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Electrical Machinery PS Bimbhra-1 PDF
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Electrical Machinery
This thoroughly revised atid updated edition presents a rigorous and comprehensive treatment
of transformers and more common types of rotating electrical machines types. Each chapters
begins with rudimentary concepts and is so developed, that an average student can easily
comprehend i t The salient features of this book are:
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❖ Drive aspects and applications are discussed for each machine type.
❖ Clearity of presentation is enhanced by illustrative figures and examples selected from
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questions-papersof important Universities, IAS, IES and GATE.
❖ Includes numerous problems, conceptual questions and objective-type questions (with
asy
answers) to help the reader master the basic concepts.
This edition also includes: electrical machinery overview, energy efficiency and resent advances;
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3-phase transformers; 3-phase induction generators; appendices on magnetic circuits, 3-phase
circuits and short-answer type questions.
gi nee
All these features contribute towards making this book an ideal text for undergraduate students
of degree classes. Practising engineers, through self-study, will also find this volume useful to
them.
r ing
.ne
Dr. P.S. Bimbhra retired as Professor of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Thapar
t
Institute of Engineering and Technology (Deemed University), Patiala-147004. He has over
40 years of teaching and research experience in Electrical Engineering. He has published several
papers in renowned journals and national and international conferences. Dr. Bimbhra is a fellow
of I.E. (India), a member of I.E. E. (U.K.) and a life member of I.S.T.E.
KHANNA PUBLISHERS
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Phone: 23243042 • Fax: 23243043
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Contents
O v e r v ie w o f E l e c t r i c a l M a c h in e r y
T r a n s fo r m e r s 1-159
h
1 1 . Transformer Construction 2
12 Principle of Transformer Action 4
1 3 . Ideal Two-winding Transformer 5
1 .4 . Transformer Phasor Diagrams iO
1.4.1. Transform er phasor diagram at no load 10
1.4.2. Transform er phasor diagram under load 12
1.4.3. Leakage flux 14
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1.5 . Rating of Transform ers
1.6 . Equivalent C ircuit of a Transform er
1.7 . Open-circuit an d Short-circuit Tests
14
20
29
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1.8 . The Per U n it System
1.9 . Voltage Regulation of a T ransform er
35
40
En
1.10.3. S eparation of hysteresis and eddy current losses 63
1.11. Testing of Transform ers
1.12. Auto-transform ers
gin 66
70
eer
1.13. Parallel O peration of Single-phase Transform ers 84
1.14. Tap-Changers on Transform ers 100
1.14.1. No-Load (or off-load) tap changer
ing
102
1.14.2. On-load tap-changer 102
1.15. Induction R egulators 106
1.15.1. Single-phase induction regulator
1.15.2. T hree-phase induction regulator .ne 106
109
1.16. Transform er as a M agnetically Coupled Circuit
1.16.1. Co-efficient of coupling
1.16.2. M ethods of increasing the coefficient of coupling
t 112
H7
119
1.17. Audio-Frequency T ransform ers 123
1-18. Pulse T ransform ers 128
1*19. Three-phase T ransform ers 12®
119.1. T hree-phase tran sfo rm er connections 1
1-20. Transform er Noise ^
136
J-21. Some W orked Exam ples
1-22. Sum m ary 144
2- E l e c t r o m e c h a n i c a l E n e r g y C o n v e r s io n P r i n c ip l e s 1 6 0 '222
, Principle of E nergy Conversion
■ ■ Singly Excited M agnetic System s
2'3- Reluctance M otor
(vii)
(vih)
3. B a s i c C o n c e p t s o f R o t a t i n g E l e c t r i c a l M a c h in e s 233.359
3.1. Physical Concepts of Torque Production
234
3.1.1. Electrom agnetic (or interaction) torque 234
3.1.2. Reluctance (or alignm ent) torque
235
3.2. C onstructional F eatu res of R otating Electrical M achines
236
3.2.1. Polyphase Induction M achines 23
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3.3. Concepts of G eneral Terms P ertain in g to R otating M achines
3.4. G enerated emfs
3.4.1. G enerated e.m.f. in a full-pitched coil
244
250
250
.ne
3.6.3. C urrent-sheet Concept 293
3.6.4. M.m.f. waveform of com m utator m achines 298
3.7. R otating M agnetic Field 301
3 . 8 . Production of Torque in Non-Salient Pole M achines
3.8.1. A lternative Derivation for Torque
3.9. Losses and Efficiency
t 318
323
329
3.10. M achine Ratings 333
3.10.1. Choice of power of electric m achines 339
3.11. Cooling (Loss dissipation) 344
3.12. M achine Applications 347
4. D .C . M a c h in e s 360-539
4.1. Action of Com m utator 353
4.2. E.m.f. G enerated in the A rm ature 365
4.3. Torque in D.C. M achines 359
4 .4 . Circuit Model of DC Machines 373
4.5. Methods of Excitation 376
4.6. M.m.f. and Flux Density Waveforms in d.c. M achines 379
4.6.1. A rm ature reaction 39 O
4.6.2. M ethods or lim iting the effects of „rm nturc renctiol) 385
(«)
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4.12. Operating Characteristics of D.C. Motors
4.12.1. D.C. Shunt Motor ,
4.12.2. D.C. series motor
429
429
431
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4.12.3. D.C. compound motor
4.13. D.C. Motor Starting
432
444
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4.13.1. Shunt and compound motor starters 445
4.13.2. Series motor starters 447
4.14. Speed Control of D.C. Motors
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454
4.14.1. Speed control by varying the armature-circuit resistance 455
4.14.2. Speed control by varying the field flux
5.
P o ly p h a s e S y n c h r o n o u s M a c h in e s 540-702
5.1.
Excitation Systems for Synchronous Machines 540
5.2. Flux and mm f phasors in synchronous machines
543
5.2.1. Cylindrical-rotor synchronous machines 543
5.2.2. Salient-pole Machines 549
5.3.
Phasor Diagram of a Cylindrical Rotor Alternator 551
°pen-circuit and short-circuit characteristics of synchronous machines 552
5.3.2. Zero power-factor characteristic and Potier triangle 554
5.4.
Voltage Regulation of an Alternator 557
•4.1. The electromotive force (emf) method or synchronous impedance method 557
•4.2. The Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) method 563
5.4.3. Zero power factor method 565
5.4.4. New A.S.A. (American Standards Association) method 565
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5.5.
Physical Concepts of Synchronous M achine O peration 56g
5.6.
Synchronous M otor P h aso r D iagram
5.7.
O perating C haracteristics of A ltern ato rs and th e ir R atings 575
5.7.1. E x ternal load ch aracteristics 577
5.7.2. A ltern ato r com pounding ch aracteristics 577
5.7.3. R ating of a lte rn a to rs 579
5.8. Pow er Flow Through an Inductive Im pedance 579
5.8.1. M axim um power conditions 580
5.8.2. Reactive Power 583
5.9. Circle D iagram s of Synchronous M achines 585
5.9.1. Synchronous m otor circle diagram s 604
5.10. Pow er F actor Control of Synchronous M achines 6<>4
5.10.1. Power-factor Control of Synchronous M otors
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5.10.2. Power-factor control of A lternators
5.11. Two-reaction Theory of Salient-pole M achines
5.12. Pow er-angle C haracteristics of Synchronous M achines 617
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5.12.1. Cylindrical-rotor synchronous m achine
5.12.2. Salient-pole Synchronous M achine 628
629
asy
5.13. Synchronizing Power and Synchronizing Torque
5.13.1. Physical concepts of synchronizing power
5.14. Synchronous M achine Stability
637
639
5.15. H untin g and D am per W indings
5.15.1. H unting En 643
647
5.15.2. D am per windings
5.16. M easurem ent of X d an d X 9 gin 647
650
t
669
D uaI'Pu rP°se Synchronous Motor 071
5.20. S tartin g of Synchronous Motors rno
6. P o ly p h a s e I n d u c t io n M o to r s " w iM O
6 . 1 . Induction Motor as a TYansformer
6 .2 . Principle of operation ,
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7 .1 . Closed W indings
7-1 1 - Closed-w inding term s
831-880
833
7.2. Sim plex L ap W inding
7.2.1. S p lit coils
asy 835
836
En
7.3. Sim plex W ave W inding 841
7.3.1. D um m y Coils 842
7.4. M ultiplex W indings
7.5. E q u alize r Rings
gin 845
846
7.6. O pen W indings or A.C. A rm ature Windings
7 .7 . Double L ayer W indings
eer “ I
853
7.7.1. In te g ra l Slot W indings
7.8. F ractio n al S lot W indings
ing 856
887
7.9. S ingle-L ayer W indings
7.9.1. C oncentric W indings
.ne 868
g7^
7.9.2. M ush w in d in g s ~
A ppendix
t 881-1053
A ppendix-A —M agnetic Circuits 0 gj
A ppendix-B — T hree P hase Circuits 901
A ppendix-C — M ultichoice Q uestions and Answers 918
Appendix-D — S h o rt A nswer Type Questions 1030
A ppendix-E — Table of C onstants & Conversion
F acto rs and The Greek Alphabet 1052
Index 1053-1060
ONE
Transform ers
The tra n s fo rm e r is a device t h a t tm n c f 1 • *
another e le ctric al c irc u it th ro u g h thp 6rS e!ectn cal en ergy from one electrical circuit to
frequency. T h e e lectric c irc u T w h ic h °f GtiC fld d and w ith o u t a ch an *e * the
winding.
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winding a n d th e o th e r c irc u it w h ich d elivers ^ * ? 7 m ^ S^ P? ly mainS is Called Prim ary
delivers electric energy to th e load is called th e secondary
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received ^ ! y ^ t h e V r i ^ a r ^ i s ^ r s t ^ electro" ia ^netic en ergy conversion device, since th e energy
useful electrical e n e rg y in th e o th e rc irc u its(sT c o S d l™
etc ) T h u s n rim a rv a n d I
“ d reconverted to
(secondary w inding circuit, th ird w inding circuit
m co u rted m T ^ t i c a U v T W ^ T
asy ” gS ° f 8 tra n sfo rm er a r* " 0 * connected electrically, b u t
are coupled m a g n e tic a lly . T h is coupling m agnetic field allows th e tra n sfe r of energy in eith er
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direction, from h ig h -v o lta g e to low -voltage circuits or from low-voltage to high-voU a% circuits
If th e tra n s f e r of e n e rg y occurs a t th e sam e voltage, th e purpose of th e tra n sfo rm e r i f m erely to
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isolate th e tw o electric c irc u its a n d th is u se is very ra re in pow er applications. If th e secondary
winding h a s m o re t u r n s th a n th e p rim a ry w inding, th e n th e secondary voltage is h ig h er th a n
eer
the p rim a ry v o ltag e a n d th e tra n s fo rm e r is called a step-up tran sfo rm er. In case th e secondary
winding h a s less t u r n s th a n th e p rim a ry w inding, th e n th e secondary voltage is low er th a n th e
ing
prim ary v o ltag e a n d th e tra n s fo rm e r is called a step-dow n tra n sfo rm er. N ote th a t a step-up
tran sfo rm er can be u s e d a s a step-dow n tra n sfo rm e r, in w hich case th e secondary of step-up
tran sfo rm er becom es th e p rim a ry of step-dow n tra n sfo rm er. A ctually, a tra n sfo rm e r can be
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term ed a s te p -u p or ste p -d o w n tra n s fo rm e r only a fte r it h a s been p u t in to service. T herefore,
when re fe rrin g to th e w in d in g s o f a p a rtic u la r tra n sfo rm e r, th e te rm s high-voltage w inding and
low-voltage w in d in g sh o u ld be u se d in s te a d of p rim a ry and secondary w indings.
t
A tra n s fo rm e r is th e m o st w id ely u se d device in b o th low and h ig h c u rre n t circuits. As such,
tran sfo rm ers a re b u ilt in a n a m a z in g ra n g e of sizes. In electronic, m e a s u re m e n t and control
circuits, tra n s f o r m e r size m a y be so sm a ll t h a t it w eighs only a few te n s of g ram s w h ereas in
high v oltage p o w e r c irc u its , i t m a y w eig h h u n d re d s of tonnes.
In a tra n s f o rm e r , th e e le c tric a l e n erg y tra n s f e r from one circu it to a n o th e r circu it tak es
place w ith o u t th e u s e o f m o v in g p a r ts — it h a s , th erefo re, th e h ig h e st possible efficiency o u t of
all the e le ctrica l m a c h in e s a n d re q u ire s a lm o st negligible am o u n t of m a in te n a n c e an d su p e r
vision.
In su la tio n c o n s id e ra tio n s lim it th e g e n e ra tio n of a lte r n a to r (ac g e n e ra to r or synchronous
generator) v o lta g e s fro m a b o u t 1 1 to 2 2 kV . By m e a n s of tra n s fo rm e rs , th is voltage is stepped
UP to h ig h e r eco n o m ical tr a n s m is s io n v o ltag e, 400 kV or even h ig h e r, in o rd er to red u ce th e
transm issio n lo sse s. W h e re v e r th e e le c tric a l e n erg y is re q u ire d , tra n s fo rm e rs a rc in sta lle d to
step down th e v o lta g e s u ita b le for its u tilis a tio n for m o to rs, illu m in a tio n p u rp o se s etc. T h u s the
transformer is th e m ain reason for th e w id e s p re a d p o p u la rity of a.c. system s over d.c. system s.
1^ ^ ^ ----------------------- — — ^ i i
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In ad d itio n to its u se in pow er system s, tra n sfo rm e rs are w idely u sed in o th e r prom inent
a re a s of electrical engineering. In com m unication sy stem s, in p u t tra n sfo rm e rs connect the
m icrophone o u tp u t to th e first stag e of an electronic am plifier. In te rs ta g e a n d o u tp u t tra n s
form ers are used extensively in radio and television circuits. In electronic an d control circuits,
tra n sfo rm e rs are used for im pedance m atching for m axim um pow er tra n s fe r from source to the
load. P u lse tran sfo rm ers find wide application in ra d a r, television an d d ig ita l com puters. In
power electronics, tra n sfo rm e rs are extensively used (i) for g ate-p u lse trig g e rin g an d (ii) for
synchronizing th e pulse g atin g sig n als w ith th e ac supply voltage given to th e m ain power
circuit. In general, im p o rta n t ta sk s perform ed by tra n sfo rm e rs a re :
(i) for decreasing or increasing voltage and c u rre n t levels from one circu it to a n o th e r circuit
(or circuits w hen th e re are 2 or m ore o u tp u t w indings) in low and h ig h c u rre n t circuits ;
(ii) for m atching th e im pedance of a source and its load for m ax im u m pow er tra n s fe r in
electronic an d control circuits, and
(iii) for isolating d.c. w hile p e rm ittin g th e flow of a.c. betw een tw o circu its or for isolating
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one circuit from another.
T ran sfo rm er is, therefore, an essen tial piece of a p p a ra tu s both for h ig h a n d low c u rre n t
circuits.
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An electromechanical energy conversion device is one which converts energy from electrical
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to mechanical or from mechanical to electrical. The coupling between th e electrical and m echanical
system s is through the m agnetic field. In a transform er also, the coupling betw een th e prim ary
and secondary windings is by m eans of the magnetic field. Both in electrom echanical energy
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conversion devices and transform ers, the coupling m agnetic field behaves in a like m anner.
Therefore, the fundam ental principles involved in the analysis of a tran sfo rm er are m uch m ore
gin
common in the analysis of electromechanical energy conversion devices.
The tra n sfo rm er is a static piece of electric m achinery and concepts ab o u t its b eh av io u r
eer
can be understood in a com paratively sim pler m anner. In view of th e above, th e an aly sis of
tran sfo rm er m u st serve as a prelude to th e stu d y of electrom echanical e n erg y conversion
ing
devices. A t th e sam e tim e, a tra n sfo rm er is an im p o rtan t energy conversion device a n d detailed
study of its behaviour is justified.
1 . 1 . T r a n s f o r m e r C o n s tr u c tio n
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t
T here are two general types of tran sfo rm ers, th e core type a n d th e sh ell ty p e. T h e se two
types differ from each o th er by th e m an n er in w hich th e w indings a re w ound a ro u n d th e m ag
netic core.
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Art. 1*1] ill
I!*
Transformers
" ~ 4>/i
I
H.V.
In iron-core tra n s fo rm e rs , m o st of tb „ n -
however, so m e flu x t h a t le a k s th ro u g h ^ 00 ™ ? ° " ® " '? ‘° M gh Pe r” «=aWlity core. T h e re is
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he, « « T h is flu x called leakage f l ux b S £ o n e w X n °n - ? agnetic -" a te ria l su rro u n d in g
this leak ag e flu x ,s d e s ira b le as it m ^ v
C onsequently a n effo rt is alw ays made to reduce h
e s not th e o th e r- A reduction i f
perform “ “ considerably,
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achieved by p la c in g h a l f of th e low voltage ? L V I X * C° re' tyPe f a n s f o rm e r , th is is
second leg o r 1,m b. F o r th e h ig h vo ltag e w i n d t a g X ^ h f 7 f T ® ' 6g ^
the o th er h a lf o v er th e second leg, Fig. 1 1 (a) ,
° th e r h a lf over
\X W
asy
and H.V. w in d in g o u tsid e , in o rd e r to m inim ise t h e X X n t n f ' l t d jacen t to 4116 s‘eel core
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In th e s h e ll ty p e tra n s fo rm e r, th e L V a n d H V w ind
and are in te rle a v e d o r sa n d w ic h e d as show n in Ffc 1
reqU ir6d'
w T T T . °Ver the centTal Umb
coils a re o f h a lf th e size o f o th e r L.V coils Shell
eer
In the sh ell-ty p e tra n s f o rm e r , th e
the o u ter tw o leg s a s sh o w n in Fig. 1 .1 (6 ),
ing
i"n L V c T n t ^ m b d ^ ^ ^ ^ y°keS’ F lg ‘ 1 ,1 (aX
equally an d r e tu rn s th ro u g h
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for core-type tr a n s f o r m e r s a T s h o ^ l ^ Fi * * 1 1°( t,r a n ®fori(ne^s - T he concentric coils a re used
shell-type tr a n s f o r m e r s as sh o w n in Fig. 1 1 ( 6 )
t
C l e a v e d (or sandw iched) coils for
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[Art. 1.2
4 E lectrical M achinery
—
Butt
/ Butt
^joints
Z' joints
k V_
f/ /
--------------
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w.E (a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.2. Two adjacent layers for (a) core and (b) shell type of transform ers
(c) arrangement o f butt joint9 in a m agnetic core.
asy
For power frequency range of 25 to 400 Hz, tran sfo rm ers are co n stru cted w ith 0.35 m m
thick silicon-steel lam inations. For audio-frequency range of 2 0 to 20,000 Hz, iro n core w ith
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suitable refinem ents is used. For high frequencies em ployed in com m unication c irc u its, core is
made up of powdered ferrom agnetic alloy. In special cases, th e m ag n etic c irc u it of a t r a n s
gin
former may be m ade of non-m agnetic m aterial and in such a case, th e tra n s fo rm e r is re fe rre d
to as an air-core transform er. The air-core tran sfo rm er is p rim a rily u sed in ra d io device^ £ n d
in certain types of m easuring and testin g in stru m en ts. Cores m ad e of soft f e rrite s a r e also used
eer
for pulse transform ers as well as for high frequency electronic tra n sfo rm e rs.
1.2. P r in c ip le o f T r a n s f o r m e r A c tio n
ing
A transform er works on th e principle of electrom agnetic in duction b e tw e e n tw o (or m ore)
coupled circuits or coils. According to this principle, an e.m.f. is in d u ced in a coil if it lin k s a
changing flux.
.ne
In core-type transform er, h a lf of th e L.V. (and
H.V.) w inding is on one limb and th e other h a lf is
on th e second limb. In shell-type transform er, th e
L.V. and H.V. w indings are sandw iched. How
t
ever, for sim plifying the draw ing and analysis of
both th ese types of transform ers, th e schem atic
d iag ram is as show n in Fig. 1.3. T he p rim a ry
w inding P is connected to an a lte rn a tin g voltage Fig. 1.3. Schem atic d iagram o f a tv/u-w inding
source, therefore, an a lte rn a tin g c u rre n t I e s ta rts transform er.
sam e
iron core^ T ^ e m f W u ceT in ^ eT e^ om h i^ or* wHary winding Is u s ^ d ly rrferretUo as'th
th e em f
-n
. . . - " V'
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T ransform ers
, to transform er action. T hus th e transform er action requires the existence of altern atin g
Actual flux linking th e various w indings on a common magnetic core.
A transform er hav in g prim ary and secondary windings is called a two-winding transform er
vhereas a tra n sfo rm er having prim ary, secondary and tertiary windings is known as a
t h r e e - w i n d i n g tran sfo rm er. As stated before, prim ary is connected to source w hereas the
seco n d ary and te rtia ry w indings feed the load.
1 3 . Id e al T w o -w in d in g T r a n s f o r m e r
In the beginning, a tran sfo rm er is assum ed to be an ideal one, m erely for obtaining an
easier explanation of w h at happens in a transform er. For a transform er to be an ideal one,
the various assum ptions are as follows :
1. Winding resistances are negligible.
2 . All th e flux set up by th e prim ary links th e secondary windings, i.e. all the flux is confined
to the m agnetic core.
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3 . The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) are negligible.
4 . The core h as co n stan t perm eability, i.e. the m agnetization curve for the core is linear.
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At a la te r stage, th e effect of these assum ptions will be taken up one by one.
It has been sta te d before th a t th e words prim ary and secondary should not be used with
asy
the two windings of transform er. However, it has been found convenient to use these term s
during the tran sfo rm er analysis. B ut it should be kept in mind th a t these are arb itrary term s
En
as explained before. Hence forth, sub-scripts 1 and 2 would be associated respectively w ith the
primary and secondary w indings of a transform er.
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Let the voltage V x applied to th e prim ary of a transform er, w ith secondary open-circuited,
be sinusoidal (or sine wave). Then th e current I e<due to applied voltage Vlf will also be a sine
eer
wave. The m m f N xl e and, therefore, th e core flux 4 will follow the variations of Ie very closely.
That is, the flux <f>is in tim e p hase w ith the current Ie and varies sinusoidally. If Ie is zero, 4
ing
is zero and if 7, is m axim um positive, 4 is also maximum positive and so on. Therefore, if th e
applied voltage V x h a s sine waveform, the flux $ m ust also have a sine waveform. L et the
sinusoidal v ariation of flux <{>be expressed as
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4>= <lW sin cot - (L1)
where 4 m„ is th e m axim um value of the m agnetic flux in webers and co = 2 n f t is th e angular
frequency in rad/sec an d f is th e supply frequency in Hz.
t
The em f e 2 in volts, induced in th e prim ary N , tu rn s by the altern atin g flux 4 is given by
...( 1 .2 )
* - N ^
e i “ " yVl d t
= - N l o x Jw cos cot
' *
—N iCO<J)ma3(, sin 2
is equal to 1 .
Its m axim um value, E lmax occurs when sin 2
...(1 .3 )
and = E 1 max sin 2
w.E
The em f induced in th e secondary is
asy
En
Rms value of emf P 2 induced in
2
gin ^ ^ ^
...( 1 .6 )
„
* 2= - ^
Ert .
= V2 n f N ^
•
eer
From Eqs. (1.4) and ( 1 .7 ),
ing ...(1.7)
E<i jV2
.ne
or
.
Ei
= N
2
AT j x v ^
2=
e
71'f ‘t1.
' "tax
t
*, air te kept * — .
'"'f'-'ivifv-f
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Arl. 13]
Transformers
V, = -E ,
90°
le <p
E 1 ,E 2
(a)
(6 )
F ig . 1.5. Ideal transform er (a) phasor diagram and (6) tim e diagram.
ww
secondary e r m in a ls . S in ce th e seco n d ary w inding resistan ce is zero, V 2 = E 2. According to
L enzs law , th e d ire c tio n o f seco n d ary c u rre n t I 2 should be such th a t th e secondary m m f f 2
(= 7 ^ 2) is o p p o site to m u tu a l flux <J> in th e core. For F 2 to be directed a g a in st 4>, th e c u rre n t
w.E
/ 2 m u st le a v e th e te r m in a l n, p a s s th ro u g h th e load and e n te r th e te rm in a l m, Fig. 1.4. The
secondary w in d in g b e h a v e s lik e a voltage source, therefore, term in al n m u st be tre a te d as
asy
positive a n d te r m in a l m a s n e g a tiv e . T his m eans t h a t w hen term in al b is positive w ith respect
to c in Fig. 1.4, te r m in a l n is p o sitiv e w ith resp ect to m a t th e sam e tim e. T his form s th e basis
En
for p o la rity m a r k in g s in tra n s fo rm e rs , A rt. 1.11. If secondary w inding is w ound in a m an n er
opposite to t h a t sh o w n in Fig. 1.4, te rm in a l m would be positive w ith respect to term in al n.
gin
This show s t h a t p o la r ity m a rk in g s o f th e w indings in tran sfo rm ers depend upon th e m an n er
in w hich th e w in d in g s a r e w o u n d a ro u n d th e legs w ith respect to each other.
eer
In Fig. 1.4, th e se c o n d a ry m m f F 2 being opposite to <► , ten d s to reduce th e a lte rn a tin g
m utual flux 0 . A ny re d u c tio n in <)>w ould reduce E^. For an ideal tra n sfo rm er, V l = - E x. If the
ing
applied v o lta g e Vj is c o n s ta n t, E x an d , therefo re, m u tu al flux <J> in th e core m u st rem ain
constant, a s p e r E q. 1.4. T h is can h a p p e n only if th e p rim ary draw s m ore c u rre n t I { from the
.ne
source, in o rd e r to n e u tr a lis e th e d em ag n etizin g effect of F 2. In th is m an n er, 12 causes the
prim ary to ta k e m o re c u r re n t, / / , in addition to I e such th a t
I\ N \ = I2 N 2
or C o m p en sa tin g p r im a r y m m f, F \ = Secondary m m f, F 2
t ...(1.9)
Any c h a n g e in th e se c o n d a ry c u rre n t is a t once reflected by a corresponding autom atic
change in th e p r im a r y c u r r e n t so t h a t core flux rem ain s u n altered .
In th e ab o v e e x p re ss io n , is called th e load com ponent of p rim ary c u rre n t / ,. It is th u s
seen th a t core flu x in a n id e a l tra n s fo rm e r rem a in s co n sta n t and is in d ep en d en t of th e load
current.
a • , . , u l a \t hv an an ele 0 <> t h e p h a s o r diagram u n d e r load for an ideal
A ssu m m g l 2 to la g b e h m d V 2 by a n angle B, P m agnetize the
transform er c a n be d ra w n a s sh o w n in Fig. 1.6. S>ince m inis. r x a 2
“ re in o p p o site d ire c tio n s , th e y a re show n in p h ase opposition in g. . .
The total primary current / , is the phasor sum o f / , and i.e.,
an d E l I 1= E2I2
or V i h = V2 I 2 ...( 1 . 1 2 )
i.e. P rim a ry volt-am peres = Secondary volt-am peres.
In Eqs. ( 1 . 1 1 ) and (1.12); V h V2, I h I 2 have rm s values.
ww
From Eq. (1.5),
vl = N l V2 =E,= E2
•
"
Hi Hi
asy
n , =n 2 ...( 1 .1 2 a)
En
Eq. (1.10) in term s of in stan tan eo u s value is
i\N i = i?N2
M ultiplication of Eqs. ( 1 .1 2 a) and ( 1 .1 2 b) gives, gin ...( 1 .1 2 b)
yi h = u2 h eer ...(1.13)
ing
T his m eans th a t in stan tan eo u s pow er in p u t into p rim ary equals th e in s ta n ta n e o u s power
o u tp u t from th e secondary. This relatio n is a consequence of th e a ssu m p tio n s ( l ) - ( 3 ) m ad e for
a n ideal tran sfo rm er.
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I f K irch h o ff 8 voltage law is applied to th e p rim ary w inding circuit abcda of F ig 1 4 th en
te rm in a l b m u st be positive w ith respect to term in al c, since c u rre n t I e can flow from a high
p o te n tia l to a low er poten tial only.
F or th e circuit abcda, th e K irchhoffs voltage law gives,
t
v1- e 1 = 0
vi = e i
F rom Eq. (1.5), d&
"1 = ^ 1 \T., ^
- N
ei =
dt ’ dt ...(1.14)
vi = - e x= N &
1 dt
where e x is tr e a te d a s a re a c tio n e m f .
a c tio n e.m .f., c o u n te r e.m .f. o r g e n e ra te d e.m.f.
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in stan t. F o r e x a m p le , i f d o tte d te r m in a l of nrim n "“ “ “I? of.the corresponding p o larity a t any
term in al a t a n y in s ta n t, th e n d o tte d te rm in a l nf ** W1
to u n d o tte d te r m in a l a t th e sa m e in s ta n t
g “ P0sitive w ith resp ect to u n d o tted
^ W ing ls also Po sitive w ith resp ect
o p~
w.E
asy
En
bo^ gin
eer
ing
Fig. 1.7. T ransfer o f im pedance in an ideal transformer.
Vl A T M T XT
T T1 = N ~2 aH 1 1 = 2 2
or Ml
V l -N ~ 2 V2 ....(1 .1 5 )
and N2
...(1 .1 6 )
^ - W x l2
Division o f E q. (1.15) by E q. (1.16) gives effective in p u t im pedance a t th e p rim a ry term in als
a and 6 as
Vi N i • V2 N i
Ix N2 ^2^2
v2
fw ' l Zo = Z 9' ...(1 .1 7 )
[*r
>1
[ n 2J n 2
\ /
[Art. 1.4
10 Electrical Machinery ________ _______ ________ __________________ ________________________
fATjf
Z ,' =
N,
This is shown in Figs. 1.7 (6 ) and (c). . , arw.0 viewpH
T hus, th e three circuits shown in Fig. 1.7 are identical as far as th e .r perform ance v.ewed
from term inals a and b is concerned.______________________________________________r_; . .
Sim ilarly, an im pedance Z x in the prim ary circuit can be tra n sfe rre d to (or r f
secondary side as
2 7 _ 7 /
N Z ,- Z i
ww
of transform er by m eans of Eq. (1.11). In this m anner, re su lta n t voltage an cu rre n on
side can be evaluated. ,
a
w.E
For an ideal transform er, it m ay be sum m arized th a t (i) voltages are tra n sfe rre d in th e
direct ratio, (ii) currents in th e reverse ratio, (iii) im pedances in th e direct ra tio sq u ared and
(iv) power and volt-am peres rem ain unchanged.
asy
Eq. (1.17) illu strates th e impedance-modifying property of a tran sfo rm er. In practice, th is
property is exploited for m atching a fixed load im pedance to th e source im pedance for th e
En
6 k purpose of m axim um power tran sfer from source to load. This is achieved by in terp o sin g a
W l.r ] transform er of suitable tu rn s ratio between the load and the source.
y
1.4. T r a n s f o r m e r P h a s o r D ia g ra m s
gin
The purpose of first considering an ideal transform er, i.e. a tra n sfo rm e r w ith no core losses,
eer
no winding resistances, no m agnetic leakage and constant perm eability, is m erely to h ig h lig h t
th e m ost im portant aspects of tran sfo rm er action. Such a tran sfo rm er n ev er ex ists a n d now th e
ing
phasor diagram s of real transform er w ith various im perfections will be considered.
M agnetization curve of th e actual tran sfo rm er core is non-linear an d its effect is to in tro
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duce higher order harm onics in th e m agnetizing cu rren t. Since all th e q u a n titie s in a p hasor
diagram m u st be of th e sam e frequency, these h ig h er order harm onics (w hose freq u en cies are
odd m ultiples of fundam ental frequency) can’t be rep resen ted in th e p h a so r d iag ram . So a
lin e a r m agnetization curve for th e tran sfo rm er core will continue to be assu m ed .
t
The p h aso r diagram of a tran sfo rm er is now developed, first a t no load a n d th e n u n d e r load.
1.4.1. Transform er phasor diagram at no load. The m agnetic flux <h b ein g com m on to
both the prim ary and secondaiy, is draw n first. The induced emfs E 1 and E 2 lag <j>by 90° and are
shown accordingly in Fig. 1.8 (6 ). The voltage - E 1 is being replaced by V { ju s t for convenience. Al
ternatively Vy m ay be treated as a voltage drop in the prim ary, in th e direction of flow of prim ary
cu rren t The various imperfections in a real transform er are now considered one by one.
(a) Effect o f transform er core loss. The core loss (or iron loss) c o n sists o f h y s te re s is loss and
eddy c u rre n t loss. These losses are alw ays p re se n t in th e ferro m ag n etic core o f th e tra n sfo rm e r,
since th e tra n sfo rm e r is an ac-operated m agnetic device. T h e h y s te re s is loss in th e core is m in i
m ised by u sin g high g rad e m a te ria l such as cold-rolled-grain o rie n te d (CRG O ) s te e l a n d th e
eddy c u rre n t loss is m inim ised by u sin g th in la m in a tio n s for th e core.
'Hie current in the(primary is alternating, therefore, the m agnetizing force H is cyclically
varying from one positive value say H x to a corresponding negative value - H lt Fig. 1.8 (a).
Transformers ;
ww
w.E ' e , , e 2- v2
(C)
asy
En
a r ^ a S
gisn a s ^
eer
ing
OP, Fig. ! . 8 (a), th e
at in sta n t w t,.It .a s e e n from F t f r ^
♦ lags W by so m e tim e £g
or lag, bemg dependent on
.ne
J
^ shown leading *, „r * ,s shown ■> g
loop, is called th e h ysteretic angle. In f i g
I bv hysteretic an g le a. t
a.,v,nirmrrenf of the transformer and can De
" T h e n o d o a d p rim a ^ ^ ^
or, i/ c = —7
y x' Amp.
V { l c = Pc
...(1-18)
From Fig. 1.7 ( H il is seen ^ —y ? . current/
'« = ^ loM cu rre n t / . - 0 and therefore e x e fn g cu rren t /.
Note that in an ideal transformer, core-lo
(b) E ffect o f transform er resistance. The effect of prim ary resista n ce r j can be accounted for,
by add in g to V f , a voltage drop equal to r fle, as show n in Fig. 1.8 (6 ). N ote th a t r j e is in pnase
w ith I e an d is d raw n p arallel to I e in th e phasor diagram .
(c) E ffect o f leakage flux. The existence of electric potential difference is e ssen tial for th e
e sta b lish m e n t of c u rre n t in an electric circuit. Sim ilarly th e m agnetic p o ten tial difference is
n ecessary for th e esta b lish m en t of flux in a m agnetic circuit.
F or th e direction of c u rre n t I e in th e prim ary, Fig. 1.9, th e point A is a t a h ig h e r m agnetic
p o ten tial th a n point B. T his m agnetic potential difference estab lish es : (i ) th e m u tu a l flux 0
lin k in g both th e w indings and Hi) the
p rim a ry leak ag e flux 0 f1( which links r - -------- -- "i
only th e p rim a ry w inding. The distinc 4 Ie ;a i . ___— -- Q
-----*
1 **
--- ~—7^ \ • / 1 >
tive b eh av io u r of th e m u tu al flux (j>and . < * 1
th e p rim a ry leakage flux 0 n m u st be T t f 1
i J 1--'--
1 —
carefully understood. The m u tu al flux © V> < * , i : t' * : K : ___ ►
ww
0 exists e n tirely in th e ferrom agnetic
core and, therefore, involves hysteresis
•i « > /
;_B ------ -----------
( -1- . :--------------- o
1
•
w.E
loop. T he c u rre n t I e th a t establishes <!>
m u st lead it by some hysteretic angle.
On th e other hand, th e prim ary leakage
Fig. 1.9. Transformer at no load.
En
to be in phase w ith th e cu rren t/,, th a t produces it, Fig. 1.8 (c). In th e p rim ary w inding, induces
an em f E x lagging it by 90°; sim ilarly th e prim ary leakage flux 0a induces an e.m.f. E xl in th e
gin
prim ary winding and lagging it (i.e. 0n ) by 90°. Since Ie leads E xi by 90°, it is possible to w rite
eer
E xi = - j l e x v T he p rim ary applied voltage Vj m u st have a com ponent j l e x h eq u al an d opposite
to E xV H e re* ! h as th e n a tu re of reactance and is referred to as th e p rim ary leak ag e reactance
ing
in ohms. It m ay be noted th a t x x is a fictitious quantity merely introduced to rep resen t th e effects
of prim ary leakage flux.
The to tal voltage drop in prim ary a t no load is + jx f) = Ie z lt w h ere z 1 is th e p rim ary
leakage im pedance. Therefore, Fig. 1.8 (c) gives th e phasor diagram of a tra n sfo rm e r a t no load, .ne
w here N l is assum ed to be equal to N 2. The p rim ary voltage equation a t no load can be w ritte n
as
? i = ^ i ' + 7e (ri + jx x)
t ...(1.19)
The p rim ary leakage im pedance drop shown in Fig. 1.8 (c), is d raw n to a la rg e r scale in
com parison w ith V f or V h ju s t for th e sake of clarity. A t no load V { an d V x a re v ery nearly
equal. Even a t full load, p rim ary leakage im pedance drop in pow er tra n sfo rm e rs is ab o u t 2 to
5% of V lt so th a t th e m agnitude of V f or E 1 (and therefore, 0 as p er Eq. (1.4)) does n o t change
appreciably from no load to full load.
It m ay be noted th a t th e to tal p rim ary flux is th e p h aso r sum of 0n a n d 0 , th erefo re, its
p haso r is a little ah ead of 0 .
1.4.2. T ra n sfo rm er p h a so r diagram u n d er load. T he secondary circuit of th e tra n s
form er is considered first and then the prim aiy circuit, for developing th e phasor diagram of a tra n s
former under load.
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n’itvj u_y O cji i ii iui
www.EasyEngineering.net
Art. M l
Transformers 13
v m
/:i} r !
LOAD
ww
prim ary. T he flux 0/2 is called th e secondary
leakage flux a n d is in p h a se w ith / 2, for the
w.E
same reaso n t h a t 0 71 is in p h a se w ith I e in Fig.
1.8 (c). T he se c o n d a ry leak ag e flux induces
asy
e.m.f. Ex2 in th e se co n d a ry w inding, lagging
0/2 by 90°. T he se co n d ary no load voltage E 2
En
m ust have a co m p o n en t eq u al an d opposite to
- j x 2 72. T h u s th e p h a s o r su m o f V 2 , I 2r2 and
JI ^ 2 g i'^ s th e se c o n d a ry in d u ced e.m.f. E 2 as
shown in Fig. 1.11 (a). gin (a) (b)
Fig. 1.11. Transformer phasor diagram for
(a) lagging p.f. load and (b) leading p.f. load.
eer
The v o ltag e e q u a tio n for th e seco ndary circuit can now be w ritte n as
ing
Hf2 = V 2 +12 (r 2 + jx 2) = V 2 +12 z 2 ...( 1 .2 0 )
where z 2 is th e se c o n d a ry le a k a g e im pedance of th e tra n sfo rm er.
.ne
F u r th e r th e m u tu a l flux 0 is d raw n lead in g E 2 by 90° and exciting c u rre n t l e is d raw n
t
leading 0 by th e h y s te re tic an g le a . N ote th a t th e p h aso r V2 h a s pu rp o sely been ta k e n to th e left
of vertical lin e, so t h a t E 2 is v e rtic a lly dow nw ard and th e m u tu a l flux 0 is h o riz o n ta l.
The co m p o n e n t o f th e p r im a r y c u rre n t w hich n e u tra lis e s th e d em a g n e tiz in g effect o f / 2 is
h ' (7\ N 1 = I ^ J 2) a n d is d ra w n o p p o site to I 2. T he p h a so r sum of a n d I t gives th e to ta l p rim a ry
current / 2 ta k e n fro m th e s u p p ly m a in s. T he p rim a ry leak ag e im p ed an ce drop l l(rl + j x x) is
depicted as e x p la in e d e a rlie r. T h e v o ltag e e q u atio n for th e p rim a ry circu it u n d e r load can be
w ritten as
V, = V< + 7,(r, + > ,) = V ,'+ 7
where z 1 is the prim ary leakage impedance of the transformer. Note that the angle 0 ! between
and /j is the prim ary power-factor angle under load.
If the secondary load current / 2 leads the voltage V2 such that the load p.f. is leading, then
phasor diagram for the transform er is as shown in Fig. 1.11 (6 ). The entire procedure for
^ w in g the phasor diagram is the sam e as explained for Fig. 1.11 (a).
I t m ay be seen th a t th e developm ent of tra n sfo rm er ph aso r diagram of Fig. 1.11, gives a
b e tte r physical p ictu re of w h a t h ap pens in th e prim ary and secondary w indings of a tra n s
form er an d its core. B ut th is p h aso r diagram is helpful only (i) w hen a tran sfo rm er is to be
stu d ied alone an d (it) w hen th e in te rn a l behaviour of the tran sfo rm er is to be understood.
W hen th e tra n sfo rm e r is a p a rt of the large power system netw ork, th e p h aso r diagram of
Fig. 1.11 should not be used. In stead , th e tran sfo rm er equivalent circuit is used.
1.4.3. L e a k a g e flu x . In a tra n sfo rm er, as secondary (or load) cu rre n t is increased, the
m ag n etic p o ten tia l of point X rises above th e m agnetic po ten tial of point Y, Fig. 1-1®- Tm s
re su lts in an in crease in th e secondary leakage flux <j>,2- H ere points X and Y are on th e limb
w h ere secondary w inding is w ound. W ith increase of secondary cu rren t, th e p rim ary cu rren t
also rise s a n d th is causes point A to a tta in a m agnetic potential h ig h er th a n t a t o pom .
As a re su lt, p rim a ry leakage flux <J>n increases. This shows th a t leakage fluxes in a tran sfo rm er
a re d ep e n d en t upon th e cu rre n ts in th e w indings.
Core flux in a tra n sfo rm e r depends upon th e em f induced in th e p rim ary w inding. W ith
in crease o f p rim ary c u rre n t, E i = V\ - 1\ ( ^ +jx{) does reduce and likewise core flux is re uce .
ww
B u t th is reduction in £ , an d likew ise in core flux is quite sm all. T hus it m ay be sta te d th a t core
flux in a tra n sfo rm e r depends upon th e applied voltage and m ay be tre ated as co n stan t from no
load to full load.
w.E
In th e follow ing a rtic le , th e r a tin g of tra n sfo rm e rs is discussed. A fter th is, an exact
eq u iv a len t circuit of th e tra n sfo rm e r is developed first from which its approxim ate equivalent
circu it is obtained.
asy
1.5. R a t i n g o f T r a n s f o r m e r s
En
T he m a n u fa c tu re r of tra n sfo rm ers fixes a nam e plate on th e tran sfo rm er, on w hich are
gin
recorded th e ra te d o u tp u t, th e ra te d voltages, th e rated frequency etc. of a particular^trans--
form er. A ty p ical n a m e p la te ra tin g of a single p hase tra n sfo rm e r is as follows: 20 kVA,
3300/220 V, 50 Hz. H ere 20 kVA is th e rate d o u tp u t a t the secondary term in als. N ote th a t the
eer
ra te d o u tp u t is expressed in kilo-volt-am peres (kVA) ra th e r th a n m kilow atts (kW). T his is due
to th e fact t h a t ra te d tra n sfo rm e r o u tp u t is lim ited by h eatin g and hence by th e jo sses in th e
ing
tra n sfo rm e r T he tw o types o f losses in a tran sfo rm er are core loss and ohm ic (7 r) loss. The
core loss dep en d s on tra n sfo rm e r voltage and ohmic loss on th e tra n sfo rm er c u rre n t. As these
.ne
losses depend on tra n sfo rm e r voltage (V) and cu rre n t (7) an d are alm o st unaffected by th e load
p f th e tra n sfo rm e r ra te d o u tp u t is expressed in VA (V x 7) or in kVA an d n o t in kW. F or ex
t
am ple a tra n sfo rm e r w orking on rated voltage and rated c u rre n t w ith load p f eq u al to zero has
ra te d losses an d ra te d kVA o u tp u t b u t delivers zero pow er to load. T his show s t h a t tra n sfo rm e r
ra tin g m u s t be expressed in kVA.
For an y tra n s f o rm e r :
(R ated in p u t in kVA a t (R ated o u tp u t in kVA a t
th e p rim a ry term in als) 1J th e secondary te rm in als) + Losses
(cos 0 j) (cos 0 2)
Since th e tra n sfo rm e r o p erates a t a very high efficiency, losses m ay be ignored. F u rth e r,
th e p rim a ry p.f. cos 0j an d th e secondary p.f. cos 02 a re n e a rly equal. T herefore, th e ra te d kVA
m ark e d on th e n a m e p la te of a tra n sfo rm e r, refers to both th e w indings, i.e. th e ra te d kVA of th e
p rim a ry w ind in g an d th e secondary w inding are equal.
T he voltage 3300/220 V refers to th e design voltages of th e two w indings. E ith e r of th e two
m a y serv e as p rim a ry or secondary. I f it is a ste p down tra n sfo rm e r, th e n 3300 V is th e ra te d
* A term inal is th at part o f an electrical en gineering device, w hich is intended to receive the extern al connections.
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ratios a re e q u a l a s s e e n from Eq. 1.8. A t no load, V, and E l a re n early equal in m a g n itu d e for
large tra n s f o rm e r s , th e re fo re , th e ir no-load voltage ra tio is
w.E ~1 = —1
E 2 ^ 2
R ated p rim a ry voltage N,
R ated secondary voltage N 2'
asy
E x a m p l e 1.1. T h e e m f p e r tu rn for a single phase, 2 3 1 0 /2 2 0 V, 50 H z tra n sfo rm er is a p
proxim ately 13 volts. C a lcu la te (a) the n u m b er o f p rim a ry a n d secondary tu rn s a n d (b) the net
En
cros's-sectional a rea o f th e core, fo r a m a x im u m flu x density o f 1.4 T.
S o l u t i o n . E m f p e r tu r n E t = 13 volts.
gin
(a) N u m b e r o f se c o n d a ry tu r n s = S econdary voltage
220
N 2=~ ^ 16.92.
Et
eer
13
ing
Now t h '' n u m b e r o f t u r n s c a n ’t be a fraction, therefo re, N 2 = 17 (n e a re s t w hole num ber).
For N 2 = 17,
.ne
N u m b e r o f p r im a r y tu r n s
N ,= N 2
v ✓
= 17
'
2310^
220
'
= 178.5. t
T h is sh o w s t h a t N 2 c a n ’t be e q u a l to 17 tu rn s . T he o th er n e a re s t in te g e rs a re 16 or 18. It is
preferable to ta k e N 2 = 18.
... Afj = 18(10.5) = 189 tu rn s .
T h u s th e r e q u ire d v a lu e s o f a n d N 2 are 189 an d 18 tu rn s respectively.
n. 220
(b) N ew v a lu e o f e.m .f. p e r tu r n E t - volts.
T he n e t co re a r e a c a n be o b ta in e d from th e re latio n ,
' l2 n f * max = E l
220
or ^ 2 n fB mA l = E t = - j ^
^ o u tf iiiie u u y ^ a i i i o c d i n i e i www.EasyEngineering.net
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So ta k e Af3 = 6 tu rn s
Total n u m b er of tu rn s in te rtia ry = 2 x 6 = 1 2 .
w.E
and tu rn s in th e 220 V prim ary w inding = — ° * 6 = 120.
asy
E x a m p le 1.3. (a) A 2 2 0 0 /2 2 0 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transform er has exciting current o f 0.6
A a n d a core loss o f 361 watts, when its h.v. side is energised at rated voltage. Calculate the two
En
components o f the exciting current.
(b) I f the transform er o f p a rt (a), supplies a load current o f 60 A at 0.8 p.f. lag on its l.v. side,
gin
then calculate the prim ary current and its power factor. Ignore leakage im pedance drops.
S o lu tio n , (a) Exciting current Ie = 0.6 A
Supply voltage V { = 2200 V; Core loss Pc = 361 w atts.
eer
/. Core loss com ponent Ic = ~ = = 0.164 A.
ing
From Eq. (1.18),
.ne
(b )
M agnetising component/^, = 'JTj-
or 6 A-
V2 N«
N ote th a t — = —f
Vi ^
The c u rre n ts Ie / 2, a n d 7j are indicated in th e phasor
diag ram of Fig. 1.12.
The vertical com ponent of It = Ic = 0.164 A
The h o rizo n tal component of
A c An = 0.577 A. Fig- 1.12. Phasor diagram
.■ . ‘ . for Example 1.3.
l,j u g i 11 i c u uy w a n u t a i 11 i c i www.EasyEngineering.net
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= 6 x 0 .8 + 0.164 = 4.964 A.
Horizontal component of l x = sin = / / sin q2 +
= 6 x 0 .6 + 0.577 = 4.177 A.
... Primary current ^ c o s O ^ ^ sin 0 ^
= V(4.964)': + (4.177)2 = 6.488 A. .
ww
S o lu tio n . W ith h o t-ro lled steel lam inations:
or
Total flux
asy
The d ia m e te r of th e circle aro u n d th e core is given by
X ,2 a
E
I4 n
^mai
1.2
-d, =
X
tm tu
1.2 gin
L ength of th e tu r n a ro u n d th e core is
eer
_____
max
L, j = n dj j = x„ • yJ *- - KL
2
ing
W ith CRGO la m in a tio n s :
♦ max 2 .ne
<IW = 1-6 A 2
L ength of th e t u r n a ro u n d th e core is
A 14 §max
L 2= n d 2= n - y n ' L6
W 2 = | ( 1 0 0 ) = 75 k g '
'
iy*
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■
j
T www.EasyEngineering.net
H eight of the limbs are assum ed equal in both cases. Now for w ire,
W eight of wire when using CRGO lam inations (w 2)
W eight of wire when using h.r. lam ination (w{)
_ (L2) (Wire cross-section) (Turns)
(L.) (Wire cross-section) (Turns) <
_ aV4/« • V3
s r C i i 2
w 2 = 80 X 0.866 = 69.28 kg.
.. Percentage saving in wire m aterial
8 0 -6 9 .2 8 . . .
= ----------- x 100 = 13 .4%.
ww
Wire cross-section and the number of turns are assumed equal in both the cases.
w.E
c u l a t e ^ e c o n d a n ' n o t l f v l T t J p e Z ^ ^ f “ design*d to operate a t 2 4 0 /1 2 0 V, 5 0 H z. Cal-
nected to : 1 S f reQuency i f the h.v. side o f the tra n sfo rm e r is con-
(a) 240 V, 40 Hz; (b) 120 V, 25 Hz- M 120 V u
(d) 480 V, 50 Hz; (e) 240 V, dc
asy
S o lu tio n . Prim ary voltage V, a t frequency/, is
(c) 120 V’ 5 <>H* i
, ^ ^ X fl+ m a x lN l
En
Let the prim ary voltage a t frequency f 2 be Vu so th a t
V n = ^ 2 K f2 ^m axiN l gin
■• _ A §max2
eer
(a) From Eq. (j), 240 _ (40) (<t>m„T9)
240 (5° ) ( ^ axi) ing
or
q = 1-25 0)mail.
Secondary no load voltage a t freq u ency/j .ne
and a t frequency f 2is
’max 2
is
2
2 t
E22 h <(>‘max
, 2
f\§ m a x \
= 120
This shows th a t th» ■ ' 5 0 * ‘•’" M ~ 120 volts a t 40 Hz.
'PPly frequency changes ^ i vo.tage re m ains . .
<U Prom Eq. i ? S - <25) d ’ ev en >f th<
240 <50) « W .) or < W =
From Eq. £ 22 = 120 x ( 2 5 ) ^
• ^<
h^
ww
turns on secondary w in d in g S a n d 60 tu rn s on tertiH Z
A to a resistive lo a d w hereas a pure-canacitanrp In n !? W
S iC>2 ^ ™ S ° n Prim ary m inding P, 160
lng ' g 1 13 (a>- W inding S feeds 10
a Pare capacitance load across w inding T takes 20 A
J
asy
6 ) W ith th e p o la r ity m a r k in g s on P as shorn*, m a rk the polarities on v in d tn g s S a n d T
1i ^ r J
En
A aP lie n V 0' ta g e / 1 3 n d m U tual n u x 4 a re show n in th e p h aso r d iag ram of Fig.
gin
U S <e). E m fe in d u c e d in w in d in g s S a n d T a re indicated as E 2 and E , respectively. C u rren t
I., - 10 A a n d th e re fo re se c o n d a ry w in d in g m m f F , - h V 2 = 10 x 160 = 1600 ATs is show n in
eer
phase w ith E 2 b e c a u s e lo ad is re sistiv e in n a tu re . Likew ise, c u rre n t / 3 = 20 A and therefore
tertiary w in d in g m m f F 3 = I 3 N 3 = 20 x 60 = 1200 ATs m u st lead E 3 by 90“ as th e load is a pure
ing
capacitance. R e s u lta n t o f load m m fs F 2 an d F 3 gives F23 = V1200* + 1600'2 = 2000 ATs
.ne
t
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.13. P ertaining to Exam ple 1.6.
S c a n n e d by C am Scanner www.EasyEngineering.net
r www.EasyEngineering.net ____ ___________
^ r F1 2000-9 0 4
C u rren t in prim ary winding, = joO ”
F * 1600
Power factor on th e prim ary side = cos 0j = y r - = 0 8 leading-
(6 ) P olarity m arkings and direction of currents are indicated on the secondary and tertiary
w indings in Fig. 1.13 (6 ).
1.6. E q u iv a le n t C ir c u it o f a T r a n s f o r m e r
The equivalent circuit for any electrical engineering device can be draw n if the equations
describing its behaviour are known. If any electrical device is to be analysed and investigated
fu rth e r for s u ita b le m odifications, its a p p ro p ria te eq u iv a le n t c irc u it is n ecessary . The
equivalent circuit for electrom agnetic devices consists of a combination of resistances, in uc-
tances, capacitances, voltages etc. Such an equivalent circuit (or circuit model) can, therefore,
be analysed and studied easily by th e direct application of electric circuit theory.
wwAs stated above, equivalent circuit is simply a circuit rep resen tatio n of the equations
describing the performance of the device. Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21) describe th e behaviour of the
w.E
transform er under load. These equations are, therefore, helpful in arriving a t th e transform er
equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.14 (a). In this equivalent circuit, (rx + jx x) and (r2 + jx2) a re the
leakage im pedances of the prim ary and secondary windings respectively. The voltage Vx is
asy
treated as a voltage drop in th e direction o f/j. Recall th a t the m agnitude of Vj does not change
appreciably from no load to full load in large transform ers. The m agnitude of Vx depends on f,
N x and $max, since | V{ | = \E X| .
