as opposed to men’s interests and rights.
Second, in the private world where women cook, clean, and care for the young, the old, and the
sick, issues that arise in that arena are dismissed as morally uninteresting. Thirdly, the inference
is that women are not as morally developed as men. Fourth, there is an overvaluation of perceived
culturally masculine traits such as independence, autonomy, separation, mind, reason, culture,
transcendence, war, and death. Whereas, culturally feminine traits such as interdependence,
community, connection, body, emotion, nature, peace, and life are grossly undervalued. Jaggar’s
fifth point is that Western ethics favors culturally masculine ways of moral reasoning that empha-
size rules, universality, and impartiality over culturally feminine ways of moral reasoning where
that emphasis is on relationships and partiality (Jaggar, 1992). These are important considerations
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when developing leadership course content as gender, ethnicity, and diversity are to be celebrated
and incorporated into each course. The complexity of the management and leadership roles in
criminal justice have been recognized and acknowledged (Rhodes, 2002; Stojkovic, Klofas, &
Kalinich, 1999).
This paper will not attempt to seek new definitions but to discuss concepts found within the
literature. It is argued that within the literature there is little emphasis placed upon the ethical
content of the various identified parameters within the definitions of leadership. Often within
the criminal justice arena it is the interpretation, or ignoring of those ethical parameters that
causes the majority of problems associated with service delivery (Roberg, Kuykendall, &
Novak, 2002). The authors argue that complexity of the subject and the literature support the
need for leadership skills to be a core component, not an elective component, of future criminal
justice curricula.
Higher education has long played a central role in maintaining the fabric of society. The past
four decades have provided intensive pedagogical research that has shown that students develop
sound conceptual understanding and critical thinking skills most effectively when they are
actively engaged in constructing their own personal knowledge base, and that base has an ethical
and social construct (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Brunner, 1996; McDermott & Redish,
1999; Phillips & Soltis, 1985). The evidence would suggest that regardless of the quality and skill
of the instructor, instruction is ineffective unless the student is an active participant in the process
(Bodner, 1986; Herron, 1996; Schoenfeld, 1988; Wheatley, 1991).
The development of leadership skills is similar to the development of citizenship skills and
initially revolves around the following pertinent questions (Connor, 1998, pp. 5–6):
● Are we still essentially citizens of nation-states or are we ready to act as citizens of a global
community?
● What does it take to make wise decisions in a world as complicated as ours?
● How does a citizen know when to trust and when to distrust the experts?
The key to the answering of any of the above-mentioned questions is to focus on the original
understanding of the importance of the skills of freedom, which have often been taken for granted
in the USA. This was identified and articulated by Connor (1998, p. 5):
‘The ability to read texts closely, an alertness to turn of phrase or shift of argument, clear thinking
and effective argument in all their forms, good writing, an understanding of how individuals and
communities in the past have dealt with practical challenges and moral perplexities, alertness to the
ironies of history, the ability to imagine the situation of others and to assess the responses most likely
to prove effective are still rare commodities in our society. The greatest problem confronting the
 64 B.F. Kingshott et al.

liberal arts is not a glut of graduates possessing these qualities, but the difficulties of developing them
fully at every stage of education.’
Then that is the challenge for all students and that challenge needs to be addressed.
It is accepted that in general terms all members of society are daily exposed to the multi-
ple and diverse forms of human suffering. Every social action or reaction is, therefore,
grounded in one or other moral philosophy. The historical perspective is important because it
compels us to the contemporary and can be a predictor of the future (Bethel, 1990). Shelden
(2001, pp. xii, 2) supports that argument believing that a critical perspective should attempt to
transcend the current social order and institutional arrangements by not necessarily accepting
at face value ‘what is’ but attempt to visualize ‘what could be.’ It is accepted that tacit world
views and unexamined presuppositions play large roles in the things we take for granted and
the behaviors we consider natural (Bennett, 2002, p. 1; Marcy, 2002, p. 2). Criminal justice
professionals are unique only in that it is their designated function to redress these injuries on
behalf of society as a whole, and as a result of this are in even greater need of developing
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these skills (Oliver, 2004; Watson, Stone, & DeLuca, 1998). ‘To be educated is to allow
oneself to be influenced by the multiplicity of others, to evaluate and adjust their internal rela-
tionships, and to learn how and when to apply them personally and publicly’ (Bennett, 2002,
pp. 1–2). Therefore, as Marcy emphasizes, ‘Leadership is, by definition, a collective or group
process’ (2002, p. 1).
It is not the intention of this paper to redefine leadership in the sole context of criminal justice
but it is of value to look at some of the broader definitions of leadership. Then the question is
raised, how do we prepare students for future leadership roles within the general context of a
liberal education and the specific context of criminal justice professionals?
The answer may be found in our literature review where Bennett (2002, p. 2) reiterates
Michael Oakeshott’s argument that:
[T]he sole authentic activity of the college is fostering and conducting ‘conversation,’ and the key
activity of higher education teaching and learning is assisting students to engage in conversation with
what he called the various voices, idioms, or modes of self-understanding that constitute our civiliza-
tion and our inheritance. These voices represent the achievements of our predecessors in science,
literature, art, philosophy, history and so forth. They constitute our culture, indeed our civilization.
Our very humanity consists in our learning how to possess, and then to dwell in, this inheritance. It
constitutes a mirror by which we can recognize and acknowledge who we are.
Therefore philosophical reflection, analysis, knowledge, and education play a central role in
leadership activities and criminal justice decision making (Marcy, 2002, p. 1). In addition, devel-
oping tactical and strategic skills in planning, finance, labor relations and conflict resolutions,
professional development, program review and development, legal issues, etc., are important
(Bennett, 2002, p. 4). However, there still remains a critically important and central question – to
what use these skills are put. Historically, liberal education expanded an older education. It refo-
cused on the specific skills required by the ‘free citizen’ and this within the domain of a broader
and more comprehensive education, and therefore facilitating idealism and social mobility by
desire, belief, and action (Marcy, 2002, pp. 1–3; McClellan, 1999, p. 1). Similarly, leadership skills
provide a core set of skills upon which criminal justice professionals can rely as they make
decisions in the world. Providing leadership skills to criminal justice professionals provides them
with tools to appropriately implement social values implicit in the policy and practices of effective
criminal justice systems.
Oscar Arias Sánchez2 (2002, pp. 5–6) argues that societal values determine priorities and
impact on subsequent actions. He, therefore, idealizes a world order in which solidarity would be
valued more than individualism; honesty more than hypocrisy; transparency more than corrup-
tion; faith more than cynicism; and compassion more than selfishness. Accepting that perspective
 Criminal Justice Studies 65

it may be argued that all of these statements include values that are implicit in the delivery of
justice. He reiterates the strategic responsibilities of the higher education sectors in this regard
with his plea for global partnerships in the areas of education, health, technology sharing, and
civil society. Then the conclusion of Oscar Arias Sánchez (2002, p. 6), which is also supported
by Marcy (2002, p. 2), emphasizes that universities have a duty to educate leaders in their social
responsibilities of ‘principled leadership.’ To support that conclusion Oscar Arias Sánchez (2002,
p. 6) argues that:
It is a simple fact that the majority of the political, economic, business, and social leaders in the world
have college degrees. Institutions of higher learning should therefore spend more time examining the
type of leadership they foster among their students, and create well thought-out principles and guide-
lines for this important aspect of the education they offer. In this category I would place the required
study of ethics, encouragement of community service, and regular discussions of the meaning and
demands of leadership.
It is accepted that all students should have the right to participate in achieving their potential in
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leadership education but this is usually an elective element of their degree whereas in the disci-
pline of Criminal Justice the authors argue that it should be a core component and not an elective.

Application to criminal justice

Talcott Parsons (1956, p. 225) observed that ‘the central phenomenon of organisation is the
mobilisation of power for the attainment of the goals of the organisation. The value system
legitimises the organisation’s goal, but it is only through power that the achievement can be made
effective.’ In any organization the individual and collective power of the personnel should not be
underestimated and the personnel are the greatest asset of the organization (Bennis, 2002; Bennis
& Nanus, 1997). The preservation of individual and collective freedoms, based on the underlying
responsibilities brought about by freedom, remains the focus of the study, and the fair and
equitable application of criminal justice plays an integral part of a liberal education. This ideal
coincides with a significant paradigm shift, referred to by Connor (1998, p. 4) as the ‘old’ educa-
tional values of ‘memorization and performance of literary texts’ merged into a new pattern
aimed at the development of skills. For this reason, possible ways of thinking about crime, offend-
ers, and criminal justice are inclusive of ideological issues, images of societies or world views,
inherent treatment modalities, as well as research programs and methodological agenda (Monk,
1998, pp. xvi–xvii). In addition, another form of justice relevant to most criminal cases, that of
social justice, must also be actively pursued. Therefore, criminal justice and lifelong learning are
not ends in themselves but part of a facilitation process to achieve social justice as the ultimate
purpose of education.
This philosophy of life and science demands the skills of analytical thinking, systematic
reasoning, and an ability to ask and address difficult questions – overall, it is the desire to acquire
knowledge of ourselves, of others, and of life and to reflect upon philosophical questions in that
pursuit of knowledge.
‘People who have cut their teeth on philosophical problems of rationality, knowledge, percep-
tion, free will and other minds are well placed to think better about problems of evidence, decision
making, responsibility and ethics that life throws up’ (Cline, 2003, p. 2). However, it is argued
that the generalized questionability of the ‘functionality’ of endeavors of this nature is misplaced;
‘We may never arrive at any final answers, but in many ways it is the journey which is most
important, not the destination’ (Cline, 2003, p. 2). To continue with Cline’s metaphor, this jour-
ney can only be accomplished if the necessary operational prerequisites and skills are available.
Those skills include, but are not limited to, communication skills, persuasive skills, and in general
problem-solving skills, all are necessary to make this journey possible.
 66 B.F. Kingshott et al.