En
The prim ary current I x consists of two components, see Fig. 1.11(a). One com ponent I x is
gin
the load component and counteracts the secondary m.m.f. I 2N 2 completely. The other com
ponent is exciting cu rren t I e which is composed of Ic and I m . The cu rren t 7Cis in phase w ith
eer
Vx in Fig. 1.8 (6 ) and product Vx Ic gives core loss. The resistance Rc in parallel w ith V x rep re
sents the core loss P., such th a t
ing
(V/ ) 2
W
V I
R,c
.ne ...( 1 .2 2 )
and
t
R c= ~r
l C
The cu rren t 7m lags V { by 90° and this can, therefore, be represented in th e equivalent
circuit by a reactance X m such th a t
t
vy
-(1 2 3 )
Lm
R c and X m are shown in Fig. 1.14 (b), which is the exact equivalent circuit of a transform er.
The resistance R c and reactance X m are called core-loss resistance and m agnetizing reactance
respectively.
For m inor qhanges in supply voltage and frequency, which is common u n d er norm al
operation, R c and X m are tre ated constant.
In Fig. 1.14 (a) and (b), th e ideal transform er has been introduced to show the tran sfo rm a
tion of voltage and cu rre n t between p rim ary and secondary w indings. Even a t th is stage, the
tran sfo rm er m agnetization curve is assum ed linear, since the effect of h ig h er order harm onics
can’t be rep resen ted in th e equivalent circuit.
v Jr,v*V.
Art. 1 <>] %
'9*
Transformers 21
1l-H
s
ww
w.E
rt asy (6) Exact equivalent circuit.
i*i V - N, N,
En
tr -WVVV qrjffV. JTinri— vwi— o— | r — n
•I II
•!
gin
eer -
--------- —o— •!! f|
ing
(c) Referred to primary.
Ideal
transform er
Nj N; r» J*l
-VAV—TTOT-
J* 2 r2
Avw—frnnr------o+ .ne
t
O- j 1 i o
Ideal
tra n s form er (j) Referred to secondary.
Fig. 1.14. Development of the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer.
%
. •*?;*-*••
(Art. 1.6
22 Electrical Machinery
(H ±\
N2
w here r 2 = r2 •
No
\ J T
If resista n ce r 2' is placed in th e prim ary circuit, then th e relation betw een voltages j ian
V 2 is uneffected. T his resistan ce r2 is called th e secondary resistance referred to prim ary. ere
fore, th e to ta l resista n ce in th e prim ary circuit is
= ri + r2 ...(1.24)
rt \ = r x + r2
N2
\ y
H ence r el is called th e tra n sfo rm er equivalent (or total) resista n ce referred to p rim ary
(N £ \
w inding. Sim ilarly th e prim ary resistance referred to secondary is r x and th e equivalent
ww
(or total) resistance referred to secondary is
\ /
w.E re2 = r2 + r l
\2 x2 r2
...(1.25)
t+~
asy -MW-----TfcT'-
ri *1
— vvw—
En
gin
eer
Kig. 1.14. (e) Equivalent circuit in a general form.
ing
Secondary leakage reactance drop I ^ , w hen tra n sferred to p rim ary is
.ne
'N A
I2x 2 = 11 x 2 ~ h x 2-
No
T h e q u a n tity x2 is c a lle d th e secondary leakage reactance referred to p rim a ry . T otal
p rim ary leak ag e reactan ce is t
* 1) ...(1.26)
* e l = * l + * 2 No = x \ +x 2
w here xel is called th e eq u iv alen t or to tal leakage reactan ce referred to p rim a ry . Likew ise, the
eq u iv alen t or to tal leakage reactan ce referred to secondary is
'AT.'
*c2 = * 2 + *l = x 2 + Xi ...(1.27)
Ni
T he e q u iv a le n t (or to tal) leak ag e im pedance referred to p rim a ry is
^ e l ~ r el J*e 1
Ze2 —f e2 ~^JXe2‘
F o llo w in g t h e a b o v e p r o c e d u r e , it c a n b e s h o w n t h a t
ww
In the e q u iv a le n t circu its o fF ig . 1.14 (c) and id), the referred q u an tities w ith su itab le n o ta
tion, have been u sed . A m ore g en eral eq u iv alen t circuit can be draw n as shown in Fig. 1.14 (c),
where for sim plicity, (i) a p a rtic u la r n otation for referred q u an tities has been dropped (//) the
w.E
complex n o tatio n (b ar over I , j w ith reactances etc.) h as been given up and (Hi) th e ideal tra n s
former is not show n. I f th e g en eral equivalent circuit refers to the prim ary, one has to keep in
mind th a t th e seco n d ary q u a n titie s have been referred to th e prim ary side. On the other hand,
asy
if the general e q u iv a le n t circu it refers to the secondary, then the prim ary q u a n titie s m ust be
referred to th e seco n d ary side. T h u s in th e general equivalent circuit of a tran sfo rm er, one has
En
merely to keep in m in d ab o u t th e side to which all th e q u an tities have been referred.
It may be in te re s tin g a t th is sta g e to draw th e phasor diagram for th e equivalent circuit of
gin
Fig. 1.14 (e) from a know ledge of th e electric circuit theory. Assume th a t the secondary load
voltage V2, load c u rre n t 12 an d angle 0 2 by which I 2 lags V2, are
known. F irst of all d raw I 2 lagging V 2 by an angle 0 2 and then add
eer
h (r-i + j x 2) to V 2 to o b tain E 2 or V /, Fig. 1.15. It is obvious from
Fig. 1.14 (e) t h a t c u rre n t 7m d u e to voltage E 2 or V / m u st lag it bying
90° and fu rth e r 7Cm u s t be in p h a se w ith E 2 or V / . The phasor sum
.ne
t
of7Cand I m gives 7e a n d p h a so r sum of 72 and Ie gives l v The volt
age drop 7 1(r 1 + j x x) is now added to V f to obtain V, as shown in
Fig. 1.15. T he seco n d ary p.f. is cos 02 lagging and th e p rim ary p.f.
is cos 0 j lagging.
The voltage d ro p s 7 1(r 1 + jxi) an d 72(r 2 + jx2) have been draw n
to a much larg er scale, in com parison w ith Vj or V2 for th e sake of
clarity. Fig. 1.15. Phasor diagram for
A p p r o x im a te E q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t . A pproxim ate equivalent equivalent circuit ofF ig. 1.14 Id.
circuit iso b tain ed from th e ex act eq u iv alen t circui t of Fig. 1.14 « ),
■fthe sh u n t b ran ch (Rna d Xin ^ lel) “ J 1^ 0 (6) r
or secondary te rm in a ls as show n in Fig. 1 . lb I , w hereas I e docs How through
I d 6 (a) th a t th e e x citin g currcnW ., does n ^ t f lo w ^ h r o u g h ^ a n d ^ i^ HUe to the
■i i .".ir-
iv/ci1 Mjf WV
_4III»/ V
_*V
_4III IWI www.EasyEngineering.net
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[Art. 1.6
24 Electrical Machinery
I r,+r2=.re
o------- ►- A v w -—W — %
f It
X,+X2=*e
‘ L
(a)
r,+r2=re x 1+x 2=xe
Y W — 'TRTiT'-
? T
ww
w.E
r1+r2 =re X,+x2=Xe x 1+x2=xc
asy —o
O- -W A V — ■W T—
+ +
I,=I2 It « I a
fi 1
En 2 V, V2
gin
(c) .
eer
. . (d)
Fig. 1.16. (a) and (b ) Approximate equivalent circuits of a transformer.
ing
(c) and (4) Simplified forms of the approximate equivalent circuit.
drop due to Ie, i.e. I e (r2 +jx 2) h as been included, though Ie (r 2 + ,/x2) is actu ally zero. Since th e
.ne
exciting cu rre n t is only about 2 to 6 per cent of th e ra te d w inding c u rre n t in pow er an d d istrib u
tion tran sfo rm ers, th e e rro r introduced by neglecting I e (rj + jx 1) or including / e(r 2 + j x 2) is in sig
nificant. However, th e com putational labour involved is reduced considerably by th e use of
t
approxim ate equ iv alen t circuits of Fig. 1.16 (a) and (6 ). As before, one m u st k eep in m ind about
the side to which all th e equivalent-circuit q u an tities have been referred.
Still fu rth e r sim plification is achieved by neglecting th e s h u n t b ran ch R c a n d X m in Fig. 1.16
(a) and (6 ) an d th is lead s to eq u iv alen t circuit of Fig. 1.16 (c). T his sim plification is ta n ta m o u n t
to neglecting exciting c u rre n t Ie in com parison w ith ra te d c u rre n ts, w hich is a lm o st ju stifiab le
in large tra n sfo rm ers, say over 100 kVA or so. F or tra n sfo rm e rs h av in g ra tin g s n e a r 500 kVA
or more, th e eq u iv alen t resista n ce re is quite sm all as com pared w ith e q u iv a le n t leak ag e reac
tance x,. C onsequently re m ay be neglected, leading to th e e q u iv a le n t c irc u it of Fig. 1.16 (d).
Thus, w hen a large pow er system is stu died, a tra n sfo rm e r is u su a lly rep laced by its equivalent
circuit of th e form show n in Fig. 1.16 (d).
T he eq u iv ale n t circu it of Fig. 1.14 (e) should be used only w h en th e ex citin g c u rre n t is a
large p ercen tag e of th e ra te d c u rre n t e.g., in audio-frequency tra n s fo rm e rs u sed in electronic
circuits, in tra n sfo rm e rs used for relay in g an d m e a s u re m e n t p u rp o ses etc. F o r h ig h voltage
su rg e in v estig atio n s, th e tra n sfo rm e r e q u iv alen t circ u it m u st be m odified to in clu d e th e effects
of in te r-tu rn an d tu r n to e a r th capacitances.
,, 25 T r a n sfo rm ers
— "
The e q u iv alen t c irc u it developed in Fig. 1.14 can also be arrived a t by following th e classical
v o f m a g n etically coupled circu its. T h is is done in A rt. 1.16.
g x a m p le 1.7. For a tw o w in d in g transform er, derive an expression for the total ohm ic loss,
■ terms o f the e q u iv a le n t resistance, referred to either side.
lfl S o lu tio n . T o tal ohm ic loss in a tra n sfo rm e r
Poh = ir i + ^2% ) w a tts
Expressing I 2 in te rm s of l x gives
Ni
P o h ~ I ir i + h r2 = l \ r \ + r 2 = /? r el
N2
v yj-
If P0h *s ex p ressed in te rm s of I 2, th e n
% )
ww p ah = r l + ^2r 2 “ h 2 r, + r 9
Thus th e to ta l ohm ic loss in a tra n sfo rm e r = (E quivalent resistan ce referred to e ith e r side)
w.E
(Square of th e c u r re n t on t h a t side). .
E x a m p le 1.8. A 33 kV A , 2 2 0 0 /2 2 0 V, 50 H z single phase transform er has the follow ing
asy
PaT7 r i Z Sry w in d in g (h.v. side) : resistance r , « 2 .< f t leakage reactance x , = 6.00 f t
Secondary w in d in g (l.v. side) : resistance
En
r , =f t leakage reactance * 2 = 0.07 f t
gin
(a) Find the p r im a ry resistance a n d leakage reactance referred to secondary.
lb)Find the secondary resistance a n d leakage reactance referred to p rim a ry
eer
(c) F ind the eq u iva len t resistance a n d equivalent leakage reactance referred to (D p rim a ry
and (ii) secondary.
fiO C alculate the to ta l o h m ic loss a t fu ll lo a d ^
ing
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
(N2 * =
„ ( 220 ) = 0.06 Cl.
6.00
= x l' = x l 2200
S eco n d a ry le a k a g e r e a c t a n c e referred to p
* n
( N j ) = 0.07 (10 )2 = 7 00 Cl.
= x2 = x 2 N 2
33000
S eco n d ary full load c u rre n t / 2 = = 150 A. -o -
220
ww
O hm ic loss a t full load = f \ r eX = (15)2 x 5.4 = 1216 w a tts, Fig. 1.17. E q u ivalen t circuit
referred to h.v. sid e, Ex. 1.8.
w.E
or = t i re2 = (150)2 x 0.054 = 1216 w atts.
(e) A c u rre n t o f 160 A in th e l.v. w inding is eq u iv alen t to 16 A in th e h.v. w inding. The
e q u iv a le n t circuit of th e tra n sfo rm e r, referred to h.v. side is illu s tra te d in Fig. 1.17, from w hich
asy
e q u iv a le n t leak ag e im pedance referred to h.v. side is
= z eX = 5.4 4 7 13
or
En
z el = >/(5.4 )2 + (13)2 = 14.08 Q.
gin
.-. T h e voltage to be applied to th e h.v. side, V = (16) (z fl)
= (16) (14.08) = 225.28 volts.
Pow er in p u t = 72 rel = (16)2 (5.4) = 1382.4 w atts
5.4 eer
or Pow er in p u t = V I cos 9 = (225.28) (16) x
14.08
ing
= 1382.4 w atts.
Transformers 27
0 096A 0-224H
o -VWA-
+
IZ=40A
TJ
250 V (C
o
(6 )
, . . F lg ' U 8 ' E q u ivalen t circuit for Exam ple 1 9
The transformer leakage impedance r -l j i.u i ,.
fore, the total im pedance in th e secondary w i n d C c t c u it is "* SerieS’ T W
2 = 5.096 + j 3.724 = 6.31 Z 36.2°.
ww
The se co n d a ry te r m in a l v o ltag e E 2 is V 2 = I 2Z [
w.E
= (39.65) [>/(5)z + (3.5)2] = (39.65) (6.1) = 242 V
(b) T he e q u iv a le n t c irc u it w ith all th e q u a n titie s referred to
l.v. side is g iv en in F ig. 1.18 (6 ). T h e r a te d c u rre n t on th e 1 v side
is
T 10,000 asy
En
^
2 250 “ A
(c).
gin
The p h a so r d ia g ra m for Fig. 1.18 (6 ) is illu s tra te d in Fig. 1.18
02 0-7
E x a m p le 1.10. The equivalent circuit referred,
to the low -tension side o f a 25012500 V single
ph a se tra n sfo rm er is show n in Fig. 1.18 (a). The
lo a d im p e d a n c e connected to the hig h -ten sio n
te rm in a ls is 380 4 j 230 £2. For a p rim a ry voltage
o f 250 V, com pute
(a) the secondary term in a l voltage,
(b) p rim a ry current a n d power factor, a n d
(c) pow er o u tp u t a n d efficiency. Fig. 1.19. (a) Transformer equivalent circuit for
Exam ple 1.10.
S o lu tio n , (a) T he load im pedance referred to
l.t. side is o-2 a o-7n
\2 w vv-
( N j)
Z f = (380 + j 230) = (3.8 + j 2.3) £2.
~n2
ww
T ran sfo rm er leakage im pedance 0 .2 4 y'0 .7 ohm Vf250V
and th e load im pedance 3.8 + j 2.3 £2 are in series as
show n in Fig. 1.19 (6 ). Therefore, total series im
w.E
p edance is 4 +./3 = 5 Z 36.9°.
T aking V x as th e reference phasor,
-o
Fig. 1.19. (fc) Pertaining to Exam ple 1.10.
V x = 250Z 0°.
j , 250Z0°
asy
7> - 5Z 3.69° ~ 5° Z _ 36 9
En
or
= 50 (cos 36.9° - 7 sin 36.9°) = (40 - j 30) A.
I f = 50 A and gin
/ 2= / , ' ^ . 5 0 x i = 5A
eer10
- V, 2 5 0 / 0° ing
= 5 [3802 + 2302]1/2 = 5 x 444 = 2220 V
Exciting c u rren t
-
Im =
Vi 250 Z 0°
= 2 5 0 / 9 0 ° = 1Z “ 90° = 0 ~ J 1-
Ie = Ic + I m = (0.5 - 7 I) A.
t
H ence to tal p rim ary c u rre n t I x - I f + I e
= (40 -730) + (0.5 - 7 I) = 40.5 - 7 31 = 51 Z - 37.4°
P rim a ry cu rre n t 7X= 51 A
and p rim ary p.f. = cos 0j = cos 37.4° = 0.794 lagging.
380
(c) Load p.f. = cos e 2 = = 0.855
[380242302]1/2
Pow er o u tp u t = V2 12 cos 0 2 = 2220 x 5 x 0.855 = 9500 w atts.
Also pow er o u tp u t = ( I f) 2 R l = (50)2 (3.8) = 9500 w atts.
V? (250)2
Core loss = 125 w a tts
Pc R. 500
or Pc = TCR C= (0.5) (500) = 125 watts.
I
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Art. I J i
Transformers 29
ww
circuit p a ra m e te rs a re know n. nS orm cr can carried out, once its equivalent
w.E
in th ?tran Ifo rm eqrUired dU ring ‘W° teSts is « JuaI
r e .
asy
a single p h ase tra n s fo rm e r is given in Fig. 1,20 fa). f a f a . s 'd i a ^ a T r f o h m e f a r w ^ m ltT r
and an am m ete r a re show n connected on th e low voltage side of the t r a n s f o r m e V X w g h
vo age side is left open circuited T he rated frequency voltage applied f a X p r l a r y ■e low
rtw l ‘V w l W1. j i
En
P °f a variable ratio auto-transform . W hen the voltm eter
recorded ’
gin
' V' Winding' a" th e th re e - ^ tr u m e n t r e a d i n g s ^ j
Auto-
eer
ing
vr vi H . .ne
t t
(b)
Fig. 1.20. (a) Circuit diagram for open-circuit test on a transformer and
(b) approxim ate equivalent circuit at no load.
The am m eter reco rd s th e no-load c u rre n t or exciting cu rren t Ie Since Ie is quite sm all (2
to 6 % of rated c u rre n t), th e p rim a ry leakage im pedance drop is alm ost negligible, and for all
Practical p u rposes, th e ap p lied voltage Vj is equal to th e induced e.m.f. V /. Consequently, the
equivalent circu it o f Fig. 1.14 (e ) gets modified to th a t shown in Fig. 1.20 (6 ).
The in p u t pow er given by th e w a ttm e te r read in g consists of core loss and ohmic loss. The
exciting c u rre n t b ein g a b o u t 2 to 6 p er cent of th e full load current, th e ohmic loss in the
• ' ( 2 2 N
Primary ( = le2r x) v a rie s from 0.04 p er cent 100 100 x 100 to 0.36 per cent of th e full-load
Primary ohm ic loss In viow of th is fact, th e ohmic loss during open circuit te st is negligible
comparison w ith th e n o rm a l core loss (approxim ately proportional to th e sq u are of the
“PPlied voltage) H ence th e w a ttm e te r read in g can bo taken as equal to tran sfo rm er core loss.
I Art. 1.7
30 Electrical Machinery
A negligible am o u n t of dielectric loss may also exist. E rror in the in stru m e n t readings may be
elim in ated if required. Let
Vj = applied rated voltage on I t. side,
Ie = exciting cu rren t (or no-load current),
and Pc = core loss.
T hen Pe = V x Ie cos 0 O ...(1.28)
ww
Vi vx
Core loss resistance R CL - -=- = _
Lq COS
Also
w.E Vi2 _ Vj2
Vj7e cos 0O Pc
...(1.29 a)
asy
Ic R C L = Pc
R
K rt - —n
P‘ - ...(1.29 b)
(Ie cos 0 O)
M agnetizing reactance,
En
Im Ic sin 0 Ogin ...(1.30)
eer
The su b scrip t L w ith R c an d X m is used m erely to em phasize th a t th ese values are for th e
l.t. side.
ing
T his m u st be k ep t in m ind th a t th e values of R c and X m, in general, refer to th e side, in
which th e in stru m e n ts are placed (the l.t. side in th e p resen t case). A v o ltm eter is som etim es
.ne
used a t th e open-circuited secondary term in als, in order to determ in e th e tu rn s ratio.
T h u s th e open-circuit te s t gives th e following inform ation : (i) core loss a t ra te d voltage and
Ar‘ 1.7]
Transformers 31
(Rt and Xm in p arallel). A bout h a lf ( ~
leakage im pedance
!eakage im pedance an a n dd ,, th erefo re,
th erefo re aacross
r m .. th e excitln
6 appllod
^ vo)tag-
^ gC appcars across th e secondary (9
across the exciting b ran ch an d since th e la tte r is ^ 3" ^ The “ re " u x induces th e voltage
B ( » of its ra te d value. H ence th e core loss b e W *>» “ re flux is also 1
the core flux, is 0 .0 1 p ercen t = —1— v 1 A Xlma e y proportional to th e sq u are of
j ii 100 l o o X 0.36 percent ^ ^ ^
value at rated voltage. T h e w a ttm e te r in shnri J lo o x io o x 100 of its
c irc u it test, records th e core loss an d th e « w
loss in both th e w indings. Since t h e ™ ' *2
has been proved to be alm o st negligible in com
panson w ith th e rated -v o ltag e core loss the
wattmeter can be ta k e n to re g iste r o n lj the
ohmic losses in both th e w indings.
o
. * tHe excibing cu rren t is 2 Rc' -c
to 6% of full load c u rre n t. W hen th e voltage ‘— T to
ww
across the excitine
exciting bh ran
r a nch
4 is -i.t-.o
1 tn m~ . ag<: J?;----------------
voltage, the exciting c u rre n t m a y be'o ( J n e
( 2 1 Per-
«►
--------------------------
^
secondary side.
1 ______ ____
^ Equivalent circuit with short-circuit on the
cent
100 100
6
w.E
x 100 to 0.36% p e rc e n t
j-
r\
vm — W —
X, *2 r2
-flflTIP----- WA
asy
100 x 100 x 100 of its fu ll-lo ad c u rre n t
and can, th e refo re , be safely ignored As * ysc
* Tlsc
*
— J __
gin
■-r — jC
if)
modified to th a t shown in Fig. 1.21 (c) *
The in s tr u m e n t r e a d in g s m ay be cor Fig. 1.21. (C) Transformer equivalent circuit with
rected,
, if required.
-
Let Vsc, / ; and *p sc be
■sc> -sc ut= the
me
eer secondary short-circuited.
p e d a t e S S rhavndsM :U m eter
ingF* ' »■» equivalent ,eakage im-
z eH =
.ne
...(1.31 (a ))
and freon’ ^ 6 sho^ - c.i rcu‘t te st gives the following information : (i) ohmic loss at rated current
ncy and (u) th e equivalent resistance and equivalent leakage reactance.
^rcuit t age^ e^u,ation of a transform er can be determ ined from the data obtained from short-
Paramet 3 ° f both °Pen -circuit and short-circuit tests is necessary (i) for obtaining all the
\ _ _ _ j T s o f exact equivalent circuit and (ii) for calculating the transform er efficiency 1 1
**1^ h * - * *
orl-circuit current IIC should be, either equal to or near to the rated current. 1
iii
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32 Electrical Machinery
How can a w attm eter connected on the h.v. side, record the ohmic loss in the l.v. winding also?
This question m ay spring up in the mind of some readers. A little thought process provides the
explanation for this question. When rated current is made to flow in the h.v. win mg, he Lv.
winding m ust also carry rated current, because the transform er action requires j i - 2^ 2 - The
flow of rated cu rren t in the l.v. winding causes ohmic loss, which m ust be supplied from somewhere.
The only way to provide l.v. winding loss is from the input to h.v. side. B ut the entire input power
to h.v. side is recorded by the w attm eter, therefore, the ohmic losses in both the windings are given
by the w attm eter reading.
It h as alread y been stated th a t open-circuit and short-circuit tests should be performed on
th e l.v. side and h.v. side respectively only for the sake of convenience. This can e 1 us rated
by considering a 3300/220 V, 33 kVA, single-phase transform er.
F or open-circuit te s t on low voltage side, the ranges of voltm eter, am m eter and w attm eter
are 220 V (rated value), 6 A (2 to 6 % of rated cu rren t of 150 A) and 6 A, 220 V respectively. These
are th e sta n d a rd ranges for ordinary in stru m en ts and, therefore, more accurate readings can
be obtained. If th e open circuit te st is performed on th e h.v. side, a source of 3300 V may not be
ww
readily available. At th e sam e tim e, the in stru m en t ranges are 3300 V, 0.4 A and 0.4 A, 3300 V
w hich are not w ithin th e range of ordinary instrum ents and th e resu lts obtained may not be so
accurate. Also it m ay not be safe to work on the high voltage side.
w.E
For a short-circuit test on the h.v. side, the in stru m en t ranges are 165 V (2 to 1 2 % of rated
voltage of 3300 V), 10 A (rated current) and 10 A, 165 V, which are well w ithin the range of the
asy
o rd in ary in stru m en ts. On the other hand, in stru m en t ranges, for a short-circuit te st on l.v. side
are 11 V, 150 A, and 150 A, 11 V. In stru m en ts of such ranges and auto-transform er capable of
han d lin g 150 A, may not be readily available and a t the sam e tim e, the resu lts m ay not be so
En
accurate. It is for these reasons th a t the open-circuit and short-circuit te sts are conducted on
l.v. and h.v. sides respectively.
gin
E x a m p le 1.11. A 20 kVA, 2 5 00/250 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transform er gave the following
test r e s u lt:
eer
Open-circuit test (on l.v. side) : 250 V, 1.4 A, 105 watts.
ing
Short-circuit test (on h.v. side) : 104 V, 8 A, 320 watts.
Compute the param eters o f the approximate equivalent circuit referred to high-voltage and
.ne
low-voltage sides. Also draw the exact equivalent circuit referred to the low-voltage side.
S o lu tio n . From open-circuit t e s t :
105
No-load power factor = cos 0O= 25Q x ^ 4 = 0.3 t
0O= 72.55° and sin 0O= 0.954.
Ic = Ie cos 0O= 1 .4 x 0 .3 = 0.42 A
and I m = I e sin 0O= 1.4 x 0.954 = 1.336 A.
Hence
Transformers 33
/ , t2(8 )
. ^ H = V r,„:' - r , „ :I=V(13)2 - 5 z = 1 2 n
Equivalent circu it p a ra m e te rs referred to l.v. side are
R cL = 595 12 X mL = 187 12.
ww ' i '2
^ L = 5 10 = 0.05 12;
/
= 12
. \2
10
= 0 .1212 .
w.E
v
This eq u iv alen t circu it is show n in Fig. 1 .2 2 (a).
0-121) 0 -0 5 0 o-0 6 n
0 -0 2 5 0
asy
—7J7JTOT— VvV-----o °— VW—'TOT— —T O— w — o
006C1 0 -0 2 5 0
En 595
595
O
1870
gin n
eer (6 )
ing
F ie 1 22. (a) Approximate equivalent circuit referred to l.v. side and
(fc) exact equivalent circuit referred to l.v. side.
/ _ 1 V r = -f 0 1 2 ) = 0.0612
XlL = * l W - " 2 * ' L ’
R cL = 595 12 and X mL = 187 12.
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: 34 Electrical Machinery (Art. 1.7
S o lu tio n . Problem s re la tin g to 3 -phase balanced system are solved by reducing all the
q u a n titie s to per p h ase values and so is done here.
O p en -c ir c u it te st. T his circuit is perform ed on th e l.v. side, since th e applied voltage for
th is te s t is equal to th e ra ted voltage on the l.v. side, which is s ta r connected.
Now V J e cos 0 O= Pc
w.E
From Eq. (1.30), ‘■m.L
Vi
Im
231
8.73
Core loss resistance referred to h.v. side
= 26.47 £1
asy cH ~
/"Per phase voltage on h.v. sid e "
cz. p er pbase voltage on l.v. side
En
= 106.8 i i f S ) =242.2 kn.
eer
i
„ = XxL
. = (26.47) = 60.02 kO.
231 231
S h o r t- c ir c u it te s t. This te st is perform ed on h.v. side, since 350 V is a fraction of th e rated
voltage on h.v. side, which is in delta.
.*. Applied voltage/phase Vac = 350 V ing
C urrent/phase / „ = R ated cu rren t =
200,000
,_ . = 6.06 A. .ne
Ohmic loss p e r p hase
tc
» .3 P .T O O W
3 x 1 1 ,0 0 0
t
350
z eH = = 57.8 O
6.06
8C 700
= 19.06 n
A SC (6.06)'
.. xeH = V(57.8 )2 - (19.06)2 = 54.6 Cl
= 1-
1 (2 0 0 (1 )
x 1000 x 1 + 500 + (700)
2[ 3 2
V
Transformers 35
_ 675 „
" 34,008 = 9 8 0 2 P u - or 98 02%.
g The Per U n it S ystem
for electrical m ach in es or electrical m achine system s, the various calculations are com
monly done by u sin g e p er u n it q u an tities. In this article, the method of expressing volts,
amperes, ohms etc. in p er u n it q u an tities, is explained.
For any system , th e p er u n it values are obtained by choosing a set of certain base values,
which can be chosen a rb itra rily . However, it is common and preferable to choose the rated
quantities of th e device as its base values.
For any system or device, th e p er u n it q u an tity is related to the base quantity by the follow
ing relation.
P er u n it q u a n tity = value of the quantity in any unit
b a s e value of th a t quantity in the sam e unit
In this article, a tte n tio n is directed to single phase 2-winding transform er, for which the
ww
base quantities a re selected as follows. The subscripts B, L and H denote base, l.v. side and h.v.
side respectively.
Base cu rren t
w.E
For high voltage side :
Base voltage VBH = R ated voltage on h.v. side
IBh = R ated cu rren t on h.v. side
. ,
Base im pedance
„
=
V BH „
£2 = En
V BH * V BH (rated voltage on H V side )2
rated VA
gin
v22
Dividing th e n u m e ra to r and denom inator by (1000) , we get
( V
VBH f
eer
ing
1000 (kV)BH
— ...(1.33a)
BH ra te d VA (.MVA)Bu
( 1 0 0 0 )2
A ctual value of reH, xeH and zeH in ohms
.ne ^
**• (reH* x eH> z eH)p.u. ~
ww
i.e. (0.03)(2300) = 69 volts.
reL in ohms
Also
w.E (reL)P.u. = Z bl in ohm s
reL h L _ rtL JBL _ h i? reL
°r
asy
%bl I bl
(reL)P.u. -
V bl V bl I bl
Ohmic loss a t rate d c u rre n t
R ated VA
(136)
En
T h u s th e p.u. value of reB or reB also furnishes th e inform ation about th e ohmic or resistance
gin
loss a t ra te d c u rre n t occurring in th e tran sfo rm er. For exam ple, in a single-phase tra n sfo rm er
of 10 kVA, 2300/230 V h av in g reH = 0.018 p.u., th e ohmic loss a t ra te d c u rre n t is 1.8% of 10 kVA
or (0.018)(10,000) = 180 w atts.
From E qns. (1.33) an d (1.34), it can be w ritten th a t eer
^ Z (Q )(M V A ) b
ing
.ne
Z ,p u )= ( * V ) |—
Art. L2L
Transformers
But
where N L and N „ a re th e n u m b e r of tu rn s in th e 1 j
tion of the v alue of reL in Eq. (i) gives : V 3n ^ V- w*nchngs respectively. Substitu-
_ r eH 2
(rcl)p.u. = 'cH = r eH
v HJ
n h ZBn = Z BL ( n h )
(N Z bh N,
JBL
N,
= (r ew)p.u.
Similarly (xcl)p.u. = (xeH)p u and (z
=(z )
Hence th e req u ire d re s u lt h as been proved. ' P'“ "
E x a m p le 1.14. ( a ) A 2 0 k V A , 2 5 0 0 /2 5 0 V sinnlp n hn.a , /• t
ww
impedance o f z ,H = 2 .6 + j 4.3 n w hen referred to A 1 p e‘>uiJl al ent Uaka8e
Ci) h.v. side a n d (ii) l.v. side. F in d also the total leakage im d " to
,,. jr., . r r leakage impedance drop referred to each side.
w.E
J e o n t h e ( i^ T d J n d ^ u J . t S T
S o lu tio n , (a) (i) H .V. side :
^ °f 4 8 A the ^ »P*-
Base voltage
Base c u rre n t asy
VBH= 2500 V
I BH = ^0.000 = 8 A.
2500
En
Base im pedance Z BH =
Ibh 8
gin
= 3 1 2 .5 D
ei rer
Per u n it v alue of eq u iv ale n t leakage im pedance referred to h.v. side,
z eH in Q 2 .6 + i 4 3
^z■ ^ a
(ii) L.V. side : E q u iv alen t leakage im pedance referred to l.v. side ing
■ - si - 0 0 0 8 3 2 +J' ° 01376-
(N r)
2 2
M
= (2.6 + j 4.3)
f 250 ) .ne
z eL z eH
\
Nh ~ z eH
= 0.026 + j 0.043 a
w \
2500
/
t
Now VBL
' b = 250 Vl ,/flL = ^ 250
® = 80 A.
_ _ 0 ^ 2 6 + ^ M l l _ 0.00832 + ; 0.01376.
(z eDp.u. ~ g jn £i 3.125
ww
F ind the p.u. values o f r el re2 xcl and x e2.
S o lu tion . H.V. side.
w.E
B ase Voltage
B ase cu rre n t
VBH = 2000 V
. 1 0 ,0 0 0 _ A
7fi" = “ 2 0 0 0 ~ = 5 A
/. B ase im pedance Z BH =
asy
2000
= 40012
r i p “- En
3.6
400
= 0.009
5.2
*1 p . u . - 400 = 0.013 gin
• ohm
re\ in h s = r 1 *+ r 2 f —
M eer
= (3.6)+ 0.04 (10) = 7.6 12
r 7-6
4 0 0 = 0.019
ing
.ne
re l p . u .
r
L.V. side. Base voltage VBL = 200 V
1
%bh
X} + X2
(Nff
Nn 400
t
>5.2 + 0.056 (lO)2! = 0 .0 2 7 .
r 10,000 ^ A
Base current
BL 200
/. Base impedance z bl =™ =* «
4
0.056
*2 p.u. “ = 0.014.
(N rf
Pc2p.u. ~ ^ r2 + r j
BL N.
Art- I j l
ww
is more significant w hen a c r u it”
ill) Ih e p.u. p a ra m e te rs of different
te o
r
f
, ,
*,l° ^
f™
V
Z °r Lv- side- This
cutt consists of m any transform ers of different tu rn ratios.
■gg 1
I
w.E
machines) lie w ith in a n arro w range. For e x a n n le ^ m ers | a.n d other ^ e s of electrical B '
\
normally lies betw een 0 .0 2 and 0 05 n u tho Q • * e m a ^ n e tl z m 6 cu rren t of transform ers
transformers) an d 0.02 p . u . t s L l l ^ 0 005 p.u. (large
En
o f ^ v e n s iK m a d e b y t^ r v a r io im m a n u f a a u r e r s i n '“ “ “ m p aris° n ° f
gin
m s m m
eer s ^ s s s
.{ii)
From E q n s. (i) a n d (ii), ohm ic losses,
' ^ S * 1 0 0 - 1-933*
Put voltage re g u la tio n is 5 = (rt2 cos 02 + xe2 sin 02) = (1.933 x 0.8 + x e2 x 0.6)
or
' x e2 = 5.756%
im -
3
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Exciting current,
t _ c _ 2 3 1 9 .5 - Q 278 A Fig. 1.23. Pertaining to Example 1.16.
e2 V2 cos 0 O 1000 x 0 .2 5 '
ww
o.9oo4
The approxim ate equivalent circuit referred to l.v. side is show n in Fig. 1.23.
w.E
1.9. V oltage R eg u la tio n o f a T ran sform er
It is defined as the change in m agnitude of the secondary te rm in a l voltage, ex p ressed as a
percentage (or per unit) of th e secondary rated voltage, w hen load a t a given pow er factor is
If asy
reduced to zero, with prim ary applied voltage held constant.
V2 = secondary term inal voltage a t any load,
and
En
E 2 = secondary term inal voltage a t no load,
gin
then at a given power factor and specified load, th e voltage regulation is given by
E —V
Voltage regulation = Secondary2rated voltage *n * » •
eer
volta1 e7 noS ioad,“ ry
ing
V° “ aBe ° f '*trans<b™ er is *> seco n d ary te rm in a l
v ' % - v>
x 100 in percentage = x 100 fa p e rc e n ta g e
v A
N1
Here Vj is the prim ary applied voltage.
The change in secondary term inal voltage w ith l . .
sec on ary eakage im pedances of th e transform er Thp m CUlTf0I\t *s ^ u e to th e p rim a ry and
the load pf; load current, total resistan ce and to tal i e a k a a e T t ° f th ’S °h a n g e d e P e n d s on
A distribution transform er should have a 11 1 actan ce ° f t h e tra n sfo rm e r.
3 t °n )’ S° p h a t th e term in al a t th e consum er ?f V° 'ta g e re g u la tio n « •* g° ° d voltage
io lta e ' i T ’ F ° r 3 tran sfo ™ o r of large S T ' 1 r? .pre/n u ses d° “ n o t v a ry w idely as the
voltage a t th e consum ers' term in als will fal ppreeTb t t d b ^ P° ° r V° ' tagC R a t i o n ) , the
ppreciably w ith th e in c re a se in l o a d - t h i s h as a
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Art.
w.E
asy
En
gin ■
r
r<?2
-4/WW
eer
ing
- 6- -O-
.ne
(a)
rig. 1.Z 4. (a ) A p p r o x im a t e equivalent c ir c u it Ul a * -w in u u lg n o i u i u m r a ,
(6 ) the p h a s o r diagram o f the circuit ofFig. 1.24 (a) for a lagging power factor load.
m sccuil
t
In Eq. (1.38), p er u n it voltage regulation for any load current / 2 is
E2- V 9
'« cos e2+ ^ s i n e , ...(1.39)
E2 E
Cj2l 1 E2
In case I 2r is th e rated current, then from Eq. (1.35),
I 2 • rrn Voltage drop across re2 at ra ted current
“ Rated (= base) voltage E2
= p.u. equivalent resistance or p.u. resistance drop = er (say)
/ , / r,o nhm ic loss at rated current
I 2r r c2
Also Er = Rated VA
[A rt. 1.9
42 Electrical Machinery ______ __________________ _________________-—
I t should be noted th a t Eqs. (1.38) to (1.40) are valid for lagging pow er factors only. For
lead in g pow er factor loads, th e p hasor diagram of Fig. 1.25 (a) rev eals th a t
E 2 = OC = V2 + 12 rt2 cos 02 - 72 xe2 sin
T herefore, secondary term in al voltage drop, for any load c u r r e n t / 2, is
...(1.41)
w.E I tT.o ^
cos 02 -
I&e 2 .
sin 02 ...(1.42 a)
asy
In case I 2 is th e rated (or full-load) cu rren t, th e n p.u. voltage reg u latio n is given by
er cos 0 2 - i x sin 0 2 ...(1.42 6 )
En
For an accu rate expression for th e voltage regulation proceed as follows :
From Fig. 1.24 (6 ), OD2 = OC2 + CD2
B ut OC = V2 + l 2rt2 cos 0 2 + l& a sin 02 and
gin
CD = C'D - CC' = 7 ^ 2 cos 0 2 - 72r e2 sin 0 2
eer
OD2 = E 2 = (V2 + 12 re2 cos 0 2 + / 2xt2 sin 0 2)2 + (/ 2Xe2 cos 0 2 - 12 re2 sin 02)
or [E\ - ( / 2 xe2 cos 02 - 12 re2 sin 0 2)2] 1/2
= (V2 + 12 r„2 cos 0 2 + 12 xe2 sin 02) ing ...(1.43)
The left h an d side expression of Eq. (1.43) can be w ritten as, .ne
. v
En
1-
/
/ .
I 2 xe2 cos 02 - 12 re2 sin 02
x2 11/2
t
E xpanding it by binom ial theorem and nr :;1- cting h ig h er order te rm s, w e get
J
E2~ (72 xe2 cos 02 - 72 re2 sin 0o) f ....
2L2
E 2 •= (V2 + 12 re2 cos 02 + 12 xe2 sin 02) + g i - H2 x e2 cos 02 - / 2 re2 sin 02)2
2
- (I? re2 co s 92 + h xe2 sin 02) + ~ (72 xe2 cos 02 - 12 re2 sin 02)2
V
x J U U I II I U U hJ J U U I I l v - / V y * U I II I V / I
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Art. 1-9] _
, " ' T r a n sfo r m e r s 43
... p.u. voltage regu lation ---------------------------------------------------
_ &2 - V 2 12 re2 I V / 2
E T = ~ B T C0 B e 2 + sin 9, + i f e ^ c o s B 2 - ^ s i n e , '
case / , is the rated current, then p.u. voltage reg u , J ; ., ^ fcy *
ww er cos 02 + i x sin 02 = 0
or
w.E tan 02 = -
£r
= _ J 2 r' 2 = _ rJ l
E
2
x' 2
Ei
xe2
En Z e2
gin
regulation o ccu rs w h e n lo ad p.f. is — leading. F or leading p.f.s g re a te r th a n — , th e voltage
z e2
eer
regulation w ill be n e g a tiv e , i.e. th e v o ltag e will rise from its no load value, as th e tra n sfo rm e r
z c2
ing
load is in c re a se d .
C o n d itio n fo r m a x im u m v o lta g e r e g u la tio n . P.u. voltage reg u latio n
= er cos 02 + ex sin 02.
The c o n d itio n for m a x im u m v o ltag e reg u la tio n is obtained by d ifferen tiatin g th e above .ne
"'rpression w ith r e s p e c t to 02 a n d e q u a tin g th e re su lts to zero. H ere ag ain th e load c u rre n t and
secondary e m f a r e a s s u m e d to re m a in c o n sta n t.
J
t
-jTj- (p .u . re g u la tio n ) = - t r sin 0 2 + £x cos 0 2 = 0
d 02
£r X '2
or ta n 0 2 = - = —
Er >e2
r c2
any cos 02 = — •
PX equal to fr . In other words, m ax im u m voltage reg u latio n occurs when load power-factor
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(C)
(a) (b) , r
asy
leakage im pedance of th e transform er. For exam ple, if a tra n sfo rm er h as a , 2 = 0.054, th en
m agnitude of m axim um possible voltage regulation is 5.4%. - rP
En
Phasor diagram s for a single-phase transform er for different operating power factors are
illu strated in Fig. 1.25. In Fig. 1.25 (a), E 2 < V2, voltage regulation (V. R.) is th erefo re negative.
gin
In Fig 1 25 (6 ), E 2 = V2, V. R. is zero. Fig. 1.25 (c) is draw n u n d er th e condition of m axim um
V. R., because here load power-factor angle 02 = leakage-im pedance angle <}>of th e tra n sfo rm e r
ta n 1 (xe2/ r e2) = cos
w h e r e <}> = ( r f 2 / 2 c 2 ).
eer
E x a m p le 1.17. Show that the per unit voltage regulation o f a transform er is given by
V'.
-=r cos (Qsc - 0 2) ing J
E2
Transform ers 45
p.u. voltage reg ulation = ^ cos 02 + Ejc sin 0
Substitution of the values er and e,. from above, gives the per u n it voltage regulation as
I sc Ze 2
ww
Find the voltage regulation a n d the secondary term inal voltage a t fu ll load for a p.f. o f
(a) 0.8 lagging a n d (b) 0.8 leading.
w.E
The prim ary voltage is held constant at 2500 V.
Solution. E q u iv alen t resistan ce referred to l.v. or secondary winding,
asy
re2 = 0.3 + 8 t j j S & f . O .M O
2500 I
Equivalent reactan ce referred to secondary winding,
ing
(a)
ging p.f., is
^ 2 ~ V2= h re2 C0S 0 2 + h X'2 sin 0 2
= 40 (0.62) (0.8) + 40 (1.38) (0.6) = 52.96 V.
.ne
Secondary te rm in a l voltage V2 = 500 - 52.96 = 447.04 V
(Art. 1.9
46 Electrical Machinery
ww
S o lu tio n . From short circuit d ata
= ^
r cH ~
100
. .
= ^ 7 = 6 .2 5 £1
w.E i j
Kc
sc
w
60 i f. q
asy
Z.H = = J o s ?- (6-25)“' = 13-61 n
En
For th e l.v. side, the p aram eters are
= 0.25 Q
rci ~ 6-25 -
gin
xeL = 13.61 |
eer
= 0.544 n
l2L
10,000
400
= 25 A.
ing
Now E 2 - V 2 = I 2L r eL C0S 0 2 + h L x eL sin 0 2
= (25) (0.25) (0.8) + 25 (0.544) (0.6) = 13.16 V. .ne
For V2 = 400 V, E 2 = 400 + 13.16 = 413.16 V.
.% T he voltage applied to th e p rim ary is
t
2000 = 2065.8 V.
= 413.16 x
400
E x a m p le 1.21. A single-phase load is fed through a 33-kV feeder w h o s e impedance is
30 + / 120 Cl a n d a 3 3 /3 .3 k V transform er o f equivalent leakage im pedance 0.3 + jl.4 referrea
to l.v. side. For a load o f 100 k W a t p f0 .8 leading a t 3.3 k V term inals, com pute
(a) voltage a t the sending end o f the feeder,
(b) voltage a t the p rim a ry term inals o f the transform er,
(c) active a n d reactive powers a n d also the pow er factor a t the sending end o f the fee er ^
S o lu tio n , (a) For th e tra n sfo rm er and feeder, eq u iv alen t circuit referred to l.v. si e 1
show n in Fig. 1 2 7 . In th is figure, feeder im pedance referred to l.v. side is given by
3^3
(3 0 + > 1 2 0 ) x = 0 .3 0 + j 1 .2 n
33
91
Transformers 47
,oad c u r re n t, I * - j j ^ W 37.88 A
3300 x 0.8
t is seen from Fig. 1.27 th at voltage V j . ,
is given by * sending end of the feeder and referred to l.v.
V s - V 2 + ^ ( f i c o s 9 2 - X s i n e 2)
:re
v - a sn n ! 'L =0°Q6 Q an d * = 1.2 + 1.4 = 2.6 n
* ■ 3300 + 37-83 (0.6 x 0.8 - 2.6 x 0.6)
= 3259.09 V on the l.v. side.
0-3 K
-y w — /r o s-
ww
w.E
F ig. 1.27. E q uivalent circuit referred to l.v. side, Example 1.21.
asy
Voltage a t th e sen d in g end of th e feeder
En
= 3259.09 x 10 = 32590.9 V
(i>) From Fig. 1.27, V , - [3300 + 37.88 (0.3 x 0.8 - 1.4 x 0.6)] = 3277.3 V
Voltage a t th e p rim a ry term in als of tran sfo rm er
gin
V l = 3277.3 x 10 = 32773 V
(c) Active pow er loss = (37.88 )2 x 0.6 = 860.94 W eer
Reactive power loss = (37.8 8 )2 x 2 .6 = ^730.73 VAr ing
Complex pow er a t load end = 1 0 0 - j 1 0 0 tan (cos ' 1 0 .8 ) = (100 - j 7 5 ) kVA
.ne
Complex power a t th e sending end
= (100 - j 75) + (0.86 + j 3.730) = (100.86- j 71.27) kVA t
n .2 n V A j? 4 p Cecttveaiyd reaCt‘Ve P°WerS a t th ® Sending end of the feeder are 8 6 kW and
Zt)U = ml = 40012
JBH (MVA)fl 1 0 x 1 0 - 3
a^age impedance on h.v. side,
400
Zt i = ( 0 . 5 + j l ) ^ = 2 + ; 4 a
[Art. 1.9
u?I 48 Electrical Machinery
iI
1 S h u n t bran ch p aram eters on th e h.v. side are calculated as u n d e r :
V? onnn2
Core-loss resistance, R c = ~p~~ 1 2 5 = ^2000 ^
The transform er equivalent circuit referred to h.v. side is show n in Fig. 1.28.
ww
Load p f = cos 02 = 0.8 = cos 0 X
2 4
w.E ?+-
-vvw— <TnrYN“
u
L
Vt
asy V'= 2 0 0 0 V O
A
D
En
gin
Fig. 1.28. Pertaining to Example 1.22.
eer
Prim ary in p u t voltage, V1 = V { + Ix (rel cos 0 X+ xel sin 0X)
= 2000 + 6.25 (2 x 0.8 + 4 x 0.6) = 2025 V
Active power loss in series resistance
• =(6.25)2 x 2 = 78.125 W ing
Reactive power loss in series reactance
.ne
= (6.25)2 x 4 = 156.25 VAr
Active power loss in core-loss resistance t
= W m ’ 128145w
Reactive power loss in m agnetizing reactance
_ £2025]^ 72 VAr
4854.4 ' ’’ ’ ■'•‘ VAr
Complex power a t load end
1
V. % .
Jfc
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Arl- Transformers 49
... Real pow er in p u t = 10.2073 kW
8 .5 0 1
Input p f = cos ta n ' 1
V
10.2073 = 0.7684 lagging.
j 10. T ra n sfo rm er L o s s e s a n d E ffic ie n c y
In th is a r tic le , tr a n s f o r m e r lo s s e s a r e descrihpH ...u r .
d scu ssed in d e t a il u escriD ed b riefly w h e r e a s th e tr a n sfo r m e r e ffic ie n c y
ww
P h = K h f B m'
and ...(1 .4 6 )
Pe = K f B m2
where Kf,
w.E
p ro p o rtio n a lity c o n sta n t w hich depends upon the volum e and q u ality of th e core
m a te ria l a n d th e u n its used.
Ke ~ p ro p o rtio n a lity c o n sta n t w hose value depends on th e volum e and resistiv ity of
asy
th e core m a te ria l, th ick n ess of lam in atio n s and th e u n its em ployed.
Bm = m ax im u m flux d en sity in th e core.
and f-
En
freq u en cy o f th e a lte rn a tin g flux.
The value o f th e ex p o n e n t x (called S te in m e tz ’s constant) varies from 1.5 to 2 .5 , depending
gin
upon the m ag n etic p ro p e rtie s o f th e core m a te ria l. T herefore, th e to tal core loss is
Pc = Kh f Bmx + Kef B j
eer ...(1.47)
If it is re q u ire d to e x p re ss th e core loss in te rm s of voltage, frequency etc., th e procedure
is given below.
ing
The applied v o ltag e V”is a lm o st eq u al to th e induced e.m.f. given by th e Eq. ( 1 .4 ), i.e.
V = V2jt f N • <J>max = V2 n f N B m A,
.ne
where A, is th e n e t core a re a a n d N is th e n u m b e r of tu rn s . S u b stitu tio n of th e v alu e of B m gives
hysteresis loss as
Ph =Kh f
t
^ 2 n N Aj
For a tra n s fo rm e r N a n d A, a re c o n s ta n t
•• Ph = kh V f ~ x , ...(1 .4 8 )
Thus th e h y s te re s is loss d e p e n d s on b o th th e ap p lied voltage an d its frequency.
The eddy c u r r e n t loss P e is given by
\2 f y \2
= ke V2 ...(1.49)
Pe - K' f V2 n N A i
\ y \ / t
The eddy c u r r e n t loss is, th e re fo re , p ro p o rtio n a l to th e sq u a re of th e ap p lied vo ltag e an d is
^ P e n d e n t o f fre q u e n c y f. A cco rd in g to Eq. (1.4); for a n y given vo ltag e (~ B m /), if /d e c r e a s e s
^ creases c o rre s p o n d in g ly a n d if /'in c r e a s e s B m d e c re a se s correspondingly. H ence th e eddy
rrent loss Pet a t a n y g iv e n vo lta g e, is in d e p e n d e n t of freq u en cy (
IR K . *
^ •#"
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u
SO Electrical Machinery JArt^Llo
tran| f r ray " o a d lo ss. Leakage fields present in a transform er induce eddy currents in
conductors, tan k s, channels, bolts etc. and these eddy currents give rise f r __qfnrm p’ ni,
D ie le c tr ic lo ss. This loss occurs in the insulating m aterials, i.e. in e
and th e solid insulation of h.v. transform ers. . , ,
The stray load loss and dielectric loss are small and are, therefore, neglected.
1.10.2. T r a n s f o r m e r e fficien cy . The efficiency of a transform er (or any other device) is
defined as th e ratio of output power to input power. Thus
ww O utput power
Efficiency n = Input power
w hcr 6
w.E V-i h cos 82 ____
V2 / 2 cos 0 2 + Pc +
Pe - total core loss,
T12c
...(1.51)
asy
/ 22 r e2 = total ohmic losses,
and
En
V2 / 2 = output VA,
cos 02 = load p.f.
gin
As described before, stray load losses and dielectric losses are sm all and have been ignored.
The efficiency can also be expressed as
^ - In p u t power eer
O utput power Input power - Losses
Input power
_ Losses
Input power ing ...(1.52)
.ne
The efficiencies of power and d istribution tran sfo rm ers are usually very h ig h (95 to 99%).
It is therefore, m ore accurate to d eterm ine th e efficiency from th e m e asu rem en t of losses from
h e lp fu l. t
Eq. (1.52) th a n from th e m easu rem en t of o u tp u t from Eq. (1.51). Reference to A rt. 3.9 is also
Due to p rim ary leakage im pedance drop, th e e.m.f. E l (or E 2) an d th erefo re, th e m utual
flux <}>decreases for lagging pow er factor loads and m ay increase for lead in g pow er factor loads.
U n d er n orm al o p eratin g conditions, th e v ariatio n in the m u tu a l flux $ is n o t m ore th a n 2 or
3% C onsequently th e core losses can be assum ed c o n sta n t a t all loads. In o th e r w ords, it can
be s ta te d th a t tra n sfo rm e r core loss is alm o st in d ep en d en t of load c u rre n t. T h e ohmic losses
depend on th e load c u rre n t. F o r exam ple, if I 2 re is th e ohm ic loss a t full load, th e n a t h a lf full
load, the ohmic loss will be \ I 2 re.
Efficiency of a transformer can also be expressed in per unit parameters. In Eqn. (1.51).
dividing both numerator and denominator by V2 / 2, we get
cos 02
n = ----------------- P
p c— hJ 7r e2
COS 02 + . + y J
’ 2*2 v 2*2
— -----------------------
It can also be shown that
th a t ' eAUlva len t resistance ...(1.52 a)
n=i - p u. Pc + p .u. rc
l°ad p/+1TiP+~P~T ,
Efficiency given by Eqns. (1.52 a) and , , L " 2ft)
current 12'd
, ifferent from rated load cu rren t/,, i s ^ i v e n ^ CU,Tent °n'y ' Efficiency at >°a<*
...(1.52 c)
maximum
- ww
V2 rem a in s p r a c t ic a lly c o n s t a n t . At a s p e c ifie d value nf 1 h
w h en ^
dx\
= 0 . T h e r e fo r e ,
.
for Eq. (1.51) is
the l°ad vo lta g e
P ^ cos ®2> th e e ffic ie n c y w ill be
E 2 I2 Pc
1000 1000 VF
I ull load ohmic losses
kVA load for m a x im u m q = (ra te d tra n sfo rm er kVA)
Core loss
Ohmic losses a t rated current
or ...(1.54)
0k V A )'max n
=<* v a ) V 5 , 2
.Determination o , the C S
C ™ * 1 £ ‘/The’ totaM osIe" ^ ^ t r a n s t o i n e r are known. It has ahead;
^ y be c a lc u la te d lf th e to ta l ? : * th e onen circuit te st records th e core loss P „
^ Pemted o u t t h a t th e w a ttm e te r re a d .n g ■" ‘^ e °pen < c
^ d«nng the short circuit test a t ra te d cu rre n t, it registers me « >r
(Art. My
52 Electrical Machinery
th e to ta l lo sses (Pc + P sc) a t full load are know n from th e se tw o te s ts w ith o u t loading the
tra n s f o rm e r a n d th e efficiency can be calcu lated as follows .