However, success is not guaranteed as it should be borne in mind that ‘when someone has
done everything possible and reasonable on behalf of another person, the partial failure of his or
her efforts does not detract from the admirability and praiseworthiness of those actions and
efforts’ (Slote, 1999, p. 8).
Academics who study criminal justice and legal systems and instruct undergraduate students
in the diverse areas of study that educate students to engage in professions within criminal justice
and the law have both an explicit and implicit responsibility to engage these undergraduate
students in an examination of the principles which would facilitate their becoming effective
leaders in their professions. Even when these students do not see themselves as ‘leaders’ their
chosen professions will inevitably place them in leadership positions, or where decisions must be
made that impact upon others, either inside the organization or upon the community they serve.
Those decisions will impact specifically upon individuals and upon society in general. The conse-
quences of those decisions will determine whether or not the term ‘justice’ can appropriately be
applied to the US legal system. Their careers will give them power over the many citizens with
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whom they will interact during their professional lives. Then to address the need for skills
acquisitions and development it is argued that the undergraduate classroom is a safe environment
in which to develop leadership and management skills with efficiency and efficacy.
This type of leadership education proposed as a core element of a criminal justice program
has long been an integral part of undergraduate education at US military academies.
The Naval Academy leadership development program requires observation, education, reflection,
and practice. It gives midshipman a more sophisticated understanding of the fundamental princi-
ples and core values that should guide a leader, and provides an intellectual grounding in those
principles and values without forgetting that we are preparing young men and women to lead in
combat. (Clemente, 2000, p. 2)
The objective of such education for personnel is to provide them with key leadership princi-
ples that are supported and underpinned by a solid intellectual multi-disciplinary framework. The
safe intellectual environment of the classroom allows for leadership theory and practical applica-
tion to be blended because, ‘Experience is a great teacher, but leaders must be able to think
through situations that they have never experienced’ (Clemente, 2000, p. 4). The authors argue
that the parallels between the future experiences of undergraduates being educated for military
service and criminal justice professions are apparent when the reasons for military metaphors
within law enforcement are examined.
The rhetoric of crime control found within the news media reporting highlights the militarism
and the metaphors of war that occur within the police organization. Christie (1994) identified
metaphors as powerful linguistic tools that organize thoughts and focus attention on some aspect
of the criminal justice system, and Kraska and Kappeler (1997) acknowledged that militarism is
such a metaphor for the police. The police deal with the general public and a large part of their
work is dominated by petty peacekeeping problems between neighbours or angry spouses or
rowdy youths. Why do the police use militaristic language? The military metaphor instils focus
and direction into tasks that are otherwise difficult to manage. Militarism provides a moral–
emotional identity for the police in their war against crime.
To expand that argument the metaphor war has had a mobilizing potential by providing a way
to view police as protectors of society and to view the criminal element of that society as amoral
enemies. The language used to describe the police and criminal reveals the nature of the war meta-
phor. The police are at war with the criminal they are tasked to target the criminal fraternity as
they fight crime. The police are the thin blue line that separates order from anarchy. The police
must target criminals and gather intelligence, as it is them vs. us because we are crime-fighters.
This language of war provides a vocabulary that unites officers in militaristic identities, creating
yet another bonding environment for the police culture. The outward military discipline tended
 Criminal Justice Studies 67

to displace misconduct by officers into areas difficult to regulate. Bittner (1970) identified that it
intensified many aspects of the police culture, secrecy, and criminal activity by the police, decep-
tion and line management friction. The limitations of the military model was identified by Sykes
(1989) who acknowledged that while serving important symbolic purposes it limited reforms.
Then symbolically, militarism promotes an image of hierarchical police accountability and rule
bound behavior and regardless of what aspect of criminal justice a student enters knowledge of
such issues will enhance their management and leadership capabilities.
The military, however, is not unique in this approach. Undergraduate business schools have
also integrated leadership and liberal education into their curriculum. One curriculum takes the
approach of beginning this process at the freshman level with freshman seminars that focused on
the theme ‘Lessons in Leadership from the Arts and Humanities’ illustrating universal and funda-
mental themes that are appropriate applications for such courses of study (Harrison & Akinc,
2000). A limited enquiry of the Proquest database disclosed that among other diverse schools and
programs engaged in undergraduate education in leadership are the University of Alabama at
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Birmingham School of Engineering, Grand Canyon University in Phoenix, Arizona, Nursing