F ro m Eq. (1.52)
Pe + * P« ...(1.55)
n(R ated VA) cos 0 2 + P c + rc P*c
As before, m axim um efficiency occurs w hen v ariab le ohm ic loss - C o n s ta n t core loss, i.e.
n 2 P sc = P c
...(1.56)
or
ww
Eq. (1.54) can now be re -w ritte n as
(k V A )max „ = (n) {kVA)nted •••(1-54)
w.E
E x a m p le 1.23. In a transform er i f the load current is kept constant, fin d the pow er factor
at. w hich the m a x im u m efficiency occurs.
asy
S o lu tio n . For a co n sta n t load c u rren t, th e ohmic losses Psc are co n sta n t. Core loss Pc is
alread y a fixed q u a n tity . T herefore, to tal tra n sfo rm er losses are co n sta n t for a co n sta n t load
cu rren t. Now th e efficiency is
En
V "2 I2 COS 02
^ “ V2 12 cos 0 2 + constant losses (C)
gin
eer
The pow er factor a t w hich m axim um efficiency occurs can be obtained by equating
^ = 0 From th e above expression for efficiency, we get
de
dx\
ing
[V2 12 cos 0 2 + C] V2 / 2( - sin 0 2) - (V2 12 cos 92) V2 h ( ~ sin 9 2> _ Q
or
dQ2 [V2 f 2 cos 0 2 + C]
(V2 / 2)2 sin 0 2 cos 02 + C.V212 sin 02 = (V> I2f sin 0 2 cos 0 2 .ne
or
/.
sin 0 2 = 0
Pow er factor cos 0 2 = 1. t
T h u s th e m axim um efficiency, for a c o n sta n t
load cu rre n t, occurs a t u n ity pow er factor.
It is seen from Eqn. (1.53 (a)) th a t th e load
c u rre n t a t w hich m axim um efficiency occurs does |
not depend upon th e load pow er factor because |
Pc and re2 are alm o st unaffected by a v ariatio n in '
th e load pow er factor.
A red u ctio n in th e load pow er factor reduces th e
tra n sfo rm e r o u tp u t and th erefo re th e tra n sfo rm e r
efficiency is also red u ced accordingly. Fig. 1.29
illu s tra te s th e effect of p.f. on efficiency. N ote th a t 0 5 IC
tra n sfo rm e r efficiency is m ax im u m a t th e sam e load Per unit le a d cu rren t
c u rre n t re g a rd le ss of v a ria tio n in th e load pow er Fig. 1.29. Effect o flo a d p.f. 011 tiansfornier
efficiency curves.
factor.
Transformers 53
Energy E ffic ie n c y . P o w er tra n s fo rm e rs are used a t Hi* c a
. „ hieh-voltage pow er tra n sm issio n line for st^nni™ sen d in g and receiving ends of a
f o r m e r s are m an ip u lated to o p e ra te " ? VOltage
ling).T herefore, pow er tra n sfo rm e rs a re disconnected d u r i n g km ra capacity (kVA
oower tra n sfo rm er is d esig n e d to h a v e m ax im u m efficipnr 1 periods. In view of th is,
Hence the choice of a p ow er t r a n s f o r m e r ^ o7 Z t W n M M A .
should be based on full load efficiency. um bers of com peting transform ers,
ww
primary of d istrib u tio n tra n s fo rm e rs a re alw ays energised and t h capa^ ty -
lace continuously. In view of th is, th e
value of core loss. B u t for red u ced
J
^
' *^
^
f th a t the
'° S§ takeS
^ '° W
w.E
one-half of its ra te d kVA, as p e r E qs (1 56) and a T ™ * ab° Ut
asy trans-
npriS'tn
En
f16inCy ° f * trans/ ° rmer is defined as the ratio of total energy output for a certain
penod to the total energy input for the same period. certain
gin
l eTgV Gf^ enCy ^ b8 L0mputed for “ V ^ n gth of load cycle, provided its load varia-
11 en6rgy efficiency 18 im p u te d for a day of 24 hours, it is called all day
«Uy current losses a.t>5l^ H meaSUre<^ ^ Samepeak fluX density- Compute the hysteresis and
.ne
Solution. From Eq. (1.47), the total core loss is
Pc = K h f B mx + K e f * B m2
t
For constant flux density Pc = k h f + ke f
Wher* constant kh = K hBms and constant kt = K J B j
'• At 40 Hz, 52 = kh (40) + ke (40)2
* 4160 Hz, 90 = kh (60) + kt (60)2
^ 52 = 40 kh + 1600 ke
90 = 6 0 k h + 3600 k t .
°m ahove two equations, k /, and kt are found to be
k h - 10 a n d K - 100
Thus at 50 H z,
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jtli
j ’ !' [A rt 1.10
■Ii
54 Electrical Machinery
. £ / 5O)2= 5 0
watts.
and eddy c u rre n t loss
e e 100 / rnpr h a s h y ste resis loss o f 3 4 0 w atts
E x a m p le 1.26. A 220 V, 60 H z, i t e r a t e d fro m 2 3 0 V 50 H z supply
a n d e d d y current loss o f 120 w a t t s j f * S te in m e tz ‘s c o n sta n t e q u a l to 1.6.
m ains, th en com pute its to tal core loss. A ssu m e o
S o lu tio n . T h e o p eratin g voltage y . , = ^ 2 n f 2 B m2 A ^
V , = V2 n f \ B m\ A i H an d 'ii
220 / 60 ml
Vi f i Bmi or 230 50 &m2
Vn /j> B m2
(60) (230) p _ t 255
" (50) (220)
From Eq. (1.46), h y steresis loss
ww Ph2
Ph - K h f B m
__ f/*2i BBm 2j _ 50
50 ^ 255)1 6
or
w.E Phi f\B m l
P h 2 - (3 4 ° ) 6
(1.255)16 = (340) j( 1 .4 3 8) - 408 W.
asy
From Eq. (1.46), eddy c u rre n t loss Pe = K e f B ,
e2 m ( B *m2
En '5 0 '2
(1 .2 5 5 y
p .i B ml
5 gin
60
(1.255)2 = 131.3 W.
or
_ core loss
P , 2 = (120)
.ne
1.6%, 0.9% a n d 0.6% respectively. For a S te in m e tz ’s coefficient o f 1.6, fin d
(a) these losses a t 60 Hz, fo r the sam e system voltage a n d c u rre n t a n d
ly*
(b) the o u tp u t a t 60 H z, fo r the to ta l losses to rem a in the sa m e a s on 50 H z.
t
S o lu tio n , (a) S u b scrip ts 1 an d 2 will be u sed to re fe r to 50 a n d 60 H z q u a n titie s re sp e c tiv e
f i B ,m l 50 B ml
As before Y i or 1 = Of ^m 2 = g
V2 f2 & m 2 6 0 B m2
•'** ‘ P hi fi B ml
Transformers 55
P h2 = Pih i 50 6 (601r«Y
5 i
= P m (0-833)° 6 = 0 .8 9 6 Phl
V / «
P h2
— = 0.896 v 111 = 0.896 (0.9) = 0.806%
^ O u tp u t O u tp u t
m Eq. ( 1 4 6 ), eddy c u rre n t loss,
P e = K e f B m2
2.
( Ft m2 \
Pe2 r / i i" °
Bm
ml,
\ \ /
Sqq * ' - *
Pe2 = = P.e l
or 50 ' 6
v y
For the sam e o u tp u t, p ercen tag e Pel = percentage Pe2 = 0.6%.
ww
Thus the ohmic, h y ste re sis a n d eddy c u rre n t losses a t 60 Hz are 1.6%, 0.806% and 0.6%
P
w.E
The core lo ss d e p e n d s on v o lta g e and frequency only. Therefore, Pcl = T5% ( = ° 9 + ^ ) a n d
= ( 0.806 + 0.6)can’tbechangedforgivenvaluesofvoltageandfrequency.Forthetotal
O hm ic lo ss. Since th e cu rren t is sam e a t both the frequencies and voltages, the ohmic
losses in w a tts rem ain unaltered, i.e. P ^ 2 = P0hi.
P ercen tag e ohmic loss a t higher frequency
oh2 ohl
= - (1.8) = 0.9%.
2Pi
ww Pm2 = Pml
The hysteresis loss P h = Kh f B mx w atts
w.E Pk2
Phi
fa B m2
fa Pml v
\ yv
Ph2~Phi asy
Percentage hysteresis loss a t fa, V2 is
En
=
P_h2
P2
=
2 Phi
2P,
= 0 .8 %.
gin
The eddy cu rre n t loss Pe ~ K ef B m2 w atts
eer
Pe2 (fa
V2 f d
-°m2
ing
P el fa V
50 f
-®ml
/
.ne
or P e2 P el
P e2 4Pfil
P ercentage eddy cu rren t loss a t fa, V2 i s - p - = p -
25 a r = 4 P el
2 1
t
P el
=2 = 2 (0 .3 ) = 0 .6 %
. . L osses , L o s s e s /O u t p u t
E ffic ie n c y a t / 1, 1 is - O u tp u t + L o s s e s 1 + L o s s e s /O u t p u t
P .u . lo s s e s 0 .0 1 8 + 0 .0 0 8 + 0 .0 0 3 = 1 0 .0 2 9
1 + P .u . lo s s e s 1 + 0 .0 1 8 + 0 .0 0 8 + 0 .0 0 3 1 .0 2 9
= 0 .9 7 1 8 2 or 9 7 .1 8 2 %
w tr • 0 .0 0 9 + 0 .0 0 8 + 0 .0 0 6
E ffic ie n c y a t fa, V 2 is 1 1 + Q 0Q9 + Q 0 0 g + 0 0 0 6
0 .0 2 3
= 1- = 0 .9 7 7 5 5 % or 9 7 .7 5 5 % .
1 .0 2 3
i :-:
V...
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Transform ers 57
1. W - - —— "—
- Ip 1 .2 8 . A 10 kV A , 2 5 0 0 /2 5 0 V, single-phase, tra n sfo rm e r ga ve the fo llo w in g test
£ 3 c a w lc
« ^ s: te s t:
c ir c u it 2 5 0 V, 0.8 A , 50 W
f ^ circuU t e s t : 60 V, 3A , 45 W
Calculate the efficiency a t 1 a n d l 1- o f fu ll load at 0.8 p.f.
Calculate, the load (kV A o u tp u t) a t w h ich m a x im u m efficiency occurs a n d also the value
S m u m efficiency a t 0 .8 p f.
f ) Compute the voltage reg u la tio n a n d the secondary term in a l voltage u n d e r ra ted load a t
er factors o f(i) 0.8 la g g in g a n d (ii) 0.8 leading.
^ S o lu tio n . I t m ay be n o te d t h a t
(■) open-circuit te s t h a s b een co n d u cted on l.v. side, because 250 V d u rin g th is te s t is eq u al
to t h e rated voltage on l.v. side.
ww
(ii) Short-circuit te s t h a s b een p erfo rm ed on h.v. side, since 60 V is a fraction (2 to 12%) of
the rated voltage on h.v. side.
asy
:. Ohmic loss a t full load c u r re n t of 4 A
Psc = 45 T 2 = 80 w atts.
V
3
En
Fixed core loss P c = 50 w a tts.
gin Z
eer
At 0.8 p.f. and a t | full load, th e core loss Pc = 50 W, ohmic loss =
fl]
\
4
J
*■ SC
rn
4
\ /
(80) = 5 W
T]~ 8000 + 50 + 80
a>
o
5 o + ri]
---
ieading.
[Art. 1.10
58 Electrical Machinery ------------ -------------------------- --------------------------------------
50 = 0.79
i.e . n 2 (80) = 50 or n " V 80
kVA o u tp u t a t m axim um
r| = n ( 1 0 ) = (0.79) (10) = 7.9 kVA.
N ote t h a t th e kVA o u tp u t a t m axim um efficiency does not depend on t e oa p. .
F o r m axim um efficiency, ohmic loss = core loss - 50 w atts. efficiency
• „ Kfi -l sn - 1 0 0 W The m ag n itu d e of m axim um em u en cy
T otal losses a t m axim um q = 5 0 + 5 0 - iu u w . m e
ww
...
ZeH = Y = 2 0 Q
xeff= 'l ( 2 0 f - ( 5 y r = 19.35 Q
"
asy
_ hrJfeH _ 4 x 19.35 = Q Q31
VH 2500
.-. V oltage reg u latio n a t 0.8 p.f. lagging
En
= cos 0 2 + e* sin 0 2
gin
= 0.008 (0.8) + 0.031 (0.6) = 0.0250 p.u. or 2.5%.
Vsc
eer
[C h e c k . F rom Eq. (1.45), voltage reg u latio n for a lagging p.f. is ^ cos (0SC- 02) p.u.
F ull-load c u rre n t
Now Vm for full load c u rre n t = 60 x C u rre n t
ing
d u rin g sc te s t
sc go x 4 = 0.25
t
or e ,c = 75.5° a n d 0 2 = cos " 1 (0 .8 ) = 36.9°
Transform ers 59
8
s in 22.4° = - 0.0122 p.u.)
250
£2-^2
Now = - 0 .0 1 2 2 or V 2 = 1 .0 1 2 2 E 2.
En
Solution. w.E
(b) the p.u. va lu e o f th e e q u iv a le n t resistance o f the transform er.
, Losses
(a) T) = 1 —
asy
O u tp u t + Losses
or
Pc + P sc
(26*000) + P C+ P 4C
= 0 .0 2
gin
or ((P
rc+
+Pr sc)) = —
o 98 = 408W eer
p + -
c
/if
2
p
sc ing
At ^ full load,
ml
0.98 = 1 -
V /
.ne
or
P
'e +T 4- P‘ * = 0.02
| (20,000) (1) + Pc + ( i j « -
t
1 0 ,0 0 0 + P c + 1 P.
1 200 = 204 W.
or Pc + 4 p sc 0.98
or = 272 W.
Psc = (204)
[Art. l.io
60 Electrical Machinery
ww
At maximum q, ohmic losses = core loss Pc - ^ ~ ^
w.E
.-. Ohmic losses at full load = 654
100
80
= 1022 W.
It is given th at z e.p.u. = 0 0 5
En
*epu. = V(0.05)*-(0.01022)2 = 0.0489 = e,
Voltage regulation = er cos 02 + £* sin 02
gin
eer
= (0.01022) (0.8) + (0.0489) (0.6) = 0.0375 or 3.75%.
E x a m p le 1.31. The full-load voltage drops in a single-phase transform er are 2% and 4%
ing
due respectively to resistance and leakage reactance. The full-load ohmic loss is equal to the iron
loss. Calculate
(a) the efficiency on fu ll load at unity p.f.
(b) the full-load p.f. at which voltage drop is m axim um and
.ne
(c) the load p.f. at which voltage drop is zero.
S o lu tio n . Percentage full-load voltage drop in resistance
h re 2
x 100 = 2
t
En
Percentage full-load voltage drop in leakage reactance
■^2*e2
'■x 100 = 4
Eo
l l re2
(a) From above, = 0 .02
Full-load R ated VA x 1
0 = x 100
Rated VA x 1 + / 22 r e2 + Iron loss
R ated VA x 100
Rated VA + 0.02 x rated VA + 0.02 x rated VA
- vJ
1 0 0 = 96.154%
1.04
(ft) M aximum v oltage d rop m ea n s m axim um voltage regulation. T herefore, full-load p.f. at
M ch voltage drop is m ax im u m
_ r,? _ p ercen tag e r e2 2
" “ p ercen tag e z e2 = + 4? = 0 4 4 7 2 lagging
(c) Load p f a t w hich v oltage d rop is zero
_ *c2 _ p ercen tag e x, 2 4
= 2 ,2 p ercen tag e z ~2= W 7 7 = ° ' 8 9 4 4 lcadinR
E xam p le 1 .3 2 . When a 2 0 kVA, 3,100 / 220 V, 50 Hz transformer is operated on rated voltage
nt no load, its p o w e r in p u t is 160 w a tts a t a p f o f 0.15. Under rated load conditions, the voltage
drops in the total resistance a n d total leakage reactance are, respectively, 1 a n d 3 percent o f rated
voltage. Determine in p u t p o w e r a n d p f when the transformer delivers 14.96 kW a t 22 0 V at 0.8
nflagging to a load on the L V side.
Solution. Load c u rre n t,
ww J _ _ 1 4 £ 6 0 _
2 ~ 2 2 0 x 0 .8 ~
n r »
w.E
Rated c u rren t on L V side
_ 2 0 ,0 0 0
" 220
asy
R ated c u rre n t x re2
It is given t h a t ------------ ■=,---------- — = 0 .0 1
h
En
r e2 =
0 .0 1 x 2 2 0 x 2 2 0
20,000
= 0.0242 n
gin
and xe2 =
0.03 x 220 x 220
***»* - = 0.0726 fi
20,000 eer
Ohmic loss = (load c u rre n t )2 x re2 - (85)2 x 0.0242 = 174.85 W
.. Input pow er = 14960 + 174.85 + 160 = 15294.85 W ing
With load c u rre n t I2 as reference phasor, Fig. 1.24 (b ),
.ne
^
I 2 = 85 +> 0
? 2 = 2 2 0 ( 0 .8 + 7 0.6) = 1 7 6 + > 1 3 2 t
•*. E 2 = V2 + 72 ze2 = 176 +> 132 + 85 (0.0242 +> 0.0726)
= 178.057 + > 138.171 = 225.38 /3 7 .8 1 ” V
If is taken as referen ce for convenience, th en I2 can be w ritten as
,,= / ,c o » B „ - |f 0 .7 2 7 A
/ » V<4.H48)3 - (0 .7 2 7 7 * 4 793 A
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(Art. l.io
62 Electrical M achinery_____________ - " . . , '
‘— n A Y in o arallel. As a re s u lt, l c is in p h a se with
Note th a t voltage E 2 ap p ears across R c and m p reference, can be w ritte n as
E , and / „ lags F.2 by 90". Therefore, no-load c u rre n t w ith E 2 as re
7„ = 0 .7 2 7 - j 4.793
= 72 + 7e =-67.155 - j 52.11 + 0.727 - j 4.793
In p u t cu rren t
= 67.882 -y'56.903 = 88.577 /-3 9 .9 7 2 _
.-.In p u t p.f. = cos (39.972°) = 0.7663 lag
and / „ = 4 .7 9 3 = 4.910 A
ww
Input p.f.
= 67.9 -y ‘5 7 .0 2 = 8 8 .6 6 6 /-4 0 .0 2 2 °
= cos (40.022°) = 0.7658 lag
Input power
asy
is 98% and occurs at 80% fu ll load, unity power factor. The percentage im p ed a n ce is 4.5%. Load
power factor is now varied while load current a n d the supply voltage are h eld c o n s ta n t a t their
En
rated values. Determine the load power factor at w hich the secondary term in a l voltage is m in i
m um and fin d the value o f the later.
) S o lu tio n . Total losses in transform er
' 1 ^
- ’1 x 500,000 x 0.8 = 4858.3 W gin
0.988
eer
These losses are under th e condition of m axim um efficiency. T herefore, core losses = ohm ic
losses a t 80% full load = —x 4858.3 = 2429.15 W
ing
Full-load ohmic losses = 2429.15
100
80
= 3795.55 W .ne
From Eqn. (1.36), r „ =
S =
x 1 00 = 0.759%
Now Z2 -V 2 . o .
£>2 (re2 cos 02 + sin 0 2) in p er u n it
E —V
••• x 100 = (0.759 x 0.1687 + 4.4355 x 0.98567) = 4 .5
or
V2 = E 2 ( 1 - 0.045) = 400 x 0.955 = 382 V
Second aiy term in al voltage = 382 V
Transformers 63
ww
1 P.M. to 6 P.M. ; kVA load = — = 2.5 kVA
w.E
Ohmic losses for 5 h o u rs = (100)
2.5
5.0
= 25 W
1969.6 eer
1000
40 x 24 ing
= 1.97 kWh
All day r) = 1
T o tal kW h lost = 1.970 + 0.960 = 2.93 kWh.
D aily kW h o u tp u t = ( 3 x 6 + 2 x 5 + 6 x 7 + 01 = 70 kW h.
________ D aily losses in kWh________
(D aily o u tp u t + D aily Losses) in kWh
t
2.93
=1- = 0.9598 or 95.98%.
72.93
Beth 10 ®eP a r a t >o n h y s t e r e s i s a n d e d d y c u r r e n t lo s s e s . In th is a rtic le is given a
mod for sep aratin g th e tra n sfo rm e r core loss into its two com ponents of h y ste re sis an d eddv-
^ n t losses.
For a sine flux w ave, th e tra n sfo rm e r core loss, from Eq. (1.47) is
m
il IArl. 1,10
64 Electrical Machinery
...(1.58)
Core loss per cycle = -~ = Kh B mx + K e f B
• . , ic inrlpnendent of freq u en cy w h ereas eddy
Eq. (1.58) shows th a t hysteresis loss per cycle i P
curren t loss per cycle in proportional to frequency.
Now V = E = V2n f N ij>max
...(1.59)
= K i + K2f
f
ww
where constant K\ = Kh B xm and constant K 2 = Kc B m .
Equation (1.59) is the equation of a straig h t line. C onsequently, th e p lo t of Pc/ f against
w.E
frequency/’, results in a straig h t line, as shown in Fig. 1.30.
The values ofK x and K 2 in Eq. (1.59) can be determ ined ~ f
c k
_
asy
by performing open circuit test on the transform er. D uring
this test, the applied voltage V and frequency /'a r e varied
En
together so as to keep W /‘(and therefore B m) atynost con
stant. In the laboratory, the ratio V / f can be m aintained
For the separation of core loss of a three-phase transform er, th e read in g s should be changed
to per phase values,• before plotting - j against
i---£ “gaillDl /. f.
Transformers 65
It may be seen t h a t th e ra tio ^ h a s a c o n sta n t valu e of 4.28. T herefore, Eq. (1.59) can be
used for separating th e h y s te re s is a n d eddy c u rre n t losses.
1 • PC
The core loss p er cycle, i.e. — is calc u la ted in a ta b u la r form as follows :
\
f
w.E 50
40 30 20
In Fig. 1.31,
pc ■ , •
asy
is p lo tted a g a i n s t/ 1.T h e s tra ig h t line so obtained in te rse c ts th e v ertical axis
at the point A. The in te rc e p t OA gives th e value of K x equal to 0.39. T he slope of th e lin eA B can
be obtained at any frequency, say 50 Hz.
En
or
:. K2 (50) = 0.667 - 0.39 = 0.277
0 277
^ 2 = ^ i l = 0.00554. gin
ou
eer
ing
.ne
t
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! [Art. 1.11
66 E le c tric al M a c h in e ry
ww
form er behaviour.
(a) Polarity test. On th e p rim ary 0----------------- ,-4-
side of a two-winding transform er, one
w.E
term inal is positive w ith respect to th e
other term in al a t any one w s ta n t. A t
th e sam e in stan t, one term inal of the
seco n d ary w in d in g is P0Sltl.veT™
respect to th e o th er term in al. T hese * asy
relative polarities of the p n m a ry and
seco n d ary te rm in a ls a t an y in s ta n t En
, <*»
m ust be know n if th e tran sfo rm ers are
to be operated in parallel or are to be gin
FiP 1 32 Polarity test on a two w inding transform er
subtractivepolarity and (6) additive polarity.
being on th e extrem e n g h , p
ing
rn n n pcted to one end of th e seco n d ary w inding and
a rb itra rily in Fig. ^
a voltm eter ,s connected betw een v4 , a«
t
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
.ne
^ f X seco n d ary w inding. A voltage of
induced 00 h,
s u i t a b l e v a l u e is now app
l „ c ir lp s r e s D e c t i v e l y .
If t h e v o l t m e t e r read in g is equal t o
t
:q oniial tn F - En th e n seco n d ary terminal
£ 2, tn e n s e c o n
erted to A is positive an d is m ark ed u „ th e l.v. te rm in a l co n n ected to A 2 th ro u g h
y
voltm eter is n eg ativ e an d is m ark ed a 2 as show n in Fig. 1.32 (a). If v o ltm e te r re a d in g is equ^
to E l + E 2, th e n th e te rm in a ls connected to A , a n d A 2 a re n e g a tiv e a n d p o sitiv e a n d a re m ^
02 and a , respectively as show n in Fig. 1.32 ( 6 ). T h e s u b s c rip t n u m b e rs 1. 2 on th e h * . a n ^
Transformers 67
# -----------------------------------
, and fl2 are su ^jected to high voltage stresses. On account of th ese reasons, subtractive
^ rityis Preferable to additive Polarity.
(b) Open circuit a n d (c) S h o rt circuit tests. These two te sts have already been described in
detail in A rt-1-7-
{d) load test (Back to back or S u m p n e r ’s test). A load te st on a tran sfo rm er is necessary if
maximum tem p eratu re n s e is to be determ ined. A sm all transform er can be p u t on full load
L means of a suitable load im pedance. B ut for large transform ers, full load te s t is difficult,
Ic e it involves c o n s id e ra te w aste of energy and a suitable load, capable of absorbing full load
oower, is not easily available. However, large transform ers can be p u t on full load by m eans of
Sumpner’s or back to back test. The S u m p n er’s te st can also be used for calculating th e efficien
cyofa transformer, though th e la tte r can be determ ined accurately from open-circuit and short-
circuit tests.
The back to back te s t on single-phase transform ers requires two identical units. Fig. 1.33
illustrates the circuit for two single-phase transform ers, w here two prim aries connected in
parallel, are energised a t ra te d voltage and rated frequency. W ith secondaries open, th e w a tt
ww
meter Wi records th e core losses of both th e transform ers. The two secondaries are connected
in series with th e ir p o la ritie s in p h a se opposition, w hich can be checked by m ean s of a
w.E
voltmeter. The range of th is v o ltm eter connected across term inals ab, Fig. 1.33, should be
double the rated voltage of e ith e r tra n sfo rm er secondary. Zero voltm eter reading ( = 0 ) indi
cates the secondaries are connected in opposition. Now, if th e term inals ab are short-circuited,
asy
the current in th e secondary would be zero because Vab = 0 and th e w attm eter reading w [
remains unaltered. In case th e voltm eter reads th e sum of th e two secondary voltages, th e
En
secondaries are in th e sam e phase. In order to bring them in phase opposition, term in als ad
should be joined together to re su lt in zero voltage across term inals be.
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
Voltage
regulator
O'
V a r ia b le v o lt a g e
i
1-33. Sumpner’B (or back to back) teat on two identical aingle-phase transformers.
ww
in g an y load current, y e t full iron-loss occurs m t h e
th e ir w in d in g s. N e t power input ^ t f e t w o ^ r a n ^ ^
^ + 2 p j , f tem perature rise of
. kept u n d er rated loss
w.E
th e tw o tran sform ers is to be m e
con d ition s for sev era l hours
I f 2/„ is th e no load current, then
’ b| tem perature is reached,
directions o f /„ and f 2, th e prim ary current
^ prim ary curren t o f transform er 2 (sum
asy
° [ r ar dT r ^ e r e ^ t h ^ t r s f o r m e r s do not operate under id en tical co n d ,tio n s-o n e ma,
En
s t s s r is r r p a = gin
tran sform ers can be carried out on a sing
u n it. For th is te s t, th e prim ary and secon eer Circulating
current
low -injected vo ltag e ini t h e opan h® a j th e pcr p h ase eq u iv alen t leakage "«P e cr,
equal to (full load c u rren t) (& „,), w here z „ F ^ ^ ^ # th re c .phosc Ira n .* ^
^ U ™ t T ^ I m s h " l d i n g in delta, w hereas th e lower diagram s . -
Transformer* 69
5-
!® Kircnnww
two
. ii • ._-A.*___ 17
Thus
^ lUiJO iuuu
chnu/C that.
• hhoffs c u rre n t law a t th e ju n ctio n K of this figure shows th a t 23
the
: “
23
reading of 1
23
a m m e te r A , a n d th e c u rre n t coi. of w attm eter W,. T hus the reading of watt-
gjIjStllO
meter
w.E 25 n
W is effected by an a m o u n t equal to 230 x ^ x cos 0*.
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
F ig 1.35. P ertaining to Example 1.36.
Now
Ze
effected
■■The amount by w hich reading o f wattmeter W, is e ec
79.1 w atts.
2 5 ^ 1 = 79.1
= 230 x g s * /IQ
lArt. I .12
v Ph - 3 3 0 0 V
z eH *n ° ^ mS asy r SC
xsc
120
100/3.3
= 3.96 n .
„
base" hast En
Vtese_ r a t e V ^ = _ 3 3 0 0 _ = 1 0 8 9 Q
rated h* 1 0 0 / 3 -3
1.12 A u t o - t r a n s f o r m e r s eer
common to both th e p rim ary a n d secondary
A transform er, in -^ . c h a P a r t “ the ™ gwindi
ing
transform er, p rim ary and secondary
but in an auto-transform er th e two w indings a re n o t electn-
.ne
t
Ca” A S tap le arrangem ent of a step-down auto-transform er is depicted in Fig. 1.36, where W,
and N , are the num ber of tu m s between winding AC and w inding B C respectively. W hen vo -
1.
o
o
o
o
($:) o
o
o
N, B jL
+
g »i 12
o,
01
o
(*V) 2o
C I,
fa) (6 )
Fig. 1.36. Single-phase step-down auto-transformer.
Transformers 71
asy
cos 0 ! = cos 0 2.
Hence ^ri f i = V2 / 2
*
Y l 11
v . '/ r w
N2
r * En ~ ( l -6 l >
gin
Here k is less th a n u n ity . T h e re la tio n s expressed by Eq. (1.61) are identical w ith a tw o
winding transform er, see Eq. ( 1 . 1 1 ).
eer
Let the term inal A, Fig. 1.36, be positive w ith respect to te rm in a l C, a t th e in s ta n t show n.
Then at no load, th e exciting c u rre n t flows from A to C and it esta b lish es a w orking m m f
ing
directed vertically dow nw ard in th e core. W hen sw itch S is closed, th e c u rre n t in w inding B C
must flow from C to B, in o rd er to cre a te an m.m.f. opposing th e exciting or w orking m .m .f.,
.ne
as per Lenz s law. Since th e w orking m.m.f. in a tra n sfo rm er rem ain s su b sta n tia lly c o n sta n t
at its no-load value, th e p rim a ry m u st d raw additional c u r r e n t/! from th e source, in o rd er to
neutralise the effect of c u rre n t I CB. In w inding AC, I x flows from A to C w hile in w inding BC,
2 ows from C to B. T herefore, th e c u rre n t in w inding B C is I x from B to C a n d / 2 from C to
ere the current / 2 is g re a te r th a n I x (because V2 < V x) and th e ir m .m .fs. a re opposing each
t
other at every in sta n t, th erefo re,
ICB=h ~ h -
® m of w inding A B = I x (N x - N 2)
= (J 2 ~ h )^ 2 ( V I XN X= I 2 N 2
. = I Cb -^2 = m .m .f. of w inding CB.
w'adine j ^ re^ore> 8een t h a t th e tra n sfo rm e r action ta k e s place betw een w inding A B and
o th e r w o rd s, th e v o lt-a m p e re s acro ss w in d in g A B a r e tr a n s f e r r e d by
er action to th e load connected across w inding BC.
Totar " 0rm ed V A = V * b 1a b =(V , - V 2) / ,
Put VA to tra n sfo rm e r = V XI X= o u tp u t VA.
•• S g jfo n B e d W V _ ( V ,- V ^ / , V.
In p u t VA V xl x V| --.(1.62)
w.E
asy
winding. T hus the w eight of conductor in a w inding is proportional to th e c u rre n t a n d number
of tu rn s in th e winding.
En
For an au to tra n sfo rm e r of Fig. 1.36, w inding A B c a rrie s a c u r r e n t o f J , a n d has
(N x - N 2) tu rn s.
gin
... W eight of conductor for w inding A B «* {Nx - N 2) I x
eer
W inding B C carries a cu rre n t of ( / 2 - 1\) and h a s N 2 tu rn s .
W eight of conductor for w inding B C « (/ 2 - 1\) N 2
ing
Hence, total w eight of conductor in an au to -tran sfo rm er is
°c l x (N x - N 2) + ( / 2 - 1\) N 2 .ne
oc 2 {Ix N x - I x N 2)
oc 2 (N x - N 2) 11
t
If th e w eight of conductor in a n a u to -tra n sfo rm e r an d a n o rd in a ry tw o w in d in g transform er
is to be com pared, th e tw o types m u st h av e th e sam e in p u t (V^ I x), sa m e o u tp u t (V 2 Z2) and same
voltage ra tio Vx/ V 2. T herefore, an o rd in a ry tra n sfo rm e r m u s t h a v e v o ltag e V x, V2 and currents
I h I 2 for its p rim a ry an d secondary w indings respectively. I f p e a k flu x d e n s ity a n d core area are
assum ed equal, th e n e.m.f. p e r tu r n E t (= V2n f B m A,) in th e tw o ty p e s of tra n sfo rm e r, is
( \ ( \t \ .
same. Thus a two winding transformer must have N x = — and iV9 turns in its prim ®1”)
E,
V /
and secondary windings respectively.
/. Total weight of conductor in a 2-winding transformer
°c /i N x + /2 N 2
oc2Ix N x
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Transformers 73
W iii = l~ W r l ~ k
Weight of conductor in auto-transformer = (1 —k)
°r (Weight of conductor in 2-w inding transform er)
or C o n d u cto r weightt in ^ w in d in g tra n sfo rm er - Conductor w eight in au to -tran sfo rm er = (k)
conduct01- weight in 2 -w inding tran sfo rm er.
Q o \r i n rr n f _________________ _ • _
Saving of conductor material
j
Conductor w eight in
Thus if auto-transformer is used = k x
2 -winding tran sfo rm er
If * = 0 „1; f ' S ng o f ™ndUCtoJ raaterial is ™>y 10% and for k = 0.9, saving of conductor
material is 90%. Hence th e u se of au to tra n sfo rm er is more economical only w hen th e voltage *
ratio k is more n e a re r to u n ity . J B
D u r i n g the design, th e w indow dim ensions are decided from th e consideration of insulation
ww
and conductor m aterial. For an au to -tran sfo rm er, a reduction in conductor m aterial m eans
lower window area and, therefore, reduced core length. Hence, for the sam e core area, the
weight of auto-transform er core is decreased. Therefore, saving in both conductor and core
3 1
I1
i. !
w.E
materials is effected by th e u se of an auto-transform er, in place of a tw o-w inding tran sfo rm er.
The nearer the value of k is to unity the greater is the saving in materials.
asy
Other advantages of an auto-transformer, over a two-winding transformer are given below :
{u) Owing to th e re d u c tio n in conductor and core m aterials, th e ohmic losses in conductor
En
and the core loss are low ered. T herefore, an auto-transform er h as higher efficiency th a n a two-
winding transform er of th e sam e outp u t.
gin
(m) Reduction in th e conductor m ateria l m eans lower value of ohmic resistance. A p a r t of
the winding being common, leakage flux and, therefore, leakage reactance is less In o th er
■
eer
words, an au to -tran sfo rm er h a s low er v alue of leakage im pedance and h a s superior voltage
regulation th an a tw o-w inding tra n sfo rm er of th e sam e output.
ing
D isad v an tag es, (i) If th e ra tio of tra n sfo rm atio n k differs far from unity, th e economic
advantages of a u to -tran sfo rm er over tw o-w inding tran sfo rm er decrease.
.ne
(li) ^ ™ain d isad v a n ta g e of an au to -tran sfo rm er is due to the direct electrical connection
m° . a,ge oniJje l v *sid e - T h is h igh voltage m ay be d etrim en tal to the load and th e persons work-
B re. Thus a su ita b le protection m u st be provided ag ain st such an occurrence.
(«i) The short-circuit c u rre n t in an au to -tran sfo rm er is h ig h e rth a n th a t in a corresponding
w°-winding tran sfo rm er.
p rim a ry w in d in g tu rn s ^1 ~ ^2 _ 1
, secondary w in d in g tu rn s N2 k ’
ereMisgiven by Eq. (1.61).
fArt. 1.12
74 Electrical
E le c tric a l Machinery ___________________________________
r, fnr th e a u to -tra n s fo rm e r can be writ-
N eglecting th e exciting cu rren t, th e v o ltag e e q u a t.c n for th e
ten by trea tin g it as a 2-windm g tran sfo rm er r e fe r red to p rim a ry + p rim a ry leakage
P rim ary applied voltage, Vai = secondary voltage V , r e ^ d ^
im pedance drop + secondary leakage im pedance P
ww ^ 6 = ^2
(Nt -N 2 )
No
+ /i (ri + j* i) + I l (r2 + jx 2)
N x- N 2 )
N2
V ,-V ,
or w.E
vnh=
= v.
V2 ^
/
[f
k ' + / l \ r l + r2 k
I v.
2 1M -J JCi + X2 f 1 k- * ' 2 \
> ) % J b
Fig. 1.30 (b) reveals that
asy 1 - k \2
En
....................., , . V2 w
^1 = Vab + V2 = ~ ^ +h (.re l+j* e l) = ~ k +I\ Zi + 22 ...(1.65)
F
2
p
re\= rx + r2
gin fro m
II
+
k (^2 - j
N‘ )
eer
»
xel = x x+ x 2 = X1 + x2 h~k1
k/
( * J \
z i = r i +J x i = p rim a ry leakage im pedance
ing or
.ne
and z 2 = r 2 + J X2 = secondary leakage im pedance.
in Fij
it (JU65) givf s the e<luivalent circuit for an auto-transform er as shown in Fig 1 37 (b)
f ; ^ „ “ „ ;es,stance and the r“ e ■» * » •» * ~
t num l
{N 2—
S
fcttM
hMI *«u- --
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
For the prim ary circuit, applied voltage V x h a s to balance th e induced e.m.f. E x, voltage rise
fromB to A (against th e direction of I x) an d voltage drop from C to B (in th e direction of c u rre n t
(W i)).
eer
= E i + / i (z-! + j x j - ( / 2 - I \ ) (r 2 + j x2)
or V\ =
E
ing
+ I\ (rj + jxi) - ( / 2 - 71) (r 2 + j x2)
.ne
First I x (rj + j Xj) is added to | E x \ = V x and th en (72 - 7t) (r 2 + j x 2) is su b tra c te d as show n
in Fig. 1.37 (C) to get th e applied voltage Vj for a single-phase au to -tran sfo rm er.
Step-up A u to - tr a n s f o r m e r . Fig. 1.38 shows a 1 -phase step-up au to -tra n sfo rm e r. T he
“umber of tu rn s in w in d in g A C is N 2 an d in w in d in g BC is N x so t h a t w in d in g A B h a s
(^2 ~N{j turns. H ere V2 > V x an d I x > 72. The d istrib u tio n of cu rre n ts in th e w indings is show n
t
mPig. 1.38. As before, assu m in g ideal conditions,
(less th a n one)
Vj
M m f. of w inding A S = / 2 (AT, - JV,)
= / , AT, - / 2 JV, = (/, - / 2) JV,
= m.m.f. of w ind in g B C
tween 8 . 8^pws t h a t tra n s f o rm e r actio n occurs be-
tran8f0^ 1C^ ng ^ C an d A B as in a step-dow n au to
S c a n n e a b y C am S canner www.EasyEngineering.net
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_________________ [Art. 1 .1 2
76 Electrical Machinery '
L _ = —L - .
'< v 2-v ,)/ 2 . h i - *
V 2• .
f ctpn-uD a u to -tra n sfo rm e r is also of the
Thus, th e advantage of enhanced power ratin g ° F u rth c r a n a lysis of step -u p auto
sam e order as in th e case of step-down au o- lfn_tra n s former.
transform er can be carried out as in a step^ own a rg a n d t w o . w i n d i n g t r a n s
C o m p a r is o n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a u o- r ® , tra n sfo rm er by connecting its two
fo rm e rs A two-winding transform er can be used as an au to -tran sto rm e y
windings in series electrically. ^ considered as a tw 0.w inding
As discussed above, auto-transform er o ?• j c th secondary. R atin g s and char-
transform er with winding AB as prim ary and wind m g B C a ^the secon y *
acteristics of auto-transform ers and 2 -winding transform ers so obtainea, no ,
are discussed below : , , . ,.
<i, E a tin g s . It is seen from Fig. 1.36 th a t wm ding A B acta as ‘he p= and w tn rng
ww
BC as the secondary of a 2 -winding transform er. As per Eq. (1.61), Fig. 1.36 and big. l.d (a),
kVA rating as an auto-transf
w.E
kVA rating as a 2 -wdg tra n sf
Prim ary input voltage Vi x prim ary input cu rre n t 11
= Prim ary voltage across wdg AB x prim ary cu rren t in AB
asy
V i/i_________ 1
= ( V i- V 2) I , 1 - O W j )
_ 1
1 -*
En
kVA rating as an auto-transform er _ Y&l2 _ 1 - __
s0 kVA rating as a 2-wdg transf.
gin
V 2 (l 2 ~ I\) (1 ~
(ii) L o sses. When a 2-winding transform er is connected as an au to -tran sfo rm er, th e cur
_ ^
eer
rent in different sections and voltages across them rem ain unchanged. T herefore, losses w hen
working as an auto-transform er are the sam e as the losses in a 2 -w inding tra n sfo rm e r. P e r u n it
losses, however, differ.
Per unit full-load losses as auto-transform er
ing
Per unit full-load losses as 2-winding transform er
Full-load losses_______ kVA ratin g as 2-wdg. tra n s .
.ne
kVA rating as auto-transform er Full-load losses -
t
(Hi) Im p e d a n c e d ro p . When a 2-winding tran sfo rm er is used as an a u to -tra n sfo rm e r, both
l.v. and h.v. w indings are utilized completely. In addition, cu rre n t an d voltage ra tin g s of each
winding section rem ain unaltered. Therefore, im pedance drop a t full load is th e sam e in both
the transform ers. Their per u n it values are, however, different. W hen re fe rre d to h.v. side, per
unit im pedance drop as an auto-transform er is w ith respect to voltage V, a n d for a 2 -winding
transform er, it is w ith respect to (V'j - V2) = (1 - k).
W ( V j “ V2) V,
Regulation as an auto-transf
Regulation as a 2-wdg transf = ^ ^
Transformers 77
/ \ ch o rt-circu it c u r r e n t. Per unit short-cirmif ,
^ * c e drop. U“ CUrrent 18 the rec*procal of the per unit
“"pe perunit short-circuit current as an auto-tr»n.fi.^ 1- r .
••• Per u n it s h o rt-c irc u it c u r re n t a s T ^ ^ T t ^ f b r ^ = ~
The value of k used in the above relations, Fig 1 36 (n\
• tr these relations, the value of k for step-down nr af S one In general, for
usingthe ® P down or step-up auto-transformers is = 1 v /h v
Uses Single-phase and three-phase auto-transformers are mainly employed " "
/ • \ r «for
(i) r i nin
t pterco
r c o n nn ne ectin
c t i n g gD p
o ow
w e rers vsy
s t ste
n mmo sk rh. av
.. : ____________________________________
in g voltage ratine Z a Z e mF P 7y ed> ;
• • • ui . g voltage ratios, not differing far from unitv and
ww
sliding contact can be v a rie d by a h a n d w h eel
and with this th e o u tp u t v o ltag e g ets changed. ,nput
/
w.E
A variac used for s ta r t i n g in d u c tio n m o to rs
and synchronous m o to rs a t red u ced voltages,
is commonly c a lle d a n a u t o - t r a n s f o r m e r
^
starter or a s ta rtin g co m p e n sa to r.
asy
Schematic d ia g ra m s for sin g le-p h a se an d
.
f ig . 1.39 Single-phase variable ratio auto-transformer
En
three-phase v ariab le ra tio a u to -tra n s fo rm e rs are illu stra te d in Fig. 1.40,
gin
eer
ing
.ne
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.40. S ch em a tic d iagram for (a) single-phase variac and (b) three-phase variac.
t
When a u to -tra n sfo rm e r is u se d for su p p ly in g l.v. system , th e n its common point, such as C
*g. 1.36 in case o f sin g le -p h a se sy stem or th e n e u tra l in case of 3-phase system , m ust be
eaft ed otherw ise th e r e is a r is k of serio u s shock.
r Exam ple 1.38. A 2 0 kV A , 2 3 0 0 /2 3 0 V, tw o w in d in g transform er is to be used as an auto-
the rmer>w itfl c o n sta n t source voltage o f 2300 V. A t fu ll load o f u n ity pow er factor, calculate
Power output, p o w er tra n s fo rm e d a n d p o w er conducted. I f the efficiency o f the tw o-w inding
^form er a t 0.6 p.f. is 96%, fin d th e a u to -tra n sfo rm er efficiency a t the sam e power factor.
Solution. T he ra te d c u r re n ts o f h.v. a n d l.v. w indings are respectively
b J ! ' t h ‘he P o la rities a s sh o w n in Fig. 1.41 (a), th e o u tp u t voltage is 2300 + 230 = 2530 V;
Wn- M th e tw » vv oo ltag
ltag es
es aa re
re in
in sa ee rie
rie ss aid in g . R ated c u rre n t of 86.9 A in th e l.v. w .nding re-
aiding.
C8- bV tra n sfo rm e r a ctio n , a r a te d c u r re n t of 8.69 A in th e 2300 V w inding acting as th e
78 Electrical Machinery
[Art. |.l2
I ..8 6 9 A
\* 4
o
o
869A o
o
o 1
o
95 59A
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.41. Pertaining to Example 1.38.
primary . Kirchhoffs current law at point b gives the line current from th e supply line to be
ww
equal to
(86.9+ 8.69) = 95.59 A.
w.E
/. Auto-transformer kVA rating is
2530 x 86.9
= 220 kVA
asy 1000
2300 x 95.59
1000
= 220 kVA.
En
.-. The power output at full load of unity p.f. = 220 kW.
= 20 kVA
and power transformed
100
= 20 kW.
~ 1000
eer
kVA conducted
and power conducted
= 220 - 20 = 200 kVA
= 200 kW. ing
Note, how a 20 kVA two-winding transform er is capable of handling 220 kVA as an antn-
transformer. Out o f220 kVA, only 20 kVA is transform ed from prim ary ?o seco n d aA b T t r l .ne
P former a c tm n T h e rem aining 2 00 kVA is transferred from source to Z i by d .r e c U o n d u c ta
F ie w i (LV P h 1™ “ nnf ctlon dlaeram with l.v. polarities reversed from those given in
*ig. 1.41 (a). Physically the two connection d iagram s look iden tical & it
t
polarities makes a marked difference in the auto-transform er o u tp u t ^
The secondary output voltage now is 2300 - 230 = 2070 V- since th e tum Q f
“ ,h -
Auto-transformer kVA rating
_ 2300 x 78.21 2070x86 9
1000 1000
‘ = 180 kVA
Power output a t full load = 180 kW.
Transformers 79
___________________
XI re again w inding be acts as th e p rim ary and w inding ab as the secondary.
Transformed kVA = 230 x 86.9 = 2300 x 8.69 = 20 kVA
j nower tran sfo rm ed = 2 0 kW
andkp0” _
VA c o n d u c te d = 180 - 20 = 160 kVA
^ p ow w c o n d u c te d
= 160 kW.
O u tp u t
j^0w efficiency O u tp u t + Losses
Losses = - - 1 o u tp u t
or
Losses in 2-w inding tra n sfo rm e r
" 1 "l
= - 1 (20,000) (0.6) = 500 w atts.
< ' J . .
Since th e a u to -tra n sfo rm e r o p erates a t rated voltage and rated currents, th e losses rem ain
c o n[S
stanvaat 500
ta n t p w ------
a tts.
■= 1
ww
• Efficiency of a u to -tra n sfo rm e r for an o u tp u t of 220 kVA
“
L osses
In p u
in p u t “
_ ----------- 500------------= Q 9 9 6 2 3 or 99.623%.
220,000 x^ 0.6 + 500
w.E
Auto-transform er efficiency, w hen o p erating for an output of 180 kVA, is
Losses _______ 500----------- = 0 .9 9 5 3 9 or 99.54%.
asy
' “ 1_ In p u t “
E xam ple 1.39. A 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 5 0 0 V
180,000
iOU,UUU xA 0.6 + UUU
V.U -r 500
a , 35
I 'f
I
u anau todransform er
En «*pur D ra.
111
the loads to have the sa m e p o w er factor. gin
'amUabUdiagrcnn o f connections a n d fin d ,Ac e v e n t s in carious p a rts
300 a
* . circait. Assume
F,g' 1 4 2
ww 1000
The rated cu rren t of h.v. w inding is 4 A. T h ere
,
w.E
fore, th e cu rre n t draw n from th e supply is 84 A.
, 80x125
(6 ) kVA transform ed = 1 0 0 0 = 10 kVA
and kVA conducted
asy
= 2 1 0 - 10 = 200 kVA.
E x a m p le 1.41. A 3-phase star-connected auto
Fig. 1.43. P ertain in g to E xam p le 1.40.
gin
various branches o f the auto-transform er. E x citin g current a n d in te rn a l vo lta g e d ro p s are
neglected.
. . .
S o lu tio n . The load c u rre n t / 2 =
40,000
eer
~
n A
F o r a balanced 3 -phase
lo a d , th e p ro b le m c a n be ing
I,= 65-6 A
I,=75-9 A
solved on p e r p h a se b asis.
Since ex citin g c u r re n t an d
Si .ne
P
te r n a l v o lta g e d ro p s a re
leglected,
p e r p h ase kVA in p u t
t
= p er p h a se kVA o u tp u t ^ g V
440 . 380 .
or
or 11 -7 7^ x 75.9 = 65.6 A.
440
a The current flow ing 1
from neutral N to the tapping —
65-6 A
points a, b,c is
Fig. 1.44. P ertain in g to E xam ple 1.41.
(75.9 - 65.6) = 10.3 A.
The magnitude and direction of the currents in the various branches of th e 3 -phase auto
transformer is shown in Fig. 1.44.
A°nd^
1 pn rd ipmrim
a ary
r y in H
p “l- 1, a i*
:re1lta * The a rra n g e m e n t of p rim a ry an
curren d secondary
and^ I f J)b >2 1 c
S°luti°m he loads ig as show n in Fig. 1.45. Voltage be-
^ tia ls A a n d C is
f
<A
£_ O S
^ o
t^een v = 3 0 ,0 0 0 x 4 0 0 = 12 0 0 0 V 3
30 kV Oo
1000 O
o o
6 0 0 ,0 0 0 -q .
^ load current 12,000
v ab = 3 0 X 3 0 0 = 9 0 0 0 V
Similarly,
, _ 9 0 0 0 _ = 150 , 45o
?lf
load current
ww
2 ” 60 + j 60 V2 Fig. 1.45- Pertaining to Example 1.42.
IBA = l2 + 12
Secondary m.m.f.
asy
= ffl/t X 3 0 0 + Jcu x
= ( 1 2 5 - j 75) x 300 + 50 x 100
10 0
= 42500 - j 22500
En
_ 4 2 5 0 0 - J 2 2 5 00 _ {A9 ^ _ y 2 2.5) A
Primary cu rren t 7i = 1000
gin
eer
= 4 8 .0 8 8 L r V f M l l .w
. . ‘“TT
= 3 0 x 4 8 .0 0 7 qq7° - 1274.991 k w
8 8 x cos 27.897
Primary in p u t 897° 0.8838 lagging.
ing
o o a 2 7 =
beam
canned by C a m b ca nn er www.EasyEngineering.net
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lArt. i ,
82 E lectrical M achinery
| ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig. 1.46. Pertaining to Example 1.43.
eer
In Fig. 1.46 (c), load of resistance 400 11 is shown connected across te rm in a ls ac. In this
Now Vj I { = V2 1{ ing
figure, secondary voltage = 300 V and the secondary cu rre n t / 2' = 3 0 0 /4 0 0 = 0.75 A.
or
3 0 0 x 0 .7 5
400
= 0.5625 A
.ne
KCL a t c gives I ca = 1{ - I f = 0.75 - 0.5625 = 0.1875 A
t
C u rre n ts in th e sections ac and cd are shown in Fig. 1.46 (c). S uperim posing th e results of
Figs. 1.46 (6 ) a n d (c), c u rre n ts in th e th re e sections of th e w indings are show n in Fig. 1.46 (d).
E x a m p le 1.44. A 100 kVA, 2 0 0 0 /2 0 0 V, 1-phase tw o-w inding tra n sfo rm er is to be used as
an auto-transform er for stepping up the voltage from 2000 V to 2200 V. A t rated load, the two-
w in d in g transform er has 2.5% loss, 3% voltage regulation a n d 4% im pedance. For the auto
transform er, determ ine the fo llo w in g :
(a) voltage a n d current rating (6 ) kV A rating (c) efficiency (d ) percentage impedance (e)
regulation a n d (f) short-circuit current on each side.
S o lu tio n , (a) For au to -tran sfo rm er, ra te d voltage on l.v. side is Vj = 2000 V and on h.v. side
is V2 = 2000 + 200 = 2200 V.
R ated c u rre n t on h.v. side of au to -tran sfo rm er, / 2 = ra te d c u rre n t on 200-V side o f 2 -winding
tra n sfo rm e r = 100,0 0 0 /2 0 0 = 500 A.
Transformers 83
* '^ T c o r r e n t on l.v. side of au to -tran sform er, I l = I 2 + rated cu rre n t on h.v. side of 2-wind-
P»«dC 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ....
1= 5 0 0 + ~ m < r '
ww 11
(c) Percent full-load losses as an auto-transform er
w.E
= (1 - k) x percent full-load losses as a 2 -winding tra n s f
10 ^
x 2.5 = 0.227%
asy
Efficiency as an auto -tran sfo rm er = 100 - 0.227 = 99.773%.
(d) Percentage im pedance as an auto-transform er
En
= (1 - k ) x percentage im pedance as a 2 -winding transf.
1- ^
11
x 4 = — = 0.364%
.ne
t
1 -*
x short-circuit cu rren t as a 2 winding transf.
1 ‘x - 1
1 - 1® p.u. im pedance as a 2 -winding transf.
11
= H x — = 2 7 5 p .u .
g^ort • .
=275 x<KnlrC? ? ,CUrrent as an au to -tran sfo rm er on l.v. side w ith sh o rt circuit on e ith e r side
= 151.25 kA.
O n0^4 .
1275 * 5500
00=- °137
n 7 CUrrent
5 kA. as an a u t°-tran sfo rm er on h.v. side w ith short circuit on eith er side
^ m p le 1 A . .
a single-phase 2 5 0 /2 0 0 Vauto-transform er, w ith secondary short circuited,
84 E le c tric a l M a c h in e ry
z , = ^ = 0.1667 n
Ze\ e
r ,= z ,> * P f= b « ™ = a M a
= Vo3667!r^ a 0 4 r = 0 .1 6 1 8 £1
*,i
, v , ,_ 200_x_100 _ so A
As Vx l \ = V2 h>l \ - 250
W 250 _ Y l . + 80 ( 0 04 x 0 .8 + 0.161 x 0 .6 ]
or ww " 0.8
V2 = 191-74 V
At unity pf,
w.E V , - y + / 1 ',1
y
or
250 =
asy
+ 80 x 0.04 or V2 = 197.44 V
En
113. Parallel O peration o f Single-phase T ransform ers
W hen electric power is supplied to a locality, city or an are a , a sin g le tra n s fo rm e r, capab e
gin
of handling the required power dem and, is installed. In som e cases, i t m a y be preferable to
install two or more transform ers in parallel, instead of one larg e u n it. T h o u g h tw o or moto
eer
transform ers may be expensive th a n one large u n it, y et th is sch em e p o sse sse s certain ad
vantages described below.
ing
(t) With two or more transform ers, the power system becom es m ore re lia b le . F or instance
if one transform er develops fault, it can be rem oved and th e o th e r tra n s f o rm e r s can maintain
the flow of power, though at a reduced level.
(ii) Transform ers can be switched off or on, depending u p o n th e p o w er d em and. In this
.ne
m anner, th e tran sfo rm er losses decrease and th e system becom es m ore econom ical and efficient
in operation.
(Hi) The cost of a standby (or spare) u n it is m uch less w h en tw o or m o re transform ers are
t
installed.
In any case, w ith th e passage of tim e, electnc pow er d e m a n d m a y becom e m ore than the
rated kVA capacity of th e alread y ex istin g tra n s fo rm e r or tr a n s f o r m e r s . U n d e r such cir
cum stances, th e need for extra tran sfo rm er arises. Since th e su p p ly v o lta g e h a s to remain con
stan t, th e ex tra u n it m u st be connected in p arallel.
N ote th a t th e parallel operation of tra n sfo rm ers re q u ire s t h a t th e ir p rim a ry windings. 3'
well as th e ir secondary w indings, are connected in p a ra lle l. In th is a rtic le , only th e par*1" 1
operation of single-phase tran sfo rm ers is considered.
T he various conditions which m u st be fulfilled for th e s a tis fa c to ry p a r a lle l operation oft*1
or more single-phase tran sfo rm ers, are as fo llo w s: P v
(a) The tran sfo rm ers m u st have thp mu. . . , . . ■ „ „rtnnec^
to t t . s a m e voltage source, th e secondary voltages r f a U tra n s f o rm e r s s h o K c e q u a l in *
k
fv_.c_41 ii ij y Vvcii i rcrCttTTTTC.T www.EasyEngineering.net
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Transformers 85
,rif^ i r^ tra0Sf0rmerS'
tr a n sfo r m er sm u st be connected properly, so far as th e ir polarities are concerned.
the conditions listed above, condition (d) m u st be strictly fulfilled. If th e secondary
0ut e connected w ith w rong po larities, large circulating
^rmin8ls fJefloW an d th e tra n sfo rm e rs m ay g et dam aged. Condi-
T u ld be satisfied as accu rately as possible; since dif-
tion <o) °(jary voltages w ould give rise to u n d esired circulating a,, ,
^reflt Se°For conditions (6 ) an d (c), som e deviation is perm issible.
* * fulfilment of condition (d) is essen tial, w hereas th e ful-
*Thus
ww
t ! o f other conditions is d esirable.
« 1 47 shows two sin g le-p h ase tra n sfo rm e rs in parallel,
ected to the sam e voltage source on th e p rim ary side. Ter-
w.E
conV with proper polarity m ark in g s h av e been connected both
mthe h.v. and l.v. sides. A fu rth e r check on th e polarities can be
asy
appliedby connecting a volt-m eter V in series w ith th e two secon
daries. Zero voltm eter re a d in g in d ic a te s p ro p e r p o larities. If
voltmeter reads th e su m o f th e tw o se c o n d a ry vo ltag es, th e
Fig. 1.47. Two single-phase
transformers in parallel.
En
polarities are improper an d can be corrected by reversing th e secondary term in als of any one
transformer.
gin
No-load o p e ra tio n . If th e no-load secondary voltages E a and E h for tran sfo rm ers A and B,
eer
areequal in magnitude an d a re in tim e p h ase, th e n E a - E b = 0 and no cu rren t can circulate in
the transformer windings. I f E a an d E b a re u n eq u al or are out of phase, th e n th e re s u lta n t
voltage2a - Eb will circulate a c u rre n t I c given by th e expression,
ing
J _ E g -E b
z ea + Zeb .ne
...( 1 .6 6 )
= + 7c z eb = V ...(1.67)
—jlcxeb
• i ;-^-Icreb
jijS S ijii& A .
'C ir c u la t in g
TTW O^V /c u r r e n t s
r z ^ 'l Y >.Ea"Eh
(b)
(fl) • h i p l t h of circulating currents at no load
w.E
E ,. (1.67) is depicted in ph aso r diagram of Pig. 1.48 <M. T he a g P y
{Ea - E b) is given by
_ l *ea *eb
asy P = ta n '
' ea ^cb
Flg X48 (6 , illu stra te s th a t a t no load, th e effect of circulating c u rre n t / . is to boost the
. , ,i
L “
(a) E q u a l
S S T
jvoltage
i S ? - r . eer
are eq u al. F u rth e r if th e p rim ary leak ag e im p ed an ce drops
■r . - - — « ™ » « '• “ ■
ing
A i s X m S S S it" no-load secondary voltage B . in series w ith its le a k a g e .m pedance v .ne
T r a n s fo r m e rs is also rep resen ted in a sim ilar m an n er. T he com m on seco n d ary load ™ g
Va n d S c u rre n t I is sh ared as /„ and Ib by th e tra n sfo rm e rs a n d
im pedance is Z ohm s.
resp ectiv ely . The load t
Fig. 1.49. (a) and (b) Circuit m odelling o f tw o transform ers in parallel.
Transformers 87
voltage eq u atio n for tra n s fo rm e r A is .........
E a - I a z ea = V ^ l Z
Since E a = Eb', E b - 7 a z ta = V = I Z
voltage eq u atio n for tra n s fo rm e r B is
E b - I b z eb = V = 1 2
. Eb ~ la z ea ~ E b —l b Ze[)
t , = 7‘ *"• ...(1.6 8 )
ww 7 = 7* -— Zeb
*a
ZM +Z e6
z.eb
...(1.69 o)
asy
Multiplying both sid es of Eqs. (1.69 o) a n d (1.69 6 ) by th e term in al voltage V, we get
S„ = S = *•*
Zea + z ,b
En ..(1.70 a )
S„ = 5 = Z“
gin
Here _ S„ = V / a, S t = V7t and 3 = V 7
eer
Note that V J , S etc. a re p h a so r q u a n titie s.
t i e T s a v A S i ^ nsf 0 r T s ing
op erated in parallel, th en voltage equation for these
ers, say A, B , C, D ..., can be w ritte n by referrin g to Fig. 1.49 (a) as u n d er :
.ne
t
E ° - Ia Zea = E b - I b Zeb= E c - I c Zec= E d - I d Zed = ... = V = IZ
second!^!0 3 n 8m!S ° f th 8 S 6 tra n sfo rm e rs are eclu a l> »■«■> E a = E h = E c = E d = ... = E 2 (no-load
“fy voltage), th e n from above,
The E 2 - V = I a z ea= Ib Z'b = Ic z ec = I d ztd = ... = v ...(1.71)
kVA ratW)Ve ec*u a ^ on sbow s t h a t a tra n sfo rm e r w ith lower value of full-load cu rre n t (or lower
°^er word ^ U8t ^ aV8 m ° re le a k a &e im pedance in ohm s so th a t Eqn. (1.71) is satisfied. In
ratiag8 t, ’ “ tra n sfo rm e rs in p a ra lle l are to s h a re th e total load in proportion to th e ir kVA
their kVA ^ e q u iv a le n t lea k ag e im pedances in ohm s m u st be inversely proportional to
former0f ^ atlngS‘ F ° r ex a m Ple » it* 1000 kVA tra n sfo rm e r h as z ea = 2 fi, th e n an o th er trans-
^bette ^ ^ ^ a r a ^ e ^ m u s t h av e z eb = 4 Q.
r ^ ysicai in sig h t in to th e p a ra llel operation of tran sfo rm ers can be obtained by the
c o n s id e ra tio n s :
but
r en reb
*tate
‘8 already m ade as (6) w here four conditions for the parallel operation of two or more 1-phase
er®are reported.
lA rt. l .i 3
88 E lec tric a l M a c h in e ry
lea k ag e im pedance an g le o f tra n sfo rm er A is not equal
T h e re la tio n ^ m e a n s t h a t <Ca, th e _ 1 Xeb
- r«, reb * - t a n '1 — and<>6 = tan- — .
to $6, the leakage impedance angle of transformer ^ ere . r„ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
I ww
f
w.E
V r la z e a =
IbZeb- ^ r^b* *t)
* - la * e o
^ b ^ y a /
asy
------------►
rea la . 7, .
En
Ibre b ^ ^ \ /^b" 3
(a)
gin
The secondary term inal q u a n titie s ^ a n d ^ p o w e r
eer thcm> Fig 1.50 (M. The
ing
order to determ ine /„ and 4 , draw „ - a q u a n tity -th erefo re, 4 and 4 can be computed
phasor s u m o f / 0 and 4 gives 1 5 0 (6) reveals t h a t transform er
.ne
o ^ ^ t e s 5^ ^ b ^ e ^ r p ^ a n ^ tr m s f m m e r B a t a ^ t o r p f as c o m p a r ^ h r th e load
and n ot th e arith m etic sum , of /. and 4- In other w ords, 4 < j an d 4 < 2 and
t
ou tp u t is less th a n th e sum of kVA ratin g s " h f n the sum of
reactance to resistan ce ™ «os ^ n o t e q u a “ ded t h a t a tra n s fo rm e r w ith greater
fe a T a re " n r^ ™ e; r e r e s a t a?poor p f a s com pared to th e o th e r w ith a lower leak,*
im pedance angle.
x eb
(ii) L et z ea > z eb, b u t ^ = r^
x ea _ m e a n s that
W hen Ea = Eb, 1, r „ = 4 h i a n d sin ce a „ > z,b, 4 < h- T h e r e la tio n ^ ^
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Transformer* K9
ww
fV° nt kVA ratings can be o perated in p arallel provided
Ljr^uivalent leakage im pedances in ohm s are inversely
Fig. 1.51 Parallel operation of
can b e
w.E
‘ to their respective kVA ratings. This statem ent
expressed m athem atically as eq u iv alen t leakage im pedance
1
kV A r a t i n g
1 vt
z eu oc c a n d asy p
1
En
°ar * br
Zca _ S br
Zeb E ar
gin
Here So, and S br are th e ra te d kVA ra tin g s of tran sfo rm ers A and B respectively.
/ . Zea ~ ^b z eb
eer
:
h
i l - Ear
$br ing ...(1.721
The result of Eq. (1.72) can also be obtained analytically as explained below.
Prom above, /„ • * « ,= /* ■ * * .ne
if
*ea pu S - i ,b ' z eb pu ' c
br
t
ea pu = zeb an d = 0 6f then
'or
...(1 72)
h ~ s
#Per*t^in>e C0nc^u<^e<i from th e foregoing an aly sis th a t tran sfo rm ers of different sizes can he
provided th e ir p er u n it im pedances are equal in m ag n itu d e and q u ality w e
(ii t v angle
^**haabee^ uo^ a£e ratios. U n eq u al secondary em fs give rise to circu latin g c u rre n t on no
N i n Pro n e * ^ a *ne(* before. W hen th e load is connected, th e tra n sfo rm e rs s h a re th e load
^ ^ resulta i0n ^ e *r ra tin g s which fu rth e r depends upon th e ir leakage im ped an-
and th Icu rren ^ *n any tra n sfo rm e r is equal to th e p h aso r sum of th e circu latin g
^°Nter °a(^ cu rre n t sh a re d by it. In Fig. 1.52, E a and E b are assu m ed in p h ase w ith
to be ha > ^ ° ac^ c u rre n ^ A logging th e term in al voltage V' by load p f an g le 0 ;< is
red equally by th e tra n sfo rm e rs. Since E a > E b, th e to tal c u rre n t sh a re d by
ww and .,
...(1.736)
to be obtained. As-
w.E
From these equations, la an“ b
s u m e Ea > Eb a s b e f o r e .
Ei
S u b t r a c t i o n o f Eq. (1.736) f r o m B q . (1.73a) g i v e usual
If
asy
i£ a — E b = I q Zea ~~^b *'eb Fig. 1.52. On-load parallel operationof
7 L z.n-(Ea-E b) two transformers with E„ >Eb- (1.736
••• h zCt>
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f Ib i n E q . ( 1 .7 3a ) g i v e s
7a z t a Z En ( Ea - E b) Z Ai
Ea - l a z m = IaZ +
z eb Zeb
Ea- E b gin ...(1.74a)
B
or /„ =
ztq+Z +^=
_
%eb
Zz _ _
z ea + zefc +
eer
^ e a Z eb
^
Also,
Eq ■Z'b +(Eq - Eb) ^
zeo 2e6 + Z (zeo + zcfe)
Eb K -E j ing ...(1.74 6)
S:
S im ila r ly ,
_ Z 2- 1, — . — , Zea Zeb
2j(, + Z + — Zea + zefc + y .ne
...(1.74c)
Ir
tr a n s
t
Z ea __
E i z ea- ( E a - E b) Z forme
...(1.74 d)
Also, 0 (1.791
z ea ' z e b ^ (z e a z eb)
impe <
T h e lo a d c u r r e n t I i s g iv e n b y
/ = / „ + /( , = E q n . ( 1 .7 4 b) + E q n . ( 1 .7 4 d) E
e9 uiu
Eq • z eb + E b • z m ...(1.75' Find
1=
zea " zeb "t Z (z ea 4" z eb)
S
T e r m in a l v o lt a g e , V=IZ
(fans
_ Eq ■Zfb +Eb ■Zm ...(1.76'
Zta z tb .
2 (Zca "t z eb)
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www.EasyEngineering.net I runs form ers 91
v' ± +± , i ) ^ +h
Z ca Z<b Z Z ea z eb
For more th a n tw o tr a n s f o r m e r s in p a ra lle l,
ww 1 1 1
— + — + — + ...+ =
''ea Z eb z e
1
'ea z eb Z ec ...(1.78)
w.E
Eqn. (1.78) is a p p lic a b le to a n y n u m b e r o f tr a n s f o rm e r s (or g e n e ra to rs ) in n a ra llo i
usually called p a ra llel-g en era to r th eo rem .
ft •
p a ra lle l a n d is
E a ~ 7a z ea ~ E b — I f ^ eb
En
4 2ea = E a —E b + If,Zeb
Addition o f /a zeb to b o th sid e s, g iv es gin
4 (4 a + z eb) = ( 4 + l b) Zeb + E a ~ E h eer
But
4 + 4 =/
ing
lJa —
—7i —
En - E *
— ^ eb= — + —
Z ea + z eb Z ea + z eb .ne ...(1.79 a)
Similarly,
In
Ea ~ Eb
t...(1.79 b)
i 46 t i
1 y Unt leakaao L tr a n s f o r m e r s h a v e e q u a l vo lta g e ra tio s. T h e m a g n itu d e o f th e ir
^ W i o o f f u / r / P T aLnCeS a re e q u a l b u t th e ir reactance t0 resista n ce ra tio s are 9 a n d 3.
> S°lution A d e liv e r e d <to tfie s u m o f th e ir in d iv id u a l k V A ra tin g s.
aflSf° ^ e r nequ-vr^ hia f x a m p le , r e f e r to F ig. 1.50. T h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e a n g le s o f th e
^ v a i e n t le a k a g e im p e d a n c e is
(Art. 1.13
92 Electrical Machinery
H ere z e a ~ Zeb. b
T he load c u rre n t /, from Fig. 1.50, is given by
1 =2 Ia c o s ^ =2 h (6 0 7 ) = 2 /„ (0 994)
ww ' ^ .
F x a m D le 1 47. A n um ber o f transform ers w ith equal voltage ratios are o p era tin g in paral
lel The m a g n itu d e o f their leakage im pedance voltage drops at rated cu rre" ts are not eci ual
.
m ltS T Z to tZ
loaded ? w.E kV A output o f these transform ers, a n y one o f th e m ov
En
h a s th e low est m ag n itu d e of th e eq u iv alen t im pedance voltage drop.
gin
Since th e tra n sfo rm e rs hav e equal voltage ratio s, th e ir e q u iv a le n t im p e d a n c e s are con
nected in p a ra lle l as in Fig. 1.43 (6 ) and th e voltage drop across z el> ze2. z ,3...m u s t be th e same.
eer
As th e load on th e parallel-connected tra n sfo rm e rs is in creased , th e c u r r e n t s h a re d by each
tra n sfo rm e r also in creases. W hen th e voltage drop across e q u iv a le n t le a k a g e im p ed an ces be
ing
comes equal to (Ize)n i, th e n tra n sfo rm e r 1 is fully loaded and is c a rry in g th e r a te d c u rre n t. But
th e o th e r tra n sfo rm e rs a re n ot loaded to th e ir full-load cap acity , b ecau se (Ize)fj\ is of th e lowest
m ag n itu d e.
.ne
W hen tra n sfo rm e r 1 is fully loaded, th e voltage drop acro ss o th e r le a k a g e im pedances is
t
also (Ize)fi\- F or tra n sfo rm e r 2, full load voltage drop (Iz e)fl2 w ould c a u se i t to d e liv e r its rated
(kVA )2 F o r voltage d rop ( Iz jp i across tra n s fo rm e r 2 , th e load s h a re d by it is g iv en by
S s " 1™ -
(Iz )
Similarly load shared by transformer 3 = -= \ x (kVA)3
The total kVA output from the parallel-connected transform ers is alm ost equal to the
numerical sum of their individual outputs, as is shown in Ex. 1.39.
^ Transformers 93
E%awple 1*48. Three 400 kV A, 1 1,000/6600 V, 50 H z single-phase transform ers gave the
M V g data, when operated a t rated current w ith their l.v. w indings short circuited.
' Transformer 1 : 360 V, 3025 w atts
Transformer 2 : 400 V, 3200 watts
Transformer 3 : 480 V, 3250 watts.
These three transform ers are operating in parallel w ith their p rim a ry voltage held constant
atn k v .
(a) W hat is th e g r e a t e s t lo a d a t u n ity p . f th a t ca n be p u t on th ese th ree tr a n s fo r m e r s in
parallel w ithout o v e r lo a d in g a n y o f th em ?
ww
Thus the greatest load th a t can be p u t on these transform ers w ithout overloading any one of
them is,
w.E
(kVA)r = (kVA), +
(/ 2 *)/72
(kVA), +
( / z e)/73
(kVA), + ...
3
asy
= 4 0 0 + 400 X 4 0 0 + 480 X 4 0 0 = 1 0 6 0 kVA
The total load operates a t u n ity p.f. and it is nearly tru e to say th a t tra n sfo rm er 1 is also
operating at unity p.f.
En
(b) Secondary ra te d c u rre n t = ~ ! r = 60.6 Amp
6 .6
gin
eer
Since transform er 1 is fully loaded, its secondary carries the rated cu rre n t of 60.6 A.
■nauTTvA*! L 4 9 ‘ (<l) Transf ° rm ers w ith eQual voltage ratios are operating in parallel. Show
ne hvA load shared by a n y one transform er is given by
t
n n
X Z sh
S l = ----—------= --------l------------
1
Z tk X 77 z ekpu Z
, *ek ' i Zekpu
Thp
(b) used have their u su a l m eanings.
ree> tw ° w in d in g transform ers have the follow ing leakage im pedances :
Transformer 1 : W 0 k VA, 0.02 p. u.
transform er 2 : 75 k V A , 0.03 p.u.
d) H r<XnsforTner 3 •' 50 kV A, 0.025 p. u.
°W wiU they share a load o f 225 kV A ?
T • Tn - h : : 1 ,,
ww
1 _JL.JL.X-- .
= 2 e l ‘ Ze2 ' 2 e3 ” 2** ^
w.E
r . r . -7 t = S i : S 2 : S 3 : ... 4.
or * ........... x
. jl . ; J L ; ...: i
” 2,1 ' 2,2 ' 2 ,, — Z™
asy
T he above relation can also be expressed a s
7, oor ri h, oor ri 3...
j ^ o^r ^ ^ ouri fx„. =
o rS l, . , o rS „
p p - -------- fp T
En
_ T
S i + S 2 + S 3 + ... + S* +
1 * .. ii V
or
S*
~~ n
t>/zek
ing
Y
i 7* i *
j i «
- i i
i e .ne
Since z,* V — is the ratio of impedances, the units in which they are expressed are »»»'
z ek
t
P° rtant' 7, S„ 1 1
71 ^ 1 V1 1
Y /* X 2e*X J ” Z ehp u. 2 - 2
Y i i eJt i ekP u-
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, r t 1131
j ransformers 95
For convenience, th e p ercen tag e leakage im pedances arc used.
4 (19/20) ~ 5 9 -2 kVA
S o = —
225
«m- ’3 5 ( 1 9 7 2 0 ) = 4 7 -4 kVA.
It is, therefore, seen t h a t tra n sfo rm er 1 is o v e r l o a d u
underloaded- This is due to th e fact th a t th e ir p u 1eak** r(\as tra n sformers 2 and 3 are
Sude. P l6akage lmPedances are not equal in mag-
ww
(ii)Since tran sfo rm er 1 h a s th e lowest l p a k ^
toits rated capacity, i.e. S j = 100 kVA.
j .
impedance, it will be the first to be loaded
w.E S j = 100 = I s*
asy "el pc
“ekpc (2 )
'1 9 '
v
20
j
En
or X s k = 190 kVA.
e 190
Oo —'
and
4(19/20)
= 50 kVA
gin
S;} “ 5(19/20) = 4 0 kVA>
Transformers 2 and 3 are seen to be underloaded by a considerable margin. eer
Alternatively, from Eq. (1.80),
ing
(kVA)r = £ S* = 100 + f
4
x 100 + 1 x 100
5
.ne
= 100 + |
o
x 75 + ~
Z.5
x 50 =
(iu) For successful p arallel operation of transform ers, their pu leakage impedances based
100kVA°Wn k^ r a t*n &s should be equal in m agnitude. It is given th a t leakage impedance of
190 kVA.
t
transform er is fixed a t 2%, therefore, 75 kVA and 50 kVA transform ers should have
4=^3 = 2%.
= 2%, z, 2 = 2 x ^ =1 %
and O 100 Jm
Z(3= ~50 =
1 _ 1 3 1 9
£ J _ “ 2 +8 +4 8
* ekpc
.yr • S x= 2 2 5 - = 1 0 0 kVA, S 2 = 75 kVA and S 3 = 50kVA.
2 (9 /8 )
4 #
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or
ww
Short-circuit p.f.,
z . = 0.03
- _n« • sin 6 « = 0.968.
cos 0* - . , •^ q^ = (Q Q075 + j 0 .029) p.u.
asy
(a) W hen u sin g p.u. s y ste m , th e v a lu e s o * ,i an z e2 r g u ita b le b a se kVA
kVA H ere th e common b a se kVA m a y be 2 0 0 kVA, 5 0 0 k V A y
C hoosing 500 kVA b a se arb itrarily, w e g e t
-
«i onn v ' En
= 500 0 0075 + j 0 .0 2 9 ) = 0 .0 1 8 7 5 + j 0 .0 7 2 5 = 0 .0 7 5 Z75.52’)
gin
200
500 (0.012 + j 0.0381) = 0.04 Z72.54"
2e2 500
2,1 + ze2 = 0-03 + j 0.11 = 0.114 Z74.74°.
eer
Total kVA,
S =^ = 700kVA
ing
S = 700Z - cos” 1 0.8 = 700 Z - 36.9°
s, =s -
— z e2
r =~ .ne
A
1 z el + z e2
- (700 Z - 36 9) 0 0 4 Z 72.54^_ = 2 4 5 0 z _ 3 9 v kVA
- (700 Z d b . 9 ) o n 4 Z 7 4 740
Transformers 97
e regulation, from Eq. (1.40), is given by t, cos e 2 + c, sin e,.
V^ l 8foriner1, th e voltage reg u latio n a t 1.225 p.u. current is
fortra = 1.225 (e,. cos e 2 + Er sin 0 2)
= 1.225 (0.0075 x 0.776 + 0.0290 x 0 631)
= 1.225 (0.024119) = 0.029546
= 0.029546
E2
V2 = (0.970454) (400) = 388.182 volts.
ww
,„d that can be delivered by the p a rallel com bination o f these two transformers w ithout over-
luadingany one ‘
Solution. For transform er 1 of 1000 kVA,
w.E
zei = (0 .0 2 + j 0.06) pu
For transformer 2 of 500 kVA,
zc2 = (0.025
Choose a base of 1000 kVA. asy
0.08) pu -
En
z ei = 0.02 + j 0.06 = 0.06325 Z71.5650
gin
Ze2 = "500" (° ° 2 5 + -/ 0 08) = 0 1 6 7 6 3 ^72.646°
Now
2*1 + 2*2 = 0.07 + j 0.22 = 0.2309 Z72.350
Si _ _ .. s eer
2 el + Ze2
ing
.ne
■■■Total kVA load, S = 1000 x = 1377.44 kVA
1 3818’ 2el/ = 0-06325) b ased on its own kVA mating is less th a n ze2 ( = 0.0838)
‘^sform erT 1 A r a tin S- T herefore, as th e load on th e parallel com bination is increased,
t
13?7.44_ 1000 —^377 f ir s t. So tra n s fo rm e r 2 s h a re s a load of
•t »44 kVA.
^ 8 exa^ P?SS’^ e ^oad on tw o tra n sfo rm e rs is 1377.44 kVA.
V d to 6 °an a^S° so^ved hy u sin g Eq. (1.80). For this, z el and zc2 should not be
^ rgest ,C°mmon base kVA. As z el < ze2, tra n sfo rm er 1 reaches its rated kVA first.
8 A load on both th e tra n sfo rm e rs, from Eq. (1.80), is
These two transform ers are connected in p a ra llel a n d 6600 V is a p p lied to 6„5 ^ :
Calculate , . ,
(а) no-load circulating current a n d the ohm ic loss caused y i an
(б ) no-load term inal voltage.
S o lu tio n , (a) L eakage im pedance should be expressed in ohm s on th e secondary side.
„ . 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 .
Full-load secondary c u rre n t of tra n sfo rm er A - ggo
ww
From Eqn. (1.66), circulating c u rre n t a t no-load is given by
*“t
w.E£ ' -o.os^VJi“i f ■286-78z- 72-72”A
C irculating cu rren t, Ia = 286.78 A and I b = - 286.78 A
asy
Ohmic loss due to circu latin g c u rre n t = 7t2 (rtu + rch)
En
= (286.78)2 x 0.01036 = 852.04 W
No-load secondary term in al voltage, V = E a - I a zea
gin
V = 230 - (286.78 Z - 72.72°) (0.00794 + j 0.0212)
= 230 - (286.78 Z - 72.72°) (0.02264 Z 69.450)
eer
= 230 - 6.482 + j 0.370 = 230 - 6.493 = 223.507 V.
E xam ple 1.53. A 500 kVA, 1-phase transform er A h a vin g 0.015 p u resistance, 0.05 pu
ing
leakage reactance is to share a load o f 750 kV A a t 400 V a n d a t 0.8 p f la g g in g w ith another 250
kVA, 1-phase transform er h a vin g 0.01 p u resistance a n d 0.05 p u leakage reactance. Their secon
dary no-load e .m .f s are 405 V a n d 415 V respectively. F in d
(a) circulating current a t no load .ne
(.b) current su p p lied by each tra n sform er a n d
(c) k VA, k W a n d p f o f each transform er.
t
S o lu tio n . F o r such n u m erical problem s, it is m ore co n v en ien t to w o rk in ohm ic values.
z = 0.2133 Z 3 6 .8 7 0 f t
zea + z eb ~ 0-0112 + j 0.048 = 0.0493 Z 7 6 .8 7 0 ft.
Transformers 99
'■’’^ c u r r e n t a t n o -b ad
tg la « n 8 E _ E"
4 1 5 -4 0 5
= 202.84 Z - 76.87° A
0.0493 Z76.870
urren t a t no load is 2 0 2 .84 A a t a p f o f cos 7 6 .8 7 ° = 0 .2 2 7 lag.
. circulating^ ^ = Q q 1 6 7 ^ 73 3 o x o 0 3 6 z7 8 i6 9 o
(M ^ ' = 0 .0 0 0 5 4 4 Z 1 5 1 .9 9 0 = - 0 .0 0 0 4 8 + j 0 .0 0 0 2 5 5 5
+ z ) = (0 .2 1 3 3 Z 3 6 .8 7 0) (0 .0 4 9 3 Z 7 6 .8 7 °)
Z(Zta ‘ b = 0 .0 1 0 5 2 Z 1 1 3 .7 4 0 = - 0 .0 0 4 2 3 5 + j 0 .0 0 9 6 3 Q
E • Ztb = 4 0 5 * 0 0 3 2 6 z 7 8 6 9 ° = 13 2 0 3 ^ 7 8 .6 9 ° = 2 .5 8 9 + j 12.947
v I = 4 1 5 x 0 .0 1 6 7 Z 7 3 .3 ° = 6 .9 3 Z 7 3 .3 0 = 1.99 + / 6 .6 3 7
Ejb ' *ca
hared by tr a n sfo r m e r A , from E qn. ( 1 .7 4 (6 ) ), is
^ _ Ea z eh + (Ea - E h) Z
ww
° ' z cb E (Zca + Zeb)
2 .5 8 9 + / 1 2 .9 4 7 + (4 0 5 - 4 1 5 ) (0 .2 1 3 3 Z 3 6 .8 7 0)
= - 0 .0 0 0 4 8 + j 0 .0 0 0 2 5 5 5 - 0 .0 0 4 2 3 5 + j 0 .0 0 9 6 3
w.E0 .8 8 2 6 + j 1 1 .6 6 7 _ 11.7 Z 8 5 .6 7 °
" - 0 .0 0 4 7 1 5 + j 0 .0 0 9 8 6 6 " 0 .0 1 0 9 5 3 Z 1 1 5 .5 °
= 1 0 6 8 .2 Z - 2 9 .8 3 ° A
gin
;. Currents supplied by tra n sfo rm er A and B are respectively 1068.2 A and 797.72 A.
c ai*r? nsf ° rm ers, o p era ted in p a ra llel, are connected to a load o f im pedance
''•harlri the reactarice to be connected in series w ith transform er B so that load
d u a lly between the two.
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S o lu tio n . H ere z m = 0 .4 + j 2 .2 ft
L et th e to tal reactan ce of tran sfo rm er B be x ft. This gives
zeb = 0 6 + jx ft
From Eqn. (1.74 (b)) an d ( 1 .7 4 (d)), we get
h Ea ■Zeb + (£', ~ E b) Z
h, E b ■2CO- (Ec, - E b) Z
_ 5 1 0 (0.6 + y x) + (510 - 500) (5 + 7 3) ,
500 (0.4 + j 2.2) - (510 - 500) (5 + j 3) I
D iv id in g th e n u m era to r and d en o m in a to r by 500, w e g et I
. _ 1.02 (0.6 + j x ) + 0.02 (5 + y'3) 1
ww 0 .7 1 2 2 + (1.02 x + 0 .0 6 )2 = 0 .3 2 + (2 .1 4 )2
1.02 x + 0.06 = V4.163 = 2.0403
or
w.E x = 1.9415 ft
.•. E xtern a l reactance to be connected in serie s w ith th e tran sform er
B = x - 1.7 = 1.9415 - 1.7 = 0.2 4 1 5 ft.
asy
1.14. T a p -C h a n g e rs o n T r a n s f o r m e r s
En
T he m odern eq u ip m en ts, u tilisin g electrical energy, are d esig n ed to op erate satisfactorily
at one voltage level. It is, therefore, o f p aram ou n t im portance to k eep th e c o n su m e rs’ terminal
gin
voltage w ith in th e prescribed lim its. T he transform er ou tp ut v o lta g e and h en ce th e consumers'
term inal volta g e can be controlled by providing tap s eith er on th e prim ary or on th e secondary.
T he p rinciple o f reg u la tin g th e secondary ou tp ut voltage is based on ch a n g in g th e number
eer
of tu rn s in th e prim ary or secondary. Let V h N, and V2, N 2 be th e p rim ary and secondary
. f v \ ! “
q u a n tities. I f TV, is d ecreased , e m f per turn on prim ary
ing =~ in crea ses, th erefore, secondary °]
.ne
ou tp ut voltage (V,/TV,) N 2 in crea ses. On the oth er h a n d / if JV2 is in creased k eep in g TV, constant,
the secon d ary o u tp u t v o lta g e {VX/ N X) N 2 a lso in creases. In oth er w ords, d ecrea sin g primary
tu rn s TV, h as th e sa m e effect as th a t o f in crea sin g th e secon d ary tu rn s N 2
The taps which help in altering the turns ratio, m ay be placed on the prim ary or secondary side.
The choice between the two sides should be based on m aintaining the voltage per turn constant, as far
as possibie. If prim ary voltage per turn decreases, the core flux decreases and this results in poor
t
utilisation o f the core, though core losses are reduced. On the other hand, if prim ary voltage per turn
increases, th e core flux increases and this results in m agnetic saturation o f the core, more core losses,
increased m agnetizing current and pronounced third harmonic. In transform ers at the generating
stations, the prim ary voltage can be kept alm ost constant, consequently the taps should be provided
on the secondary side If transform er is energised from a variable voltage source, as at the receiving
end of a transm ission line, th e taps should be provided on the primary side.
O th er factors, d escrib ed below , m ay also be tak en in to co n sid era tio n , w h ile deciding upon
th e sid e to be provided w ith tap s.
(<) T ran sform ers w ith la rg e tu rn s ratio, are tapped on th e h .v. sid e sin ce th is enables a
sm o o th er control o f th e o u tp u t vo lta g e. On th e o th er h an d, ta p s on th e l.v. w in d in g , vary output
vo lta g e in large s te p s, w hich is u su a lly u n d esira b le.
(//) T a p -ch a n g in g g ea r on th e h.v. sid e w ill h a v e to h a n d le low cu rren ts, th ou gh more insula
tion w ill h a v e to be provided.
Transformers 101
w-1w V',
1 Rudiat force
1
w
1 — 1
1 1.E
1
1 Radial force
En
of w in d in g , ‘
(a)
gin
Fig. 1.53. (a) Radial force, (fc) Effect of providing tapped coils at the end of a winding
eer
changer as shown in Fig. 1.53 (6 ); axial forces, in addition to radial forces, are also developed^
Under short circuit conditions, th e ax ial forces ten d in g to com press th e cods axia y, *
ing
large. In order to obviate th is, th e p hysical position of th e tapped coils should ^ ‘he micMle
of winding, so th a t no axial forces a rise a fte r som e tu rn s a re cut out. ^ e c tn c a lly
changer is connected w h ere th e vo ltag e to n e u tra l is m inim um , or exa™P '
nected transformer, th e ta p p e d en d of th e w indings a re connected to form th e s ta r point
though
g
.ne
Physically the tap p ed coils a re placed in th e m iddle of th e w inding, see Fig. 1.54. T h is however
Tapped p a rt
of w inding
S ta r p oint
lA rt. i. 14
102 Electrical Machinery
• i j frorKsfnrmers w here it is electrically essential to pro
is n o t possible in case of delta-connected tran sfo rm , rem oved from the. i-
vide th e ta p p e d coils, in th e m iddle so th a t th e tap -ch an g m g g e a r is far rem oved Irom the 1,„6
an d lig h tn in g su rg es. . . . . ,
I f th e tap -c h an g e r is designed to op erate w ith ^ p e rT te w ith th e transform eri J
o ff load (or no-load) tap-changer. A tap -ch an g er gn
circuit, is called on-load tap-changer.
1.14.1. N o -L o ad (o r off-load) ta p c h a n g e r . This ta p changer »
variations. An elementary form of n o -loadtap c l e q u a l to th e n u m b er of studs. The
mflrkpH from nr\G
m arnea irom one to
to six
six. The
m e *windings is t&ppcci
rr 3 t six p > 4 n ary stu d,s arran g edj m
m «r kpd statio * circle
•
tapping leads are connected to six corresponding y - tra n s fo rm e r sav on th
The face plate carrying th e six studs, can be m ounted anyw here on th e tra n sfo rm e r, say on the
yoke or on any“ Z convenient place. T he ro ta ta b le arm R can be ro ta te d by m ean s of hand,
w heel, from outside th e ta n k .
If th e w inding is tap p ed a t 2.5% in terv als, th e n w ith th e ro ta ta b le arm ,
ww(i) a t stu d s 1 , 2
(ii) a t stu d s 2 , 3
; full w inding is in c ir c u i t;
; 9 7 .5 % of th e w inding is in c ir c u i t;
w.E
(iii) a t stu d s 3 , 4 ; 9 5 % of th e w inding is in c ir c u it;
(m) a t stu d s 4 , 5 ; 92.5% of th e w inding is in c ir c u it; and
(v ) a t stu d s 5 , 6 ; 90% of th e w inding is in circuit.
asy
S to p S fixes th e fin a l p o sitio n and
p re v e n ts th e arm R from being ro ta te d
clockwise. In th e absence of stop S, th e
arm R m ay come in contact w ith stu d s 1 En
and 6 . In such a case, only th e low er p a rt
of th e w inding is cut out of circuit and th is gin
is u n d e s ira b le from m e c h a n ic a l-s tre s s
considerations.
eer
The tap-changing m ust be carried out
only after th e transform er is disconnected
ing
from th e supply. Suppose arm R is a t studs
1 and 2. For bringing arm R a t studs 2 and
.ne
t
3 , the transform er is first de-energised and
then th e arm R is rotated to bridge studs 2
and 3. After this, transform er is switched
on to th e supply and now 97.5% of th e w ind Fig. 1.55. No-load tap changer.
ing rem ain s in circuit.
1.14.2. O n -lo a d t a p - c h a n g e r . T his tap -ch an g er is used for d aily or s h o rt period voltage
alteratio n s. T he o u tp u t voltage can be re g u la te d w ith th e ch a n g e r, w ith o u t a n y supply inter
ru p tio n s. D u rin g th e o peration of an on-load ta p ch a n g e r ;
(i ) th e m ain circu it should not be opened o th erw ise d a n g e ro u s s p a rk in g will occur and
(ii) no p a r t of th e tap p ed w inding should g e t sh o rt-circu ited .
O ne form of e le m e n ta ry on load tap -c h a n g e r is illu s tra te d in Fig. 1 .56 (a). T he centre tapped
reacto r C p re v e n ts th e tap p ed w ind ing from g e ttin g sh o rt-c irc u ite d . T h e tra n sfo rm e r tapp»n^
are connected to th e correspondingly m ark ed se g m e n ts 1 to 5. Two m o v ab le fingers A and
connected to cen tre-tap p ed re ac to r via sw itches x* an d y , m a k e c o n ta c t w ith a n y one of the seg
m en ts u n d e r n o rm al o p eration.
T ra n s fo rm e r s 103
L.T. H.T.
O (o
fc
O o oo
a
oo -Is Supply
5
oo g=> Term inals
oJ
C r-H
ww o
O
o
o 3
o
co
oo
c*
w1 .E3
a
o |
h
C i------ 1
Rf
o
oo
o
c*
L.
—' a L
asy r—. B r
En
c* o 2
o
>o
o
" i 2C Z
•+-m
LI gin ei
“ 0 lv)
X
eer
(a) O n -lo ad ta p -c h a n g e r. ta p p in g 1 to ta p p in g 2.
F ig. 1.56.
^ m_______
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104 via
E lectrical M cminnery
ach eij —
P \iv ) Open switch x. The en tire c u rre n t s ta r ts flow ing th r o u g h t h e u p p e r h a lf of the reactor,
manifested by a large voltage drop, Fig. 1.56 (b-iv).
(v) Move the finger A from segment 1 to segment 2 and then close switch x. The winding
between taps 1 and 2 is, therefore, completely out of circuit, Fig. 1.56 (b -u ). I f further change in
voltage is required, the above sequence of operations is repeated.
th e sw itcnes
For large power transform ers, tn itches x a n da y m ay be c ir cuuw
ue circ it--u
b re
r ea K
k eers
rs..
Another form of on-load tap-changer, also p rovided w ith a c e n tr e - ta p p e d reactor, is il
lustrated in Fig. 1.57. The function of the reacto r is a g a in to p r e v e n t th e sh o rt-c irc u it of the
tapped winding. The switches 1, 2,..., 5 are connected to th e c o rre s p o n d in g ly m a rk e d taps
ww
The switch S in Fig. 1.57 is closed d u rin g norm al C>I"T'
operation. With switches 2 ,3 ,4 ,5 opened and sw itch
HT
w.E
1 closed, the entire winding is in circuit. H ere again
the two halves of the reactor, carry h a lf of th e to tal
current m opposite directions. In changing from ta p terminals
1 to tap 2 , the following sequence of operations is
earned o u t :
asy
i °,Pu n SW“ Ch
En s ■Now to ta l c u r re n t flows
more voltage d ro p “ ' “ “ " “ *»
gin
-
eer
ing
Centre-tapped
reactor
more voltage drop. d there >s
(iv) Close switch S Thp tntoi
equally between the upper and l o n ' T ? ™ fl°WS
reactor. lower halves of the Fig. 1.57. On-load tap-changer. .ne
For changing from tap 2 to tan 3 th k
changer^feff v a n a ^lo n d u r in g t a p - c h a n c i SG^Uence o f °P e r a ti° n s is rep ea te d .
t
* N C PT ° d ° n the prim ary sid e L e f ° ° n ' lo a d t a p - c h a n g e r s . A s s u m e th e tap
- number of t u r n s 1
V -
= oa.
For Fig. 1.56 (b-i) and (b-U) « *~ -5
>^ocondnry voltoge
V V i - I X ,.
%2 = —5 - L \r
/V, iV*
Transformers 105
V M
5 = N~2 N * = 0e-
These secondary voltages Vsl to Vs5 are indicated in Fig. 1.58, It may
be seen that the m agnitude of o u tp u t voltage first decreases from oa to
ob and finally increases to oe = Vs5. The voltage changes ab, be, cd and
ww
de in Fig. 1.58 are shown m uch larg er for clarity sake.
Example 1.55. A 100 kV A transform er is provided w ith tap-changer Fig. 1.58. Variation of
asy
The per unit leakage im pedance o f the transform er is 0.0075 + j 0.09.
Solution, (a) Taking ra te d kVA of th e transform er as the base kVA a load of 90 kVA
r ^ e ^ u to k V A tth e S S J E f t ? En ^ * 9° ^ M
P.u. voltage drop or p.u. voltage regulation
gin
= 0.9 [rp u cos Q2 + xpm sin 0 2]
eer
= 0.9 [0.0075 x 0.8 + 0.09 x 0.6] = 0.9 [0.06] = 0.054 p.u. or 5.47,.
ing
( l w, 6 ™ m ber tu rn s in th e p rim ary w inding should be tapped down by 5 47 ,
« A load of 100 kW or 1 00/0.8 = 125 kVA is equivalent to a load of 1.25 p u '
" U' Vo*tage drop or p.u. voltage regulation
.ne
Thu th
gXa
= L 2 5 [0 ° 0 7 5 X 0 8 + 0 0 9 * 0 61 = 0 0 7 5 or 7.57,
um ber of tu rn s in th e p rim ary w inding should be tapped down by 7 .57 ,.
,h'-eP ^ e s ta r lln n
t
1.110'433 k V tra^ fo r m e r is provided w ith a tap changer A
to
= ^ r = 2 3 iv -
P e r p h ase voltage th a t m u st be m aintained a t transform er l.v. term in als
= 231 + 34.05 = 265.05 V
At no load, th e tra n sfo rm ers l.v. term inal voltage
ww ^ = 250 V.
T ap settin g = ^ 50 ” * 1 00 = 6 0^
.
asy
T ap down if th e tapped coils are on the h.v. side or tap up if the tapped coils are on the l.v.
side.
En
gin
eer
ing
th e ^ o r " o »
.ne
^ o 'T e t a U o o n e p o l
Transformers 107
Prim ary
winding,Ni
turns
Compensating
w inding,N c
— turns
T
%
P rim a ry
win ding a x i s
Secondary
winding, N2
tu rn s
Compensating
winding axis
Fl-
ww (a)
J 59. (o) S in g le -p h a se ind uction regulator, (ft) Connection
diagram In both the figures, secondary
'
induced e.m.
w.E
l.f. £ 2 is m axim u m and ou tp u t voltage is V ) £ 2 -
• 1/
winding is m a x im u m a n d th e o u tp u t vo ltage i , 2
show n in F ie 1 59 <i>) If th e p rim ary
m axim um , b u t o f rev ersed
U rotated th ro u g h 18 0 ” Fig. 1 .6 0 to
asy
h e s e c o n d a r y ^ E ^ ^ com pensating w inding is not
polarity. T h e o u tp u t v o lta g e is t h erefo re . 2- th e ,r m agnetic ax es a re fixed
En
at all effected b y p r im a r y w in d in g , sm c e b o th a re on th e r
in quadrature.
Assume th e ro to r to be r o ta te d clockw ise ro g
1 59(b). T he m a g n itu d e o f v o ltag e is £ 2 co s« , gin
a n «rle 0 from its position show n in Fig.
1.60 ( 6 ) and th e o u tp u t v o ltag e is
m M Condary w ,„ d in g . is
eer
s e c o n d a r y
e2
Vr-Vr £2
VE2
(o)
ww x p-'K&ttUTsftrtnns^—♦
w.E
V-v, ^ -V 2=V,+E2cos9
'------------ 1 90° e 2=o
------
O 5 *
asy
ot o
o
o ! >
o V
o
o
o
En D
o V
? *
9()°
\< h
180
Q
Io
—« - <
gin 0 in deg.
(c)
eer <d)
Fig. 1.60. Effect of rotor m ovem ent on the output voltage.
Transformers 109
ww
(o) (h)
Fig. 1.61. Single-phase induction regulator (a) currents and mmfs and (b ) phasor diagram for currents.
w.E
closely a th re e -p h a se slip -rin g induction motor. The rotor carries th e p rim ary w ind
ing and the sta to r h as th e secondary w inding as in th e case of single-phase type. T h ree-p h ase \\
asy
primary winding is connected in s ta r, w hereas the 3-phase secondary is connected in series
with the load as show n in Fig. 1.62. In large sizes, th e induction regulator is oil-im m ersed in
a tank like an o rd in ary tra n sfo rm e r. Rotor m ovem ent is carried out in the sam e m an n er as in
a single-phase induction reg u lato r.
En
gin
When the induction voltage reg u lato r is connected to 3-phase supply, th ree-p h ase cu rre n ts
in the three phase p rim a ry w inding produce a co n stan t am plitude ro tatin g m agnetic field as in
I
eer
a 3-phase induction m otor. T h is ro ta tin g m agnetic field induces e.m.fs. in th e secondary w ind
ing whose m agnitudes depend only on th e ratio of prim ary to secondary tu rn s and are inde
pendent of the rotor position. W hen th e rotor position is changed w ith respect to stato r, th e
ing
magnitude of secondary e.m .fs. rem ain s co n stan t but th eir phase is altered w ith respect to
primary voltages. T he o u tp u t voltage V2 is th e phasor sum of prim ary voltage V x and th e con
stant secondary e.m.f. E 2 induced by th e ro ta tin g m agnetic field. For fixed p rim ary voltage, the
locus of output voltage V 2 is a circle w ith centre a t the tip of phasor V x and of rad iu s E 2. T hus .ne
maximum output voltage V2 = V X+ E 2 is obtained w hen E 2 is in phase w ith V x and m inim um
voltage V2 = Vj - E 2 is av ailab le w hen E 2 is in phase opposition to V x. For interm ed iate values
ofoutput voltage V2, th e re is a p h ase displacem ent betw een V x and V2. It m ay be seen from Fig.
t I
*•62(6) that
y 2 = V(V x + E 2 cos 0)2 + (E 2 sin
nd the phase d isplacem ent angle a betw een V x and V2 is
- 1 E 2 sin 0
a = ta n .. r _ n
Vj + E 2 cos 0
of ^ere ®*s the angle b etw een p rim a ry w inding axis and secondary winSm g axis. The value
and 9 = 0° w hen V2 = V X+ E 2
p . 0 = 180°
VJ —J .O V J w
W hen
i l d I \» \^ = Vrj1 - E L2.
the three-phases
**** sh * ^ ^ r efers to o n e-p h ase of th e regulator. The phasor diagram for
oltages respectively.
0Wn ^ Fig. 1.63, w h ere A B C an d abc Are th e in p u t and o u tp u t volt;
canner www.EasyEngineering.net
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ww
w.E
Note th a t th ere is phase displacem ent betw een th e supply line an d o u tp u t voltages which may
be objectionable in some applications.
asy
I t is seen from above th a t 3-phase induction reg u lato r differs from th e single-phase induc
tion regulator as follows :
En
(а) In single-phase regulator, th e secondary voltage E 2 induced by th e a lte rn a tin g flux is
gin
always in phase with V^. The m agnitude of E 2 varies as th e ro to r position is changed with
respect to stator.
t
Scanne www.EasyEngineering.net
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Transformers 111
S o lu tio n . M ag n itu d e of m axim um secondary induced
400
6 = I T = 80 v -
• Output voltage limits = 400 ± 80 V Tl .
tages are 480 V a n d 320 V respectively. axim um and m inim um values of output vol-
Rating of secon d ary w in d in g = (Load current) (Maximum voltage variation from norm al)
10 x 80
= T o o o ~ = 0 -8 k v A-
Neglecting no-load c u rre n t, p rim ary w inding current
_ 10 x 80
400 = 2 A
... P rim ary line c u rre n t = (O u tp u t current) + (Prim ary winding current)
= 10 + 2 = 12 A.
ww
E x a m p le 1 .5 8 .T he voltage a t the end o f a 3-phase feeder delivering 100 kVA varies between
380 and 460 volts. For how m a n y kV A m u st an induction regulator be designed to m aintain the
voltage constant a t 430 V.
w.E
Solution. P e r p h a se load c u rre n t = -l-Q0,990- A
v3 x 430
asy
Voltage a t th e o u tp u t side of reg u lato r = 430 V.
Maximum v a ria tio n o f voltage from 430 V = 430 - 380 = 50 V.
kVA r a tin g of in d u ctio n reg u lato r
En
( 100,000 ^ 50x100
= V3 (50)
73x430 430
gin
kVA = 11.63 kVA.
eer
between the lim its o f V x ± E 2- V 1 is the supply voltage and E 2 is the m agnitude o f secondary
induced e.m.f. For V 1 = 400 V, E 2 = 50 V, load = 8 kW, load p.f.= 0.8 and overall efficiency o f
0.85, calculate the ra tin g o f the p rim a ry w inding and the secondary winding.
ing
S o lu tio n . In p u t c u r re n t = ^ x O . s t T s S x 400 = 16 9 8 A
.ne
M in im u m o u t p u t v o l t a g e =
M a x im u m o u t p u t c u r r e n t = ^
400 - 50 = 350 V.
x x 350 = 1^ ’5 °
t
• • R a tin g o f t h e s e c o n d a r y w i n d i n g
= V3 x 50 x 16.50 = 1.429 kVA.
The p r im a r y w i n d i n g h a s to c a r r y (i) c u r r e n t in d u c e d in it b y tr a n s fo r m e r a c tio n d u e to
secondary c u r r e n t a n d (ii) t h e d if f e r e n c e o f in p u t c u r r e n t a n d o u t p u t c u r r e n t.
Minimum o u tp u t c u r re n t
8000 = 12.83 A.
V3 x 0.8 x 450
•• M aximum p rim a ry w in d in g c u rre n t
. j 4. (Innlit cu rren t - M inim um o u tp u t current)
= P rim a ry induced c u rre n t + (in p u t curre
= 12.83 x 50 + (1 6 9g _ 12.83) = 1.60 + 4.15 = 5.75 A.
400
(A rt. l . i 6
112 Electrical Machinery
sin £ ( 1 2 0 °)
- = - ( 0 . 866 )
71 71
i < 120’>x 180
.-. M agnitude of m axim um secondary induced e.m.f. E 2
= V2 n f N • <t>k
N
/. Lim it of o u tp u t voltages
71 /
asy
= 30 x 38.6 = 1.158 kVA.
1.16. T ran sform er as a M agn etically C ou pled C ircu it
En
In th is article, th e eq uivalent-circuit m odel of a tw o-w inding tra n sfo rm e r is developed and
th e n com pared w ith th a t o b tained already in A rt. 1.6. H ere th e tra n s fo rm e r is tre a te d as a
gin
m u tu ally coupled circuit in w hich th e voltage and c u rre n t re la tio n s are ex p re sse d m term s ot
resistan ces an d indu ctan ces. As before, th e m agnetic s a tu ra tio n is n eg lected , i.e. th e core is
eer
assu m ed to h av e c o n sta n t p erm eab ility. T he p re s e n t tre a tm e n t of th e tra n s fo rm e r gives a
physical significance of th e equ iv alen t-circuit p a ra m e te rs, in te rm s of th e tra n s fo rm e r mag
ing
netic fields. In a w ay, th is article su p p lem en ts th e p re se n ta tio n of A rt. 1.6 a n d probably leads
to a b e tte r ap p reciatio n of th e p a ra m e te rs involved in th e tra n s fo rm e r e q u iv a le n t circuit.
.ne
In Fig. 1.64, a tw o-w inding tra n sfo rm e r is show n, w h ere r x a n d r 2 a re re s is ta n c e s of primary
a n d seco n d ary w in d in g s resp ectiv ely . T he ap p lied vo ltag e v x e s ta b lis h e s c u r r e n t ix in the
t
p rim a ry w inding. W hen c u rre n t i x is actin g alone, to ta l flux (j^ is produced. T h is p rim ary flux
<♦>! lin k s a ll th e p r im a r y t u r n s a n d is m ad e u p of tw o c o m p o n e n t flu x e s <}>ml a n d <t>n, i-c-
Fig. 1.64. M utual and leak age flu x es in a tw o-w in d in g transform er.
w.E .
v i = r il i + ~dT
^¥1
...(1.82)
Substitution of Vt in Eq. (1.82) gives
asy f.