Programs such as that at Alderson Broaddus College, and also that agricultural programs are
seeking to instil understanding of leadership principles and personal development (Bishop, 2002;
Gonzales, 2001; Ricketts & Rudd, 2002; Scheick, 2002).
Criminal justice and related programs should similarly engage their students in the active
acquisition of these skills and knowledge in their curricula. The Academy of Criminal Justice
Sciences (ACJS) Minimum Standards for Criminal Justice Education (SCJE) in its statement of
the ‘purpose of higher education programs (emphasis in original)’ specifically provides that in
addition to providing students with knowledge and skills that criminal justice programs should:

[T]each students to use ethical behavior in applying this knowledge to related problems and changing
fact situations. The development of critical thinking, communication skills, and the ability to concep-
tualize ideas should be a primary focus of all criminal justice programs. (Minimum Standards, n.d., p. 3)

A review of Mittie Southerland’s 2002 Presidential Address at the Annual Meeting of the
ACJS describing the results of her examination of current criminal justice curricula discloses that
the SCJE standards are, to a great degree, aspirational in nature. The collected data identified that
Ethics and Research Methods were two of the identified curricula requirements whose presence
had increased in a survey of criminal justice programs, indicating that the guidelines appear to be
having some impact upon curricula development.
Standards for Criminal Justice Education identify that graduate and undergraduate programs
should contain cognates ‘designed to encourage students to be informed citizens’ and associate
and baccalaureate degree programs should also have ‘cognates, and other liberal arts courses,
designed to prepare broadly educated students’ (Minimum Standards, n.d., p. 4). Leadership, in
the broad contexts outlined earlier in this paper, however, is not mentioned in the SCJE statement,
although leadership qualities are articulated.
The authors argue that by specifically identifying leadership as a distinct area of study of
criminal justice programs the results would benefit not only the students but also the communities
where these students will work in addition to positively promoting the interests of a just legal
system. This is supported by Cress, Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, and Burkhardt (2001) who noted
that studies identified that this type of focus has a direct and positive effect on developing student
leadership skills at the undergraduate level. While these courses are taught in more than 900
leadership programs offered nationally, their quality varies. The courses may consist from day
seminars or workshops through to full degree programs but an identified problem is that the lack
of focus has on occasion ‘trivialized’ or ‘fragmented’ the offered course (Mangan, 2002, p. 1;
Reisberg, 1998).3
 68 B.F. Kingshott et al.

A proposed taxonomy of skills

If the proposition is accepted that developing leadership skills in undergraduate and graduate
students should be a goal for universities, the extent to which that goal should be and is reflected
in university vision and mission statements remains a subject of debate on campuses around the
country (Cress et al., 2001). The authors argue that from the evidence within this paper it would
be difficult for university administrators to credibly argue against the need for better-educated
leaders given the increased accountability placed upon institutions by their constituents and the
public to prepare college graduates to deal with major economic and societal issues. This raises
the question; how criminal justice programs can facilitate the development of leadership and
citizenship?
One model that may facilitate the development of leadership and citizenship is proposed by
the authors and will consist of five leadership skills that will be presented as a foundation for
criminal justice curriculum development. It will be an interdisciplinary approach to criminal
justice issues and practices relating to leadership and management and each skill incorporates
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aspects of strategic planning and effective decision-making techniques.

(1) Technical skills – encompass knowledge about methods, processes, procedures, and
techniques for conducting a specialized activity.
(2) Interpersonal skills – encompass knowledge about human behaviour, ability to commu-
nicate clearly and effectively as well as establishing effective cooperative relationships.
(3) Conceptual skills – involve good judgment, foresight, intuition, creativity, and the ability
to find meaning and order in ambiguous and uncertain events.
(4) Administrative skills – are a combination of the previous skills, reflected in the managerial
responsibilities of budgeting, directing, coordinating, and controlling.
(5) Political skills – are necessary for the leader to survive in both the internal and external
environment and include the ability to gain resources and develop coalitions among
legislative and organizational constituents.
These skills will be discussed in detail later in this paper. It is proposed that students who under-
stand and demonstrate these skills in the classroom will be better equipped to handle the challenges
that await them in their chosen field. This statement is supported by the literature review.