Vl = riil + d t
En ...(1.83)
gin
The self inductance of a w in d in g is defined as th e to tal flux lin k ag e w ith a w in d in g p e r
ampere in the sam e w inding. T herefore, th e Belf-inductance of p rim a ry w in d in g is,
_
L x ---- ^— or eer
ing
The mutual inductance is defined as th e flux lin k ag e w ith a w inding p e r a m p e re in a n o th e r
mutually-coupled w inding. T h u s th e m u tu a l in d u ctan ce of th e p rim a ry w in d in g is,
M ^l4>m2 .ne
M u = — ----
*2
Here N flm2 is th e flux lin k ag e w ith th e p rim a ry w inding due to c u rre n t i2 in th e se c o n d a ry
S-
t
Similarly, A/ = - 2* ” 1
h
^°r mutually-coupled circu its,
, 3 f 12 —M 2j —M.
N iK 2 = M i2 a n d N 2$ml = M i1
ubstitution of th e v alu es o f N f a a n d in Eq. (1.83), gives
v \ = r li l + ^ { L li l - M i £
. . d ix di<i
...(1.84)
(Art i,16
ll4 Electrical^Machinery---------------- " T ^ ^ T T ^ s u l t a n t m u tu a l flu x linkages wi,h
T h e flu x lin k a g e w ith th e s e c o n d a r y ^ ■ ' (R* "
seco n d a ry ) + (L ea k a g e flu x lin k a g e s w ith secon d ary) tb<
. = W 24' + W - W = - W
= Ar24 'm l- W2<(tlm2 + W
or Vg2 = w 2 -N th . th flt ,s o p p o sin g th e r e s u lta n t mutual a * 71.1
T h e m in u s s ig n b efore <fo2 1S d ue to
dy2
= r2i2 + v 2
dt
or
N 2 tym\
ww
N 2 $2
L2 = and M -
S in ce h
w.E
dt
(M i1 - L 2i2) = r 2i2 + y2
...(1.85)
asy
_M — + ^ + r2t2 + y2 - 0
or dt & n d ( i 8 5 ) is illu stra ted in Fig.
A m a g n etica lly coupled circu it w h ich sa trsfies E qs. (1 .8 4 , a n d (1 .8 5 ,
1 6 5 11' P En
(1 8 5 ) is for th e secon d ary sid e o f th e tra n sfo rm er. T h is ca n be referred to
V o lta g e Eq. (1 . ^
p rim ary sid e b y m u ltip ly in g it w ith th e tu rn s ratio ^ gin E q . ( 1 .8 5 ) w h en referred
/• \
. r d il TUTA . H
v 1= r lh + L l d t ~ o M d t
" fc S I
A.
•. * 1
th right h an d sid e o f above eq u ation , subtract aM from second term and add it to
^ t b ^ term
...(1-87)
v l = r 1i i + (Ll - a M ) —
and
i nfivplv coupled circu it for a tw o-w inding transform er, sa tisfy in g Eqs. (1.86)
' S t a t e d i n F i g - 1 6 5 (6).
^ Eqs. (1.86) and (1.87) should be exam ined farther.
The terni cm ^
10 w JVX N 2« W _ A M w
aM = Try ;------- — -■-----
^2 *1 ll
The mutual flu x lin k a g e (h ere N ^ ml) w ith a w inding per am pere in th e sa m e w in d in g is
ailed the magfletizing inductance, sym bol L m. ;
= L'm l
ww
aM = —
„ . ’ . WiOi , * _ *
Also L ,- a J f = L 1- L „ , = - ^ ^ --tti ♦»!>
w.E
The leakage inductance is defin ed as th e leakage flux link age (here AT,*,,) w ith a w in d in g
per ampere in th e sa m e w in d in g .
asy
. i _ aM = i l - L ml = l l = prim ary lea k a g e inductance.
" 1 ,
Similarly (az L 2 - a M ) = a
2f .
u - -
a
M'l
En
=a J
N 2 ^ l^m2
• = a 2 (L2 - L m2)gin
L2 N X 12
. 2/
eer
= a 2 (secondary lea k a g e inductance) = a l2.
ing
The current flow in g th ro u g h m a g n etizin g inductance aM or L mi o f ^ i ^ e toss
.ne
(primary current ^ -seco n d a ry cu rren t referred to p n m ary, i.e. r2/o ) . S m ce th e core lo w
116 E le c tr ic a l M a c h in e r y
I l f ri
_ N 1 K i =th
(Nli
N ow aM = Lm 1= h ‘i 2
S im ila rly ,
... T h e r e s u l t a n t core flux * M U . - - w in d in g h ^ . W] (N , . N, ^
*2
ww T h u s, th e r e s u lt a n t m u tu a l flux lm k a g ^ ^ —I/ml lm
7 /^
*1“ a
P P ffultant m u tu a l flu x lin k a g e
P
or
w.E • ,
L mi = ~i
* I f
H ence th e m a g n etizin g f i a n c e ^
- M a g n e tiz in g c u r r e n t
iviaBuctrxxea**fo---------
ta k e s care o f th e r e s u lta n t core flu x <)>. Similarly, the
^ ^ a n d ^ re sp e c tiv e ly .
le a k a g e in d u cta n ces l x and /2
asy
For sin u so id a l applied vo lta g e, th e e q u iv a le n
t rirru it o f F ig 1 . 6 6 (a) is draw n in Fig. 1.66
^ a s b efore th e id ea l transformer
(6), w h ere th e tu rn -ratio a is a s s ^ e d fo r sm
En y^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ respectlVely
is n o t sh ow n . N o te th a t h ere le g
an d th e m a g n e tiz in g reactan ce, X m = o £ ml. T h e e n
gin tra n sfo rm er core lo s s can be accounted
u ■ ta n ce
for by a r e sista n c e i i c ,2 ^
eer
B in p a ra llel w ith X . . H ere is th e core lo s s an d is th e core
ing
b een referred to, m u st be k ep t in m in d . f r m .s . valuesas
For sin u so id a l a p p lied voH age Vx, E q n . (1 .8 9 ) m a y be e x p r e s s e d m te r m s o f r.m
.ne
V\ = rx1\ + j CO^i /1 + j tnLml ’ Im
= l l ( r x + j x x) + j inLmi-Im
. ,v third term
t (1.91)
F ir s t tw o te r m s o f E q n . (1 .9 1 ) a g r e e w ith E q n . (1 .2 1 ). L e t u s e x a m in e e
(aL mj . Im. It h a s b een proved a b o v e th a t
T _
L m\ _ T
lm
R .m .s. v a lu e o f m u tu a l flu x lin k a g e s , N x ^ - L ' m l ‘ ^m‘
and
<t>n
(nNi • <j) = 2nf- N x • = 'f o n f N j • <j)maJt
Transformers 117
t i - t f U - — ------------------------ • '
^ T ^ t h e s a m e as E q n . (1 .4 ).
^ S. r = coNi • <t>= V2tc/'TVi • <J>max = E h e.m .f. in d u ced in p rim a ry w in d in g .
.. (flLml ' i/n
1 64, if v o lta g e u2 is a p p lied to th e w in d in g h a v in g N 2 tu rn s, th e n cu rre n t i 2 is s e t up.
v x = r li 1 + L l - ^ + M ~ ...(1 .9 2 a )
at at
d i 2 ^^ di^
Vn —Tilo "*■Lto
and
It may be re c a lle d t h a t E q s. (1 .9 2 a ) a n d (1 .9 2 6 ) a r e tr u e o n ly w h e n t h e m a g n e tic s a t u r a t i o n
tected . S im ila r e q u a tio n s a r e u s e d q u ite f r e q u e n tly in g e n e r a liz e d th e o r y o f e le c tr ic a l
S dmies and in C h a p t e r 2 o n e le c tr o - m e c h a n ic a l e n e rg y c o n v e rs io n p rin c ip le s .
ww
It has alre a d y b e e n s h o w n t h a t t h e m u t u a l in d u c ta n c e b e tw e e n tw o c irc u its is g iv e n by
w.E
M =
, ,
s------- =
h
N 1^ 2
h
:-------
NiOta - <J>/2)
asy
=— n—
En
N2_i2 A _ AJ. . N xN 2 gin
Also M = —— --------- N x N 2 A = ^
eer
ing
An examination of the above expressions for M reveals that the mutual inductance between
two circuits can be increased by the following methods :
(t) Increase in the number of primary turns N v
Hi) Increase in the number of secondary turns N 2. .ne
(iii) Increase in the permeance A (or decrease in the reluctance RI) offered to the mutual
flux.
to) Decrease in the leakage flux. The leakage flux between two windings can be reduced or
t
emutual inductance increased, by arranging the two windings as close to each other as is
Possible.
4>i-4>n ...(1.93)
4>i
________ [Art
" 1 ^ ^ ^ - s e d in terms of t h e ^
Eq. ( 1 .93 ) ca n now o e - e . — ^
L1 2 Nl m
(W2 * m l V i l = M
h .= - r r r -r T 7 r
A lte r n a tiv e ly ,
1
.. „ fact0r Jfe2isgiven b y
Similarly for winding 2, the coup m ^ b y r .a lo n e
.(1*1
ww = . tj N 2 U .(1.9fj
or
w.E
.
(N ^ iV h N 1 .W 2
V
Qmljmg
eer
(^ 3 ilS Z S
...(1.981
or
L eak age coefficien t ing ...(1.99)
_ "
AT
L\ L
(1 95) and (1-9& that l°wer value of leakage fluxes gives gnatfI .ne
values o f coupltog (actors hj, I 2 of a winding t
„ „ s . r s ? r : s — z s . , ’— ;
— - —
Nx M
k2 E l ; from Eq. (1.9 6),-^ = 2 ^
Z mJ £
n 2 '• V l 2
for c lo sely co u p led c ir c u its
flen c e ,
^ __ a / lL 1
...(M O O )
n 2 ~ m ~ l 2 ~ y jr2
i 16 2. M e t h o d s o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o u p l i n g . T h is m a y a ls o b e c a lle d a s
“methods o f r e d u c in g th e le a k a g e flu x ”.
^ Eqs (1.93). ( 1 0 5 ) a n d (1 .9 8 ) r e v e a l th a t th e co u p lin g fa cto rs an d th e c o e ffic ie n t o f c o u p lin g
be increased by r e d u c in g t h e le a k a g e flu x e s p e r ta in in g to th e tw o c ircu its. In tw o -w in d in g
^ s f o r m er3’ co efficien t o f c o u p lin g ca n b e in cr ea se d or th e le a k a g e flu x red u ced b y th e fo llo w
ing m ethods:
(a) By increasing the w in d o w height. In a tra n sfo rm er th e w in d o w a rea H x W is g o v e r n e d
h the co n d u cto r c r o s s -s e c tio n a l a rea o f p rim a ry and seco n d a ry w in d in g s a n d th e in s u la tio n .
ww
For a given area i f w in d o w h e ig h t H is in c r e a se d , th e le n g th o f le a k a g e flu x p a th b e c o m e s m ore.
This has the effect o f in c r e a s in g th e r e lu c ta n c e offered to th e le a k a g e flu x p a th s a n d for a g iv e n
m m f-, the le a k a g e flu x is red u ced . U s u a lly th e ra tio H I W d oes n o t ex ce ed 4.
w.E
ib) By arran ging the p r i m a r y a n d secondary w in d in g s concentrically. F ig. 1 .6 7 (a ) s h o w s
primary w in d in g on on e lim b an d seco n d a ry w in d in g on th e o th er lim b or leg . In F ig . 1 .6 7 (6),
asy
half of the prim ary a n d s e c o n d a r y w in d in g s are on o n e le g and th e ir o th e r h a lv e s a r e on th e
second leg. S in ce th e p r im a r y a n d seco n d a ry w in d in g s in F ig. 1.67 ( 6 ) a re m o re c lo se to ea c h
other, leakage flu x is red u ced a n d th e co efficien t o f co u p lin g in cr ea se d . R ed u c tio n o f le a k a g e
En
flux in Fig. 1.67 ( b ) m a y a lso b e e x p la in e d a s fo llo w s :
L .V .
gin W in d in g
/
eer
1 2
« 0 ®
ing —
7
H .V
W in d in g .ne
(o) (b)
F ig . 1 .6 7 . (a ) P r im a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y w i n d in g s o n e a c h lim b o r le g
(6 ) C o n c e n tr ic p r im a r y a n d se c o n d a r y w in d in g s .
t
In Fig. 1.67 (a), th e m a g n e tic p o te n tia l dif- L .V . W i n d i n g
erence betw een p o in ts A , B is N lt w h e r e a s
i
*D ^g. 1.67 (6) it s v a lu e i s * *. S in c e th e
I 1 0
0 0 0
til ^ ^ UX ^e Penc^s u Pon th e m a g n e tic p o ten -
ifference b e tw e e n p o in ts A, B it s v a lu e in
(aj* 1 (5) is a b o u t h a lf o f t h a t in F ig . 1.67
^ H.V.
^ sand w ic h in g the p r i m a r y a n d secon- W inding
i a t F i g . 1 .6 8 s h o w s t h e w in d in g 2
F ig . 1 .6 8 . W in d i n g 2 is s a n d w i c h e d b e t w e e n s e c t i o n s o f
O f o f^ tio n s and w in d in g 1 in fo u r s e c tio n s . w i n d i n g 1.
sectj&n * "E nding 2 is s a n d w ic h e d b y tw o
*indi w in d in g 1. T h e a im o f s a n d w ic h in g is a g a in to a r r a n g e th e p r im a r y a n d se c o n d a r y
***** as close to e a c h o th e r a s is p o s sib le , so t h a t th e le a k a g e flu x is r ed u ced .
ww
S u b sc rip ts 1 a n d 2 indicate h.v. a n d l.v. w in d in g s respectively.
w.E
(a) F in d the self-impedances o f p r im a r y a n d secondary w in d in g s.
(b) F in d the values o f the equivalent-circuit p a r a m e te r s referred to (i) the p rim a ry and (ii)
the secondary.
asy
(c) The p r im a r y o f this transform er is energised fro m 2 3 0 0 V, 5 0 H z source. I f its secondary
is connected to a load o f im pedance 5 + j 5 Q, f in d the seco n da ry te r m in a l voltage.
S o lu t io n , (a) P rim ary self-in d u cta n ce,
En
L x = L ml + l x = ~ gin
M + l x= x 10 + 0 .0 4 = 1 0 0 .0 4 h en ry s.
P a r a m e te r s referred to seco n d a ry w in d in g a r e :
r x = 10 x ' i f = 0 .1 0 1 2 ; r 2 = 0.1 Q
10
\ y
\2
^! = 4 0 x 10" 3
10 = 4x10 4H ; Z2 = 4 x 1 0 " 4 H .
v y
.N .
L m2 = Af ^ = 10 x ~ = i.o o H.
by www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
Transformers 121
^ e q u i v a l e n t circu it referred to seco n d a ry is a s sh ow n in Fig. 1 6 9 (o)
(L o Hr ^ p p ly . * • e q u iv a le n t c ircu it o f F ig. 1.6 9 („ ) g ets m odifled tQ ^ sh o w n fa
fo r
, 69 (W*
Xj = 2 n f l 1 = 2n (50) (4 x 10 4) = 0 .1 2 5 6 Q
x 2 = 0 .1 2 5 6 Q.
X m2 = 2n f L = 2n (50) (1.00) = 3 1 4 ft.
0425611
o— w w — —v M
W—o
0-1 n o-i a
o)
C l
O 1-00H 230 V
o
o
o
ww
w.E (a)
F ig . 1 .6 9 . E q u i v a l e n t c ir c u it r e f e r r e d to s e c o n d a r y , E x a m p l e 1 .6 1 .
asy
Hie current flow in g th ro u g h X m2 is m u ch sm a lle r a s com pared to th a t in 5.1 ♦ , 5 1 2 5 6 a
connected in parallel w ith it.
/. Secondary term in a l v o lta g e
230 En
_
5 . 2 + j 5 . 2 5 1 2 X (5 + -/ 5 )
230
gin
i---- n-------- w-
" ^ ( 5 .2 ) z + ( 5 .2 5 1 2 ) 2 X V (5 )
eer
X ( 5 > = 220 7 V -
S a m p le 1.62. A single-phase
energised f r o m V. SO H z supp
tii)L V ' m f' across open circuited l.v. w in d in g is 110 V
.ne
^ A a tT ju c e d Y m f nr"
Calculate (
^ V’ " " * » * to *CS »
a cro ss open circuited h.v. w in d in g is 2 2 6 V.
^ o n . Self-inductance L = ^
Now *
Hemy E = yl2Kf ^ m a = ^ 2 n f< fmat
(aj . *vi, are m a x im u m flu x -lin k a g e s .
ax*tQUin v a lu e o f f lu x -lin k a g e s w it h h .v . w in d in g
W . .V1 . 230
V V2(x) (50)
^ h c t a n c e o f h .v . w i n d i n g ! , = ^
230 1 = 2 .0 9 2 H.
[V2(«) (50) J * R 2 x 0.35
S im ila r ly self-in d u cta n ce o f l.v. w in d in g ,
= 0 .5 0 8 4 H.
= ^ 2 (S M 5 0 j] X
( 6 ) T h e m a x im u m v a lu e o f m u tu a l flu x lin k a g e s
E2
^2n f
' e 2 ") 1 f 110 v r 1 1 = 1 H.
M u tu al in d u cta n ce M =
x ? 2 7 = V2 7t (50) J [V2 (0 .3 5 ) J
/
226
A ltern a tiv e ly , M =
>/2 n x 50 12 ; W ] = i a
Nx M 590
= 0 .9 5 6 .
ww
(c) C ou p lin g factor
N2 Lx 295 2.0 9 2
N2 M 295 1
= 0 .9 8 3 5
w.E
C oup lin g factor
N t L2 590 0 .5 0 8 4
C oefficien t o f cou p lin g k = k 2 = V 0.956 x 0 .9 8 3 5 = 0 .9 6 9 6 .
C heck.
asy
M =k = 0 .9 6 9 6 V (2.092) (0 .5 0 8 4 ) = 1 .0 0 H .
E x a m p le 1 .6 3 . The s e lf a n d m u tu a l inductances o f a tw o -w in d in g tr a n s fo r m e r are
En
L j - 4 mH, L 2 - 6 mH, M 12 = M 21 = 1.8 mH.
gin
Calculate the current w hich w o u ld flow in the w in d in g 1 w h en th is w in d in g is connected to
a 130-volt, (500/7t) H z su p p ly a n d the lo a d o f 0.2 m H in du ctan ce is connected across the winding
2. A ssum e p o w er losses in the w in d in g s a n d the m a g n etic c ircu it to be negligible. (I.E.S., 1982)
eer
S o lu t io n . T h e v o lta g e eq u a tio n for th e p rim a ry w in d in g , in t e r m s o f r m s v a lu e s, can be
ing
ob tain ed from Eq. (1 .8 4 ) as
'V1 = r x 7j + 7 ( 0 L x 7j -jo a A f I2 ...(1.101)
S im ila r ly for th e seco n d a ry w in d in g , from Eq. (1 .8 5 ),
V2 = j w A f/j - j m L 2 12 - r 2 12 .ne ...(1.102)
t
S u b stitu tio n o f th e v a lu e s in E q s. (1 .1 0 1 ) a n d (1 .1 0 2 ), w it h V x a s r e fe r e n c e p h asor, gives
and 0 - j 1.8/j - j 6 .2 / 2
from above, 1 =1® /
2 6.2 1
Simultaneous solution for I x gives I x = 3 7 .3 8 4 A
1 65^6)SH e rea llh the”r iv e n ™ S° 1V<i? a 't e m a t iv e ly b* ^ ferrm g to the equivalent circuit
( } HCre a" the,glVen Parameters are referred to primary, i.e. take a = 1 in Fig. 165 <»>•
L x - a M = 4 - 1 8 = 2.2 mH
aM = 1.8 mH
fl2Z>2 " = 6 - 1 .8 - 4 .2 m H
= 2n x — x 3 .4 7 7 4 x 1 0 ' 3 = 3 .4 7 7 4 f t
130
. C u r r e n t in th e p r im a r y w in d in g 1 = = 3 7 .3 8 4 A.
ww
1 17. A u d io -F req u en cy T r a n s fo r m e r s
w.E
Small iron-core tr a n s fo r m e r u s e d in th e a u d io -freq u en cy ra n g e o f 2 0 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 H z a re c a lle d
udio-frequency tr a n sfo r m e r s. T h e u s e o f th e s e tr a n sfo r m e r s in ele c tr o n ic c ir c u its e m p lo y e d for
communications, m e a s u r e m e n ts a n d co n tro l is q u ite co m m o n for th e p u r p o se o f c o u p lin g load
asy
to the voltage sou rce. P r im a r ily , th e fu n c tio n s o f a u d io -freq u en cy tr a n s fo r m e r s a re, (i ) for s t e p
ping up the v o lta g e in a m p lifie r s to o b ta in th e req u ired v o lta g e g a in an d (ii) for d e c r e a s in g or
En
increasing th e load im p e d a n c e a s s e e n by th e v o lta g e so u rce to a c h ie v e th e im p e d a n c e m a t c h
ing They are also e m p lo y ed s o m e tim e s for p ro v id in g a p a th for dc th r o u g h p r im a r y w h ile is o la t
ing it from th e seco n d a ry .
gin
For power and d is tr ib u tio n tr a n sfo r m e r s, freq u en cy resp o n se is n o t o f a n y in t e r e s t a s t h e s e
eer
transformers are o p era ted a t a fix e d freq u en cy o f 5 0 H z (or 6 0 H z in so m e c o u n tr ie s o f t h e
world). However, in so m e ele c tr o n ic cir c u its, th e freq u en cy o f so u rce v o lta g e m a y v a r y o v e r a
ing
wide range. For e x a m p le , a n o u tp u t tra n sfo rm e r , w h ic h co u p les th e la s t s ta g e o f a n a u d io
amplifier to a lo u d sp e a k e r , m a y h a v e to o p era te ov er th e en tir e a u d io -freq u en cy r a n g e . In su c h
.ne
variable frequency a p p lic a tio n s, fr e q u e n c y r e sp o n se o f th e tra n sfo rm er is q u ite im p o r ta n t. T h e
object of th is article is to in v e s t ig a t e t h e effect o f v a r ia b le freq u en cy on t h e a m p litu d e freq u en cy
t
characteristic (A FC ) an d p h a s e ch a ra cte ristic o f a u d io -freq u en cy tr a n sfo r m e r s. L e t V x b e th e
source voltage on p r im a r y s id e an d V 2 be t h e load v o lta g e on th e s e c o n d a r y s id e o f a t r a n s
former. Then for fix ed V l a n d load , a p lo t sh o w in g th e v a r ia tio n o f V2/ V l a s a fu n c tio n o f fre
quency is called A F C . A f la t fr e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e o v er th e e n tir e a u d io -fr e q u e n c y r a n g e is
desirable. The v a r ia tio n o f th e p h a s e a n g le o f th e load v o lta g e V2 w ith r e s p e c t to th e so u r c e
v°ltage Vj is called th e p h a s e c h a r a c te r is tic . A sm a ll v a lu e o f p h a se a n g le is d e s ir a b le w h ic h
I—vW—'TSTyi
i +
h -S O U R C E — TRANSFORMER
■WV VW— W r
T
VL
R',
IS*
1 _
ww (C)
F ig . 1 .7 0 . E q u iv a le n t c ir c u it o f a n a u d io - f r e q u e n c y t r a n s f o r m e r (a ) C o m p le t e e q u i v a l e n t c ir c u it w i t h s o u r c e a n d
l o a d . I t s a p p r o x i m a t i o n a t ( 6 ) l o w f r e q u e n c i e s ( c ) I n t e r m e d i a t e f r e q u e n c i e s a n d ( d) h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s .
w.E
m ean s th a t ou tp u t v o lta g e follow s in p u t v o lta g e a s clo sely a s p o ssib le . B o th A F C an d phase
c h a ra cte ristic d ep en d on th e tra n sfo rm er a s w e ll a s on th e p r im a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y circuit
asy
p aram eters.
T he com p lete audio-freq u en cy ra n g e can be d iv id ed in to th r e e p a r ts — lo w freq u en cy (LF)
ran ge, in term e d ia te freq u en cy (IF) ran ge an d h ig h freq u en cy (H F ) r a n g e. F o r o b ta in in g AFC
En
and p h a se ch aracteristic, con sid er an a m p lifier feed in g a load th r o u g h a c o u p lin g transform er.
gin
T he eq u iv a le n t circu it for th is sy ste m is sh o w n in Fig. 1.70 (a). H e re a m p lifie r is rep resen ted
by sou rce v o lta g e Eg and a serie s r e sista n c e Rg; tra n sfo rm er is r e p r e s e n te d b y t h e eq u ivalen t
eer
circu it o fF ig . 1.14 (6) w ith core-loss r e sista n c e R c n eg le cted . L oad is a s s u m e d to b e a resistan ce
Rl . For LF, IF and H F ra n g es, a sim p le a n a ly sis is a s u n d e r :
ing
(a) L o w f r e q u e n c y . A t low freq u en cies, m a g n e tiz in g r e a c ta n c e X m d e c r e a s e s a n d a s such,
its s h u n tin g effect across th e load im p ed a n ce ca n n o t be ign ored . F or o p e r a tio n in t h e L F range,
X m is a lm o st eq u al to self-rea cta n ce = 2 n fL , o f th e tra n sfo rm er. T h e le a k a g e r e a c ta n c e s x x
and x 2 b ecom e so sm a ll a t th e s e lo w fr e q u e n c ie s th a t th e y m a y b e o m itte d le a d in g to the .ne
eq u iv a le n t circu it o fF ig . 1.70 ( b i ). T h e seco n d a ry q u a n titie s referred to p r im a r y a re indicated
by su p erscrip t p rim es. A p p lyin g T h ev en in ’s th eo rem a t te r m in a ls a, b ; t h e c ir c u it to th e left of
th e s e term in a ls can be reduced a s fo llo w s :
t
Eg j X i
V oltage a t term in a ls a, b = Vab =
Rg + r 1 + j X l
j X i (R + rj)
Im pedan ce a t term in a ls a, b = Z ab =
Re + r x + j X x
The T h ev en in ’s e q u iv a le n t circu it is sh o w n in F ig . 1 .7 0 (bii). F ro m t h is c ir c u it,
Vab ' R L Eg ■jX 1 R l ' 1
Vl =
Zab + r 2 + R l ’ R g + ri + jX { ’ j X l {R +
ri)
Re + r, + jX l + ^ + ^
Its sim p lifica tio n g iv e s,
JX, R l
j X x (Rg + r l + r 2' + R l ’) + ^ + R l ') (Rg + r])
www.EasyEngineering.net V
www.EasyEngineering.net
____________ R l
D , , (r2 + * L #) (R g + ' ’l)
* s + 7 ^ ------------
Now V t' = S V i
V, No R r'
...(1.103)
Eg N, 2 -i1/2
( r pO
1+
\x '\
R s' = R g + r i + r 2 + r l .(1 .1 0 4 )
Here
, _ (Rg + rj) (r2' + R L') .(1 .1 0 5 )
and p (R g + r x + r 2’ + R L’)
E x p r e s s io n for V L' a b o v e r e v e a ls t h a t lo a d v o lt a g e le a d s th e so u r c e v o lta g e by a p h a s e a n g le
given by
ww e -ta n -1^
<*1
...(1 .1 0 6 )
w.E
ih) I n t e r m e d i a t e f r e q u e n c y . A t in t e r m e d ia t e fr e q u e n c ie s (a ro u n d 5 0 0 H zf, th e d e s ig n o f
a u d io -freq u en cy t r a n s f o r m e r s is s u c h t h a t a n d x 2 a re q u ite sm a ll and X m is s u ffic ie n tly la rg e.
T h e " asy
Therefore c u r r e n t th r o u g h X m is n e g lig ib le a n d a s a co n seq u en ce x h x 2 a n d X can b e ignored.
n t T r u i t u n d e r t h e s e c o n d it io n s is t h a t s h o w n in F ig . 1 .7 0 (c). A n a ly s is o f th is
Eg
*
Ni r;
’ i
ing
nver th e b an d o f in te r m e d ia te fre-
The v o lta g e r a t io V L/ E g r e m a in s v e r y n e a r ly c o n s t a n t o
quencies' • .ne
v a n d r can no lo n g er be n e g le c te d . T h e se
(c) H ig h f r e q u e n c y . A t v e r y h ig h f r e q u e n c ie s , i 2
Should, th erefo re, b e in c lu d e d t o le a d to t h e e q m v a le n t c ir c u it o f F ig . X.
Analysis o f t h is c ir c u it g iv e s V L/ E g a s
>
t
g tu d ies
o ' Rl
VL' r l = tr r r z r
~E~g = R g + r , + r 2' + R l + Jx “i R * +JXfq
...(1 .1 0 8 )
or VL N2 RS 1
2 -|
Eg ^ R s'
1+
-
where
P h a se a n g le b y w h ic h lo a d v o lt a g e la g s t h e so u r c e S
...(1 .1 0 9 )
- 1 ^*2.
0 = ta n
R sf
i»
(Art 117 if
126 i f i aa cu hi i in i ev ri yj _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - —
LE lieac ut r i c a l M — — fi
ww
w.E
asy
Fig. 1.71. En
F req u en cy resp o n se o f an a u d io -freq u en cy tr a n sfo rm e r .
gin
T he v a riatio n o f r ela tiv e v o lta g e ratio w ith freq u en cy is n o t sh o w n The. potato at vwhich
r ela tiv e vo lta g e ratio becom es eq u al to 1/V2 are ca lled h alf-pow er p oin ts. T h e L F range g i
low er h alf-p ow er p oin ts. T herefore, from Eq. (1 .1 1 0 ),
eer
ing
1 1
- 2 -i 1/2 1 2
(R '1
1+
V
*1
.ne
or
or 2 kL,
t ...(1.11®
fl l*> R P ,ldM ,e
T h is ex p ressio n rev e a ls th a t for a ch ie v in g a w id e b a n d w id th , th e tra n sfo rm er ®^oUon(j9ry
la r g e s e lf-in d u c ta n c e an d low le a k a g e in d u cta n ce. In o th e r w o rd s, th e p rim a ry an te11^
w in d in g s sh o u ld be a s clo sely coupled a s p o ssib le, i.e. th e ir c o e ffic ie n t o f co u p lin g sho
to u n ity .
. . . .■■■ - ■. • • ■ ■■ - • • • • ••• - T . v l .
‘C « ° " « o f 3 0 0 0 a .
' / ) Determine the tr a n s fo r m e r tu r n s ratio so th a t m a x im u m p o w e r tr a n sfe r ta k e s p la c e fro m
J e to th e lo a d '
1 (b) the l0a d current> volta8 e a n d p o w e r u n d e r the c o n d itio n s o f m a x im u m p o w e r tra n s-
(b)
ww
R e fe r r in g a l l t h e q u a n titie s to
equivalent circuit is a s s h o w n in F ig . 1.72. T h e sou rce
lo a d s id e , th e .
asy
5
• Load current, IL = —Q?1 ^ = 5 .8 9 3 m A
Load voltage,
Load power
VL = 5 .8 9 3 x 10~3 x 6 0 = 0 .3 5 3 6 V
En
= ^ l r l = (5 .8 9 3 x 10-3)2 x 60 = 2 .0 8 4 mW.
ing
i J o % £ anSf0rmer C° UPleS a l° a d °f 5 ° n t ° a V° ltage $0UrCe °f 5 V w h o se in tern a l resistance
2000 = x 50
n 2
J
N
~ = V40 = 6 .3 2 4 5
(6) f • .. N2
i ~ 0.5 (40) = 20 ft, l2' = (0 .0 2 5 ) (40) = 1 m H,
• L * (5°) (40) = 2 0 0 0 ft, R g = 2 0 0 0 ft
R / = R g + r , + r2 + R l ' = 4 0 4 0 ft
( 2 0 2 0 ) (2 0 2 0 ) = 1 Q 1 0 fl
4040
12 = ^21 = 0.2 H, leq= l l + l 2' = 2 m H .
Yk _ 1 . = 0 .0 7 8 2 7 4 2
Eg v40 4040
V i = 0 .3 9 1 4 V.
(iii) A t 1 5 ,0 0 0 H z (H F ), from Eq. (1 .1 0 8 ),
VV 1 2000 = 0 .0 7 8 2 5 2 9
ww
1/2
Eg ^40 4 0 4 0 ' 3A
r2n x 1 5 .0 0 0 x 1 x 10
1+
4040
w.E VL = 0 .3 9 1 3 V.
1 .1 8 . P u l s e T r a n s f o r m e r s
asy
T h e tra n sfo rm ers w h ich h a n d le v o lta g e s and cu rren ts in th e form o f p u ls e s are called pulse
tra n sfo rm ers. T h e u s e o f su ch tra n sfo rm ers is q u ite com m on in rad ar, te le v is io n , d igital com
En
p u te r an d th y risto r sy ste m s. T h e fu n ctio n s o f p u ls e tra n sfo rm ers are :
(i)
(ii)
for
for
ch a n g in g th e a m p litu d e o f a v o lta g e p u lse,
in v e r tin g th e p o la rity o f a p u lse,
gin
(iii)
(i v )
for
for
a ffectin g dc iso la tio n b e tw e e n sou rce a n d load ,
co u p lin g d ifferen t s ta g e s o f p u lse a m p lifiers.
eer
ing
T h e in p u t v o lta g e to p u lse tra n sfo rm ers is o f d isc o n tin u o u s n a tu r e a s sh o w n in Fig. 1.73 (a).
T h e m o s t im p o r ta n t r eq u ir em en t o f th e s e tr a n sfo r m e r s is t h a t in p u t p u ls e a t th e primary
s h o u ld b e rep rod u ced as a ccu ra tely as p o ssib le a t it s seco n d a ry te r m in a ls. F ig. 1.73 (6) shows a
s q u a r e w a v e p u ls e a t t h e in p u t t e r m in a ls . T h e p u ls e w id t h v a r ie s from a fra ctio n of a
.ne
t
m icrosecon d to a b o u t 25 m icrosecon d s. U su a lly , a su ffic ie n t tim e e la p s e s b efore th e n ex t pulse
a p p ea rs. T h e w a v efo rm o f th e o u tp u t v o lta g e a t th e seco n d a ry te r m in a ls ca n be determined
th r o u g h th e u s e o f e q u iv a le n t circu it o f th e p u lse tra n sfo rm er.
FLAT TOP
I
jL .
Ui FRONT
e> O FF PERIOD
< /E D G E
►
—
—t
o
>
3
. /
Q.
2
(a) (b)
F i g . 1 .7 3 . ( a ) T r a i n o f i n p u t - v o l t a g e p u l s e s a n d (b) S q u a r e - w a v e i n p u t v o l t a g e p u l s e .
A ty p ic a l o u tp u t v o lta g e p u ls e is sh o w n in F ig . 1 .7 4 , w h e r e p u ls e tr a n sfo r m e r p a r a m e t e r s
a re a lso d e fin e d . T h e r ise tim e is th e tim e in te r v a l req u ired for t h e o u tp u t to r is e from 0.1 to ■
of its final v a lu e . T h e d is t o r t io n s p r e s e n t in t h e o u tp u t p u ls e c a n b e d e t e r m in e d t h r o u g h th e
w.E
tra n sie n t a n a ly s is o f i t s e q u iv a le n t c ir c u it.
The tr a n sfo r m e r a n a ly s is is u s u a l ly c a r r ie d o u t b y d iv id in g it s s o lu tio n in to t h r e e p a r ts . T h e
asy
first part g iv e s t h e r e s p o n s e n e a r t h e fr o n t e d g e o f t h e p u ls e , t h e s e c o n d p a r t g iv e s t h e r e s p o n s e
during th e fla t-to p a n d t h e th ir d p a r t g iv e s t h e r e s p o n s e a fte r t h e t e r m in a t io n o f t h e p u ls e .
En
For le a d in g e d g e o f t h e in p u t p u ls e a n a ly s is o f t h e e q u iv a le n t c ir c u it is d o n e b y in c lu d in g
stray ca p a cita n ce. In o r d e r to k e e p t h e r is e t im e w it h in lim it s , t h e le a k a g e in d u c t a n c e o f t h e
transformer s h o u ld b e k e p t to a m in im u m .
gin
The tr a n s fo r m e r r e s p o n s e to t h e f la t-to p p o r tio n o f t h e in p u t p u ls e is c a r r ie d o u t b y u s in g
eer
the lo w -fr e q u e n c y e q u i v a l e n t c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 .7 0 (6 ). T h e o u t p u t v o lt a g e i s s e e n to h a v e
downward tilt, or d ro p -o ff, d u r in g it s p u ls e d u r a tio n t im e . T h e o u tp u t v o lt a g e c a n n o t r e m a in
ing
flat as th is w o u ld m e a n d c p a s s i n g t h r o u g h a tr a n s fo r m e r w h ic h is n o t p o s s ib le . T h e d r o p -o ff o f
the pulse ca n b e k e p t a s s m a ll a s p o s s ib le b y h a v in g h ig h m a g n e t iz in g in d u c ta n c e fo r t h e t r a n s
former.
.ne
When t h e in p u t p u ls e i s z e r o , t h e o u t p u t p u ls e d o e s n o t r e d u c e to ze r o i n s t a n t a n e o u s ly
t
because o f th e m a g n e t ic e n e r g y s to r e d in t h e tr a n s fo r m e r in d u c ta n c e . T h e f a ll, or d e c a y , t im e
for the o u tp u t p u ls e i s s h o w n in F ig . 1 .7 4 . T h e r e is a b a c k s w in g o f t h e o u tp u t v o lt a g e a n d
because o f tr a n s fo r m e r in d u c t a n c e a n d s t r a y c a p a c ita n c e , d a m p e d o s c illa t io n s a n d a lo n g -d u r a -
tion n egative o v e r s h o o t a r e o b s e r v e d a fte r t h e d e c a y t im e o f t h e p u ls e .
Pulse tr a n s fo r m e r s a r e q u it e s m a ll in s iz e . B o th p r im a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y w in d in g s h a v e
comparatively fe w t u r n s s o t h a t le a k a g e in d u c t a n c e is m in im u m . In o rd er t h a t tr a n s f o r m e r h a s
maximum m a g n e t iz in g in d u c t a n c e , it s co re is m a d e o f f e r r it e s or fro m h ig h p e r m e a b ilit y a llo y s
^ ch as p e r m a llo y . A s t h e o ff-p e r io d ( t im e in t e r v a l b e tw e e n s u c c e s s iv e p u ls e s ) is u s u a l ly q u it e
Iarge as co m p a red w it h o n -p e r io d , t h e t r a n s fo r m e r c a n h a n d le h ig h p u ls e -p o w e r le v e ls .
OUTPUT Cb)
F ig . 1 .7 5 . (a ) T h r e e - p h a s e t r a n s f o r m e r b a n k , b o th w i n d in g s in s t a r (6 ) t h r e e - p h a s e c o r e - t y p e t r a n s f o r m e r .
ww
form er u n it m a y em p loy 3 -p h a se core-type co n stru ctio n , F ig . 1 .15 ( b ) or 3 -p h a s e s h e ll-ty p e con
struction (n ot show n). A sin g le-u n it 3 -p h a se core-typ e tr a n sfo rm er u s e s a th r e e -lim b e d core,
one lim b for each p h a se w in d in g as sh o w n in Fig. 1.75 (b). A c tu a lly , e a c h lim b h a s th e l.v.
w.E
w in d in g placed adjacent to th e la m in a ted s te e l core an d th e n h .v . w in d in g is p la ce d over th e l.v.
w in d in g. A ppropriate in su la tio n is p laced in b etw een th e core a n d l.v . w in d in g and also in
b etw een th e tw o w in d in gs.
asy
A 3-p h ase core-type tran sform er costs ab ou t 15% le s s th a n a b a n k o f th r e e 1 -p h a se trans
form ers. A lso, a sin g le u n it occupies le s s sp a ce th a n a bank.
1. 19 . 1. T h ree-p h a se tra n sfo rm er c o n n e c tio n s En
(a) star-d elta ( 7 - A) gin
T h ree-phase tran sform ers m ay h a v e th e fo llo w in g four sta n d a rd c o n n e c tio n s :
(b) d e lta -sta r (A - Y)
(c) d elta-d elta (A - A)
eer
(<d ) sta r -sta r ( Y - Y)
ing
T h ese connections are sh ow n in F igs. 1.76 and 1.77, w h e r e V a n d I a re ta k e n a s in p u t line
voltage and lin e current resp ectively. P rim ary and seco n d a ry w in d in g s o f o n e p h a s e are drawn
.ne
p arallel to each other. W ith p h a se tu rn s ratio from p rim a ry to s e c o n d a r y a s N x/ N 2 = a, the
voltages and currents in th e w in d in g s and lin e s are sh o w n in F ig s. 1 .7 6 a n d 1 .7 7 . T h e various
t
connections are now described briefly.
Art. 1.19]
Transformers 131
S e c o n d a ry p h a s e v o lta g e , V , = - Z • i - v
Ni H 'T T H S
^
ww . « ...
Fig. 1.76. (v) Star-delta connection and (6, delta-sta, connection of 3-phase transformers.
w.E
to a high level. F o r ^ m p ^ th e s e a 'r e ^usedTn IhfblJri*'™ ‘Sf h " 1 stepping upthe volta8e
asy
insulation is stressed to about 57.74% of line vo ltage^ "'111'* ° V' transmisslon llnes s0 that
■ Dc!ta -Sta,; t r a n s fprm era f e a lso g en era lly u sed a s d istrib u tio n tra n sfo rm ers for p rovid in g
En
mixed lin e to h n e v o lta g e to h ig h -p o w er eq u ip m en t an d lin e to n e u tr a U o lta g e to^1-phase fo w
power eq u ip m en t. F or e x a m p le , 11 k V /400V , d elta -sta r d istrib u tio n tra n sfo rm er is u se d to Z "
x r . i b y 3 'PhaSe l ° ™ gin
s y ste m - T h ree' ph asa h ig h ™ „ Z er e ,u ip m e n t
231 “ o lu ^ r a u S WlreS'
eer
I_PhaSe l0W'P° W eret>UipmCTt is e n e r g ise d from
t
Secondary phase voltage, v 23
2 N, a
Y i= Y }.
A lso n 2 n x
( H e r e V j = V)
S e c o n d a r y p h a s e v o lta g e , a
ww
S e c o n d a r y lin e v o lta g e , i
V
= V o= —
a
In p u t
w.E VA = 3 V o u tp u t V A = 3 • -
asy
3 -p h a s e d e lta -d e lta tr a n sfo r m e r are s h o w n in F ig . 1 .7 7 (a).
En
gin
eer
(a)
ing (b)
F ig . 1 .7 7 . (a ) D e lt a - d e lt a c o n n e c t io n a n d (6 ) S t a r - s t a r c o n n e c t io n o f t h r e e - p h a s e t r a n s f o r m e r s .
S e c o n d a r y p h a s e v o lta g e , V -& V V
S e c o n d a r y lin e v o lta g e = V3 V2 = ^ 3 - - S - V
73 • a a
In p u t V
7 A = 3 'T 3 / = ° u t Pu t VA = 3 - ^ — a / = 73 V/
S
am sca n ner www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
Art. 1.19]
Transformers 133
As before, p h a se and lin e v a lu es of voltages and
transform er are sh o w n in Fig. 1 . 7 7 (6 ) currents on both the sides of a star-star
I l 1=20A
I L i =20A 12:1
vPL=iio o o v T _ ii
^=nooov rlip,
l
ww (a )
w.E F ig . 1 .7 8 . P e r t a i n i n g to E x a m p le 1 .6 6 .
Here
l
V p 1
En V o2
and Ipl x 12 = /p2x l
ing
Ipl = 1 2 x 2 0 = 240 A
I n = 73 " /p 2 = 73" x 240 = 415.68 A
3 Vp2
p2 'I ‘ = 3
11000
x 240 x = 381.04 kVA. .ne
t
O u tp u t k V A = —
73~x 12 1000
(6) D elta -sta r co n n ectio n o f 3 -p h a se transform er is shown in Fig. 1.78 (6).
V I 2 = V 3V„2 = V 3 x i ^ = 1 5 8 7 .6 7 V
Line voltage on secondary, 12
20
Phase current on primary,
/ p2= 1 2 / f l = 1 2 x ^ = 138-5 6 8 A
Phase current on secondary,
2 0 A
P h a s e cu rren t on secon d ary, Ip2 = 12 7pl- 12 x A
r- _ pr- 12 x 20 _ .
L in e cu rren t on secon d ary,
O u tp u t kVA = 3 x X = 3 8 1 .0 4 kVA.
w.E
asy
En
F ig . 1 .7 8 . P e r t a in in g to E x a m p le l.b b .
(d) 3
gin
-p h ase tran sform er w ith sta r-sta r connection is sh ow n in Fig. 1.78 (c/).
vDl
. „
P h a se v o lta g e on secondary, V p2 = 12 = V3~x 12
eer
110 0 0 T7
L in e v o lta g e on secondary,
„
V L2 = vd Vp2 = S 6
ing
r r 11000
12 “
11000 v
12
O u tp u tk v A = ^ = 3 8 1 .0 4 kVA.
t
E xam ple 1.67. A 110001415 V, d elta -sta r tra n sfo rm er fe e d s p o w e r to a 30 kW, 415>V.
p h a s e in d u c tio n m o to r h a v in g an efficien cy o f 90% a n d fu ll-lo a d p f 0.833. C alculate t e r
f o r m e r r a tin g a n d p h a s e a n d lin e cu rren ts on both h igh a n d low v olta g e sides.
30
S o lu tio n . T ran sform er kVA ra tin g = Q 9 x Q 3 3 3 = 40 kVA
A
Scanned by Cam Scanner www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
For d e lta -c o n n e c te d h .v . w in d in g ,
: ^ x 2.1 = 1.2 1 2 A.
= V3 x 4 0 0 x 100 x 0.8 x = 5 5 .4 2 4 kW .
ww
(c) Phase cu rren t or lin e cu rren t on sta r-co n n ected h .v. sid e
6 9 .2 8 „
w.E = 7 r n r =3636A
Line current on l.v. seco n d a ry sid e It = 100 A
asy
Phase current on d elta -co n n ected secon d ary sid e = ^ = 57 73 A
1.20. T r a n s fo r m e r N o i s e
En
££££££
gin T fr magneticcoreprodu“
eer
ing
ere vibrates t d h i " i ? T ^ T .ne
‘J * d im en sio n s O r n a t e l y , th e f e r r o m a g S c
f t t s a S .'K S a t - d=
t
,ir .z *
(ii TV e o th e factors p rod u cin g th e n o ise in tran sform ers are th e fo llo w in g :
(«) Th ; “l Cf USe o f h u m ’ and th erefore th e n o ise, is th e m a g n eto strictio n .
"ess°fclam n?„t . t ° f ^
c ore co n stru ctio n , s iz e and g a u g e of la m in a tio n s and th e d e g r e e o f tig h t
^ h s io n a 1
■flK* by 1.2 x 10“ 4 percent for a flux density of IT.
10
^ F o r a n a p p l i e d v o lta ge o f 1 2 0 0 V, 5 0 He a t p r i m a r y te r
m in a ls, calculate a0
1
(a) the n u m b er o f p r im a r y tu rn s
/n .
ww
(b) current,pfand p o w e r on the p r i m a l sid e u n d e r no-load 10 10
conditions. _4 2
10
w.E
S o l u t i o n , (a) G ross core a rea = 1 0 x 1 0 x 1 0 =
N e t core a rea = g ro ss core a rea x s ta c k in g (or iron
. m
F ig
T
1 7 9 . P e r t a i n i n g to E x a m p le
asy
A* = 0.0 1 x 0 .9 = 0 .0 0 9 m 1 .6 9 .
(6) M ea n le n g th o f flu x p a th ,
L = [(40 + 10) + (30 + 10)] x 2 = 1 8 0 cm . ing
M .m .f. for th e core = H L = 6 0 0 x 1 .8 0 = 1 0 8 0 A T s.
.ne
M a x im u m v a lu e o f m a g n e tiz in g cu rre n t
_ core m .m .f. _ 1 0 8 0 _
" Nx 500
2 16
'
A t
2 16
R .m .s. v a lu e o f m a g n e tiz in g cu rre n t, I m = - j g - - 1 .5 2 8 A
C ore v o lu m e = L x A , = 1.8 0 x 0 .0 0 9 = 0 .0 1 6 2 m
W
w ee ig
l g hn ti uo ifbcore
m c =—0 .0 1 6 2 x 7 .8 x 1-06 x 10" 3 = 1 2 6 .3 6 k g
T o ta l core (or iro n ) lo s s , P c = 1 2 6 .3 6 x 2 = 2 5 2 .7 2 W
C ore lo s s c o m p o n e n t o f p rim a ry cu rre n t,
” = 2 5 2 .7 2
• = 0 .2 1 0 6 A
C~ V' i, ~ 1200
... N o lo a d cu r r e n t, Ie = V/? + 7 ^ = V 0 .2 1 0 6 ‘ + 1.528* = 1 .5 4 2 A
/71 0 .2 1 0 6 n -,or r
N o -lo a d pf, cos 0 ° = -7 - = . CAr> = O .ld b b
/, 1 .5 4 2
Transformers 137
P ow er a t n o-load = core lo s s = 2 5 2 .7 2 W
Also, p ow er m p u t a t n o lo a d = V , / , co s 0. = 1 2 0 0 x 1 .5 4 2 x 0 .1 3 6 6 = 2 5 2 .7 6 W.
E x a m p le 1 .7 0 . The m a g n e tic circ u it o f a 1-Dhase * r •
. fftrent configurations s h o w n in Fig. 1 8 0 bu t from th fa n s form er is energised in three
d 5 r .
1 -0 O - --------»
I(T»1 V.f •
A ------------------- ,N
-r N N " E,
V.< N
1
Im^* >
ww (a) (b)
F ig . 1 .8 0 . P e r t a i n i n g to E x a m p l e 1 .7 0 .
(C)
w.E
S o lu tio n . Fig. 1 .8 0 {a) : V = y f c n f N <J>^2
asy
or
0ml = ~<2itfN
net core a r e a .
A,
En
= 1 T (given ), w h e re A =
* '
gin
Flux $ml is p r o d u c e d b y p r im a r y m .m .f. 7ml ■N , w h e r e m a g n e tiz in g c u r r e n t 7ml = 4 A
(given),i.e., A N <)>ml
Fig. 1.80 ( b ) : F o r e a c h co il o f N tu r n s, V = V 2 n f N 0m2
eer
V
*m2 = ^ 2 n f N ~ <*>ml ing
This sh o w s t h a t e a c h coil s h o u ld p ro d u ce a flu x .ne
so th a t both th e co ils p rod u ce a com
bined core flux QmJ a n d t h e r e la tio n V = V2 V N <J>ml is s a tis fie d for ea ch coil. For flu x <J>ml in th e
corein Fig. 1 .8 0 (b )
t
d _ ^ 2 _ _ 1 J1
m2~ A , ~ A ,
The two coils are identical therefore each coil has the same magnetizing current, i.e.,
J l"
<J>m3 0m 1 _ 0.5 T
II
ii
F lu x d e n s ity in core B m3 '
" A, ' 2 A,
0m 1
/ « 3 (2 A 0 “ 0m3 or / m3 (2 N ) “ 2
A lso,
0ml-
I m3 (2 M 0ml 1 _1
4N " 2 0m 1 _ 2
or ww 4 1
I m3 " 2 * 2 = 1 A
w.E
... M a g n e tiz in g cu rren t for b oth s e r ie s co n n ected c o ils - 1 F or a core d u x o f
0ml
e.m.f.
in d u ced in seco n d a ry - 2
asy
_ 5 0 V.
En
E x a m p l e 1 .7 1 . A 2 0 kVA, 2 5 0 / 1 2 5 V, 1-phase tra n s fo r m e r h a s the fo llo w in g d a t a :
Tl = 0.15 a x j = 0 . 2 5 11, r2 = 0 .0 3 n , x 2 = 0.04 n
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote h.v. an d l.v. w indings respectively.
gin
When th is tra n sfo rm er is fu lly loaded, the m a g n itu d e o f e.m.f. in d u c e d in p r im a ry at fu
load p o w e r . N e g l e c t th e m a g n e t iz in g c u r r e n t. eer
lo a d is fo u n d to be e q u a l to the p r i m a r y te r m in a l voltage. C a lc u la te th e lo a d voltage, loa pfa
ing
S o l u t i o n . W ith se c o n d a r y p a r a m e te r s r efe rred to p r im a r y , t h e e q u iv a le n t circuit is as
s h o w n in F ig . 1.81 (a).
r
P r im a r y fu ll lo a d c u r r e n t / x =
20,000
2gQ
™ A
= 80 A .ne
t
V o lta g e drop b e tw e e n p r im a r y t e r m in a l v o lta g e V x a n d p r im a r y in d u c e d e.m .f. E\ can
w r itte n b y r e fe r r in g to E q n . (1 .3 8 ) a s u n d e r :
Vj - E i = I i (r x cos 0j + Xi s in 0j)
/ , , s e e Fig. 1 .2 4 .
But V 1 = E j (g iv e n ), 0 = r , c o s 0 X+ x x s in 0 !
or 0, = - ta n " 1- = - ta n ~ 1 = - 3 0 .9 6 °
UI 0.25
N e g a t iv e s ig n for 0] in d ic a t e s t h a t I x le a d s E x [s im ila r to / 2 le a d in g V2 in ^
3 0 96° a s s h o w n in F ig . 1.81 (b). T h is fig u r e s h o w s t h a t
VS =E i - I (0.12+ /0.16)
T •ansformers 139
0 15 0 25 Olf. 0-12
'SAAhr-'OW'— ---- 'UJ0"'u
U
v,» 250V E , - 2 5 0 /0 °
?:
(a) (b)
F ig . 1 .8 1 . (a ) E q u i v a l e n t c ir c u it a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g p h a s o r d ia g r a m for e x a m p l e 1 .7 1 .
ww
With Ei as referen ce p h asor, l x = 80 Z 3 0 .9 6 0
V2 = 250 Z 0° - 80 Z 3 0 06 fC.12 + j 0.16)
asy
V2 = 2 4 8 .8 6 Z - 3.67° j
V2 lags E x by 3 .6 7 ° a s sh o w n in Fig. 1.81 (/>'■ T his figure also reveals th a t /j leads load
voltage V { by 0! + 3.6 7 ° = 3 0 .9 6 ° + 3.6 7 ° = 3 4 .6 3 '.
.-. En
Load p.f. = cos 34.63° = 0.8228 leading
Load voltage
2 4 8 .8 6
= 124.43 V gin
Secondary fu ll load cu rren t, /2 = ^ ’2 5 ^= ^ eer
Load power = 124 .4 3 x 160 x 0 .8 2 2 8 = 16380.961 W. ing
E xam ple 1.72. In Fig. 1.82 fa), calculate
.ne
(a) the power d elivered by each source,
(b) the power d is s ip a te d in each resistor.
Solu tion . S econ d a ry p a ra m eters 16 Q and 20 Z - 60° w hen transferred to prim ary sid e
t
[GATE, 1991 ]
Vrt = 10 Z - 60° - 5 Z 0 C
' . \3 _ 5 = - 7 ’ 5V3 = 5 V 3 'Z -9 0 °
= 10 0 . 5 - y 2
/ = = 0.5 V3 A
6+ 4
(Art 1-21
140 Electrical Machinery _
(a )
F ig . 1 8 2 . P e r t a in in g to E x a m p le 1 .7 2 .