Using the classroom to challenge undergraduates to lead

The security of civil society is essential for economic, social, and cultural development and that
security is underpinned by the professionalism of the criminal justice professions. Crime is
pervasive and impacts upon all aspects of society and crime analysis acknowledges that the poor
and the desperate as well as the rich and the powerful engage in criminal activities and it is the
professionalism of the criminal justice system that identifies, investigates, and provides a process
whereby the crime, corruption, and civil disorder that threatens society are controlled. That
professionalism must in itself be underpinned by sound leadership and management decisions by
the criminal justice professionals.
Until the 1960s the key questions asked in studies on the professions was generally related to
the professions’ functions in being an important cohesive factor within society. Those questions
sought to identify major characteristics of the functions of the professions and to enquire how an
occupation became a profession (Grossman, 2005). Within this paper the terms professionalism
and professionalization refer to the actions of creating a more formalized way of doing things,
and doing them well.
With the increasing professionalization of criminal justice careers, baccalaureate degrees are
often a threshold requirement for employment providing a platform from which leadership
 Criminal Justice Studies 69

concepts can be introduced to students. It is the classroom environment that will be used to
develop these skills using many varied instructional techniques, traditional and non-traditional
found in all academic disciplines (Christensen, Garvin, & Sweet, 1991). The literature identifies
many teaching techniques that are well suited to facilitate a student’s mastery of leadership
concepts and are readily available for instructional use within the subject areas relevant to the
field (Densten & Gray, 2001). It is the position of the authors that treating these critical ‘leader-
ship principles’ as ancillary by-products of other topics effectively marginalizes their importance
from the student perspective. That approach also fails to provide students with the amount of
exposure needed to adequately acquire and integrate complicated and interlocking concepts
implicit in the proposed taxonomy of skills earlier outlined. The same comments appropriate for
the graduate program are equally applicable to an undergraduate curriculum. The concepts impli-
cated by this taxonomy include: the legal duties and responsibilities in employment practices,
psychological considerations at both the individual and organizational level, and effective
communication skills that are essential to effective leadership (Densten & Gray, 2001).
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Currently, the undergraduate curriculum at GVSU does not include a specific leadership
course even though it has been the practice in the past for some instructors to use the Capstone
course required of all majors and minors as a vehicle to present these ideas. In order to objectively
evaluate the potential of this type of class within both a Criminal Justice and a Legal Studies
Program a class entitled ‘Issues in Leadership’ was placed on the schedule as a special topics class
during the Fall 2002 Semester at GVSU and was team-taught. The course description established
it as a three-semester hour course that provided students with an overview of leadership theories
and techniques. It further stated that:
[The] course is designed to provide students with an understanding of the individual leadership
philosophies; to gain knowledge in critical leadership skills; and to expose them to the leadership prin-
ciples of decision-making and risk-taking, effective communication skills, coaching and counseling
for results, people skills and the skills needed in building an effective team allowing students to
develop a personal leadership plan. This course will utilize the lecture format as well as group projects
in team building and role-play exercises.4
The proposed taxonomy of skills described earlier accurately represents the central concepts
that were the focus of the course. Class size was controlled and was limited to 25 students. It was
offered as a 300 level course because it was the judgment of the instructors that it was more likely
that junior and senior level students would be ready, able, and willing to do the type of work that
would be required for successful completion of the coursework.
The syllabus identified principle concepts of leadership as modules of learning and students
were provided with a short narrative description of each component of the course. A variety of
teaching techniques were employed: individual and group exercises, discussions based on group
learning activities where students were asked to draw on their personal experiences and the
assigned reading from the course texts to identify and explore concepts within the area in more
detail, and traditional lectures using both PowerPoint and transparent overheads. On occasion
videos on assigned topics were also employed.
In addition, a variety of self-administered personality tests (a selection procedure that
measures the personality characteristics of applicants that are related to future job performance),
were provided to be taken by the students. This included tests that investigated the relationship
between psychological type, as measured by the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers &
McCaulley, 1985), and cognitive style as measured by the Kirton Adaption – Innovation Inven-
tory (KAI) (Kirton, 1999). Personality tests typically measure multiple dimensions of personality
such as extroversion, emotional stability, and openness to experience. The tests were used to
assist the students in understanding their individual strengths and weaknesses both as leaders and
followers, to assess their ability to adapt to group dynamics, and to improve their interpersonal
 70 B.F. Kingshott et al.

communication skills through a greater understanding of their own contribution to interpersonal

dynamics within groups and in dyad interactions.
However, there are positives and negatives associated with all assessment instrumentation,
for example, research has held that often personality inventories do not provide predictive values
with regard to who will be a good employee (Kirton, 1994). Moreover, recent litigation has
suggested that some items for these types of tests can be too intrusive (Soroka v. Dayton Hudson,
1991). Conversely, the advantages of such tests were that it could reveal more information about
the student’s abilities and interests as well as identifying interpersonal traits that may be needed
for certain jobs. The disadvantages included, but were not limited to:
● responses by applicant may be altered by applicant’s desire to respond in a way they feel
would result in their selection;
● applicant’s training and experience may have greater impact on job performance than appli-
cant’s personality;
● difficult to measure personality traits that may not be well defined;
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● lack of evidence to support validity and reliability of use of personality tests.