P o w er d is s ip a te d in 4 £1 = (0 .5 ^ 3 ) x 4 - 3 .0 W
P o w er d e liv e r e d b y 5 V so u rce „ - or Qn n w
= (5V ) (I) cos (5V , I) = 5 x 0 .5 ^ x co s 9 0 = 0 W
ww
P o w er d eliv e r e d b y 2 0 V sou rce
= 10 x 0 .5 V(Tx co s 3 0 ° = 7 .5 W.
w.E
E x a m p le 1 7 3 F ig 2 S3 (a) shows the approxim ate equivalent circuit o f a 1.2 kVA 240/110 V
E x a m p le l . / d . r i g . nrima r v E valuate its efficiency a n d regulation when it
single-phase transformer referred to the prim ary, n v a iu u „
asy
delivers full load a t rated voltage a n d u n i t y p o w e r factor.
1X5
J5.Q in
En
gin
eer
ing
F ig . 1 .8 3 . P e r t a i n i n g to E x a m p l e 1 .7 3 .
.ne
S o l u t i o n . P rim a ry fu ll-lo a d cu rre n t, I x = = 5 A
C ore lo ss = ^ = = 2 4 .2 6 W
Kc ZuUU
E fficien cy a t fu ll load
1200 x 1 x 100
= 96.057%
1 2 0 0 x 1 + 25 + 2 4 .2 6
V o lta g e re g u la tio n
Vm ~ v i _ 2 4 6 .2 7 - 2 4 0
x 1 0 0 = 2.546% .
V,n 2 4 6 .2 7
Transformers 141
mi
‘ 21
21
(O 120V f4 : l S
W 5 0 H r
T b 3:W +
o
o*
C3
22
ww J
21
w.E
(a)
F ig . 1 .8 4 . P e r t a i n i n g to E x a m p l e 1 .7 4 .
(b)
Y li 120 asy
Solution. For tra n sfo rm er T l , th e seco n d a ry v o lta g e is
or
En
V2\ = 30 V
1
For transformer T2, th e seco n d a ry v o lta g e is
22 120
— =—
3
or V 22 = 40 V gin
V
eer
Sf 0 n ? arl,e s a r e c ° ™ e c t e d in se r ie s w ith su ch p olarity m a rk in g s t h a t v o lta g e s
ing
ji and V22 aid each o th er. T h erefo re, th e r e s u lta n t o u tp u t v o lta g e V 2 is g iv en by
V2 = V 2 1 + V22 = 30 + 40 = 70 V
Load current Yi = jo
h = ~K = i i : = l A
.ne
and
For mmf balan ce, p rim a ry c u rre n t o f T l is
/ n = 4 = 1.75 A
t
Primary current o f T 2 is
/ 21 = 4 = 2 .3 3 3 A
nmary input im p ed a n ce = = 2 9 .3 9 0 2 Q
Poiver 4083
EXam 1 ^PUt P rim ary = 120 x 4 .0 8 3 = 70 x 7 = 4 9 0 W a tts.
y^ ib le p0* g*7,5 ' ^ Wo id e n tic a l 2 0 0 V I 2 0 0 V, 50 H z single-phase tra n sform ers A a n d B have
iL*^rrn*r who ° SSeS a n d neSHgihle leakage fluxes. The m a g n e tizin g current taken by either
$ WninFig j ‘ed from r a te d voltage is 0.1 A. I f the w in d in g s o f A a n d B are connected as
* *4 and S ’ estim a te the currents d r a w n by PA a n d S A a n d the open circuit voltage across
^former B **** tW0 w in d in g s o f tra n sfo rm er A , w hile P B a n d S B are the tw o w in d in g s o f
11. A. S., 1991)
S o lu tio n . A c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t io n o f F ig . 1 -8 5 r e v e a l s t h a t
!|l
i i t | ‘ (I w in d in g SA i s d ir e c tly c o n n e c te d a c r o ss 2 0 0 V , 5 0 H z su p p ly - F o r
, ■ (* i!!
2 0 0 V a c r o s s S A, t h e m a g n e t iz in g c u r r e n t n e e d e d to e s t a b lis h t h e
ft
r e q u ir e d f lu x (a n d th e r e fo r e t h e r a te d v o lta g e 2 0 0 V ) m u s t flo w
|!S t h r o u g h t h e w in d in g SA . T h is m e a n s t h a t w in d in g SA c a r r ie s t e / ^ \ 2oov
fit m a g n e t iz in g c u r r e n t o f 0 .1 A a n d th e r e fo r e w in d in g P,* c a r r ie s n o V ^ /s o h z
■sii c u r r e n t. F u r t h e r , tr a n s fo r m e r a c tio n r e q u ir e s t h a t for 2 0 0 V a c r o ss
> 4V f
S A, v o lt a g e a c r o s s w in d in g P A m u s t b e 2 0 0 V .
I d e n t ic a l w in d in g s P A an d P B a r e s e r ie s -c o n n e c te d a c r o s s 2 0 0
V , 5 0 H z . I t s e e m s t h a t 1 0 0 V s h o u ld a p p e a r a c r o ss e a c h o f t h e
i:!•!ip w in d in g s P A a n d P B. B u t, a s d is c u s s e d a b o v e , 2 0 0 V a p p e a r s a c r o s s
w in d in g P A a n d th e r e fo r e n o v o lta g e e x is t s a c r o s s w in d in g P B. T h is
F i g . 1 .8 5 . P e r t a i n i n g to
E x a m p l e 1 .7 5 .
m s h o w s t h a t in d u c e d e m f a c r o ss w in d in g S B o f tr a n s fo r m e r B is z e r o .
T h u s cu rre n t in w in d in g S A is 0.1 A, cu rre n t in w in d in g P A is zero a n d v o lta g e across SB is
; .TV ww
zero.
E x a m p le 1 .7 6 . T w o id e n tic a l 1 -p h a s e tr a n s fo r m e r s 1 a n d 2 , e a c h r a te d f o r 2 3 0 V/2 3 0 V, 50
w.E
H z , a re c o n n e c te d a s s h o w n in F ig . 1.86. F in d th e r e a d in g o n th e id e a l v o lt m e t e r w h en
(а ) R = z e r o o h m
(c) R = 1 0 0 0 o h m
ib ) R = 1 1 5 Q.
id ) R = in fin ity .
asy
S o l u t i o n , (a ) W h en R = zero ohm , seco n d a ry w in d in g S l is
En
s h o r t c ir c u ite d . T h e r e fo r e , v o lta g e a c r o s s w in d in g s S x a n d P x is
zero . S o u rce v o lta g e 2 3 0 V a p p e a r s a c r o ss w in d in g P 2 a n d
th e r e fo r e v o lt m e t e r r e a d in g is 2 3 0 V.
gin
(б) F o r i? = 115 Q, c u rre n t th ro u g h R sh o u ld b e 1 1 5 /1 1 5 = 1
(r>^)230 v
-A Q Hz
eer
A. T h is c u rre n t c a u s e s w in d in g s P 1 a n d P 2 to carry 1 A. T h u s
v o lta g e acro ss w in d in g P 2 = m a g n e tiz in g im p e d a n c e o f t r a n s
ing
form er 2 x 1 A a c tin g a s it s m a g n e tiz in g c u r r e n t b e c a u s e w in d
in g S 2 c a rr ies no cu rren t. A s m a g n e tiz in g im p e d a n c e is la r g e ,
th e v o lta g e a cro ss P 2 r is e s m u ch a b o v e 1 1 5 V a n d t h a t a cro ss
P j c o lla p se s. I t s h o w s t h a t v o lta g e a cro ss S 1 is m u c h le s s t h a n .ne
F ig . 1 .8 6 . P e r t a i n i n g to
E x a m p l e 1 .7 6 .
m o re th a n 1 1 5 V b u t le s s th a n 2 3 0 V. L e t th is v o ltm e te r r e a d in g b e d e n o te d b y Vb. t
1 15 V a n d lik e w is e c u r r e n t th r o u g h R is le s s th a n 1 A. H o w e v e r , t h e v o lt m e t e r r e a d in g is much
(c) F o r R = 1 0 0 0 Q, c u r r e n t is red u c e d in b o th S 1 a n d P v L ik e w is e , c u r r e n t in w in d in g
a ls o r e d u ced . T h erefo r e, v o lta g e a cro ss w in d in g P 2 is n o w le s s t h a n it s v a lu e in p a r t ( b). Even
th e n , th e v o ltm e te r r e a d in g is m o re th a n 1 1 5 V s a y Vc b u t V c is l e s s t h a n V b o b ta in ed in part
ib).
(d ) F o r R e q u a l to in fin ity , w in d in g S i b e h a v e s a s o p e n -c ir c u ite d w in d in g . A s expecte ,
v o ltm e te r r e a d in g is n o w 1 1 5 V.
E x a m p l e 1 .7 7 . A 4 kVA, 5 0 H z, s in g le -p h a s e tr a n s f o r m e r h a s a r a tio 2 0 0 / 4 0 0 V. The data
ta k e n on th e l.v. s id e a t th e r a te d v o lta ge s h o w t h a t the open c ir c u it i n p u t w a tta g e is 80 W.
m u t u a l in d u c ta n c e b etw een the p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y w i n d i n g s is 1.91 H. W h a t value tw
the c u r r e n t ta k e n by th e tra n s fo r m e r , i f th e n o - lo a d te st is c o n d u c te d o n th e h.v. side at ra
v o lta g e ? N e g le c t th e effect o f w i n d i n g r e s is ta n c e s a n d le a k a g e re a c ta n c e s. {GATE, I
S o l u t i o n . O p e n -c ir c u it in p u t w a t t a g e = co re lo s s in t r a n s f o r m e r = 8 0 W
o c a r ir ie u u y u a r n o c a r ir ie r www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
Transformers 143
loss = / cl V = 8 0 W
put core
coreloss in a tra n sfo rm er r e m a in s u n a ltered w h e th e r it is en ergised from l.v. sid e or h.v.
A
,]0SS current w h e n en e r g iz e d from h .v. sid e,
. Core
ww
The current ta k en by tra n sfo rm er w h e n en ergized on h.v. side, as per Eq. (1.18), is
Je = ^ 4 + 4 > = [0.22 + 0 .3 3 3 3 211/2 = 0 .3 8 8 7 A.
w.E
Example 1.78. A 100 kVA, 11 k V / 4 0 0 V, 3-phase transformer has its maximum possible
ifficiency of 98%, when it d elivers 80 kVA a t unity p f a n d rated voltage. The maximum possible
asy
voltage regulation o f the tra n sform er is 4%. F ind the efficiency an d voltage regulation o f the
transformer for rated kVA o u tp u t a t 0.8 p f lagging. (/./, S., 1994)
Solution. Total lo s s e s in tra n sfo rm er
A f 1
1 En N
- I - i o u tp u t =
J\ y v0.98 y
Core losses = ohm ic lo s s e s = 1 6 3 2 .6 5 /2 = 8 1 6 .3 2 5 W gin
- 1 x 80,000 = 1632.65 W
Rated-load ohm ic lo s s e s
x 1 n2
eer
x 8 1 6 .3 2 5 = 1275.51 W
Transformer efficien cy
0.8
1 0 0 ,0 0 0 x 0 .8
—-------------------------- ing
x 100 = 97.452%
y 8 0 ,0 0 0 + 8 1 6 .3 2 5 + 1275.51
kximum possible v o lta g e r e g u la tio n o f a tran sform er is equal to ze2 in pu = 0.04 p.u. .ne
P,°® Eq. (1.36), r ,2 in p er u n it = = 0 .0 1 2 7 8
t
c2 = (0 .0 4 2 - 0 .0 1 2 7 8 2] 1/2 = 0.0379 p.u.
Volt
age regulation = [re2 cos 02 + xe2 sin 021
= [0 .0 1^ 2— 8 -x• 0.8
— + 0.0 3 7 9- x 0.6]- x 100 = 3.298%.
C mP!G 1,79‘ A Single-Phase a uto-transform er is to deliver a pow er o fW k\V at unity p f at
Sling WUh input v o y a g e o f V x volts. Determine the kVA rating o f each section o f the
^ W h c d C° mpare w ith the r a tin g o f a tw o-w indin g transformer assum ing an efficiency of
. . wW i1 rr k V A
w
P rim ary w in d in g ra tin g = — x — = —
1) Vj T|
y 2
w h ere k - ratio o f tra n sfo rm a tio n =
vi
W W
T h e v o lta g e across sectio n B C = V2 and it s cu rren t r a tin g is ( /2 - I x) = y - -
ww
.-. kV A ra tin g o f sectio n B C = V2 (12 - 1{)
w.E
For tw o-w in d in g tran sform er, secon d ary r a tin g = 1 0 0 k V A a n d p r im a r y r a tin g
asy
■ a w '■ '1 0
For au to-tran sform er, ra tin g o f sectio n
4 1 6 7 kV A -
AB = En [1 - 0.81 = 2 0 .8 3 3 k V A
eer
[ l - —
0.96J1 =
1.22. S u m m ary
.ne
m achines' L c e eL ctrT c^ h . L ^ r t t r ? s fo r m e r ^ n d t h e n t h e r o t a t in g electric*
r e sp ects. T h e co u p lin g b etw een °th p ^ 0 rm e^s ^ r o ta tin g m a c h in e s i s s im ila r in man
th rough t h e ? e c o nda r y w i n d i n g , o f a tran sform er i
electrical and m ech a n ica l s y ste m s (or s U t o ^ ^ ^ o t o r ^ t he co u Plin g betwee
In view o f th is, m a n y o f th e r e le v a n t eq u a tio n s ^ ^ 1S
t
° U gh t h e m a ^ etic fie1'
theory, are ap p licab le to th e a n a ly s is o f a c m a c h i n e d ? . n c lu s io n s d r a w n ™ t h e transform!
T h ese p oin ts o f sim ila r ity a re d isc u sse d b eio w • S° m e e x t e n t to d c< m ach in es als
1. 22) ___________________
- Transformers 145
(iii) T he r e s u l ta n t m u tu a l flux in b o th tr a n .
flux, since it ta k e s p a r t in th e enerjjy-conversion n r Z t * ™ 4 ro ta tin g m achines, is th e useful
& lin k in g one w in d in g a n d n o t th e o th er a re Z In “ n to th is u s e M flux’ ^ a k a g e
g a tin g m ac h in e s, t h e le a k a g e fiuzen t r e ^ Z Z T ? b °t h ' ^ ^ ‘r - s f o r m e r and
leakage fluxes a re la rg e ly in a ir, consequently lea k *ge rea cta n ce s- In b o th - the
magnetic s a tu r a tio n a n d a re a ssu m e d c” t ** reaC‘ anCeS * " U" effeCted by th e
ww
pedance d ro p s, t h e r e s u l t a n t m u t u a l flu x is d e te r m in e d b y t h e a p p lied v o lta g e a n d freq u en cy.
Since, for c o n s t a n t a p p lie d v o lt a g e a n d fr e q u e n c y th e r e s u lta n t m u tu a l flu x is c o n s ta n t, th e
currents in a ll t h e w in d in g s m u s t a d ju s t t h e m s e lv e s so a s to cre a te th is c o n s ta n t flu x .
w.E
It m a y b e c o n c lu d e d fr o m t h e a b o v e d is c u s sio n th a t th e tra n sfo rm ers, in d u c tio n m otors,
synchronous m o to r s a n d t h e a lte r n a to r s c o n n e c te d to in fin ite b u s-b a rs, m a y b e reg a rd ed a s
const a n t-flu x m a c h in e s .
asy
(u) L o s s e s in r o t a t in g m a c h in e s a r e t h e s a m e a s in tra n sfo rm ers, ex ce p t for th e friction and
w indage lo s s e s .
En
(ui) An o p e n -c ir c u it, o r n o -lo a d , t e s t h e lp s in k n o w in g th e ex c ita tio n re q u ir e m e n ts an d core
gin
loss (and fric tio n a n d w in d a g e lo s s in r o ta tin g m a c h in e s). S h o rt-circu it t e s t h e lp s in d e te r m in
ing th e ohm ic lo s s a n d t h e le a k a g e im p e d a n c e s o f th e w in d in g s. In ro ta tin g e le c tr ic a l m a c h in e s,
eer
however, dc r e s is t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t is n e e d e d . B o th op en -circu it an d sh o rt-circ u it t e s t s h e lp
in th e calcu lation o f e f f ic ie n c y o f b o th tr a n s fo r m e r s a n d r o ta tin g electric a l m a ch in es.
PROBLEMS ing
(a)
.ne
Define a tra n s fo rm e r. H ow is th e energy tra n sfe rre d from one circuit to another? D istinguish
between prim ary a n d se c o n d a ry w indings.
(MTransformer is the main reason for the wide-spread popularity of a.c. systems over d.c. systems. Explain.
(c) Give som e tra n s fo r m e r ap p lic atio n s in electronic a n d control circuits.
t
M> Describe th e tw o g e n e ra l types o f tran sfo n n en .. Why is th e low-voltage w inding placed n ear th e con. ?
Why are the b u tt jo in ts in th e a d ja c e n t layers staggered?
L2. (o) W hy is iro n u s e d for th e c o n stru ctio n o f transform er-core ?
(b) Why is th e tra n s fo r m e r core la m in a te d ? .
(c) Is it possible to u s e a n y w in d in g of th e tra n sfo rm e r as its prim ary . xp _
,r. _ . , ' Annm transform ers. S ta te clearly th e q u a n titie s w hich rem ain
(d) Distinguish between stop-up and step-down trans
Unaltered or g et ste p p e d -u p o r stepped-dow n.
U . W Explain the principle of tonsferm ei sh(W ^ emf per turn in prhnsry
^ (b) Derive an expression for the e.m.f. induced in
eqjial to e.m.f. p e r tu r n in th e secondary. hafl oer tu rn e.m.f. of about 9 volts and m axim um flux
j !c) A 6300/210 V, 50 H z, sin g le -p h a se tra n sfo rm e Pf ^^ th e Qet croaB.sectional a re a of th e
£ ^ lty ° f 1-2 T. F in d th e n u m b e r of high -v o ltag e a n d o [Ati, 7 2 0 turns, 24 turns, 328.3 cm8)
o f tu r n s o n e a c h w in d in g . T h e m a x im u m v F i r s t c a l c u l a t e t h e n u m b e r o f t u r n s in
[H in t. A ce n tr e-ta p p e d w in d in g m u st h a v e e v e n n u m b e r o • ^ J g lg 0 ( ) 46Q (p rjm a ry ,
th e lo w e st-v o lta g e w in d in g , h e re 6 V w in d in g ! ... f
, ., , , D e sc r ib e its p e r fo r m a n c e w ith th e h e lp of em f
1 .5 . G iv e t h e c o n c e p t o f s in g le - p h a s e id e a l tr a n s fo r m e r .
e q u a tio n s , its p h a s o r d ia g r a m s a t n o lo a d a n d o n lo a d .
D is c u s s h o w co re flu x in a n id e a l tr a n s fo r m e r is in d e p e n d e n t o f lo a d c u r r e n t.
l J i s c u s s n o w c u r e u u a .. . tra n sferred fro m second ary t o p r i m a r y or
1 .6 . (a ) I n a n id e a l t r a n s f o r m e r , d is c u s s h o w im p e d a n c e is t i a n s l e r r e a e y
v ic e -v e r sa . H z r e s p e c tiv e ly . F o r th e sa m e em f
(b) I d e a l t r a n s f o r m e r s A a n d B a r e d e s i g n e d t o w o r k a t . (fe ) A : B = 2 0 0 : 1|
p e r tu r n a n d fo r th e s a m e c o r e flu x d e n s itie s , c o m p a r e th e ir c o r e a r e a s . ___________ _________
1 .7 . (a ) T h e p r im a r y w in d in g o f a s in g le - p h a s e t r a n s f o r m e r is « 1 [
from fix ed s in u s o id a l v o lta g e w ith se c o n d a r y o p e n -c ir c u ite d . If th e s h a d e d
ww
p o r tio n o f th e ir o n c o r e is r e m o v e d , F ig . 1 .8 7 , d is c u s s w h a t w o u ld h a p p e n to
th e m a g n itu d e s o f its e x c itin g c u r r e n t, co re flu x a n d th e n o -lo a d p o w e r fa cto r.
(6 ) A s in g le -p h a s e , 5 0 H z tr a n s fo r m e r h a s v o lta g e r a tin g o f 1 1 0 0 0 /4 0 0
w.E
VV bu aa ss ce du Uo nl l i1 t1 s3 wW Ui nJ Ud Xi n1 I g5 tV uU rI nt i sa r a t i o . I t s —l e -----------
a k a og ----------
d u r in g te s ts , a r e fo u n d to b e 0 .2 H a n d 8 0 H r e s p e c tiv e ly o n its p n m a r y
e a n d m a g n e t i 1z i n g i n• d u c t a• n c e s
(h .v .) s id e . F o r p r im a r y a p p lie d v o lta g e o f 1 1 0 0 0 V a t 5 0 H z , c a lc u la t e t h e [
open-circuit secondary voltage.
[A n s. (a) E x c i t i n g
asy
c u r r e n t in c r e a se s, co re flu x r e m a in s c o u s ta n t a n d n o -lo a d
power factor is worsened. (6) 399 V]
F ig . 1.87 P e r t a i n i n g
Problem 1.7 (a).
to
En
1.8. ( a ) A single-phase tra n sfo rm e r is designed to o p e ra te a t ra te d p rim a ry v o lta g e 230 V and at rated
gin
frequency 50 Hz. If its p rim a ry voltage is in cre ase d by 10% on no load, d isc u ss w h a t w ould h ap p en to the
tra n sfo rm er operation.
(6) D iscuss th e a d v a n ta g e s of u sin g CRGO la m in a tio n s in tra n s fo rm e rs .
(c)
eer
A 10 kVA, 440/220 V, 400 Hz tra n sfo rm e r is d e sire d to be u se d a t a fre q u e n c y o f 60 H z. F in d th e volt
as well as th e kVA ra tin g of th e tra n s fo rm e r a t th is reduced frequency.
ing
l A n s . ( a ) M agnetizing cu rren t, core loss and exciting cu rren t increase,
third harm onics in exciting c u rre n t is m ore pronounced, (c) 66/33 V, 1.5 kVA!
1.9. (a) E x p lain w hy tra n s fo rm e r r a tin g is e x p re sse d in kVA or VA. D e sc rib e th e sig n ific a n ce of all the
item s m entioned on th e n a m e -p la te of a sin g le -p h a se tra n s fo rm e r. .ne
(6) A 1-phase tra n s fo rm e r h a s th e follow ing d a ta :
Peak flux density in core = 1.40 T ; N et core a re a = 0.012 m2
C urrent density in conductors = 2.5 MA/m2;
t
Conductor dia. = 2.0 mm ; P rim ary voltage = 230 V, 50 Hz.
C a lc u la te th e kVA ra tin g of th e tra n s fo rm e r a n d th e n u m b e r of tu r n s on th e p r im a r y w in d in g .
[Ana. (b) 1 80642 kVA. 62 turm
1.10. (a ) D evelop th e p h a s o r d ia g ra m o f a sin g le -p h a s e tr a n s f o r m e r u n d e r la g g in g -p o w e r fa c to r load
(6)
A 100 kVA, 2400/240-V , 50 H z sin g le p h a s e tra n s fo r m e r h a s a n e x c itin g c u r r e n t o f 0.64 A and a cor
loss of 700 watts, when its high-voltage side is energised at rated voltage and frequency. C a lc u la te the tv,
components of the exciting current.
If the above transformer supplies a load current of 40 am peres at 0.8 power factor lag on its l.v. side, tin
calculate the primary current and its power factor. Ignore leakage im pedance drops
IA ns. 0.292 A; 0.569 A, 4.584 A, p.f. =0.762 lagg"
1.11. (a) What current flows in the transformer primary when its secondary is open ?W hat is its fuiictu'i
Give its order of magnitude.
(b ) In a transformer, core flux depends on voltage, w hereas the leakage flu xes depend on the c
Explain.
same num ber of *kP ° f iron’ alum inium and wood have the sam e dim ensions and are wound w ith the
of the m aterials in on j . C°reS are fed from the 8ame voltage a t a fixed frequency, then w rite the names
j j y c u rre n t l o s s j tm g t0 the m aP litudes of (i) m agnetizing current, (ii) hysteresis loss and (Hi)
eddy c u rre n t loss. t,,v e a b n e f description for each answer.
H in t. Iron is ferro-m agnetic m aterial, alum inium is param agnetic m aterial (pr = 1.002) and wood is
non m agnetic m ate ria l w ith pr = l.oo. Flux produced is sam e in all the three cores.)
Ans. (c) (i) Wood, aluminium and iron
(ii) Iron, aluminium and wood in decreasing order
(Hi) Aluminium, iron and wood
f ° f 8 tra n sform er is energised a t rated voltage of 11,000 V and a t rated frequency
0 ’ ,.es ' and 2400 w atts a t no-load. A nother transform er has all its core dim ensions >/2 times
the corresponding core dim ensions of the first transform er.
N um ber of p rim ary tu rn s, type of core m aterial and lam ination thickness are the sam e in both the
transform ers. If th e p rim ary of the second transform er is energised from 22,000 V, 50 Hz supply, calculate the
no-load c u rre n t and pow er draw n by it.
[H in t. Core loss « Core volume
ww
C o re lo ss c o m p o n e n t
pc2 = W2)3 (Pel) = (V2)3 (2400) = 6780 watts.
Ic2 = ( V 2 ) 3/ r l
asy
M agnetizing com ponent, 7ml
En
and ♦m 2 =
22,000
V2x/-N, ~ ^ ml
gin
But ♦m l —R
m.m.f.
e lu c ta n c e
_ fm i^i
Rlx
eer
Also
Rl2 ♦m2 = 2 ^ 1 = ^ *
ing
^m2 ~ —?
HIj
(2/m,) = V2/ml. = V2(3.193) = 4.515 Aetc.l
.ne
IAns. 4.557 A, 6780 watts.)
1.13. (a) D raw th e exact equivalent circuit of a transform er and describe briefly th e various param eters
involved in it.
(b) A 50 H z, 3-phase core-type star-d elta transform er has a line voltage ratio of 11,000/440 volts. The
cross-section of th e core is sq u are w ith a circum scribing circle of 0.4 m diam eter. D eterm ine th e num ber of
t
turns per p h ase on high-voltage and low-voltage windings for a m axim um flux density of 1.25 T. Assum e th a t
the insulation occupies 10% of th e to tal core area.
Low-voltage per phase turns = e m f pgr turn etC'^ (Ana. 318, 22)
1.14. A single-phase tra n sfo rm e r h a s 1000 prim ary tu rn s and 80 secondary tu rn s wound around a core of
net cross-sectional a re a 40 cm 2. T he r.m .s. value of flux density in th e core is lim ited to 1.4 T. C alculate the
maximum 50 H z r.m .s. p rim a ry voltage th a t can be applied on th e prim ary side w ithout reaching sa tu ra tio n
The core h a s a m ean len g th of 160 cm and its relative perm eability is 6000. Find th e value of exciting
current if th e tra n sfo rm e r p rim a ry is energised from th e voltage calculated above. C alculate, also, th e m ag
netizing reactan ce as seen from p rim a ry and secondary sides.
(V 2/m Ar,)p0 Hr -A, (Ana. 1758.76 V, 0.2971 A. 5919.76 ft, 37.886 Q1
| Hint. ^
ww (ii) rt2 =0.0081 fi, xt2 = 0.0604 fi, Rc2= 48 fi, Xm2 = 35 Q]
1.18. Develop the exact equivalent circuit of a 1-phase tra n sfo rm er. F ro m th is , deriv e th e approxim ate and
w.E
simplified equivalent circuits of the transform er. S ta te th e various a ssu m p tio n s m ade.
Also draw the phasor diagram for the equivalent T-circuit of th e tra n sfo rm er.
1.19. (a) Give the equivalent circuit of a tran sfo rm er an d define its v a rio u s p a ra m e te rs . C learly state the
asy
assum ptions involved in the applicability of th is eq u iv alen t circuit.
(6) How will the equivalent circuit be modified if th e tra n sfo rm e r is a n air-co red tra n sfo rm er?
En
(c) A 100 kVA, 1000/400 volts, single-phase tran sfo rm er, w hen excited a t r a te d v o ltag e on h.v. side, draws
a no-load current of 3.0 A a t 0.5 lagging power factor. If it is excited from th e l.v. sid e a t ra te d voltage, determine
the no load current, power factor and power input.
[H int, (a) Assum ptions : (i) No sa tu ra tio n ,
gin
(ii) E q u iv alen t circuit p a ra m e te rs re m a in c o n sta n t for minor
[Ans. (6) Om it Re from Fig. 1.14 (e). (c) 7.5 A, 0.5 lag, 1500 W]
eer
changes in supply voltage and frequency.)
1.20. (a) In open-circuit test, the ohmic losses are negligible in com parison w ith n o rm a l core loss. Explain.
ing
(b) In short-circuit test, the core loss is negligible in com parison w ith full-load ohm ic losses. Explain.
(c) A 5 kVA, 1000/200 V, 50 Hz single-phase tra n sfo rm e r gave th e follow ing t e s t re s u lts :
Open-circuit test ( l.v. side) : 200 V, 1.2 A, 90 W
Short-circuit te st ( h.v. s id e ) : 50 V, 5A, 110 W.
.ne
e , u i v a Z t d 'r c ^ V i U.
t
*> l v . side. Also draw the exact
[Ans- Approx. equivalent c irc u it: Rc2 = 444.44 fi, Xm2 = 179.86 fi, re2 = 0.176 fi, xt2 = 0.3592 0
Exact equivalent c irc u it: Re2 = 444.44 fi, Xm2 = 1 7 9 .8 6 fi, r2 = = 0.088 fi, x2 = = 0.1796 fll
(c) Show t h a t p e r u n i t ' *?*** Sh° U' d ^ p e rfo rm e d 0 0 a n d * > v sid es respective')
tan ce rtL or rt}h can be o b tain e d from th e following relation
rtL or rtH = ^ h m ic josses a t rated c u rre n t
Rated VA '
S u bscripts Lnad Hen
d o te l.v. a n d h.v. sid e s re sp e c tiv e ly .
S ca n n e a b y www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
(d) T h e tra n s fo r m e r ex citin g c u rre n t is 3% of full-load cu rren t. C alculate voltm eter, a m m e te r a n d w a ttm e te r
rea inSs or op en -circu it te s t a t ra te d voltage and short-circuit te s t a t ra te d c u rre n t. T he in stru m e n ts are
connected on l.v. sid e for open-circuit te s t and on h.v. side for sh o rt circuit test.
lAns. (a) 2229.27 V (6) 2193.27 V (c) 98.47% (d) O.C. te s t: 220 V, 0.682 A 30 W. S.C. t e s t: 33.14V, 2.273 A, 32.10 W]
1.24. (a) D efine voltage reg u la tio n of a transform er.
(b) W h at c a u se s a change in secondary term in al voltage of a transform er, as it is loaded ? E n u m e ra te th e
factors w hich influence th e m a g n itu d e of th is change.
:
ww
(c) A 50 Hz, sin g le -p h a se tra n sfo rm e r draw s a sh o rt circuit current of 30 A a t 0.2 p f lag w hen connected
to 16 V, 50 Hz source. W h a t will be th e short-circuit c u rren t, and its pf, when the sam e tra n sfo rm er is energised
from 16 V, 25 H z source ?
3Q jg
Vr* + xlt
16
5re
asy
re = 0.1067 D a n d xe = 0.523 fi
At 25 Hz, xe = 0.2615 Q and rt = 0.1067 H etc.l En [Ans. 56.65 .
gin
1.25. (a) F o r a lag g in g p f load, show th a t p er u n it voltage regulation of a transform er can be obtained]
the expression
*t 2pu ■ c o s (0 - 82)
where <j>= leakage im pedance angle and 02 = load power-factor angle. eer
(6) F ind also th e condition u n d e r w hich m axim um voltage regulation occurs.
(c) ing
A 10 kVA, 2 5 0 0 /2 5 0 V, single-phase tra n sfo rm er h as full load ohmic loss of 300 W. T he m axim um
possible voltage drop in th e tran sfo rm er-seco n d ary voltage is 20 V. Find voltage regulation of th is tra n sfo rm er
for rated kVA o u tp u t a t 0.8 p f lagging. lAns. (c) 6.852%) .ne
1.26. (a) V oltage reg u la tio n of a tra n sfo rm e r varies w ith power factor. V alidate th is s ta te m e n t through
suitable deriv atio n s. A t w h a t pow er factor will th e regulation be (i) m axim um and (ii) zero.
Does th e m ax im u m efficiency of a tra n sfo rm er also depend on power factor ? Discuss.
t
(b) A 25 kVA 2000/200 V, 50 H z tra n sfo rm e r has m axim um efficiency a t 80% of full load. Its p er unit
a resistance and im p ed an ce a re 0.012 a n d 0.05 respectively. D eterm ine its efficiency a n d voltage regulation at
• 1 . . * __ . F A n o 0 7 A Of- V O O C O W . l
j\j half of the full load a n d a t 0.8 p f lagging. (Ans- 97.4%, 1.9362%]
1.27. (a) T he full-load voltage drops in a tra n sfo rm er are 2% and 4% due respectively to resistan ce and
\* leakage reactance. T he full-load ohm ic loss is equal to iron loss. C alculate
(i) the efficiency on h a lf load a t u n ity p f
(**) th e lagging p f oil full-load o u tp u t a t w hich th e voltage drop is a m axim um and
(Hi) th e m ax im u m p e rc e n ta g e voltage drop
\ A (6) A sin gle-phase tra n s fo rm e r h a s p ercentage regulation of 4 an d 4.4 for lagging pow er factor of 0.8 and
i 0 6 respectively. T he full-load ohm ic loss is equal to iron loss. C alculate
j d) the lagging p f a t w hich full-lond reg u latio n is m axim um ,
i K U I r ,n . n- ■ i.mfvnf |A n .. (o) 95.24%, 0.4472 tag. 4.472% (6 ) 0.4472 lag, 96.154%|
(«) the full-load efficiency a t u n ity pi. v; ’
' „ ‘ -28. (a, Is th e voltage reg u la tio n a t pow er factor 0.8 lagging b e tte r or w orse th a n its value a t power factor
6 Egging for th e sa m e kVA o u tp u t ? Give ap p ro p riate reasons.
w.E
1.32. (o) In a 1 -phase transform er, the core flux rem ain s s u b sta n tia lly c o n sta n t a n d is independent of the
load current. Explain.
made.
asy
(6 ) In a transform er, find the load c u rren t a t w hich m axim um efficiency occurs. S ta te th e assumptions
En
(c) W hen a transform er w ith data given in Prob. 1.23 is loaded, it is found t h a t secondary voltage at no
load and full load rem ains unchanged. D eterm ine th e tra n sfo rm e r loading u n d e r ra te d c u rren t conditions.
Neglect the m agnetizing current. lAna. pf = 0.905 leading, 4.525 kVAl
gin
1.3 3 . (a ) For constant values of load voltage and load pf, obtain th e condition for m axim um efficiency in a
1-phase transform er. Hence, derive therefrom th e relation
(k V A U , , = (kVAW , V m J S S L , eer
(6 )
ing
The leakage im pedance of a 10 kVA, 3300/220 V tra n s fo rm e r as given on its n am e plate is 10
Determ ine (i) th e voltage th a t m u st be applied on HV side to circ u la te ra te d c u rre n t w ith LV side shorted and
(ii) the m axim um possible voltage regulation.
.ne
[Ans. (i) 330 V ; (ii) 10*1
1.34. (a) A non-sinusoidal voltage v = 150 sin 314 t - 75 sin 1 5 7 0 1 is a p p lied to th e 250 tu rn winding of a
transform er. Find th e core flux as a function of tim e.
t
(b) A voltage v = 200 sin 3 1 4 1is applied to th e tra n sfo rm e r w in d in g in a no-load te s t. T he resulting current
is found to be i = 3 sin (314 / —60°). D eterm ine th e core loss a n d r.m .s. v a lu e of th e exciting current.
(c) A tran sfo rm er h as the following te s t d a ta :
T est No. 1 : 100% voltage, 6 % c u rre n t, p f = 0.2
T est No. 2 : 8 % voltage, 100% c u rre n t, p f = 0.3
Identify th e tests. C alculate efficiency and p ercen tag e re g u la tio n a t full load p p f a n d a t 0 .8 pf lag g i^
[H int, (c) core loss = 0.012 Full-load ohmic loss = 0.024 * = 0.08 etc.)
[Ans. (a) ( - 1.911 cos 314 t + 0 1911 cos 1570 tll« *
(5) 150 watts, 2.122 A. (c) 96.525%, 95.694%; 2.4%.
1.35. (a) Describe briefly th e various losses in a tra n s fo rm e r a n d e x p la in how each loss varies with th
load cu rren t. r
(b) E xpress th e total core loss in te rm s of voltage an d frequency.
k !v?6f (n } A tranflfor” *®r 18 °Pe ra t®d a t ra ta d frequency b u t a t a v o ltag e h ig h e r t h a n its ra te d value.
how th e following q u a n titie s would change : a s * * «»«*• •
(i) No-load current. (ii) Hysteresis loss .n d m Eddy cu rren t loss.
(ft) A 200 V, 60 Hz single-phase tra n sfo rm er h a s h y steresis and eddy c u rre n t losses of 250 w a tts an d 90
watts respectively. If th e tra n sfo rm e r is now energised from 230 V, 50 Hz supply, calculate its core losses.
Assume Steinm etz’s c o n sta n t equal to 1.6.
[Ans. (a) (i) Increases (ii) Increases, PAoc (V)1 (iii) Increases, P t « (V)2 (ft) 487.83 watts.I
1 .3 7 . A 1 -phase, 11/66 kV, 50 MVA tra n sfo rm er h as prim ary and secondary leakage im pedances of
0 .01 + j0-0S per u n it each. The s h u n t branch im pedance in p.u is 80 + y 0 in p arallel w ith 0 +j 90. All q u a n titie s
are in Per u n *^ on tru n sfo rm e r base. C alculate, in ohms, th e p a ra m ete rs of p rim ary and secondary w indings
and the sh u n t b ran ch referred to low-voltage side.
[Ans. r, = r2' = 0.0242 D ; x, =x2' = 0.1452 Q ; Rc = 193.6 D, Xm = 217.8 fl]
1.38. Fig. 1.88 illu s tra te s th e eq u ivalent circuit 04sn om
referred to the l.v. side of a 400/3200 V, 1-phase, 50 Hz, -'7JttP* 'WvV~
16 kVA transform er. W ith p rim ary voltage held fixed at
400 V, the h.v. is loaded to its ra te d c u rre n t a t p f 0.8 lag
at its term inals. C om pute
400 V 800 n
(a) the term inal voltage a t the h.v. term inals
(ft) the l.v. input current and its pf and
ww
(c) ihe efficiency.
[Ans. (a) 3062.4 V (ft) 40.635 A, 0.78316 lag (c) 96.229%)
w.E
1.39. (a) S uggest a su ita b le te st to predeterm ine the Fig. 1.88. Pertaining to Problem 1.38.
regulation of a tra n sfo rm e r an d explain it.
(ft) A 200 kVA, 1-phase, 50 Hz, 2300/230 V tran sfo rm er has a core loss of 300 W. At full load, I2R loss is
asy
800 W and the leakage reactance is 0.032 p.u. C alculate the total loss and the voltage regulation for (a) 1.2
p.u. load a t p f 0.8 lagging and (6 ) 0.70 pu. load a t p f 0.6 leading.
IAns. (a) 1452 W, 0.02688 p.u. (ft) 692 W, - 0.01624 p.u.)
En
1.40. A single-phase load is fed through a 6 6 kV feeder of im pedance 100 + j 320 ohms and a 6 6 / 6 .6 kV
transformer of eq u iv alen t leakage im pedance 0.3 + j 1.2 ohms referred to l.v. side. For a load of 200 kW a t pf
0.8 leading a t 6 .6 kV, calculate
(a) voltage a t th e sending end of the feeder,
gin
(ft) voltage a t th e p rim ary term in als of th e tran sfo rm er and
eer
(c) active and reactive powers and p f a t th e sending end of the feeder.
ing
IA ns. (a) 65394 V (ft) 65818 V (c) 201.8654 kW, 143.6865 kVAr, 0.8147 leading]
1.41. A 100 kVA, 50 Hz, 440/11000 V, 1-phase transform er has an efficiency of 98.5% w hen supplying
full-load current a t 0.8 p f a n d an efficiency of 99% when supplying half-full load c u rren t a t u nity pf. Find th e
“ £ 2 S ^
are halved and the new transform er is energised from 2 2 .UUU v , oo « s s S yy^ j 5 s k S S uers have
k ? sthe
same core m aterial and the sam e lam ination thickness.
Calculate the flux density and core losses for the new tra n s orm er.
N\
(Hint. V1='l2nfi BmlAiNi and V2=<2nfxBm2 • 4A, • -5 -
asy
1.47. (a) In each of th e diagram s of Fig. 1.90, th e in sta n ta n e o u s p o larity of th e F ig . 1 .8 9 . P erta in in g
prim ary winding of an ideal transform er is as shown. Indicate : t o P r o b l e m 1 . 4 6 (b).
(i) the direction of flux in th e core. ,
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
^C- (d)
Fig. 1.90. Pertaining to Problem 1.47 (a).
10 0 2 d V t£ ! 20° '
A, find the voltage that develops across x y . as shown I Fig’ m “
M u . fa) A (i) Clockwise (ii) d positive and c negative (iii) From s to b and
from c to d. Fig. 1.91. P e n n i n g to
Problem 1.47 (b)-
Transformers 153
B (i) Clockwise (ii) c positive and d negative (iii) From a toband from d to c.
C (i) Anti-clockwise (ii) c positive and d negative (iii) From a toftand from d to c.
D (i) Anti-clockwise (ii) positive and c negative (iii) From a to6and from c to d. \a
(b) 20 volts.)
1.48. (a )In 10 back te s t>show to®1 one transform er may have slightly less tem perature rise than the other.
(b) In S u m p n er’s te s t, th e re a d in g of th e w a ttm e te r recording the core losses rem ains unaffected w hen
voltage is injected in th e secondary series circuit. Explain.
low
(c) In S u m p n er s te s t, th e frequency of th e voltage injected in the secondary circuit, m ay not be equal to
rated frequency. E xplain.
the
[(c) H in t. Secondary sh o rt-circu it c u rre n t Ise = H ere 7,c is made equal to th e rated cu rren t for any
^8C
value offre<Iuency m erely by a d ju stin g V. Since th e ohmic losses are equal to (Itc)2 x (Resistance), some variation
of frequency from ra te d v a lu e , will not v ary th e w inding resistance and, therefore, the ohmic losses.)
1.49. (a) T h e te m p e ra tu re of a tra n sfo rm er determ ined under either no-load condition or short-circuit
condition, does n o t give tru e te m p e ra tu re rise experienced in practice. Discuss this and explain a suitable
ww
method of d eterm in in g th e te m p e ra tu re rise of a transform er.
(ft) Two sim ila r 40 kVA, single-phase tran sfo rm ers gave the following results w hen tested by the back to
back method : ^
w.E
lVj in the supply line : 800 w atts.
W, in the secondaries series circuit a t rated current : 1000 watts.
asy
Calculate th e efficiency of each tra n sfo rm er a t u nity p.f. [Ans. (6)
1.50. (a) Define a n a u to -tra n sfo rm e r. D istinguish clearly th e difference between a resistive potential divider
97.8C
.
En
(fc) A 200/100 V, single-phase tran sfo rm er is rated 10 kVA. If this transform er is connected as an
gin
auto-transformer across a 50-V supply, w h a t is th e m axim um output voltage th a t can be obtained from th is
transformer? If th e load c u rre n t is now 8 A, determ ine th e kVA output and the currents in th e various p a rts
eer
of the system.
[Hint. (b) T he w in d in g designed for 100 V should be connected across 50 V supply.)
[Ans. 150 V, 1.2 kVA, input current = 24 A)
ing
1.51. (a) D iscuss th e re la tiv e m erits an d dem erits of an auto-transform er.
(6) A 400/100 V 5 kVA. sin g le-p h ase two w inding tra n s lo n n e r is to be used os an au to-transform er to
.ne
su p p ly 400 volts from a 500 V voltage source. W hen tested as . two-winding transform er a t ra te d load a n d 0.8
Pf' ^
kVA
“ kVA” ^ t ^ - n ^ L n s f o n n e r . Also calculate the transform ed kVA an d c o n d u c e d
<M A 10,000/5000 V sin g le-p h asc transforTO e^^rated^a^lO O ^kV A ^as^a^tw ^^^ ^ o p e ra tt it as
desired to connect th e tw o w indings of th e ira n th e sam e w h a t are the possible voltage ratios and
auto-transform er. E x p la in th e connections [An*, (ft) (0 Voltage ratio : 1/3, 150 kVA o u tp u t
the corresponding m ax im u m o u tp u ts? ((,■) Voltage ratio : 2/3, 300 kVA output]
, 41. -nw p r tra n sfe r from prim ary circuit to th e secondary circuit is p a rtly
1.53. (a) In a n a u to -tra n sfo rm e r, th e p . .. j u stify th is statem en t.
by transform er action a n d p a rtly by direc co ■ transform er is to be used as an a u to -tran sfo rm er
(ft) A 11000/2200 V, 100 kVA, single-phase t ibIebvalues of voltage ratios a n d kVA outputs,
hy connecting th e tw o w indings in series. u>v ^ 13200/2200 V or 2200/13200 V; kVA = 120
13200/11000 V or 11000/13200 V; kVA » 600)
ww
(ft) It is proposed to connect R x betw een term in als d and a
suitable tap c on th e winding, instead of across a and ft, could
it lead to a more economical design of the auto-transform er?
Explain.
w.E (I.E.S., 1979)
[Ans. (a) C urrents in the windings are as shown in Fig. 1 93
(a) .75 VAI
(6)
asy
W ith th e proposed connections, the cu rren ts in th e w ind
ings are as shown in Fig. 1.93 (ft).
a n d HlnldCltk T e f f
En
W0uld n o t be e c o n o m ic a l. because th e w indings h av e to h a n d le m ore currents
and would, therefore, be thicker m cross-section].
1 25A
0 5A
gin 1 '2 5 A
.ne
c>
1 °
0 2 5 * 9
300V >
1
200n
t 20on
L J
1-25A
_ 1
1-5A
1-5A
(a)
Pig. 1.93. Pertaining to the eolution of Problem 1.56. (6)
1.57 A single-phase transformer has three w in d in g , .
supply voltage a v .i,.b ,e ie 300 V, 50 Hr, then d eterm in e V > U 2 Z $ S . “ l ^
1.53. fa) Why ie it preferable to inetall two „r m ore tr a n „f ^ ^ V’ 1M V’ 2° ° V’ and 450 V’ 600 V’ 900 ^
(4) Explain why parallel operation of transformers is n e c e s I Z " m P8raUel ‘han °" e Iarge “” it?
formers may be operated in p a r s e r " 111' Condit,on“ whlch should be satisfied before two single-phase trans-
Transformers 155
prob. 11
1.59. (a) D iscuss th e effect of circulating cu rren t a t no-load, in two single phase tran sfo rm ers o p erating in
p arallel-
(b) Two tra n sfo rm ers o p e ra tin g in p arallel have different reactance to resistance ratios. Show th a t one
transformer o p erates a t a b e tte r p.f, th a n the other.
(c) Show th a t if two tra n sfo rm ers have sam e p.u. im pedances, they will sh are the load in proportion to
their kVA capacities.
1.60. (a) D iscuss how th e p a ra lle l operation of two single-phase transform ers is effected by
(i) unequal voltage ratio s and
(iii) unequal p e r u n it leakage im pedances but sam e xe/re ratio.
ii I
(6) Two single-phase 500 kVA and 400 kVA transform ers are connected in parallel to supply a load of 800
kVA at 0.8 pow er factor lagging. T he resistance and leakage reactance of the first transform er are 2.5 percent
an d 6 percent respectively an d of th e second transform er 1.6 percent and 7 percent respectively. C alculate the
kVA loading a n d pow er factor a t w hich each transform er operates.
(Ans. (6) 465.6 kVA at pf = 0.84 lag and 337.2 kVA at pf = 0.737 lag)
I
1.61. (a) D iscuss how th e p arallel operation of two single-phase transform ers is effected by
ww x
(j) unequal — ra tio b u t th e sam e per u n it leakage impedances,
re
w.E
(ii) w rong p olarities.
(b) Tw o-single-phase tra n sfo rm ers operating in parallel have the following data :
T ransform er A : zea = 0.2
+j 0.6 D, Ea = 208 V
asy
Transform er B : ze&= 0.25 +j 0.55 Q, Ef, = 205 V
Load im pedance Z - 3 +j 2 Q.
Find (i) voltage across load
(ii) c u rre n t a n d pow er delivered to load and En
(iii) power sh av ed by each transform er.
gin
[H in t. (6) C alcu late i +
"ea ^eb
F —V eer
+ 1 = 3.464 Z - 65.87- ; J + g = 667.08 Z - 68.51- and use Eqn. (1.78) for
_ _ _
ing
— and If,. Load current / = /„ + If, etc.]
load voltage V. F u rth e r, use Eqn. (1.73 (a)) for Ia =
{Ans. (6) (i) 192.725 V (ii) 53.31 A, 8554.6 W (iii) 4221.58 W. 4332.78 W1
.ne
1.62. (u) T w o tra n sfo rm e rs to be operated in parallel should have the sam e capacity. Ju stify w h e th e r th is
t
statem ent is correct or not.
. cVmrt-rircuit tests on four 2000/200 V single-phase tran sfo rm ers :
Short-circuit data
Transformer Rating vr SC p
1 sc
125 V 48 A 1100 W
A
A
100 kVA
117 V 90 A 2050 W
B 200 kVA
147 V 140 A 3800 W
r* 300 kVA
156 V 190 A 5000 W
D 400 kVA
~ , . , . 4 would operate m ost successfully in p arallel ?
Out of th ese, w hich two tra n sfo rm e ^ Transformer3 A and fl)
Ir-M
, . , U tra n sfo rm ers w ith u n equal voltage ratios a re operatin g in parallel. Discuss,
w it h '^ M p o ^ h S a ‘ sh° red by each and their operatine powcr factors- state
T hese transformers are put in parallel and connected to a load of 0 8 p f l»* *■«> P " m , r v v » l . . „ held ^
a l 6600 V .
(i) C alcu late th e m a „ m u m kW load th a t can be su p p h ed by th e s e tr a n s f o r m e r , w .th o u t c .u n n y rh. ^
voltage to fall below 2150 V
(ii) For th e condition of p a rt (i), find kVA sh a re d by each tra n sfo rm e r
IH in t. <fc) («) C u rre n t sh a re d by tra n sfo rm e r A = 32 765 A
10 ♦ - - x 400 U 0 8 lAna. lb) 0) 498 08 kW ( n » 216 2- k \ A. 406 33 kV'Aj
M axim um kW load =
30.3 ” 66 J .
1.64. (a) E xplain why in testin g large transform er* th e o p e n circuit te s t is e a rn e d out w ith the high.Vo|U f,
w inding open and th e short-circuit test w ith th e low-voltage w in ing s or e
(b) A 100 kVA tran sfo rm er having 1^ resistance and 4 * leakage re a c U n c e is o p e ra te d in parallel with »
200 kVA tra n sfo rm er having 1* resistance and 6 * leakage rea c ta n c e If th e to ta l load delivered is 300 k \ A
a t u nity p f . calculate the kVA load on each tra n sfo rm er a* well as th e o p e ra tin g p f of each transform er
E S . 19?s
|Ana. (h) 127.445 kVA at p f 0 9989 leading 172 776 kVA at p f 0 9994 lagg,-*
1.65. (a) Discuss th e conditions necessary for th e successful p arallel o p eratio n of sin g le-p h ase transformers
(5) ww
How can you check these conditions?
Two single-phase tran sfo rm ers in parallel supply a load of 500 am p e res a t 0 8 p f lagging and at 40C
w.E
volts T heir equivalent im pedances referred to secondary w indings a re (2+j 3 i ohm s and (2 5 * ./5 ) ohm*
C om pute the cu rren t and kVA supplied by each tra n sfo rm e r an d th e c o rresp o n d in g pow er factors
IAns. (6 ) 304.51 A, 121 804 kVA and p.f. 0.8282 lagging ; 196 431 A. 78 572 kVA and p f 0 7524 lagging
asy
1.66. D eterm ine the largest value of load th a t can be delivered by th e p a ra lle l com bination of two
transform ers described in Problem 1.64 (6 ) w ithout overloading any of them . !Ans. 235 56 kVAi
) En
1.67. (a) Two single-phase tran sfo rm ers having id entical voltage ra tin g s but u n e q u a l kVA ratings are to
be operated in parallel. U nder w h at conditions can th e tw o tra n sfo rm e rs su p p ly a to ta l kVA equal to the sum
gin
of th eir individual kVA ratin g s w ithout any tra n sfo rm e r g e ttin g overloaded'’ D en v e th e conditions mentioned
(b) Two single-phase, 11000-440 V tra n sfo rm ers have kVA ra tin g s of 200 kVA a n d 100 kVA respectively
The equivalent resistance and reactance of th e 200 kVA tra n s fo rm e r a re resp ectiv ely 1 0 and 5 0 ohms, wher.
) is 9 0 ohms.
eer
referred to the 11,000 V side. The equivalent reactance of 100 kVA tra n s fo rm e r re fe rre d to th e 11.000 V side
(i )
ing
W hat should be th e equivalent resistance of 100 kVA tra n s fo rm e r if each tra n s fo rm e r is to supply
in proportion to its kVA ratin g w hen operated in p arallel?
H in t,
(11) Since
tbt fi)
tb
~ V 3 ± H :,1 2 0
r *+ 9 ^ 200
z,b = 2 r ,0, each tra n sfo rm er sh a re s load equal to its kVA r a tin g a n d b e c au se ~
the an*
t
1 r r
brlwveen
een /„
/„ and
...d / , IF.* 1 50 (Ml, or b rtw een 100 kVA an d 200 kVA >, |*_ - * ,) T h u , th e m u i m l l comho-J
kVA uis mvftn
given hvby u p
V|200 ♦ 100 cos ■ 4 fc)|7 ♦ llO O .in ^
* V|2<)0 * 100 cos 16.74I7 ♦ 1100 sin 16.74I3 - 297 16 kVA)
former.
(b)
ww
1.74. (a) Discuss th e rela tiv e m erits and dem erits of induction voltage regulator over tap -c h a n g e r t r a n s
_
w.E
A single-phase induction reg u lato r h a s an effective tu rn s ratio of 4 : 1. If the supply voltage is 240 V,
determine the m axim um and m inim um values of output voltages.