However, it was accepted that any tests should be analyzed for (high) reliability and (low) adverse
impact upon the students as part of there personal assessment (Isaksen, Lauer, & Wilson, 2003).
Assessments of student learning were designed to give the instructors the opportunity to
observe and evaluate student response to leadership opportunities, their interaction with fellow
students both in class and within their team for their assigned project, and included demonstrating
their writing skills in a paper and two essay examinations (a midterm and a final). In addition to
demonstrating an understanding of the course concepts students were required to apply leadership
principles to them by developing a five-year personal and career development plan for themselves.
Thus, while the course was structured to give students a specific set of concepts, knowledge,
and skills it was also designed to give them the opportunity to take the ‘lead’ in how the course
was conducted wherever possible. As an example, they were given the opportunity to suggest and
decide upon classroom rules of operation such as when and how often to take breaks during the
two hour and 50 minute sessions.
One example of a more substantive area where student input was solicited is where students
were given the opportunity to create their own ‘team’ topics for presentation to the rest of the class
as their group project. When the class voted not to take this opportunity, a list of appropriate
topics were provided to them and they were charged with the task of determining how they would
be assigned to each group. After they decided on the selection process the topics were assigned
according to the process that they had as a class designed, a class discussion was held identifying
how they had functioned as a group, how they did and did not act as leaders during this process,
and what they might have done differently.
Students consistently stated in the qualitative (narrative) comments in this course’s evalua-
tions that the course should be required not only of criminal justice and legal studies majors, but
of all undergraduate students. Four of the class members were serving as officers in a student
organization within the School of Criminal Justice called the Legal Studies Society and imple-
mented much of the information into their management of that organization including running
their meetings. Two of them presented papers at the 2003 Annual Meeting of Academy of
Criminal Justice Sciences in Boston, Massachusetts. Others made commitments to engage in
volunteer work in the community or made specific choices about careers. All have engaged in
articulating plans to achieve those goals. This experience provided empirical qualitative and
quantitative data that this type of course can facilitate the development of future leaders in
criminal justice at the undergraduate level in the same ways that it has been used in other
programs of study previously identified.
 Criminal Justice Studies 71

Incorporating leadership skills in graduate criminal justice programs

The authors propose that a way to achieve this identified outcome in graduate programs is
modelled by GVSU’s course entitled ‘Criminal Justice Leadership’: Criminal Justice (CJ) 601.
This course within the Master’s Degree in Criminal Justice at GVSU is designed to prepare
graduate students to become highly capable criminal justice leaders, planners, activists, futurists,
and academicians who will continually improve the criminal justice system and the profession.
The program accommodates a wide range of students, including those intending to or who are
already working in the criminal justice system, as well as those who are interested in pursuing
further graduate study. The program is designed to meet the needs of managers and administrators
in law enforcement, adult corrections, juvenile justice, and private security.
Criminal Justice Leadership is a required course and is currently based on taxonomy of
leadership skills the possession of which is relevant to overall effectiveness of criminal justice
managers. The course provides an overview of leadership within the public sector with specific
emphasis on the criminal justice system. It is argued that effective leadership allows organizations
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to map out future plans by scanning the environment, setting a new course with a vision, aligning
and motivating people to implement change, and creating an innovative and professional environ-
ment. The overall theme of the course is to prepare individual students to take on both a leadership
and management role in their present or future agency and play a role in mapping out a better and
realistic future.

Course development considerations

There are six course objectives:
● Develop an understanding of major leadership theories.
● Explain the role and function of leadership in the criminal justice system.
● Understand the relationship between management and leadership techniques.
● Develop a strategic view of organizations and understand the role of leaders in successfully
implementing an organizational mission and strategy.
● Evaluate how successful leadership is exercised and learn how to apply theories of leadership
to one’s own style and the style of others through case studies.
● Recognize how leaders exercise power and authority in an effective and responsible
manner.
Early trait studies and other subsequent research have identified a number of managerial/
leadership skills that are relevant to overall effectiveness (Yukl, 2002). The following skills are
by no means the only skills necessary for leadership effectiveness however; they do reflect a
consensus of traits that will enhance one’s ability to be an effective leader in criminal justice and
legal systems.
(1) Technical skills. Technical skills encompass knowledge about methods, processes,
procedures, and techniques for conducting a specialized activity, and the ability to use tools
and equipment relevant to that activity. Technical skills also include decision making and
factual knowledge about a particular organization (rules, structure, management systems,
employee characteristics), and knowledge about the organization’s products and services.
Technical knowledge is generally acquired through a combination of formal education, train-
ing, and job experience. Many students in the graduate program at GVSU enter the classroom
representing all components of the criminal justice system. Students bring with them a wide
variety of technical skills and experience in law enforcement, juvenile justice, adult correc-
tions, and private security. Technical skills are discussed and applied within a wide variety of
leadership situations.
 72 B.F. Kingshott et al.