If the load c u rre n t is 20 A and th e secondary w inding is set 60° away from the m axim um boost position,
calculate the prim ary w inding c u rre n t and th e prim ary line current. Effect of no load c u rre n t m ay be ignored.
En
1.76. (a) A single-phase tran sfo rm er, w ith its secondary w inding open, is energised from 220 V d c . I t is
assumed th at exciting c u rre n t in prim ary w inding is less th an its rated current.
gin
If a small portion of th e iron core is rem oved by m aking appropriate cuts in the iron core, discuss w h a t
would happen to (i) exciting c u rre n t in the prim ary w inding and (ii) th e m agnitude of core flux.
eer
(6) A two-winding 2000/200 V tran sfo rm er has the following param eters :
L, = 15 H, / , = 0 5 H, f2 = 0.01 H
(i) Calculate th e m u tu al inductance of th e transform er.
(ii) Find the self-inductance of the secondary winding. ing
.ne
[Ana. (a) Exciting current remains constant but core flux is reduced’
(6) (i) M = 1.45 H (ii) L2 = 0.155 HI
1.77. (a) Define m u tu al inductance and discuss th e m ethods of increasing it betw een two circuits.
(b) Show th a t if two circuits are linked w ith the sam e m agnetic circuit, the m utual in ductance is
W= *VLjL2, w here k is th e coefficient of coupling and L x, L2 are the self-inductances of the two circuits.
t
. 1-78. (a) Define self-inductance, m agnetizing inductance and leakage inductance. Express self-inductance
® terms of the other two.
(6) Define co-efficient of coupling. How can it be increased in two m agnetically coupled coils ?
1.79. An air-core tra n sfo rm er gave th e following d a ta for two tests conducted on i t :
Test 1. W hen 20 volts a t 400 Hz is applied to w inding 1 w ith w inding 2 open-circuited, th e c u rre n t an d
Power in winding 1 are 2A and 20 w a tts and voltage across w inding 2 is 15 V.
. Test 2. W hen 24 V a t 400 Hz is applied to w inding 2 w ith w inding 1 open-circuited, th e c u rre n t a n d pow er
10 ^ d m g 2 are 1.5 A and 18 w atts.
(a) Find the values oT r1( r2, L x, and M.
M>) Winding 1 is energised from a 30 V, 400 Hz source and w inding 2 is connected to a load of 20 ft
Find th e c u rre n t in w inding 1. lAns* (o) 5 Q, 8 Q, 1.S9 mH, 3.183 mH, 2.984 mH (6) 3.664 A)
An audio-frequency tra n sfo rm er h as p rim ary to secondary tu rn s ra tio of 30. T he in d u ctan ce m e a su re d
Primary w ith secondary open is 20 H and w ith secondary short-circuited is 0.2 H. T he tra n s fo rm e r
resistances a re 20 ft each m easured on th e prim ary side.
_________ [Prob. 1
158 F lectn c?1 M achinery ------ --------------------------------------------
— -------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------- 77 n to a v a ria b le -fre q u e n c y v o lta g e source whose
This tra n sfo rm er is used to couple a load o resis th e follow ing :
in te rn a l resistance is 5000 0. F or th is a rra n g e m e n t, com pute
(a) Upper half-power frequency.
(b) Lower half-power frequency.
(cl Geometric mean of these frequencies frequency of p a rt (c). .
(d) The ratio of load voltage to source voltage a t t ^ (q) g30? g Hz (fc) 20.74 Hz (c) 415.1 Hz (d) 0.01724]
ww
1.83. A two-winding tran sfo rm er is used as a n au to -tra n sfo rm e r. I f ^ - k, th e n d e riv e th e following
re la tio n :
where Zj = rj
w.E V^=kV2+I1 [*! + ( * - I ) 2 Z2I
+jxj and z2=r2+jx2■State the assum ptions made.
asy
1.84. (a) For a single-phase auto-transform er, derive, from ab-initio, th e re la tio n b e tw e en in p u t power,
conducted power and transform ed power in term s of high a n d low voltages.
En
. (6) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a n a u to -tra n sfo rm e r a s c o m p a red to a two-winding
transform er.
gin
1.85. A 2400/240 V, 200 kVA, 1-phase tran sfo rm er h a s a core loss of 1.8 kW a t r a te d voltage. Its equivalent
resistance is 1.1 percent. Find the tran sfo rm er efficiency a t p f of 0.9 a t full load.
ing
1.86. In a 1-phase transform er, zero-voltage regulation occurs a t p f o f 0.94 lea d in g , w h e re a s its maximum
possible voltage regulation is 4%. Find its voltage regulation a t p f 0.8 lagging.
.ne
If its ohmic losses are 136.5 W, find kVA of th e tran sfo rm er. [Ans. 3.348%, 10 kVA]
1.87. For a 2000/200 V, 20 kVA single-phase tran sfo rm er, th e load c u rre n t a t w h ich m ax im u m efficiency
t
occurs is 90 A. Its equivalent resistance is 0.015 p.u. F ind its h a lf-ra te load efficiency a t p f 0.8.
Also, calculate its voltage regulation a t full load u n ity p.f. [Ans. 96.177%, 1.5%]
1.88. For a 2300/230 V, 1-phase transform er, m axim um possible voltage re g u la tio n is 5% a n d occurs at a
p.f. of 0.25. Find its load voltage a t full-load pow er factors of 0.8 lea d a n d 0.8 lag. (Ans. 234.38 V, 220.98 V]
1.89. A single-phase transform er has eddy c u rre n t loss of 100 W a n d h y s te re sis loss of 120 W. For the
sam e supply voltage if both lam ination thickness and o p e ra tin g frequency a re re d u c e d by 10%, find the new
value of core losses. Take Steinm etz’s co n stan t = 2. 214 33 W]
1.90. (a) For a 1-phase transform er, equivalent resista n c e is 1.5%.I ts p e r u n it core loss is 0.01. Find
efficiency of th is transform er a t p.f. 0.8.
Transformers 159
prob. 1]
(fc) the leakage in d u ctan ce on th e p rim a ry side. (Ans. (a) 5.968 H (6) 0.0637 HI
1.92. (a) Describe four possible w ays of connections of 3-phase tra n sfo rm ers w ith re le v a n t rela tio n s am o n g st
voltages and c u rre n ts on b o th h.v. a n d l.v. sides.
(b) A ban k of th re e single-phase tra n sfo rm ers h a s its h.v. term in als connected to 3-w ire, 3-phase, 11 kV
system. Its l.v. te rm in a ls a re connected to a 3-wire, 3-phase load ra te d a t 1500 kVA, 2200 V. Specify th e voltage,
current and kVA ra tin g s of each tra n sfo rm er for both h.v. and l.v. w indings for th e following connections :
(i)Y - A (ii) A - Y (iii) A - A (in) Y - Y .
The first sym bol in d icates h.v. w inding and th e second symbol l.v. w inding.
[Ans. Each transform er rating = 500 kVA (i) 6351/2200 V, 78.37/227.27 A (ii) 11000/1270.2 V, 45.45/393.64 A
(iii) 11000/2200 V, 45.45/227.27 A (iu) 6351/1270.2 V, 78.37/393.64 Al
1.93. (a) E xplain th e reaso n s why d istrib u tio n transform ers are designed for m inim um core loss r a th e r
than ohmic loss.
(b) For th e circuit show n in Fig. 1.94, find 20/6(f Cl N ,: N,
(i) the tu rn s ra tio from p rim a ry to secondary for m ax O
imum power tra n s fe r (mpt ) to load,
ww
(ii) the value of Xc in £1 for
(iii) load voltage u n d e r mpt,
mpt,
@ 2°/0°
O
O )G>
o
O
o
>o
2 /3 6 -8 7 ° n
w.E
(iv) m axim um pow er delivered to load.
2 1
o<
o
Ideal
asy
( N l)
H in t. (b) (i) 10 = x 1 . 6 £2 e t c . tran s.
N2
\ /
Fig. 1.94. Pertaining to Problem 1.93 (6).
W)
En
[Ans. (6) (i) 2.5 (ii) 3.9712 £2 (iii) 5 Z36.870 V (io) 10
1.94. The efficiency a t u n ity pf, of a 6600/384 V, 200 kVA single-phase tran sfo rm er is 98%, both a t full-load
gin
and at h alf full-load. T he pow er factor a t no-load is 0.2 lagging and th e full-load regulation a t a lag g in g p f of
0.8 is 4%. Draw th e e q u iv alen t circuit refe rre d to LV side and in sert all values. [I.E.S., 2002)
eer
[Ans. Rc = 108.381 C l,X m = 22.124 £2, rt2 =0.01 Cl, xe2 = 0.03578 £21
1.95. (a) D iscuss th e points of sim ilarity in transform ers and ro tatin g electrical m achines.
ing
(b) W hat is th e m ajor cause of noise in tran sfo rm ers ? Discuss th e steps which m ay help in red u cin g it.
.ne
t
I.
E le c tro m e c h a n ic a l Energy
C on version Principles
ww
C onversion of o th e r form s of e n e rg ies in to e le c trica l e n e rg y is a com m on practice^ The main
a d v a n ta g e of th is conversion is t h a t en e rg y in e le c tric a l form c a n b e tr a n s m itte d , utilised and
c ontrolled m ore easily, re lia b ly a n d efficiently. E n e rg y c o n v ersio n dev ices a re required first for
w.E
c o n v ertin g o th e r form s of e n erg ies in to e le c trica l e n e rg y a n d th e n fo r c o n v e rtin g electrical ener
gy in to th e re q u ire d u se fu l form s, su ch a s s o u n d , lig h t, h e a t or m e c h a n ic a l energy. In other
w ords, en erg y conversion devices a re re q u ire d a t b o th e n d s of a n e le c tric a l sy stem , since enerp
asy
is n e ith e r a v ailab le a n d n o r re q u ire d in e le c trica l form . O ne ty p ic a l ex a m p le illustrating the
p ro cessin g of e n erg y is a n h yd ro electric p la n t w h e re e n e rg y is c o n v e rte d to electrical form. It is
th e n tra n s m itte d a n d d istrib u te d over lin e s a n d fin a lly c o n v e rte d to m e c h a n ic a l e n e r p in an
En
electric m ctor for final use. A n o th e r ex am p le is th e con v ersio n o f so u n d en e rg y into electrical
en erg y a t th e ta lk e r ’s end, its tra n s m is s io n over lin e s in e le c tric a l fo rm a n d its final conversion
to sound w aves a t th e lis te n e r’s end.
gin
A n electro-m echanical en erg y conversion device is one w h ich c o n v e rts electrical energy into
eer
m echanical en erg y or m ech an ical en erg y in to e le c tric a l en ergy. O p e ra tin g principles of energy-
conversion devices a re sim ila r, b u t th e ir s tr u c tu r a l d e ta ils differ d e p e n d in g upon th e ir function.
V arious electro m ech an ical en erg y conversion devices m a y be c a te g o rise d as u n d e r :
ing
(i) T he firs t category of devices, involving sm a ll m otion, p ro ce sse s only low -energy signals
from electrical to m ech an ical or vice v e rsa . T h e se in c lu d e te le p h o n e rec e iv e rs, loud-speakers,
m icrophone, gram o p h o n e pick-ups a n d lo w -signal tra n s d u c e rs .
(ii) The second category consists of force-, or, torque-producing devices w ith limited mechanical .ne
motion. Exam ples of such devices are electrom agnets, relays, m oving-iron instrum ents, moving-co
in stru m en ts, actuators etc.
(iii) T he th ird category includes continuous energy conversion devices like motors and gener
ators ; these are used prim arily for bulk energy conversion and utilization. In a machine acting ^
t
motor, energy is converted from electrical to m ec h a n ic a l; w hereas in a. generator, energy is conV
from m echanical to electrical. ^
E n e rg y conversion process is b a sic a lly a re v e rs ib le p ro cess. H ow ever, in practice, devic
m ay be d esig n ed a n d c o n stru c te d to s u it one p a r tic u la r m ode o f c o n v ersio n or th e other.
All th e s e e n e rg y conversion devices o p e ra te on s im ila r p h y sic a l p rin c ip le s, b u t
s tru c tio n a l d e ta ils differ. T h e coupling b e tw e en th e e le c tric a l a n d m ec h a n ic a l system s o ^
devices, is th ro u g h th e m ag n e tic or electric field. T h e object o f th is c h a p te r is to deve. j!is 0f
e le c tro m e c h a n ic a l-e n e rg y conversion p rin c ip le s w ith field e n e rg y a s th e b a sis. T h e a n a ^ ^ ,g
e n e rg y co n v ersio n devices by field -en erg y concept is m o re g e n e ra l a n d broad-based, s
th
’^is c a n deal w ith both ste a d y sta te and tra n sien t an alysis o f a ll electro m ech a n ica l en e r g y
L
erters
% It glves more Ph y s,ca l ln s ‘Sh t in t° th e operation of all th ese devices, w h ich is in d isp en -
ww
(ortheenerp conversion from electrical to m echanical form or vice verse, are clea rly b rou gh t
gutin this chapter. J 5
w.E
The energy storing cap acity o f th e m agn etic field is m uch greater (about 2 5 ,0 0 0 tim es) th a n
that of the electric field. In view o f th is fact, electrom echanical energy conversion d evices w ith
magnetic field as th e cou p h ng m edium betw een electrical and m echanical sy ste m s are m ore
asy
”nmon “ oommeraal ap p lication s. As su ch m ore em p h a sis is given to th ese devices. H o w e v / '
devices using electric field as th e coupling m edium are also discussed in th is chapter
2,1, Principle o f E n e r g y C o n v e r s io n
En
When energy is converted from one form into another, the principle o f conservation o f e Z
eer
In an energy conversion device, out o f th e total input energy, som e energy is converted into
mJ p
ing
I0""1’ S° m e Gnergy 1S St° red and th e rest is dissipated. In view of this th e en erg y
equation m u st in clud e th e s e four en ergy term s and for a motor, it can be w r h i n as
Total electrical \ (n
energy input
M ech a n ica l
en erg y output
Total e n e r g y f T o t a l energy
stored d issipated .ne
The * * i
(Total
' '
St°tred in a n y d evice = E nergy St0red in m a^n etic fie ,d. Wes + E n erg y
< v ni.i ' ms-
S if a i j e n e r ^ v Hi • j
Vw- as ma * ™lSsipated = E n ergy d issip a ted in electric circuit as ohm ic lo s s e s + E n erg y
^ system f f c0re lo ss (h y ste r e sis and eddy-current lo sses) + E n erg y d is s ip a te d i n
A ction and w in d a g e lo sse s etc.)
m eT t t Ct t ° o p n a t e te fm s a re grou p ed to g e th e r , th e n th e e n e r g y b a la n c e equation
ii tn e apprup + M e c h a n i c a l e n e r g y lo s s e s )
/W . _ O hm ic en erg y lo sse s) —("mo + ms _ ,, ,
tw e, w a n bj + (^ es + C o u p lin g field en erg y losses) „.(2.2a)
or w d„ = w mxh + -..(2.2H
Eq (2 21* leads to the electromechanical energy conversion model of F.g. 2.1. The varies
M , r fioiri incept; and th e fric tio n a n d w in d a g e lo sse s are irreversible
a n d t h e s e a r e t h e r e f o r e T s s ip a t e d a s h e a t . E n e r g y s to r e d in t h e c o u p lin g fie ld W„, is dealtmth
ww
la te r in A rt 2.2 (i>). T h e e n e r g y s to r e d in t h e m e c h a n ic a l s y s t e m
(m a ss)
W m , is th e kinetic energy!
for a lin ear-m otion sy ste m or | J t o,2 for a ro ta ry -m o tio n s y ste m . H ere u is the linear
w.E
v elo city in m /sec and <or is th e a n g u la r v elo city in r a d ia n s p er s e c o n d N o te th at the coupling
field is a sso c ia ted w ith e.m .f. e and cu rren t i on th e e le c tr ic a l s id e a n d torque T (or force F>and
asy
sp eed cor (or u) on th e m ech a n ica l sid e.
H e a t d u e to Heat due H e a t d u e to
En
gin
eer
ing
Fig. 2.1. General representation of electromechanical
energy conversion device.
♦If torque, speed and coupling-field energy of a m achine rem a in c o n sta n t, th en it is said to o p e rj^ ^
steady s ta te conditions. U nder these conditions, th e re is no change in sto red energies We5
therefore, Eq. (2.2a) becomes
= 'hno + Energy lost as ohmic losses, coupling field losses and mechanical lo sse s
or ‘ Total input power = Total output power + Power lost as heat due to various losses. ant.beC8°5<
• Note th a t in single-phase a.c. m achines, th e m agnetic field en erg y sto red does n o t rem ain const* ■
these m achines don’t have constant air-gap flux.
form as
d W clcc = d W mech + dWfed ...(2 .3 )
ww L o s s le s s
C o u p lin g T ,u )r
+
l
L o s s le s s T ,u O r
w.E F ie ld
or*
F ,u
M ech a n ic a l
-
<z C o u p lin g
F ie ld
or
F ,u
1
M «c h .
asy
te rm in a l
te rm in a l le c tric a l
Ideal c o n v e rs io n te rm inals Ideal c o n v e rs io n
E le c tric a l
R e g io n Region
En
te rm in a ls
(a) {b) .
Fig. 2.2. Representation of lossless electromechanical energy conversion device
(a) motoring mode and (6) generating mode.
From Fig. 2.1, th e d ifferen tia l electrical energy input in tim e d t is gin
d Wel = v, i d t
eer
Ohmic loss in r e sista n c e r in tim e d t is i 2 r dt.
Differential electrical energy input to the coupling field, ing
d Welec = d Wei - ohmic loss
= ( vt - ir) i d t = ei d t .ne ...(2 .4 )
iyjfthe outr ! CaI t0 el8CtnCal (&e n e r a tin g coupling field m u st react w ith th e e le c tr ic a l
111*n orH 18 m ech an ica l, a s in a m otor, m otor, th is reaction is th e co u n ter e.m .f.
°rde«- to absorb electric a l en erg y from it. In a mos ,
ww
s o c ia te d w ith th e c o u p lin g fie ld , t h e s e a re u s u a lly c a lle d e le c tr o m e c h a n ic a l coupling terms.
E le c tr o m e c h a n ic a l e n e r g y co n v e r sio n d e v ic e s a re s lo w -m o v in g d e v ic e s b ecau se of the iner
w.E
tia a s s o c ia te d w it h m e c h a n ic a l c o m p o n e n ts. T h erefo r e, t h e c o u p lin g field necessary for the
e n e r g y co n v ersio n m u s t b e s lo w ly v a r y in g a n d a s su c h t h e n a tu r e o f t h is field is quasi-static.
E le c tr o m a g n e tic r a d ia tio n from th e c o u p lin g fie ld is a lm o s t n e g lig ib le .
asy
2 .2 . S in g ly E x c it e d M a g n e tic S y s te m s
In th is a r tic le , t h e e x p r e s s io n s for e le c tr ic e n e r g y in p u t, m a g n e tic field energy stored,
En
m e c h a n ica l w o rk d o n e and th e m ec h a n ic a l force a re d ev elo p e d for s in g ly ex cited magnetic sys
te m s.
(a)
gin
Electric energy input. C o n sid er a sim p le m a g n e tic s y s te m o f a toroid, excited by a single
eer
coil a s sh o w n in F ig. 2.3. T h e in s ta n ta n e o u s v o lta g e e q u a tio n for th e electric circuit is written
by a p p ly in g K ir c h h o ffs v o lta g e la w .
ing
v t = ir + e
w h ere e is th e rea ctio n e.m .f. ta k e n a s a v o lta g e drop in th e d irectio n o f cu rren t i, refer to Art,
.ne
1.3.
.-. e=^
and
‘
dt
v - i r+ ^L
dt
>
1
t ...(2.6)
, vt id t = ri2 d t + i d \ j/
or (vt - ir) id t = i d\y
or e id t = i d\y
In v ie w o f Eq. (2 .4 ), d W elec = e id t = i • d y - (2
I f th e toro id a l core is m a d e o f ferro m a g n etic m a te r ia l, th e n m o st o f th e flux w ould be con
fin ed to th e core. A ssu m in g th a t flu x $ lin k s a ll th e N tu r n s o f th e coil in Fig- 2.3, the m
lin k a g e s q/ a re eq u a l to Nty W b -tu m s. T h erefore, from Eq. (2.7),
d w chc ~ 1 • d \ i = iN dty=Fd<\>
In Eq. (2.8 ), b is th e in sta n ta n e o u s v a lu e o f th e coil flu x and F = i N is th e in stan tan eo u s <
m .m .f.
V 2’
(2 7) or (2 .8 ) s h o w s t h a t fo r t h e to ro id to ex tra c t
^ from th e s u p p ly s y s t e m , t h e f lu x lin k a g e s o f th e
t'c fie ld m u s t c h a n g e . T h e s e c h a n g in g flu x
cau se th e g e n e r a t io n o f r e a c tio n e.m .f. e. A s
j before, th e flo w o f c h a r g e s or c u r r e n t a g a in s t
s tion e m .f. e c a u s e s t h e e x t r a c tio n o f en erg y *
j ^ e l e c t r i c a l s y s t e m ..
ih) Magnetic fie ld e n e r g y sto re d . C o n s id e r a sim p le
!etic relay o f F ig . 2 .4 (a). I n it ia ll y t h e a rm a tu re is
p o sitio n . W h e n s w it c h S is clo sed , cu rren t F ig . 2 .3 . T o r o id a l c o r e e x c it e d fr o m s in g le
• tablished in t h e iV -tu r n c o il. T h e flu x s e t up source.
"S6ds on m .m .f. N i a n d t h e r e lu c ta n c e o f th e m ag- Open
position
f ath T he m a g n e t ic f ie ld t h u s p ro d u ced , crea tes Iro n yoke North
V
ww
and sou th p o le s a s s h o w n in F ig . 2 .4 (a ), and a s a
suit of it, th ere is e s t a b lis h e d a m a g n e tic force ten d -
to to shorten th e a ir -g a p . I f t h e a r m a tu r e is n o t a l
w.E
lowed to move, t h e m e c h a n ic a l w o r k d o n e, d W mech is
zero. According to E q . (2 .3 ), th e r e fo r e ,
d W e[ec = 0 + d W fld
asy Iron
arm ature
En
This sh ow s t h a t w h e n t h e m o v a b le p a r t o f an y
physical sy ste m i s k e p t f ix e d , t h e e n t ir e e ec rica
energy input is s to r e d in t h e m a g n e t ic fiel .
(a ) S im p le m a g n e t ic r e la y .
eer
F lu x linkage
f ‘
ing
.ne
t
C u rre n t.!
(c) .
m a g n e tic c irc u it-
.energy ^ a linear
(b) and co ...(2 .9 a )
to field energy
Fig. 2.4. P e rta in in g
ta b lish in g a flu x
,or"Eq. (2.8), dW lu = dW elK-ro‘ a gdV stored W p , * es
n e tic 8 e > d e n e ^
^ i a l flu x i s z e r o , t h e n t h e
...(2 .9 6 )
Ux linkage is g iv e n b y
Vi 4 f ■d §
i - d y 'J o tively.
Wfld = J o 0f y and 4>respe
te r m s
ed i° .\
i H <2-96). i a n d F m u s t b e ex p r e ss'
. . . .
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2 .4 (6) an d (c).
ur - J W = f ' F ■d<\>= a r e a O A B O .
F o r F ig . 2 .4 (6 ), w fid ~ i o d W fld Jo
w _ fVl ^ WfM = f i d y = a r e a O A B O .
For F ig. 2 .4 (c), , W/w-J0 d fld Jo
OACO = J + V *
area
w.E
p h y ' L u i S i f i c ^ c ” i t ! s h o w e v e r u s e fu l in c a lc u la tin g t h e m a g n e ttc fo rces.
or asy
A rea O A B O = a r e a O A C O
Wfld= W fld'
and
En
Wfld + Wfld' = a r e a O C A B O = fc F x = V i »i
In g e n e r a l, for a lin e a r m a g n e tic circu it,
/ 1
gin
■ 1 V rh
W w = w li d = 2 ' l f ' = 2 p t>
...(2.11)
eer
T h e m a g n etic sto red e n e r g y a n d co -en er g y c a n a ls o b e e x p r e s s e d in te r m s o f reluctance an
p erm ea n ce o f th e m a g n e tic p a th .
N o w m .m .f. = (flux) (relu cta n ce)
ing
or ^ ~^ ^ P erm eance, A
.ne
A lso W fu - V tfu '= L =
t
f R l = \* K
L = ^r
i
F rom E q. (2 .1 1 ), W„d = = A L i2 = | £
IF 2 1 1 , .J 1 £ . , -I*-1
= 557 = 0 ^ = 0 ^ = 5 r J°u le s
I f W/wi a n d W/M2 a re r e sp e c tiv e ly th e m a g n etic en erg ies stored in iron and air gap o f F ig.
2.4 (a), th e n to ta l en e r g y sto red Wpd = Wpdl + Wnd2. T he m a g n etic sto red -en erg y d e n s ity Wpdi
for th e iron is g iv e n by
ww
3
= ~ H 1 B j o u le s /m
2 (^Length J|^Area
H ere F i is th e m .m .f. req u ired to overcom e th e iron relu ctance and H i is th e m a g n etic-field
w.E
in te n sity in a m p ere-tu rn s p er m etre le n g th o f th e iron path. B is th e flu x d e n sity in W b/m 2 or
tesla .
But
asy
B = (ij H i
En
1 „ 2 gin
S im ila rly for th e air-gap , th e m a g n etic stored en erg y d en sity w ^ is
1 UD 1 B2 . . . 33
Ufid2= 2 2 2 ^° 2 2
eer
^ J0uIes/m
H ere p.j and p 0 are th e p e rm ea b ilitie s o f iron and air gap resp ectively.
ing
In g en era l, th e m a g n e tic stored en erg y d e n sity Wpd is g iven by
2
wH = \ H B = \ Mif2 = | y j o u le s /m 3.
.ne
m eab ility is p.
For a lin e a r m a g n e tic circu it,
t
w here H is th e m a g n e tic -fie ld in te n s ity in a m p ere-tu rn s per m etre a t p o in t w h ere th e p er
•J*
^ o u a i M i c u u y \ ^ a i i u u a i n i ci www.EasyEngineering.net
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Iron yoke
Pivot
w.E
In F ig . 2 .5 (5), th e .n o v a b le ^
th e a ir-g a p is zero. W h en
“U h e a rm a
i . = V . / r w h e r e a s th e flu x lin k a g e s in c r e a s
c u r r e n t a g a in rises from rerot,
zero to V s. H e re th e flu x lin k a g es V, m u tk
c o n s id e r a b ly reduced for the same
g r e a te r th a n
asy
sin ce th e r e lu c ta n c e o f th e> £ £ " i t c h e d area OCDO.
m .m .f. T h e en erg y s t o r e d in th e m a g n e t,c field ,s n o w g iv e n by
Closed
p o sitio n
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Fig. 2.5. (5) Arm ature held in closed position.
t
W ith th e a rm a tu re in th e op en p o sitio n , th e e x c itin g c u r r e n t i x setsi u p f ie l d »in
cir c u it. T h is field cre a tes m a g n etic force, d u e to w h ic h t h e fr e e e n d o f e a
^ agnetiC
rejuCtance0
th e c lo sed p o sitio n . D u rin g th e a rm a tu re m o v e m e n t, from it s o p e n p o siti , vaiue ofVr
th e m a g n e tic p a th d ecre a se s, th ereb y in c r e a sin g t h e flu x lin k a g e s from l s ^ ^ flQ#0of
T h e s e in c r e m e n ts in flux lin k a g e s in d u ce a c o u n te r e .m .f. in t h e co il, w h ic h opp
e x c itin g c u r r e n t i, i.e.
Vt - cou n ter e m f in d u ced in th e coil d u r in g a r m a tu r e m ovenaen_
i =
C oil im p e d a n c e ^ j the afIllS
T h e m a g n itu d e o f co u n ter e.m .f. in d u ced in th e e x c it in g co il d e p e n d s on ho\'
tu r e m o v e s . T h e tw o e x tr e m e c a se s o f a rm a tu re m o tio n a r e c o n s id e r e d b elo w . ^ ^ thf
/ S lo w m o v e m e n t . W ith th e a rm a tu re in th e o p en p o s itio n , t h e e x c itin g cur^ re pos'll°''f
flu x lin k a g e s a r e Vi and th e o p era tin g p o in t is A , [F ig. 2 .6 (a)). In t h e c lo sed armavelTient «f t '
th e flu x lin k a g e s a re y 2» cu rren t is i x and th e o p e r a tin g p o in t is C. T h e slo w mo
y2-v i
arm atu re from o p e n p o s itio n c a u s e s a lm o s t a n e g lig ib le a m o u n t o f c o u n te r e .m .f. in
T im e
the coil. A s a r e s u lt o f it, t h e e x c itin g c u r r e n t i 1 r e m a in s s u b s t a n t ia lly c o n s ta n t d u r in g th e
arm atu re m o v e m e n t from o p en to clo sed p o sitio n an d a cco r d in g ly th e o p e r a tin g p o in t A r e a c h e s
the n ew o p e r a tin g p o in t C a lo n g th e v e r tic a l lin e A C a s sh o w n in F ig . 2 .6 (a).
N ow c h a n g e in th e sto r e d e n e r g y o f m a g n e tic field W ^ , d u r in g th e tim e a r m a tu r e m o v es
from op en (p o in t A ) to th e clo se d p o sitio n (p o in t C) is g iv e n by,
Wfu = (M a g n e tic en e r g y sto red in th e clo sed p o sitio n )
- (M a g n etic e n e r g y sto red in op en p o sitio n )
or Wfjd = a rea O A 'CD F O - a rea OAA'FO.
E lectric e n e r g y in p u t d u r in g th is ch a n g e is
f•v22
W.clcc = J i j d y = i i ( y 2 _ Nh) = area A CD F A 'A
or
.'.
w.E
a rea A C D F A A = a rea O A ’C D F O - a rea OAA'FO + Wmech
Wmcch = a rea O A C D F O - area OA'CDFO
asy
= a rea O A C A ’O ...(2 .1 4 )
Eq. ( 2. 14) sh o w s th a t th e m ech a n ica l w ork don e is eq u a l to th e area e n c lo se d b e tw e e n th e
En
tw o m a g n e tiz a tio n cu rv es at open and closed p o sitio n s and th e v ertica l y - i lo c u s d u r in g th e slo w
a rm a tu re m o v em en t. T h is is sh ow n by cro ss-h a tch ed area in F ig. 2 .6 (a).
gin
eer
ing
.ne
(b)
t
F ig . 2 .6 M e c h a n ic a l w o r k d o n e (a I W ith s lo w a r m a t u r e m o v e m e n t. (b) W ith in s t a n t a n e o u s a r m a t u r e m o v e m e n t .
ww
in p u t (ii) m ech a n ica l en erg y o u tp u t is at th e e x p e n s e o f field e n e r g y sto red , i.e., mechanical
en ergy ou tp u t = reduction in th e m a g n etic sto red en erg y .
III.
w.E
Transient movement. T h e a rm a tu re m o v e m e n t w ill n e ith e r be to o slo w nor too fast,
w ill lie so m ew h ere in b etw een th e tw o e x tr e m e lim its d is c u s se d ab o v e. T h e flu x linkage-current
asy
locus w ill accordin gly be in b etw een th e tw o locii sh o w n in F ig . 2 .6 (a) a n d (6). Initially the
arm atu re m o v em en t is slow and as it is n e a r in g th e clo sed p o sitio n , it s m o v e m e n t becomes fast.
The y -i locus w ill, th erefore, be A C 'C a s illu s tr a te d in F ig. 2 .7 . T h e o p e r a tin g p oin t A reaches
En
C d u rin g th e tim e a rm a tu re m oves from op en to clo sed p o sitio n . S in c e th e fin a l operating point
gin
h a s to be C, th e o p era tin g p o in t tr a v e ls fu rth er from p o in t C' to C a lo n g th e closed-position
m a g n etiza tio n curve OA'C'C. T h erefore, th e a r m a tu r e w h e n a llo w e d to m o v e under the in
flu en ce o f m a g n etic force, h a s \j/-i locu s A C 'C a s sh o w n in F ig . 2 .7 .
eer
ing
.ne
t
Fig. 2.7. F lu , linkage-current locus during transient m ovem ent of arm ature.
Art. 2.2)
Electromechanical Energy Conversion Principles 171
r _ M e c h a n ic a l w ork d o n e d u rin g a rm a tu re m o v e m e n t
...(2 .1 7 )
e <au) D is ta n c e tr a v e lle d d u rin g a rm a tu re m o v e m e n t
ww
F rom F ig s . 2 .5 (a ) a n d (2 .7 ),
,
Te (au)
A r e a O A C 'A 'O
w.E G ap le n g th , g
In o rd er to o b ta in a s u ita b le e x p r e ssio n for th e m a g n etic force d ev elo p e d , a d iffe r e n tia l
arm atu re m o v e m e n t o f m a g n itu d e dx m u st be im agin ed in th e direction o f th e m a g n etic force fe.
asy
T h is m o v e m e n t or d is p la c e m e n t dx n e e d n o t be a rea l one. For th is r ea so n , th e d is p la c e m e n t dx
is referred to a s t h e v ir tu a l d is p la c e m e n t an d th e e x p ressio n fedx a s th e v ir tu a l w o rk . T h is
En
m eth o d o f d e te r m in in g th e m a g n e tic force is ca lled th e principle of virtual work. A ccord in g to
th is p r in c ip le , th e m o v a b le (or r o ta ta b le) p a rt is a llo w ed a v ir tu a l d is p la c e m e n t dx (or dQ) in th e
gin
d ire ctio n o f m a g n e tic force fe (or to rq u e Te). T h en its effect on th e e n e r g y b a la n c e E q. (2 .3 ) is
in v e s tig a te d in o rd er to o b ta in th e m a g n itu d e an d direction o f m a g n e tic force fe or m a g n e tic
to rq u e T e.
eer
ing
In F ig . 2 .8 (a ), a s su m e th e a rm a tu re to b e a t a d is t a n c e ^ from th e op en p o sitio n . T h e n a
v ir tu a l d is p la c e m e n t dx in th e d irectio n o f m a g n etic force fe is co n sid ered . T h e tw o m a g n e tiz a
tio n c u r v e s for t h e a rm a tu re p o sitio n s g 1 a n d (g1 + dx) h a v e b e e n sh o w n in F ig . 2 .8 (6).
T h e flu x lin k a g e -c u r r e n t lo c u s d u rin g th e d ifferen tia l d isp la c e m e n t dx is abc. H ere a is th e .ne
o p e r a tin g p o in t a t p o sitio n g i, an d y x' an d i i are th e corresp on d in g v a lu e s . T h e o p e r a tin g p o in t
a t (gl + dx) is c an d th e co rresp o n d in g v a lu e s are y x' + rfy an d i v t
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X /
ww
an d t h is is in d ic a te d by a n e g a tiv e sig n b efore dW ’fld in Eq. (2 .1 9 ).
(dW M
,
w.E
F rom Eq. t2 .1 9 ), ft - ~
dx
a t c o n s t a n t \j/
asy
d W fid
or fe = ~ dx
Aji = constant
...(2.20)
)
d W fld'
En
gin
A lso f< = - dx
= constant
eer
N o te th a t Wfld m u st be e x p r e sse d in te r m s o f y a n d x or 0 an d x. In v ie w o f th is, Eq. (2.20)
le a d s to th e p a ra m etric e q u a tio n s for m a g n e tic force a s,
e~
d Wfld (v> *) _ _ d Wfld (<t>. *)
dx dx ing ...(2.21)
.ne
In th e ab ove e x p r e ssio n for m a g n e tic force, y or <(>a re in d e p e n d e n t v a ria b les. As voltage i.
e q u a l to th e d e r iv a tiv e o f y , th is e x p r e ssio n g iv e s fe for a voltage-controlled system.
S im ila r ly , th e a r e a oabho d iffers from th e a rea oacbho b y th e tr ia n g u la r area abc. ere
t
a g a in a r e a oahbo m a y be ta k e n e q u a l to th e a rea oacbho a s d x a p p ro a ch es zero. ^ ter" ^ 1t ^
s lo w m o v e m e n t o f th e a r m a tu r e m a y be a s s u m e d o v er t h e v ir tu a l d is p la c e m e n t dx, so a
o p e r a tin g p o in t m o v e s v e r tic a lly from a to c.
,vtq'+ rfvj/
H ere d W tUc = . i xd y = i j d y = a rea acdea.
B u t it is a lr e a d y s e e n t h a t a r e a a c d e a = d W elcc = ^ d\\i.
d Wfid + dW fu = i l d\\i = a r e a a cd ea
T h u s t h e d if f e r e n t ia l c h a n g e in fie ld e n e r g y dWfld is g iv e n by
dWfid^iidy-dWpS.
A lso dWmech = fedx.
i xd\\f = f e d x + i 1 d \ \ t - d Wnd
or fed x = + dW fjj a t c o n sta n t i ...(2 .2 2 )
The p ositive sig n before d W ^ in d icates th a t during th e virtual disp lacem ent dx, th e m ech an ical
work fe dx is eq u al to th e in crea se in co-energy at con stant current.
ww r
fe = +
dWnd'
at c o n sta n t i.
S in ce W ^ ' w.E
m u s t be e x p r e s s e d in te r m s o f (i, x) or (F , x ) ; th e p a ra m etric e q u a tio n s for th e
asy
agnetic force a re
„ BWaJ dWnd'
= j£ f ( F .x ) ...(2 .2 3 )
En
Eqs. (2 .2 1 ) a n d (2 .2 3 ) g iv e th e m a g n itu d e o f electro -m a g n etic force fe b e c a u se th e a r m a tu r e
gin
m ovem ent is lin e a r . F or a n g u la r m o v em en ts o f a rm atu re, th e electro m a g n etic to rq u e Te can be
obtained from p a r a m e tr ic Eq. (2 .2 1 ) as
dWfu (y , 9) _
eer j>, 8)
le ~~
and from p a ra m etric Eq. (2 .2 3 ) as
ae ~
ing
ae
Tc = {i’ 9) = ~ d d ~ {F’ 9)
.ne ...(2 .2 5 )
Eq. (2.23) for m a g n e tic force and Eq. (2 .2 5 ) for m a g n etic torque are a p p lica b le to s y s te m s in
w hich cu rren t is an in d e p e n d e n t variab le. In oth er w ords, th e s e tw o force an d torq u e e x p r e s
sions are ap p licab le to current-con trolled system s.
It can be s ta te d th a t a n y p h y sica l d evice w ill develop electro m a g n etic force or torq u e, if its
t
m agn etization cu rv e is effected by a d ifferen tial d isp la cem en t o f its m ovab le (or ro ta ta b le) p art,
the other part r e m a in in g fixed.
It m u st be born in m in d th a t Eqs. (2.21) to (2.25) hold good ev en w h en th e m a g n etic p ath is
saturated. In ca se th e m a g n etic sa tu r a tio n is n eglected , i.e. th e grap h b etw een y and i or 0 and
F is considered lin e a r, th en
' Wfld = Wfld.
...(2 .2 6 )
174 E le c tr ic a l M a c h in e r y
r 1 x2 dRl
e= ~ 2 d7
1.
L ( 2 .28 )
'* ~ 2 rfx ~ 2 dx ~ 2 dx
T h e m a g n e tic sto r e d e n e r g y is a lso e x p r e sse d a s = \ i y . I f cu rre n t i is expressed in
te r m s o f y a n d x , th e n from Eq. (2 .2 1 ),
In c a s e y is e x p r e s s e d in te r m s o f i a n d x, th e n from Eq. (2 .2 6 ),
f . . i ( £ < ( .* , -(2.30)
ww
S im ila r ly for e le c tr o m a g n e tic to rq u e Te, w e h a v e
~ l „ 2 d R i _ l j ^ d A = l i2 dL
w.E 0
=-
2
2 V i
d0 2
(¥> 9) = 2
de 2 d0
asy
F rom an e x a m in a tio n o f E q s. (2 .2 1 ) to (2 .3 1 ), it ca n be s ta te d t h a t electrom agn etic force or
to rq u e d e v e lo p e d in a n y p h y sic a l s y ste m , a c ts in su c h a d ire ctio n a s to ten d to
En
(i) d e c r e a se t h e m a g n e tic sto red e n e r g y a t c o n s ta n t y or <J>, s e e E q s. (2 .2 1 ) and (2.24);
gin
(ii) in c r e a s e b o th field e n e r g y sto red an d co -en er g y a t c o n s ta n t cu rre n t or m.m.f. Eq. (2.26);
(iii) d e c r e a s e th e r e lu c ta n c e , [E qs. (2 .2 7 ) a n d (2 .3 1 )] ,
eer
(iv ) in c r e a s e t h e p e r m e a n c e a n d in d u c ta n c e , E q s. (2 .2 8 ) a n d ( 2 .3 1 ) ,
(v) d e c r e a s e c u r r e n t i a t c o n s ta n t flu x lin k a g e s v|/, E q. (2 .2 9 ) or in c r e a se y at constant i, Eq
(2 .3 0 ).
ing .
T h e fo r e g o in g e x p r e s s io n s o b ta in e d for fe a n d T e a re e q u a lly a p p lica b le to magnetic ie
.ne
p r o d u c e d b y p e r m a n e n t m a g n e ts ; b e c a u s e /; a n d Te do n o t d e p en d u p on th e source o t e ie
En
Another m eth od for o b ta in in g th e ex p ressio n s for m agn etic force fe in te r m s o f field e n e r g y
and co-energy is a s u n d er :
gin
Eq. (2.9) sh o w s th a t field en erg y Wfu is a fu n ction o f flux lin k a g es y or flu x <(>. In F ig. 2 .4 (a),
field energy
eer
is p rim a rily stored in air gap. If air gap v a ries, th e n x m ea su red from th e op en
position also v a r ie s and a s a co n seq u en ce, field en ergy stored ch a n g es. From th is , it can be
ing
stated th at W ^ is a fu n ctio n o f tw o in d ep en d en t v a ria b les y and x (or <j>and x).
M ech anical w o r k d o n e in d iffe r e n tia l m o v e m e n t d x in t h e d ir e c tio n o f m a g n e tic force fe is
d W mech = fA *
.ne
From Eq. (2 .7 ), dW tlec = icty
S u b stitu tin g t h e s e v a lu e s in Eq. (2.3) g iv e s
id \f = dW flJ (v , x) + fe dx
t
or dW f7d (.y,x) = i d \ \ / - f e dx ...(2 .3 2 )
This eq u ation is m ore g en era l th a n Eq. (2.9). For exam p le, if arm atu re is a ssu m ed s ta tio n
ary, dx = 0 and th erefo re
dW fu = id \|/
T h is is th e s a m e a s Eq. (2.9).
9)
Since is d ep en d en t o n y . i ; in differential form can be ex p ressed m a th e m a tic a lly
LI* ^ terms o f its tw o p a rtia l d e r iv a tiv e s as
Since v , x are in d e p e n d e n t v a ria b les, th e coefficien ts o f th e term s a sso c ia ted w ith d V and
dx m Eqs. (2.32 ) an d (2 3 3 ) m u s t be eq u a l.
\
ii
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. , _ dW nd (V, X)
" l~ 3V -(2.34,
_n J r _ jjjjjgd (V> *)
dx -.(2.35)
E q . (2 .3 5 ) is t h e s a m e a s E q. (2 .2 1 )
I t is c le a r from F ig . 2 .4 (c) t h a t c o -e n e r g y W^d' d e p e n d s on i a n d x an d is given by
Wfld\ i , x ) = i \ v - W f u t y ' X ) .>(2 36j
or dW fid (i, x) = i d y + y d i - dW pd (i|/, x)
S u b s t it u t io n o f E q . (2 .3 2 ) in th e a b o v e e q u a tio n g iv e s
d\Vfid (i, x) = i d y + y d i - id \f + f / i x
= \\id i+ f cd x ...(2.37)
S in c e W^d' is d e p e n d e n t on i, x; Wpd in d iffe r e n tia l form ca n b e ex p ressed mathematically
ww
in te r m s o f its p a r tia l d e r iv a tiv e s a s
dWfid\i> x) dWn d (i,x )
d w ^ (i, X) = r ~ - L di + — ^ dx ...(2.38)
w.E
A s i, x are in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le s , th e c o e ffic ie n ts o f th e te r m s a sso c ia te d w ith di, dx must
b e in d e p e n d e n tly e q u a l in E q s. (2 .3 7 ) a n d (2 .3 8 ) a n d t h is le a d s to th e p aram etric equations as
En
dl
gin
an d f . = 3WlU^ ’ X) •••'2-40>
Eq. (2 .4 0 ) is th e s a m e a s E q. (2 .2 3 ).
eer
W e h a v e d e r iv e d th e e x p r e s s io n s for m e c h a n ic a l w ork d o n e, th e m a g n etic force ft etc, by
ta k in g a n e le m e n ta r y e x a m p le o f a s im p le m a g n e tic r e la y m e r e ly for convenience. The reader
ing
s h o u ld n o t co m e to th e co n clu sio n th a t a ll th e s e e x p r e s s io n s a re ap p lica b le only to the simp e
m a g n e tic r e la y a lo n e. A c tu a lly th e v a r io u s e x p r e s s io n s o b ta in ed so far, h a v e broad significance
.ne
a n d a p p ly e q u a lly w e ll to a ll p h y sic a l s y s te m s h a v in g co u p lin g m a g n etic field as the link e
tw e e n s ta tio n a r y a n d m o v in g p a rts. I f it is req u ired to c a lc u la te fe or Te for any physical system ,
is V2.
Art. 2.2]
Electromechanical Energy Conversion Principles 177
^ e le c ~ *1 d \ y = t’ l (\Jf2 — \|fj)
T h e m e c h a n ic a l w o r k d o n e W mech is g iv e n by th e 1
Open
c r o ss -h a tc h e d a r e a O A B C O . position
w mech = t r ia n g u la r a r e a O A B C O
= g (V 2 " Vi)*'i
M a g n e tic s to r e d e n e r g y
Wftd = t r ia n g u la r a rea O C B D E O
ww - t r ia n g u la r a r e a O A C E O
1 . 1 . 1 , .
Fig. 2.10. Pertaining to E xam ple 2.1.
w.E
= 2 ^ 2 * 1 “ 2 ^ 1 = 2 (V 2 - V l) *1
asy
T h is p r o v e s t h e r e q u ir e d r e s u lt.
En
E x a m p l e 2 .2 . F or th e s im p le m a g n e tic rela y o f Fig. 2 .4 (a), the v a ria tio n o f flu x lin k a g e vj/
in te r m s o f c u r r e n t i a n d d is p la c e m e n t x fro m th e open p o s itio n is g iv e n b y th e r e la tio n
V = ix l/2.
O b ta in a n ex p ressio n fo r th e m a g n etic force. gin
e ith e r t h e fie ld e n e r g y fu n c tio n eer
S o l u t i o n . T h e e le c tr o m a g n e tic force f e ca n be o b ta in ed by ta k in g th e p a r tia l d e r iv a tiv e o f
or co -en er g y fu n ctio n W
ing
F rom m a g n e tic s to r e d e n e r g y c o n s id e r a tio n s , th e m a g n e tic force is
.ne
d W f l d ( v , X)
£ =- ...(2 .2 1 )
dx
From E q . (2 .9 ) x) = J0 t'dvp = JQ
1 _ £ f l) -
^
3/2
t
Te dx * 1/2 ‘ 2 2 2
V /
_ V2 J _ ...(2 .4 1 )
- 4 • X3/2
From th e c o -e n e r g y c o n s id e r a tio n s
...(2 .2 3 )
B u t from E q . (2 .1 0 ), x) = J0 = J0 ** ^ =x ~2
:2
vl/2 i. i! I „ - l /2
x 2 2 2
I X ...(2.41a)
4 j:
1/2
A lso , from E q. (2 .3 0 ),
I . 1
1 . d . .1 / 2 , _ i_
1/2 •(2.416)
~2 K ( 4" x
.1/2 or i = .1/2
But y = ix
ww i = 2 \ ? + 3 \ y { l - x + x ? ) ,x > 0 .5
F in d the force on the arm a tu re a s a function o f y .
S o lu tio n .
w.E
F ie ld en erg y sto red ,
* - 2 y 3 + 3 y ( 1 - x + x 2)
(V, x) - £ « * ( » - j ’ |2 VS + 3 V (1 - x + x 2)l d V
asy =^ - +3 ^ (1 - X + X 2)
0 eer
+ ^ ( 0 - l + 2 x )l = ^ ( (1
l -- 2x).
ing
For x > 0 .5 , f, is n e g a tiv e , th erefo re f , a cts to d ecrea se th e field en erg y stored at constant
flu x linksi?6S
E x a m p le 2.4 . .ne * *
The sim ple m agnetie relay o f Fig.(a) gave the following y -i char
Closed position
t
= 1.2 + 0.03 (i - 2 0 ) i >20.
For an a rm a tu re m ovem en t from open to
closed p o sitio n , fin d the m agn itu de o f average
m a g n e tic force. The a ir-g a p length is 2 cm ].2
a n d the cu rren t d u rin g arm a tu re m ovem en t
is a s su m e d to rem a in con stan t a t 40 A. ^
S o l u t i o n . T h e v a r ia tio n s o f flu x lin k a g e
w ith c u r r e n t are sk e tc h e d in F ig. 2 .1 1 , both
for op en an d clo sed p o sitio n s o f th e arm a tu re.
B is th e o p e r a tin g p o in t for open p o sitio n and
C is th e o p e r a tin g p o in t for th e closed p o si
20 A
t i o n . T h e V * lo c u s d u r in g t h e a r m a t u r e
on Exam ple 2.4
= 4 2 - 3 2 = 10 jo u le s.
L j f r j y r
f. = — -— = 5 0 0 n ew to n s.
,t(av) 2 x 1 0 2 | { ) Movable
Mo
ww
S o lu tio n . A ss u m e th a t th e m o v a b le part tr a v e ls a
^ N -tu rn s
Saoo 1
g—
1
w.E
distance x in t h e d ir e c tio n o f m a g n e tic fo rce f* a s
shown in Fig. 2 .1 2 (6). A fter th is d isp la c e m e n t o f m a g jr sn sr
nitude x, th e air g a p le n g th red u ces to (g - x). (g-xT*
En
i) For a gap le n g th o f (g - x), th e relu cta n ce is g iven by
Rl = ^
* M gin
I 9 d R le
ft = ~ 2 g dx 2^g dx eer
1 2 d g -x
= 2°*
2_L
1 B } •A 2 1B / A .ne
(ti) Air-gap p e r m ea n ce
f' 2
Mo-*
Mo* 2 Mo
t
g-x
1 -I f* * -[* £ .
fe = *
dx ~2 dx[g-x
or f . V y J I?A-
f' - r ‘ ( g - x ?
Now m m ( ,i N = H , i g - x ) = - ^ i g - x )
1 b/ a
2
Mo
s z s s . - f» * - « * * - ,*a
equation from Kqa (2.30) to <2 40)
I Art ) i
180 E le c tr ic a l M a c h in e r y
( i n ) T h e m a g n e ttic
ic nf ie
e ild
a --ee nn e irggvy s to r e d in g a p (-g * ) *8 P *
= , F ield e n e r g y d e n s ,ty )(V o lu m e o f th e m a g n e tic field ,n the air gapl
2-1
1 *L [A (g -x )\
2 p0
1 ^ ! A(g-x) . i
/• = _____^ <<&. JC) = - y - 2 p0
!' dx 3r 2 p0
i
Sam e results • t raori h
are obtained b yv th
thep ttn
h rreem
e e m te tu.
h o d s a s i ll u s t r a t e d a b o v e .. .
li ^ flo r tr n m a e n e t is d is p la c e d a x ia lly by an amount of
, mE: z * *- * - * * - * * !
le n d in g to b rin g th em in to a x ia l a lig n m en t.
The o th er d a ta are g iven below : N-turns 1mm
Pole w id th , w p = 6 m m / / / V I /
ww
Flux d e n s ity in the a ir-g a p = 0 .8 W b /m 2 or tesla.
S o l u t i o n . A s s u m e t h a t a ll t h e fie ld e n e r g y is c o n t a in e d
in o v e r la p p in g s u r fa c e s o f t h e p o le f a c e s . L e t t h e o v e r la p p in g
—
la p p in g regio n is w.E
h e ig h t b e x a s s h o w n in F ig 2 .1 3 . T h e n r e lu c t a n c e o f t h e o v e r
Fig 2 13. E lectrom agnet. Example 26
_
asy g
Po X U p
and
•it _ 11 a 2 p i _ ^ a 2 8 __
- 22 ‘ " 2 UrXW„
VoXWp En
bW
riX
1
2 gin Mo
A'
X
N ow 0, =
eer
1
2
f l , 2 u „ 2 x 2g
Po “ ’p x ‘
1 =5
l B / W(g
ing
p0
..(2.421
- i j ^
*•5 Po*J g
(2.42fl>
= 1 5 l^
” 2 Po
N o te th a t ft d o e s n o t d ep en d on th e a m o u n t o f a x ia l d is p la c e m e n t.
S u b stitu tio n o f t h e values in E q. (2 .4 2 ) gives
r _ 1 (0 .8 )2 (6 x K T3) (3 x 10" 3)
I* 2 4- ------------7
x x 10'
= 4 .5 8 4 n e w to n s.
Art- ^ 1 ____________________
Electrom echanical Energy Conversion Principles 181
E x a m p le 2.7. A coil a n d plun ger m agnet is
shown in Fig. 2.14. The coil has 1500 turns and
carries a constant current o f 3 amperes. A ll the
reluctance is assu m ed to be offered by the air-gap
g. Magnetic leakage a n d fringin g is neglected.
(a) For gap lengths o f2.0,1.50,1.00 and 0.5 cm,
find air-gap flux densities and coil inductances. ’
(b) Find the energy sto red in the m agnetic
field for different gap-lengths given in p a rt (a).
(c) Compute the electrom agnetic forces for the
corresponding gap lengths.
(d) Find the m ech an ical work done, i f the
plunger is a llo w e d to m ove slo w ly from
ww
g = 2.0 cm to g = 0.5 cm.
(e) If the coil resistance is neglected, find the
w.E
electrical energy su p p lied by the source for the
conditions o f p a rt (d).
asy
S o lu t io n , (a ) C o n s id e r t h e p lu n g e r to m ove
by a sm all d is p la c e m e n t x in t h e d ir e c tio n o f m a g - 2 14 Coil and Plun§er m agnet, Exam ple 2.7.
Fig
netic force, so th a t t h e n e w a ir -g a p le n g th b eco m es (g - x). T h en m.m.f. per u n it a ir-g a p le n g th
En
iN
g -x gin
A ir-gap flu x d e n s it y for a n y g a p le n g th is
eer
ing
HoiN
N ow in d u cta n ce
_ F lu x lin k a g e s N .. „
L = — ^ ---------- — = T (h») = T
C u rren t
N m .m .f.