(2) Interpersonal skills. Interpersonal skills encompass knowledge about human behaviour
and interpersonal processes; ability to understand the feelings, attitudes, and motives of others
from what they say and do; ability to communicate clearly and effectively; and the ability to
establish effective cooperative relationships (Yukl, 2002). Trait research shows consistently that
interpersonal skills are important for managerial effectiveness and advancement (Bass, 1990).
Interpersonal skills are also essential to influencing people, a key to effectiveness leadership.
Understanding what people want and how they perceive things is necessary to select an appropri-
ate influence strategy to use with them.
Students are challenged in the classroom to identify and apply various proactive influence
tactics that correspond to effective leadership based on current research in the field. Case studies
are used to demonstrate the strengths and weaknesses of individual strategies within a specific
criminal justice context. For example, a police chief appearing before the city council for an
increase in the department’s budget may use logical arguments and factual evidence to show that
the request is reasonable for attaining important task objectives (rational persuasion). In contrast,
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using demands and threats to influence city council members (pressure), would not be an example
of effective leadership.
(3) Conceptual skills. Conceptual or cognitive skills involve good judgment, foresight,
intuition, creativity, and the ability to find meaning and order in ambiguous and uncertain
events. Conceptual skills also include the ability to think logically (inductive and deductive
reasoning), analyze events, perceive trends, and anticipate changes. Not often discussed as a
conceptual skill is the importance of a leader developing a vision for the organization. Vision
can provide a sense of continuity for followers by linking past events and present strategies to
a vivid image of a better future for the organization. Current scholarly work also documents
the importance of leadership vision (Kouzes & Posner, 1997), and in looking into the lives of
90 leaders Bennis and Nanus (1997) found that ‘attention through vision’ was one of their key
strategies (p. 25).
Within the leadership course, elements of a vision are identified and students are required
to develop the following components in their respective fields. The first component is develop-
ing an image of what can be done (mission statement). The mission statement usually describes
the purpose of the organization in terms of the type of activities to be performed for constitu-
ents and customers. The second component is articulating why the vision is worthwhile (value
statement). A value statement is a list of key values or ideological themes considered important
for the organization. The third component is articulating how the vision can be accomplished
(strategic objectives). Strategic objectives are tangible outcomes or results to be achieved,
sometimes by a specific deadline. A recent descriptive study on the content of organizational
visions found that most of them were expressed in the form of a performance objective or
value statement that was very brief, strategic, and future oriented (Larwood, Falbe, Kriger, &
Miesing, 1995).
(4) Administrative skills. Administrative skills usually involve a combination of technical,
interpersonal, and conceptual skills. Ability to plan and organize project activities, select
qualified members of a team, budgeting, coordinating, and controlling are critical to leadership
effectiveness. Job responsibilities differ for leaders at different levels in the authority hierarchy
of the organization. High-level managers are usually more concerned with exercising broad
authority in making long-range plans, formulating policy, modifying the organizational structure,
and initiating new ways of doing things. Decisions at this level usually involve a long time
perspective, because it is appropriate for top administrators to be thinking about what will happen
two to five years into the future.
Middle managers are primarily concerned with interpreting and implementing policies and
programs, usually in a moderately long timeframe (one to three years). Low-level managers are
 Criminal Justice Studies 73

primarily concerned with structuring, coordinating, and facilitating work activities. For low-level
managers, objectives are more specific, issues are less complex and more focused, and managers
typically have a shorter time perspective (a few weeks to one year). In general, the higher the job
level, the greater the number and variety of activities to be coordinated, the greater the complexity
of relationships to be understood and managed, and the more unique and ill-defined are the
problems to be solved (Mumford & Connelly, 1991).
(5) Political skills. The ability to develop coalitions and gain resources, assistance, and
approvals from top management and other relevant parties is essential to effective leadership.
Political skills are necessary for a leader to survive in both the internal and external environ-
ment. Support from political, legislative, and organizational constituents requires a high level
of interaction by the leader with those outside of the organization that often shapes its direc-
tion and supports its mission. This is especially true for components of the criminal justice
system. Within the organization, political skills are critical for increasing cohesiveness,
mutual cooperation, and identification with the group. Political skills are essential for team
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building. Getting agreement among group members on objectives, strategies for attaining
them, and the need for cooperative effort greatly increases the likelihood of strong identifica-
tion with the group.
How political skills are developed and used within criminal justice agencies is discussed in
CJ 601 within the context of power. Power is usually used to describe the absolute capability of
an individual leader to influence the behaviour or attitudes of one or more designated target
persons at a given point in time. Although the use of power is evident in all the previous skills
discussed, it can be clearly applied to influencing others within an organization’s political
environment. Students are first taught the various types of power (personal and position) and the
sources of power (reward, coercive, legitimate, expert, and referent). Students are then given a
case study where they must apply their understanding of power to develop a hypothetical coali-
tion of constituents in support of a specific piece of legislation favorable to the law enforcement
community.
As part of the requirements for CJ 601, students write a research paper on what they believe
is the most critical leadership challenge facing criminal justice administrators currently, or in the
near future. Students choose a topic within their professional field or, alternatively, one of partic-
ular interest to them. Concepts and theories of leadership presented in class are included into their
analysis along with an identification of the specific leadership skills that will be the most critical
to effectively addressing the particular challenge. This paper provides students the opportunity to
apply what they have learned in the class within a current leadership context.
The qualitative comments in the student’s final course evaluations consistently reflected their
agreement that there is need for effective leadership within the criminal justice system. Many of
these students were full-time employees in law enforcement, juvenile justice, corrections, or
private security agencies. They expressed strong support for the course’s developing their under-
standing of leadership concepts by combining the theory of leadership with practical ‘problem-
solving’ approaches to current issues in their respective fields of employment. Assignments
implemented this applied approach by teaching leadership skills within a real world setting. Over-
all, students expressed an appreciation for this approach feeling that it provided them with a new
perspective in leadership by applying the concepts to all employees in an organization, not just
those at the top.
Students in the criminal justice graduate program at GVSU are the future leaders within law
enforcement, juvenile justice, adult corrections, and private security. To be effective leaders they
must combine their academic learning with a clear understanding of their unique organizational
vision, goals, and strategic objectives. CJ 601 is one learning experience that will provide students
with the knowledge and expertise to enhance their leadership capabilities.
 74 B.F. Kingshott et al.

Conclusion
From the evidence and rationale discussed within this paper it is argued that the literature identi-
fies that leadership principles are an integral part of liberal education. Academics who instruct in
the various disciplines that educate students who will eventually be employed within the criminal
justice system have an implicit and explicit responsibility to actively engage students in an exam-
ination of the principles and acquisition of skills needed for them to be effective leaders. Criminal
Justice programs have an obligation to provide students with skills that include, but are not
limited to the skills of logic, systematic reasoning, analysis of thought as well as a philosophical
input that encourages personal reflection. This will equip them to both ask and answer the
difficult questions they will face in their career choice and personal lives thereby enhancing
professionalism.
Leadership courses provide an effective and efficient means by which Criminal Justice
programs can specifically address the development of leadership and management skills that
underpin societal expectations of the community they will serve. By explicitly identifying and
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incorporating these important concepts and skills in a designated course within Criminal Justice
curricula at both the graduate and undergraduate level programs will ensure that they are not lost
in the current environment of outcomes-based education as non-essential by-products. It will also
provide a place where periodic program assessment will measure the success of these develop-
ment efforts providing opportunities to improve instructional techniques and program delivery of
these important skills.
What may be described as the ‘collateral damage’ that results from the failure to specifically
include these concepts and skills in criminal justice education are easy to describe, difficult to
assess, and their loss would not be easily remedied in retrospect. On an almost daily basis the
news media report harm inflicted on society and its members when criminal justice personnel fail
to measure up in their leadership roles and responsibilities and fail to meet the realistic expecta-
tions of society. The public expectations of our criminal justice system cannot only be met, but
may be exceeded, with the introduction of specifically tailored leadership courses that are offered
to tomorrow’s leaders through higher education. It is therefore incumbent upon criminal justice
and other educators to develop our future leaders through a liberal arts program similar to that
introduced by GVSU.

Notes
1. Feminist Ethics is an attempt to revise, reformulate, or rethink those aspects of traditional Western ethics
that depreciate or devalue women’s moral experience. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-ethics/
(accessed 29 September 2004).
2. Oscar Arias Sanchez Former President of Costa Rica (1986–90), Nobel Peace Prize Laureate
(1987).
3. More detailed information about curricula offerings and other aspects of these programs can be found
at www.inform.umd.edu/OCP/NCLP/CampusLinks.html, which is the Internet site for the National
Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs and provides links to over 100 national and international
programs.
4. Anyone interested in receiving a copy of this syllabus or other items used in this course should contact
the authors.

Notes on contributors
Brian F. Kingshott PhD, FRSA is an Assistant Professor, Frank Hughes PhD an Associate Professor and
Kristine Mullendore JD an Associate Professor in the School of Criminal Justice at Grand Valley State
University, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Johan Prinsloo PhD is a Professor at the Department of Criminal
Justice at the University of South Africa (Pretoria).
 Criminal Justice Studies 75

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