R elu cta n ce .ne
N f Ni
. R elu cta n ce^
= N 2 ■P erm ea n ce t
gap len g th (g - x), t h e co il in d u c ta n c e L z is g iv e n by
M
Lr = N 2
(g -x )
The v a lu e s o f B g a n d L x a r e g iv e n b elo w in ta b u la r form for d ifferen t g a p le n g th s .
182 E le c tr ic a l M a c h in e r y
of ant at for d iffere n t gap le n g th s is
S in c e c u r r e n t r e m a in s c o n s ta n t a t J A , Wfjd
W n, : 0 .8 , 1 0 6 7 , 1.60, 3 .2 w a tt-se c .
atv„,, ,J 3 u ,ix )
(c) M a g n e tic fo rc e fe~ ^x dx ’
. i. f cp m n d rela tio n m u s t be u sed .
S in c e c u r r e n t i r e m a in s c o n s ta n t, th e sec
fe = (l>x) " 2 dx
N2
= N'
But R elu cta n ce (g -x )
r_ = 0 .1 7 8 H.
F or x = 0, coil in d u c ta n c e L - J X g
zL
ww (g -x )
an d
w.E d
dxx [ g - x j
2
i
2 ( g - x )2
oivp n b elow in tabular form.
T h e m a g n itu d e o f force f„ for d iffe r e n t g a p le n g th s. ,s g iv e n be! _______^_______
{g - x) in cm asy 2 .00
‘
--------------------- . A E
f. in Newtons
En 40 ^ / ^
gin
m e c h a n ic a l w o rk d o n e is
, r 1 -2 _ .g k - x d x
eer
ft 22 (i gg --Xx) f
ing
, T o ta l m e c h a n ic a l w o rk d o n e H U , . a s th e p lu n g e r is a llo w e d to m ove
frnm 0 = 2.0 cmto
)
g = 0 .5 cm , is g iv e n by
1 .ne
,
1.5
»U * = ii W o
J _ _ 1 = 2.4 watt-sec
2
t
Lt
d W elec = e id t = i d y x
(e )
•r •
N o w flu x lin k a g e s V *= x= (g -x ) 1
dVx rL :
~T~ ~ . ,2
(g - x)^
Thus
.1.5
■2 . f 15 tfa
H W = ‘V J 0 ^ ) 2‘
and
nl.5
1 _ 4 8 w a tt sec
= (3)2 (2) (0.178) ( g - x )
I
Electromechanical Energy Conversion Principles 183
vtw th e to ta l e n e r g y su p p lie d by sou rce is 4.8 w a tt-sec and m ech an ical w ork done is 2.4
c T he r e s t o f t h e e n e r g y , acco rd in g to Eq. (2.3), is stored in th e m agn etic field. T hat is
w ^ he electric e n e r g y s u p p lie d is co n v erted to m ech an ical en ergy and th e rem a in in g h a lf is
rl in th e m a g n e tic fie ld . In o th er w ord s, th e m ech an ical work done is equal to th e en efg y
1° .
St0fed in th e m a_ ^g n e tic fie ld oa ft pc on n
ncfonf nnrronf
s ta n t cu rren t (h ere U
it i is
o Q A^
3 A).
St0Iff m p art (6), it is s e e n t h a t th e field en erg y stored ROTOR LONG
length 2 .0 0 cm is 0 .8 w a tt-s e c and a t gap len g th AXIS
at its v a lu e is 3 .2 w a tt-s e c . T h erefore, in crea se in ROTOR
°'5 Cmp’t ir e n e r g y s to r e d a s g a p le n g th ch a n g es from dO
2 ooto 0.5 cm, is e q u a l to (3 .2 - 0.8) = 2.4 w att-sec.
ww
Z l n t in the o v erla p p in g regions. T h e radius r is m uch
Z a te r than air-gap len g th g . C a lcu la te th e m agnitude o f
toraae when the m a x im u m flu x d en sity m the air-gap is
R a d iu s. w.E
t a t a i to 2.2 T. T h e o th e r d a ta are a s follow s :
r = 50m m ;
Fig. 2.15. P e r t a i n i n g to E xa m p le 2.8.
Gap len gth .
asy
Length norm al to ra d iu s r is I - 10 mm.
g=2m m ;
En
Solution. Let th e a n gle o f overlap be 0 radians. Then reluctance of two air-gaps in series is
Rlg ho(r0)z
gin
d
= 4>*
T e = - ^ Vg2 ^
d& W
§g = B g A = Bg (rQl) eer
= - h g2dQ po(r0)Z
Te = Bg(rQD
(B jg r l
ing
2
ho y
d V o rQl - ( W
Po_rZ
.ne
Alternatively,
But m.m.f., iN =
2'
2B j £
ho
d0
dO 2g 4g
t
'B ggrl
r2 B g g " 2 H - -
Te =
v » I
i , > he air-gap re lu c ta n ce , ro to r lo n g ax is
184 E le c tr ic a l M a c h in e r y
0 I.
A r e a n o r m a l to flu x p a th , A g
R e l u c ta n c e o ffered b y tw o a ir g a p s
Mo
f o Ql
r + 2
<
- 8
2g / \
1 7----- i ) =♦2 — f 1 ^
- " 2 *g dQ 0 / Mo r + 2 * I 02
Mo r+ 2 8
0 I
B u t a ir -g a p flu x , tyg - B g A g Bg r + 2*
ww T
A C -
r
( 1 1 0/
2
___ >2
gl
V.
r ^ g
Mo
w.E V
Mo
f
k
1
r + 2*
1I Q 2
/
asy
T o r q u e c a n a ls o b e o b ta in e d from t h e d e r iv a tiv e o f c o -e n e r g y W „ /
m .m .f. _ i ■N
from Eq. (2.10).
En
0 I
A ir-g a p flu x , AC 2g r + 2 8
F lu x lin k a g e s ,
iN 2
Vg = N $g = Y g Vo
gin
r+ 2 8
0 /
C o -e n e r g y sto r e d in th e a ir g a p field ,
1 . 1 i2 N 2 ' eer
V = 2 ^ I= 2 T 7 110 r + 2 8
ing 0/
.ne
a n y (i - 0)
F rom E q. (2 .2 5 ), Te - -^q
4
1 fN 2
£
Mo
( 1
t
But B = ^ = r ^ - Mo f 1 1Q I
5 A , |_ 2 g r+ 2 8 0/
\ -
Mo •j g
B„ =
2*?
, „ 2 g Be . . .
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e o f iN = — rr— *=■in E q. (i) g i v e s
Mo
B, - 2 g
T = - •Mo l =B
e 4-* L mu Mo j £ ^ r + “2 8 ) '" .veS
S u b s t it u t io n o f th e n u m e r ic a l v a lu e s in t h e to r q u e e x p r e s s io n d e r iv e d a b o \e
185
E le c tro m e c h a n ic a l E n e rg y C o n v e rs io n P rin c ip le s
« - axis
ww DUS
Rotor position }
at any tim e,t
w.E ^>
1<P Supply N -turn
coil
asy
L _ 0 — I
(6)
En
Fig. 2.16. Single-phase reluctance motor.
J
i ng
R
'*
...
T ic
small air gaps in s e r ie s w ith h ig h p erm ea b ility
iron, is m inim um . L e t t h is m in im u m relu cta n c e tu TT 1 TtA
[
.ne Space
2rT nnnUQ.
be designated by R ld. W h en t h e rotor lo n g -a x is is
along th e g -a x is, i.e . w h e n t h e s p a c e a n g le
r = 90°, th e relu cta n c e offered to th e sta to r flu x,
t
by very la r g e air g a p s in s e r ie s w ith h ig h -
Permeability iron, is m a x im u m - le t it b e d e sig
n e d by R l^ i t m a y b e s e e n from F ig . 2 .1 6 th a t
en 0r = o > 2ti, etc, th e r e lu c ta n c e offered to
S i , = i (Rf, + R y
At 0r = O,J?/2 = - | ( ^ - i ? Z £f)
0r = (R lq - R ld) COS 0°
At ' e r = 45°, R l 2 = 0
or
Rh = - 2 (R lq ~ M d) cos 2 ( n /4 )
ww
At er= 9 0 - = n / 2 , R l, = \ - R ld) = - cos 2 („/2 )
w.E
T herefore, in g en era l, th e relu cta n c e v a r ia tio n in F ig. 2 .1 7 (c) c a n be ex p ressed as
asy
R l2 = - \ ( R l , - RId) cos 2 0r ((j)
En
space M g lee’ 8' <0 !‘° ab°Ve g'VeS 1116 Va'Ue ° f reluctance R l for Fig. 2.17 (a) at any
R l = R ll + R l 2
= 2
gin
(R lq + Rid) ~ ^ (R lq - R ld) cos 2 0,. (2 43)
i Ti ~ ~ 2t'2
' ( R l , - R l d)sin 2 9 . .ne
A ssu m e th a t th e llu x produced bv coil m m f xr •
w in d in g resista n ce in Fig. 2 .1 6 m av hp
v t = E = ^2 n fN fymax
ww 0r = (ci>r f - 8)
w h ere <o is th e s h a ft a n g u la r v e lo c ity in rad /sec. A ctu a lly th e torq u e d ev elo p e d b y a s m g l y -
'
w.E . . . _
En
o> = 2 nf) an d t h e s h a ft a n g u la r v e lo c ity cor ( = 2 im ) m u st b e k e p t in m in d . H e r e n
gives in s ta n ta n e o u s v a lu e o f to rq u e as
T. = - 2\ o L « ^ eer
- Rld) sin l2<a' " 28)
B u t s in A cos B = £ [sin (A + B ) + s in (A - B )]
t
T h erefore Eq. (2 .4 8 ) ca n b e w r itte n a s
E , . ,2 .4 9 , g iv e s t h e in s t a n t a n e o u s v a lu e o f t h e ™
be o b ta in ed b y fin d in g t h e a v e r a g e v a lu e o f E q . . ^ ^ th e n a v e r a g e torq u e over th e
a n g u la r v e lo c ity (i)r is n o t e q u a l to th e tim e gu b ra ck et are v a ry in g w ith tim e,
co m p lete cy cle is zero, s in c e a ll th e th r e e s in e te r m s w ith in th e b ra ck et .
. Te <alj) = 0
w h e n oir * w.
u th e n in s ta n ta n e o u s torq u e is
H o w ev er , i f th e rotor s p e e d is su c h th a t o),. - a), tn en
1 • i* i + —sin (—25)] ...(2 .5 0 )
T , — \ K . J (W , - (sin (2ok - 25) + 5 sm (4“ ‘ ' 2
1
= + i < t W 2 ( R L - R l d ) s in 26 ...(2.51)
8
This show s th at reluctance motor can develop torque o n ly a t o n e sp eed , i.e. th e synchronous speed
Reluctance motor, as usual, is therefore not a self-startin g m otor. A w in d in g p u t in th e rotor pole-faces
serves to produce induction m otor torq u e d u rin g s ta r tin g a n d a s th e s h a ft sp eed approaches
synchronous speed, rotor pulls into step and con tin u es ru n n in g a t syn ch ron ou s speed.
M axim um av era g e torque is
ww
T h e average torque g iv en by Eq. (2 .5 1 ) can a lte r n a tiv e ly b e e x p r e s s e d a s follow s :
. . .
D irect-axis in d u ctan ce, Ld =
M2
w.E
R ld
4 n 2
and quadrature axis in d u ctan ce. L = ——
’ q Rl.Q
e (au)
8
asy
0,max 2 Ov2
sin 25
N2 En
Ld
1 _ 1
Now
uLq
gin
COLd
sin 25.
T e (au) ~- —L.
TtoTf a
.ne
A lso r1 e (au) —
4to
% (Yl Y l
——L
4(0 X a ' X , sin 25
1
sin 25
t ...(2.52)
vt
or
T ' {av) = 4 (o ~ Id) s i n 2 8 ...(2.53)
H ere Id, Iq are th e currents ta k en from th * i ,
m axim u m relu ctan ce p o sitio n s resp ectiv ely y 60 r0t° r is h eld in minimurn ^
R elu ctan ces R ld and R lq depend on th e g eo m etrv n f fk
con stan t for a given m otor. I f th e m a g n itu d e o f su n 1 n m a.^n e ti c circu it an d are, therefore,
therefore, th e only v a riab le in Eq. (2.51) i8 th e an ] T a 6 ** COnstant»flu x ^ is constant,
Te(av) w ith 5 is d ep icted in Fig. 2.18. I f load ton m ® 6 fk P^0 t v a ria tio n of torque
ad justs it s e lf till relu ctan ce torque becom es eo u a l tn i j m 0t° r chan^ , th e n th e angle 6
u su ally called th e load -an gle. W ith th e in crea se o f lo a d n ?k to rq u e - in v ie w o f th is, angle 5 is
it reaches its m axim u m v a lu e o f 45°. A ny fu rth er incrp ° n . e1m o to r>i° a d a n g le 5 increases till
to sta ll (fall ou t o f step or loose sy n ch ro n ism ) Ga8e m on m o to r» w ould cause it
Single-phase r e lu c ta n c e m otors are used ex Fig. 2.18. Torque-load angle characteristics of
tensively in d r iv in g e le c tr ic clocks and other reluctance motor.
ww
^ “ C°M t “ t s„p p ,y frequen-
w.E
cause th e r e l u c t a n c e s e e n b y t h e s t a t o r f lu x v a r ie s w ith rotor m o v em en t. If th e s a lie n t p ole rotor
of Fig. 2 .1 6 i s r e p l a c e d b y a c y lin d r ic a l ro to r a s s h o w n in F ig . 2 .1 9 (a) th e relu cta n ce offered to
the stator f lu x r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t fo r a ll ro to r p o s itio n s —c o n se q u e n tly no relu cta n ce torq u e is
asy
developed. I t m a y t h u s b e c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e r e lu c ta n c e to rq u e is p r e se n t on ly in th o se e le c tr i
cal m a ch in es in w h i c h t h e r e lu c t a n c e s e e n b y t h e w o r k in g flu x v a r ie s w ith rotor m ovem en t. For
En
example, in F ig . 2 . 1 9 (b ) ( a s y n c h r o n o u s m a c h in e ), th e r e lu c ta n c e torq u e is p resen t, b ecau se th e
reluctance o ffe r e d t o t h e s t a t o r - p r o d u c e d w o r k in g flu x is a fu n ctio n o f sp ace a n g le 0,.. In Fig.
gin
2.19 (c), th e r e l u c t a n c e s e e n b y t h e r o to r -p r o d u c e d w o r k in g flu x is in v a r ia n t or con stant, th ere
fore, no r e lu c t a n c e t o r q u e i s d e v e lo p e d .
eer
ing d-axis
.ne
t -a x is
A s b efore, le t th e in s t a n t a n e o u s v a lu e o f flu x b e g iv e n by
W ith rotor a n g u la r v elo city (or eq u a l to th e tim e a n g u la r v e lo c ity 0 ), th e expression for the
w.E
in s ta n ta n e o u s cu rre n t i b ecom es
asy i= [(f?/9 + R ld) cos c* - (R lq - R ld) cos (2co t - 25) cos otf]
eer
T h is is th e req u ired ex p ressio n for th e in s ta n ta n e o u s c u rre n t i.
N ow V = ir + ~ d t = 0 + ^
ing
= ^ t^ N ^max cos = ~ N 0™« “ sin
.*. In sta n ta n e o u s p ow er in p u t
Pinst = vi .ne
or P inst = - (oN <hmai sin otf • ^
t
((Rlq + R ld)cos orf - \ ( R l q - R ld) (cos (3fi* - 25)
+ cos (ctf - 25)11
or P inst
A = - “ 0max
2 + g.n ^ cog (0f “ 2 ^C° S S*n ^
+ COS (cof-25) sin toll
B u t s in A cos B = | [sin (A + 5 ) + sin (A - B )]
P __
R la + R ld i
insl 2 —^ sin 2o )t - - (Rlg - R ld) [sin (4cof - 25)
251
+ s in ( - 2o yt + 25) + sin (2o )t - 25) + sin
S in c e s in (-2co£ + 25) + sin (2cot - 25) = 0, w e g e t
W0„
p. = _ —■
^ Rld s in 2 (0 1- ^ (Rlq - Rld) [sin ( 4 <ot - 2 6 ) + sin 25)]
•* inst
T* —R ^mar , „ , ^.
•• 1 e {av) ~ w - g ~ ( r o , - R ld) s in 28.
T h is to r q u e e x p r e s s io n a g r e e s w ith t h a t a lr e a d y o b ta in ed in Eq. (2 .5 1 ).
E x a m p l e 2 .1 1 . F o r th e e lec tro m a g n e tic d evice sh ow n in Fig. 2.20, the cro ss-sectio n a l area
norm al to th e flu x is A a n d th e relu cta n ce is offered by a ir *
gap alone. C o m p u te th e a v e ra g e force on the m o va b le m em - Movable member-^—] x f—
ber in te rm s o f N , x, A etc. w h en ; ' )
(a) i = I m cos (at
N e g lig ib le
ww
(b) v = V m cos (tit.
S o l u t i o n , (a ) R e lu c ta n c e o ffered by air g a p = — —
a ir g a p
w.Er H 2 »oA
hoA
x r z
asy
'• L x ~ X
T,r /.* \ l* 2 r 1 -2 ^ 2 M
Wm b , x ) = - i L x = o L — ; —
2 ' ~x 2
dW fld' (i, x) _ En
i ;2
Fig. 2.20. Pertaining to Example 2.11
From E q. (2 .2 6 ), fe =
dx =- 2 *
gin
= - 2
l W 2M
y2
X
,2
Im cos oit~ ~ 2
eer x2
a 1 + cos 2 tuf
fe (au)
1 N M
4
r2.
x2
2
ing
1 a2
(b) From Eq. (2 .3 1 ), f e = - \ d>2 ^
_ _ i A2 - J —
= - g ♦' .ne
For th e e le c tr ic c ir c u it, v = ir +
. ai
cfi
^
M
t
For v = Vm c o s cot, it s s t e a d y s t a t e s o lu tio n is
V 1 ttiLx
; , - z - t a n - 1—
V2 V r 2 + c / L / r
m = COS (tit - ta n
t =
■^r2 + (ti2 L xl
Ni N V jI k A -ta n
N ow a - — ------- 1 n — T cos
* " /? / x V r2 +
S u b s t it u t in g t h is v a lu e o f d> in fo rce e x p r e s s io n
r .
S u b s titu tio n o f Lx= — — give s
N 'V llh A
COS otf - t a n - 1
le o
2 ( A 2 + (a>W2 MoA)2]
1 O f W
f. inl
,e{av) 4 [(rx )2 + (caZV2 M ) 21
P a r t (6) o f th is e x a m p le can a lso be so lv ed a s u n d er .
N • )ioA
Lx = tjv*
an*
N 2VmPoA ' . . -i(0 L l
y = N0 = — cos to( - t a n —
r
Yl x y r + (0 L x
From Eq. (2 .1 2 ), field en erg y sto red is
ww
wh<
_ iv ^ i V -*
fld = 2 -L x ~ 2 and
w.E
F rom Eq. (2 .2 1 ),
_ aw Z
,M_(Mvx) _ _ i
d x 2 N 2P o A
ren
asy
fe ~
tive
S u b s titu tin g th e v a lu e o f \|/*» w e g et not
ie o
En N 'V ^ io A
2 rV + ((oAT2MoA)2
—s cos
toL ^
a t - ta n 1 —
r
gin
V /
> 1 W2V2 moA issi
Its a v era g e v a lu e is fe (au) =
4 (rx)2 + (coA^PoA)2
2 .4 . D o u b l y - e x c i t e d M a g n e t ic S y s t e m s eer •
ing
S in g ly excited m agn etic sy stem s have a w ide variety of applications, such as d e e t r a n ^ _
r e la y s m ovin g-iron iS t r u m e n t s , relu cta n ce m otors etc. M ost o f th e electromagnet,c energy
co n v ersio n d e v ic e s b elo n g to doubly-
e x c ite d or m u ltip ly -e x c ite d m agn etic .ne and
and
sy n ch ro n o u s m a ch in es, loudspeakers,
tachom eters, d.c. sh u n t m achines etc.
com
F i g . 2 .2 1 i l l u s t r a t e s a s im p le
(2.5
m o d e l o f a d o u b ly e x c ite d m a g n e tic
s y s te m . T h is m o d el c o n sists o f sta to r \3 (
Source
ir o n ro to r ir o n a n d b o th are o f th e
11 v X l y * v v
J
. . rm__________ t«r4tV> A T Of
s a lie n t p o le ty p e. T h e sta to r w ith N ,
tu r n s is e n e r g ise d from sou rce 1 and
th e rotor w ith N r tu r n s is ex cited from ■Stator
s o u r c e 2 . T h e m .m .fs . p ro d u ced b y
b o th th e s ta to r a n d rotor w in d in g s are
in t h e s a m e d ir e c tio n a n d m a g n etic
to rq u e Te is in t h e a n ticlo ck w ise direc
Fig. 2.21. Doubly-excited m agnetic sy
tio n a s s h o w n in F ig . 2 .2 1 . F or con-
Here y , and y r are th e in sta n ta n e o u s total flux lin k a g es o f sta to r and rotor w in d in g s resp ec
tively. S in ce th e m a g n etic sa tu ra tio n is n eglected , y , and y r can be ex p ressed in term s o f s e lf
and m utual in d u cta n ces.
V i = W » + Mtr irl ...(2.56)
and y r Lfi,. + M rt it j
where
w.E
A/ir = A/r, = m u tu al in d u ctan ce betw een stator and rotor w indings.
In Fig. 2.2 1 , in itia lly th e sp ace a n gle b etw een rotor and stator axes is 0r and both th e cur
rents i, and ir are assu m ed zeros. N ow th e stator and rotor coils are sw itch ed on to th eir respec-
asy
tivc energy sou rces, so th a t th e currents rise from zero to i, and ir resp ectively. I f th e rotor is
not allowed to m ove, th en d\Vmr(h is zero and Eq. (2.3) becom es
dWtUc = 0 + dWpj
En
is stored in th e m agn etic field. gin
Thus, w ith th e rotor held fixed, nil th e electric energy supplied by th e tw o su p p ly sou rces,
. j
From Eq. (2.55). d ^ p d - d^ ei* ~
eer
+ l^ V r
= i,d ( L jt + M J r) + i A L j r + Ai r,it) ...(2.57)
P*
pjj
„
From E xnm ple (2.7),
, = N »* Lr
L, r = N *r ing
and from Art. 1.16,
W
Afv = Mr, =
N »N r
— .ne
"'here R lt = relu cta n ce seen by th e stator flux
R lr = relu ctan ce seen by th e rotor flux
nigr
t
and R lsr = relu cta n ce se e n by th e resu lta n t o f stator and rotor fluxes.
Since th e rotor is n ot allow ed to m ove, th e relu ctances and therefore th e in d u cta n ces are
constant. In v ie w o f th is , th e differential ch an ges in in d u ctances, i.e. dL t d L r and dM tr in Eq.
(2.57) are all zeros.
Therefore, from Eq. (2.57),
dWfu = i, Ljdi, + iM t A r + *rM^r+ 'M A 't
= it Lt d is + ir Lfdij- + Msrd(iJ.r)
The m agnetic field energy stored in establishing the currents from zero to i, and ir, is given by
"•Ml
^ ’ Wfid - L* Jo + Jo *r c^ r + ^ tr Jo •:
X o 1 '
i = 2 i* L , + 2 iriL r + Mr' i' ir ...(2 .5 8 )
dW fu = — is d L s + L sisd is + 7^ ir d L r + L r ir d ir + M sr is d ir + M sr ir d is + is ir dMsl.
T h e d iffe r e n tia l m ech a n ica l w ork d on e d.Wmech, d u rin g th e d isp la cem en t dQn is
d^mech = TedQr
ww
S y b s titu tio n o f th e v a lu e s o f dW elec, dW mech and d W ^ in Eq. (2.3) gives
ic L A i. + i 2 d L s + i r L r d ir + i r2 d L r + i c Afc,. d i r + 1,. M cr d iQ+ 2 isi/lM sr
w.E
= (Te ■dQr) + 2 is d L s + L„ iKdig + ~ i r2 d L r + L r i,. d ir + is MSI. d iv + ir Msr d is + is ir dMsr
asy
| i 2 d L t + \ i 2 d L r + i, ir dM sr = Te dBr ...(2.59)
_ 1 . 9 dL. 1
En
. dLr . . d M sr
or T* ~ 2 1‘ W r * 2 l , } W r * ls lr dQr
gin
It can be s e e n from Eq. (2 .6 0 ) th a t th e d ifferen tia l ch a n g es o f cu rrents d is and dir do not
'
eer
c o n tr ib u te to th e p ro d u ctio n o f m a g n etic torq u e Te. It m a y th erefo re be sta ted that torque Tt
d e p e n d s on (i) th e in s ta n ta n e o u s v a lu e s o f cu rren ts i, and ir and (ii) th e angular rate of change
o f in d u c ta n c e s .
ing
I f E q . (2 .5 8 ) for Wf,d is d iffere n tia ted w ith resp ect to th e sp a ce a n gle 0,., but w ith constant
.ne
c u r r e n ts , th e r ig h t h a n d sid e o f Eq. (2 .6 0 ) is o b tain ed . T h erefore, m agn etic torque Te can also
b e o b ta in e d from th e sp a ce d eriv a tiv e o f field en erg y ex p ressio n , i.e.
H ere
T
1 1 ~
dWfid
0Q (J*> r> Or) t
m u s t be e x p r e sse d in term s o f is, ir an d 0r and w h e n p a rtia l derivative is taken,
...(2.61)
c u r r e n ts a r e k e p t co n sta n t.
I n te g r a tio n o f E q. (2 .5 7 ) for dW elec> w ith c o n sta n t cu rren ts, g iv e s ^^
Welec = i 2 L s + i 2 L r + 2 is ir M sr " '
F or a lin e a r m a g n e tic circu it, Wfjd = Wfld , th erefo re Eq. (2 .6 1 ) can be w ritten as
BWfu ...(2.62 0 )
input takes
C o m p a r iso n o f E q s. (2 .5 8 ), (2 .5 9 ) a n d (2 .6 2 ) r e v e a ls th a t i f th e electrica l energy J cbaucal
n la c e a t c o n s t a n t c u r r e n ts a s g iv e n b y Eq. (2 .6 2 ), th e n h a lf o f it is convcr cuneot5.
energy, E q . (2 .5 9 ) a n d th e r e m a in in g h a lf is sto red in th e m a g n e tic field ,t c o n s t* . ^ M lhe
E q . (2 .5 8 ). In o th e r w o rd s, th e m a g n e tic e n e r g y sto red a t c o n sta n t curr
m e c h a n ic a l w o rk d o n e.
II 1
L
. 1
1► 11
*1 1
1 ■9 wj
lz j
Source 1 S o u rce 2
Fig. 2.22. Doubly excited linear m agnetic system
ww
AJso
\|/2 = L i i'2 + Af2i i.
M u = M 2\.
w.E
The m a g n itu d e o f m a g n e tic force ft can be o b tain ed by ad o p tin g th e procedure a s follow ed
for m a g n etic to r q u e Tt . It w ill be fou n d to h a v e th e ex p ressio n
asy
e _ _1 . dLj
2 j1 #. .2 d lt2 . . d M in
* ~ 2 Zl d x + 2 ‘2 dx + dx ...(2.63 a)
or
En
f* = ~ ^ - ( h , i 7 ,x ) ...(2.63 b)
mW eL
~ t-)x
gin ...(2.63 c)
eer
An e x a m in a tio n o f E qs. (2 .6 1 ) an d (2 .6 3 ) rev ea ls th a t th e m a g n etic torq u es and forces act
in such a d irectio n a s to te n d to in cr ea se th e field en ergy a t co n sta n t cu rren ts.
ing
2 .4 .1 . E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c a n d r e l u c t a n c e to r q u e s . The total torque developed by th e doub
ly excited m a g n etic sy ste m is given by Eq. (2.60). T his torque expression w ill now be exam in ed in
detail and so m e in te r e stin g conclusion s w ill be obtained.
In Fig. 2 .2 1 , i f i r = 0 , th en from Eq. (2.60), .ne
’ 2
T. = V .
dQr
t ...(2 .6 4 a)
1 . dL>r
and if
i, = ° . T' = 2 dd~r ...(2 .6 4 b )
In F ig. 2 .2 1 , su p p o se th e s a lie n t p ole rotor is rep la ced by cy lin d r ic a l rotor and is excited a *
b efore, b y c u r r e n t ir. T h en to rq u e e x p r e ssio n from E q. (2 .6 0 ) b eco m es
1 , d L r . . d M *r
T e ~ 2 l r l d f y .+ t a l r ~dOr —(2.65)
dL
th e s ta to r flu x d o es n o t v a ry w ith rotor m o v em en t. C o n se q u e n tly L s is c o n sta n t and js zero
ww
M sr. T h is com ponent o f torque is com m only called th e electrom agnetic torque o f electromagnetic-
en ergy conversion d evices. An exam in ation o f i,ir ^ '- rev ea ls th a t th e electrom agnetic torque can
w.E
ex ist on ly i f (i) th e tw o w in d in gs, one on stator and th e oth er on th e rotor, are m u tu ally coupled and
(ii) both th e w in d in gs carry currents.
asy
T h e p h y sica l co n cep t ab ou t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e le c tr o m a g n e tic torq u e in Fig. 2.21 is as
follow s. T h e n orth , so u th p o le s p rod u ced on s ta to r by is an d so u th , n o rth p o les produced on rotor
En
b y ir, a ttr a c t ea ch o th er te n d in g to a lig n th e ir field s. T h e to rq u e so d ev elo p ed by th e interaction
ing
d irection o f c u rre n ts in sta to r or rotor w in d in g s. B u t th e in te r a c tio n torq u e ls lr
dQ r
.ne
is an d ir, th e e lectro m a g n etic , or in te r a c tio n , to rq u e is a n tic lo c k w ise a s sh o w n . If direction of
t
cu rren t, s a y ir, is rev e rsed in F ig. 2 .2 1 , th e in te r a c tio n to rq u e w o u ld be o p p o site to th at shown
in F ig . 2 .2 1 , i.e. in th e clo ck w ise d irection ; b u t th e d ire ctio n o f r e lu c ta n c e torq u e would still be
in th e s a m e d ire ctio n a s b efore i.e. a n tic lo c k w ise .
2.5. E le m e n ta r y S y n c h r o n o u s M ach in es
In t h is a r tic le to rq u e e x p r e s s io n s , in c a se o f e le m e n ta r y sy n c h r o n o u s m a ch in es, are derived
from a co n sid e r a tio n o f th e m a g n e tic field e n e r g y sto red .
(a ) S in g le -p h a se c y lin d r ic a l r o to r m a c h in e . T h e b a s ic form o f an elem en tary single
p h a s e s y n c h r o n o u s m a c h in e o f cy lin d rica l ro to r ty p e is s h o w n in F ig . 2 .2 3 (a). T h e variation ot
s ta to r to rotor m u tu a l in d u c ta n c e M sr can b e d e te r m in e d b y c o n n e c tin g a sin g le-p h a se supply
to s ta to r w in d in g a n d a v o ltm e te r a cro ss rotor w in d in g . W h en 0r = 0, th e flu x lin k a g es with the
ro to r a r e m a x im u m an d th is is in d ic a te d by a m a x im u m v o ltm e te r r e a d in g , therefore, mutua
^ th e
in d u c ta n c e b e tw e e n s ta to r an d rotor is m a x im u m , i.e., M = M f tl & X for 01“ = 0. W hen 0, -
" * S f'
ww
w.E
rotor in d u ced e.m .f. is a lso rev ersed and th erefo re th e m u tu a l in d u cta n ce is m a x im u m b u t n e g a
tive, i.e., M „ = - M ^ for 0 r = n. T h e v a ria tio n o f M sr from 0r = 0 to 0r = n is a ssu m e d to be a
asy
cosine fu n ction o f 0r a n d th is is sh o w n in Fig. 2 .2 3 (6).
En
The r e lu c ta n c e s e e n by th e sta to r flu x d oes n ot d ep en d on th e rotor m o v em en t, th erefo re
L, is con stan t. S im ila r ly L r is a lso co n sta n t, Fig. 2.2 3 (b). It is seen from Fig. 2.2 3 (b) th a t th e
gin
mutual in d u cta n ce M sr a t a n y a n g le 0r can be ex p ressed as
M v = M max cos 0r.
eer
Here 0r is th e sp a c e a n g le b etw een sta to r and rotor field axes.
Let th e s ta to r a n d rotor in sta n ta n e o u s cu rren ts be is and ir resp ectively, th en
ing cos 0r
.ne
T orque, Te — ^ (is, ir, ® r )
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max
T 2 sin 8 ..(2.66)
1 c (at I
ww
p h a se P and field w in d in g f, can be d eterm in e d by
c o n n e c tin g a s in g le -p h a s e su p p ly to rotor w in d in g ^ — j _
and tw o v o ltm e te r s, o n e a cro ss each p h a se w in d in g phase
w.E
o f t h e s ta t o r . W h en 0, = 0, m u tu a l flu x lin k a g e s c(-oxis
w ith p h a se a are m a x im u m , but w ith p h a se P th e
asy
flux lin k a g e s are zero. T h is is in d ica ted by m a x i
m u m v o ltm e te r rea d in g a cro ss p h a se a an d zero
v o l t m e t e r r e a d i n g a c r o s s p h a s e p. H e n c e
M..f = A/ma, an d M w = 0 for 0r = 0 W h en 0, = n / 2. it
En Fig. 2.24. (a) Two-phase cylindrical rotor
synchronous machine.
can be sh o w n th a t = 0 a n d A /|y = A t max- F o r
0, = n, it can a lso be sh o w n th a t Af,y = -
gin
and *
)
A/(Vr = 0 . (Fig. 2 .2 4 (6)1.
T h e r e lu c ta n c e offered to th e (lu x e s p rod u ced by c_
UI
eer
p h a se a and P w in d in g s do»*s n ot v a ry w ith rotor o
m o v e m e n t T h e r e fo r e , s e lf - in d u c t a n c e L,„ fo r | ing
p h a s e s a . p r e s p e c tiv e ly a re c o n sta n t an d a re eq u a l
to e a c h o th e r . S im ila r ly , s e l f in d u c ta n c e Lf o f th e .ne
field w in d in g is c o n s ta n t. S in c e th e a x e s o f p h a s e tx
an d p h a s e p w in d in g s a re n o rm a l to ea ch o th e r and
a ir -g a p is u n ifo rm , th e m u tu a l in d u c ta n c e A f„ p b e
t
tw e e n « . p w in d in g s is zero.
F rom F ig . 2 .2 3 ( b ) . M a f = M max co s 0,
an d —A/max
L et ia . in b e th e p h a s e c u r r e n ts a n d if t h e fie ld
Fig. 2.24. (fc) Its inductance variations wl
cu r r e n t. T h e m a _g n e tic field e n e r g y s to r e d is space angle Or-
asy
Vp = f-p ip + M [iflf= £p Im sin co/ + M max If sm (co/ - 8)
l’p = rp • v2 7 sin co/ -t- co^p 7m cos co/ + co If cos (co/ - 8).
(c)
En
S in g le -p h a sc s a l i e n t p o le m a c h in e . An elem entary form of a single-phase sa lie n t
pole synchronous m a ch in e is illu str a ted in Fig. 2.25 (a). Its variations of self-inductances
gin
I„irand mutual in d u cta n ce M ,r, can be d eterm ined as outlined in th e previous articles (a) and
•i). The inductance v a ria tio n s are depicted in Fig. 2.25 (6). The various inductances can be
expressed in term s o f sp a ce a n g le 0r as follow s :
Rotor self-inductance, L r = constant. eer
ing
Stator self-inductance, L , = ~ (Ld + L ,) + 1 (L d - Lq) cos 20, and m utual inductance,
Stotor
field a x i s
Stator
ww
' -I flm M m a x tk ™ W + ~ 6) + Sin (©^ - 0)7 - 8)]
w.E
For o)r * o), Te{mv) = 0
+ \ sin (2o)r 7 - 2o)7 - 26)1 - l f Im M max • | [sin ((0,7 + (07 - 5) + s in ((0,7 - a* - 8))
asy
W hen o)r - t o , r e = - i 7m2 (Ld - L q) [ s in (2(07 - 2 5 ) + \ s in (4co7 - 2 5 ) + \ s in ( - 25)]
En - If I m
3 = 1 7 m2 (iLd - L q) sin 26 + 1 If I m
gin
s in 6 ...(2.69)
.ne
com p o n en t o f torq u e, i.e. \ I f I m M maxs m b is t h e e le c t r o m a g n e t ic o r in t e r a c t io n torque of
sa lie n t-p o le syn ch ro n o u s m a ch in e.
t
/. , , E x a ® p le 2 1 2 ‘ F o rth e d o u b ly ex cited m a g n e tic s y s te m s h o w n in F ig. 2 .2 1 , p lo t the nature
o f the in du ctan ce v a ria tio n s w ith d ifferen t ro to r a n g u la r p o s itio n s .
(i> W h en 0 , = O, a ir -g a p le n g th a n d th e r e fo r e r e lu c ta n c e i s m in im u m . C o n s e q u e n t l y the
( AT* \ ^ „
stator self-inductance L g j (
• R l /Iand rotor self-inductance L r — n rj SiG
v are m
maximum
a x im u m Since
magnetic axis of both the stator and rot n r r m i c • r V ) • J
maximum and let it be positive so that U = ! U = °' ‘He mUtUa‘ inducta"Ce "
sr max-
t o When 0, = 5 the air-gap length and therefore the reluctance is maximum. There**
L t and L r are minimum (but not np<rsK*ra\ on. « tb
stator and rotor axes are normal to each othe ^ mUtUal ‘nduCtance M « is zer0' beCaUS
_ a ir-g a p le n g t h is a g a in lnduc ,o n «
\ therefore/,, a n d L r a r e m a x i-
.tn al in d u cta n ce is a g a in m a x i-
U M sr = - M _ a s
r* tut »<
< .; ,A r t .2 .5 ( a )
v a r ia t io n s o iL Si L r a n d M sr w it h d if
f e r a n g u la r p o s it io n s 0 „ a r e il-
^ j Trip 2 26. T h e e x p r e s s io n s for
rttrated in W - ■
and W , are
ww
Here I * .
Pig. 2.26.
LA L
A and a re in d ica te d in
w.E
Example 2 .1 3 . The s e lf a n d m u tu a l in
stances of a doubly excited m agn etic sys-
Fig. 2.26. Inductance variations of
Fig. 2.21, Example 2.12.
timofFig. 2.21, are as follow s.
asy
L s = 0.6 + 0.20 cos 2Qr ■H.
En
L r = 0.75 + 0.30 cos 2 Qr H.
and M sr = 0 . 8 cos 0r H.
The winding resistances are negligible.
fe) For stationary rotor a t a n a n gu lar position o f 9. = gin fin d the m agn itu de a n d direction
oftorque when the currents in the arrow direction s o fF ig • 2 . 2 1 are .
(i) is = 20 A d.c. a n d ir = 10 A d.c. eer
(H) is = 2 0 A d.c. a n d ir = - 1 0 A d.c.
is = 2 0 A d.c. a n d ir = 0 A. ing
.ne
OH)
p a n [oj, if trie
nitud* of 314 V r.m .s. a t 50 Hz.
---------- -
, M u
. W ftrtt. v a lu e s o f currents g iven in p a r t ta i). w rite the sta to r a n d rotor voltage eq u a tio n s.
t
SUme o rotor speed o f 2 0 r a d / sec for th is p a r t only. , n .
Solution. For 0r = 60° ; L „ L n M sr and th eir d eriv a tiv es w ith resp ect to 0r h a v e t h e follow -
ww
(c o u n te r -c lo c k w ise )
w.E dt
S in ce rotor w in d in g is sh o rt-circu ited , vr = 0
But asy 0 = 0+
d\\fr
dt
,
En
Vr —L r ir + M sr is
or
dt =
gin
*r + ^ sr = 0
or
d t (Lr ir) = ~ d t ^ sr ^
I>r ir - —M sr is eer
i.e.
r
i -
L r 1* ing ...(2.71)
It is g iv e n th a t is = V2 (20) sin wt. T h erefo re, from Eq. (2 .7 1 ),
M ’ .ne
ir = ~
i f V2{20) 8in <•* = - ^
-- - ~g"v2
40 In
s in got
(V 2)(20) sin a*
t
S u b stitu tio n o f th e v a lu e s in Eq. (2 .6 0 ) g iv e s
( - 40^2)
+ (20V2) ( - 0 .6 9 3 ) sin 2 a*
I 1 3 8 .5 6 - 9 2 .4 5 + 3 6 9 .6 0 ) s in 2 to/ = 1 3 8 .5 9 1 - cos 2w ^
—L s is + M sr ir
5tltation o f tr f r o m E q . ( 2 . 7 1 ) , p v e S
MLsr
MI s =- ^Ls '' isc - £ vsc =
I io = L s'i*s
V
L‘
cajje(j th e s h o r t-c ir c u it in d u c t a n c e o f s ta to r w in d in g .
» 1SC ( M,sr
2\ r
(0-4)z
L - 0 .5 - = 0 .2 3 H.
0 .6
\
dys d T,
v = = -j - (i U 8) = 3 1 4 V2 sin tof
'5 _ d £ vs *
I s L . = _ 3 1 4 V 2 co3M ( _ _ 314V 2 cog 3 1 4 t = _ y ] 2 cos 3 1 4 £.
CO 314
ww s
= _L 414
0 .2 3
c o s 3 1 4 t = _ 6 .1 5 c o s 3 1 4 f
= - 6 .5 5 c o s2 3 1 4 1 - 4.3 7 co s2 3 1 4 t + 1 7 .4 8 cos2 3 1 4 t
„ _ . f l + cos 628*
= 6 .5 6 c o s 3 1 4 t = 6 .5 6 ^ gin
<
_ 6 5 6 _ 3 2 8 N -m (clo ck w ise)
*
eer
ing
1 e (av) 2
\us = L s is + M s r ir
d^r
dt
_
t
= (0.6 + 0.20 cos 20.) (20) + (0.8 cos 0.)10
= 12 + 4 cos 20, + 8 cos 0r
y r I ^ 5 ^ 3 0 c o s 2 e r)1 0 + (0 .8 c o a 0r)2 0
, ,. . — /7 5 + 3 co s 2 0 r + 1 6 c o s 0 r)
R otor v o lta g e e q u a tio n is v r = 0 + ^ ( '•»
= - (3 s in 2 0 r) 2 x 2 0 - (1 6 s in 0r) 2 0
= - 1 2 0 s in 2 0 r - 3 2 0 s in 0 r = - 4 0 (8 s in 0 r + 3 sin 20r).
L 2 = 0.15 m H a n d 0=0
M 12 = 0 .0 8 sin 0 m H . P o in te r
ww
(a) F in d an expression fo r torqu e in te rm s o f th e a n
g u la r p o sitio n 0.
w.E
(b) F in d the tim e average torqu e in te rm s ofQ.
(c) For 1 = 5, 10 a n d 15 am peres, sk etch th e v a r ia tio n
© Mc ° o t 9
asy
o f average torque w ith angle 0.
(d) Sketch a lso a curve sh o w in g the v a r ia tio n o f c u r Fig. 2.27. Dynamometer type
moving coil instrument.
rent w ith 0.
En
gin
(e) I f the in stru m e n t is d e sig n ed to re a d a m a x im u m o f 15 A m p s , g iv e th e range of pointer
deflection.
r ' - 2 l1 + 2 l2 - d e + l 'l 2 - * r
ing
H ere i 1 = i 2 = Im sin to/, b e c a u se th e tw o c o ils a r e
con n ected in s e r ie s.
.ne
••• T , = 0 + 0 + ( /„ Sin a t ? ~ (0 .0 8 s in 6) 1 0 ' 3
= 0 . 8 x l < r ‘ / m2 s in 2 (t f C o s e N - m .
t
(b) Te = 0.8 x 10~4 I m2 - cos 2 (0 /"
cos 0.
2
•• (ot/) = 0 4 x 10 4/m2cos 0 N-m.
58-6'
(c) For / = 5 A rms, Fig. 2.28. (a) V ariation of torque T1*(o<>i with 0-
*' 90 20A
cu rren t I a n d d e f le c t io n 0, t h e to rq u e
R a t i o n is given by
Spring restraining to rq u e = d e fle c tin g torq u e
90 4
0 .0 1 4 4 x 1 0 4 0
/2=
90 x 0 .4 x 2 cos 0
90 e
e
ww COS 0
= 1.414
4 cos 0
0 Fig. 2.28. (b) Variation for c u rren t
with angle 0.
w.E
asy
0° 5° 10° 15° 30° 45° 60° 70° 80° 90°
8indegrees
JinA 0 3.17 4.5 5.57 8.32 11.3 15.5 20.2 30.5 OC
En
/\SKeu;n s n u w u ig tut? v a i i a t i u n u i t u n c u i w i u i w 10 a a d u v tth
(e) For a current o f 15 A rm s, th e torque b alan ce eq u ation is
“ 112.5
l i i . 0 C cos
0 S 00 =
= 00
90
eer I
,
^trument
mment deflection is from zero degree to 558.6°. 8 .b . ing
By trial-and-error so lu tio n , th e v a lu e o f a n gle 0 is found to be 58.6°. T h u s th e r a n g ^ S ^ ^ ^
Example 2.15. For the m agnetic relay o f Fig. 2.29, the sprin g exerts a p u ll o f 0 . 2 kg. W hen
exciting current is zero, the relay is in the oper\ p- f .ne
tumlP Unaand aair-eo
^ r?onn’ ^
*r‘8 a-D leneth
a length g 0isis0.5
0.5cm.
cm.With
W iththe coil
the
reduces to 0.1 cm. The coil
. 000 turns and the m agnetic leakage a n d fring * g_V—
J fle e te d . The m agn etization curve for the relay
co Armature
T h
Arm?,Ure
“ OtlTl
/
• . 3cmj
'
10“
I
I
t
S e r ia l *» —’'—
Spring \
0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
1 B *A
f = ± ~ R— = 0 .9 8 1
U 2 p0
2 _ 2 x 0 .9 8 1 x 4 k x 10 7 _
= 0 .1 2 3 3
e ~ 0 .2 x l O " 4
or B g = m 2 3 3 = 0 .3 5 1 T
F ro m B -H c u r v e o f F ig . 2 .3 0 , A T /m . fo r a flu x
d e n s i t y o f 0 .3 5 1 T a r e 8 7 .7 . T h e r e f o r e t o t a l 0 50 100 15 0 200~ 257p5rvT -
a m p e r e -tu r n s fo r ir o n le n g t h ATs/metrc 3Sl«
ill = 0 . 2 0 x 8 7 . 7 = 1 7 .5 4
Fig. 2.30. B-H curve, Example 2
.15
• )f *
wwA m p e r e -tu r n s fo r a ir -g a p = ^
Ho
g = (P -351) (0 .5 x 10—
471 x 10-7
^
l l
w.E
.*. T o ta l A T s fo r t h e m a g n e t ic p a th fo r a n a ir -g a p le n g t h o f 0.5 cm
= 1 3 9 6 .5 8 + 1 7 .5 4 = 1 4 1 4 .1 2
*.iii*
II
II asy
E x c it in g c u r r e n t r e q u ir e d to c lo s e t h e a r m a tu r e r e la y is
1 4 1 4 .1 2
= 0 .7 0 7 1 A.
Ii
Ii (6 ) En
2000
A ir -g a p a m p e r e -tu r n s , f o r g = 0 .1 cm , a r e
| .•
gin
_ I 0 ;3 5 1 ) (0 .1 x 10" 2) _ 2 7 9 .3 2
H
iI
4 7t x 10~7
eer
T o ta l A T s fo r t h e m a g n e tic p a th , for g = 0 .1 cm , a re
i
ing
= 2 7 9 .3 2 + 1 7 .5 4 = 2 9 6 .8 6 .
E x c it in g c u r r e n t r e q u ir e d to k e e p t h e a r m a tu r e c lo sed
iI
2 9 6 .8 6
2000
= 0 .1 4 8 4 A. .ne
ill
Ill |
E x a m p le 2.16. (a) The a ir -g a p u n d e r th e p o le s o f a d.c. m achin e is not uniform, due to wear
o f th e b e a rin g s. F in d a n ex pressio n fo r the u n b a la n c e d m a g n e tic p u ll on
th e a r m a tu r e . F or th is ex a m p le, a n e le m e n ta ry tw o -p o le d.c. m ach in e o f
t
Fig. 2 .3 1 m a y be c o n sid ered .
(b) A 2 -p o le d.c. m a ch in e h a s its a rm a tu r e d is p la c e d by an a m o u n t
o f 0 . 1 m m . O th e r d a ta are a s follo w s.
A ir-g a p flu x d e n s ity : 0 .8 T
A rm a tu re
JP A re a u n d e r each p o le : 2 0 0 cm 2
I i I
Iii U n iform a ir -g a p le n g th : 0 . 6 cm .
I
r: F in d th e m a g n itu d e o f th e u n b a la n c e d m a g n e tic p u ll b n the a rm a - <S
|l | ture.
rr •
wy u en i u o u i ii i o i
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=i ? l A
2 Mo "g + x
At the sm aller a ir-g a p o f le n g th {g - x), th e in crea sed force o f pull
ww ~2
1 Be 2 a
Mo A p g - x
w.E
:. Net u n b alan ced m a g n e tic p u ll on th e arm a tu re o f a 2-pole d.c. m a ch in e is
a ri i
i
2 Mo
asy
pS g - x g+x
^0 V - x 2
En
n ew to n s
gin
For uniform air-g a p , x is zero and th e u n b a la n ced m agn etic pull is also zero.
ib) Substitution o f th e n u m erica l v a lu e s in Eq. (2.72), g iv es th e m agn itu d e o f u n b a la n ced
magnetic pull as
eer
=
ing
<°-8)2 . (200 x 1 0 - 4) Q? X ° n T = 169.76 n ew ton s.
471 x 10~7 36 - 0 01
Exam ple 2 .1 7 . Fig. 2 .3 2 sh ow s a slo t contain ing z s conductors a n d each conductor carries
Qcurrent o f i am peres. The iron p a r t o f the m agnetic circuit is Iron
on\j
.ne
j“-u7s —»j
burned to have in fin ite p e rm e a b ility.
(o) Find the va ria tio n o f the flu x d e n sity in the p a r t o f the slot
Vobooe the conductor po rtio n a n d (ii) occupied by the conductor.
t
tor ^ an expression fo r the leakage flu x above the conduc-
rPortion.
Slot
^ b) Find the e le c tro m a g n e tic force fe, c re a te d b y th e s lo t leakage
°£e flux presen t above the conductor portion. flux
For i = V2 (1000) sin 314t, fin d the direction a n d m a g ■ V Current
V * °f maSnetic force fou n d in p a r t (c). There are tw o conduc- out of paper
ln tfu: slot, em b ed d ed len gth is 1 m etre a n d slo t w id th is 5 Fig. 2.32. Slot leakage flux,
*• ° Example 2.17.
H s w s = izs
L
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*-2,
or t f *g = — T
ws — Bs — h2
„ Ho iz s
F lu x d e n s ity B s - p 0 ^ _________ 4 .
w = iz.T -
or w y~
y ws h
ww
F lu x d e n sity By = \i 0 H y =
M-o iz ,
w.
y_
hi
w.E
T h e n a tu r e o f th e flu x d e n s it y v a r ia t io n o v e r t h e s l o t d e p t h (h x + h 2) is illu strated in
F ig . 2 .3 3 .
asy
(b) S lo t le a k a g e flu x <j>g above th e co n d u cto r re g io n is
) En w8
gin
H ere I is th e em b ed d ed le n g th o f co n d u cto r n o r m a l to t h e p la in o f p a p e r . E xpression for
rev e a ls th a t th e s lo t le a k a g e flu x is d ir e c tly p r o p o r tio n a l to t h e s lo t d e p th , s lo t len g th and in
v e r se ly p rop ortion al to slo t w id th .
eer
(c) C on sid er a s lo t d ep th o f h e ig h t x, j u s t a b o v e h x a s s h o w n in F ig . 2 .3 3 . T h e n th e magnetic
ing
field en erg y stored by th e slo t le a k a g e flu x 0, for t h e s lo t d e p t h o f h e ig h t x is g iv e n by
rfid •"
1 B 2
.ne
S u b s titu tio n o f th e v a lu e o f B s g iv e s
w fid /.*
(1, x) _- n
i *2 2 *2
. x i.
t
2
W) The direction of thpfnrCref^e<l*>y slot leakage flux present above the conductor port*011
= 32n ’
f __ 3 2 k v
«(<*«) 2 - 50.265 newtons.
A
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Medirecti°n'
Solution, (a) W hen th e co n d u cto r cu rren t is zero, th e air-gap
distribution due to th e n o rth p ole, is uniform over th e pole
5th Fig- 2 35 ^ L et th e u n ifo rm flu x d en s ity for th is stator
’ 3 . If the conductor ca rr ies cu rren t i,' w ith th e field w in d in go
------
p f m h n f i n n 1 n
excited, then th e flut • ixr rdl iistr
« i1 _
ib u tio n is as n nVv «
sh o w n in F ig. O OCT / L \
2.35 (6). Fig. 2.34. Pertaining to
Example 2.18.
tetthe flux density, d ue to flu x crea ted by cu rren t i, be B x so th a t
ww
Here the reluctance is a ssu m e d to be offered by th e air-gap alone. N ote th a t th e conductor
w.E
fluxhas to traverse th e air-g a p tw ice a s sh ow n .
When both th e field w in d in g and conductor carry current, th en th e resu lta n t flux d istrib u
asy
tion is obtained by su p erim p o sin g th e flu x d istrib u tio n o f F igs. 2.35 (a) and ( b). T he flux d en sity
En
gin IB-B,) V M B +B ,)
eer
ing
.ne
(c)
(a)
Fig. 2.35. Illustrating the flux distribution, Example 2.18.
Subs
3stitution of the value o f B x gives
„ (i x ) s m * M = B i x i
w fid {l>x) p0 2g
Bi ...(2 .73)
dx
H - - i-
••• " 2nd
/. F lu x d e n s ity B j a t th e con d u ctor 2 is
/! -
-tiQJr \} - ' 1
V '
TT 1^0 *1 (T<
B , = H o ^ t = 2 7id V V
... Force o f attraction betw een th e tw o conductors Fig. 2.36. Illu stratin g force between two current
carrying conductors.
n ew to n s.
= B \l l 2 = 2 nd
E x a m p le 2 .1 9 . S e l f - a n d m u lu a ,.in d u c ta n c e s in co u p
ww L, = 3 + L 2 = 2 + j j . M /2 = M n = 2x
w.E
ooer a certain d isp la cem en t x in m etres. The
For con stan t currents o f I j = 10 A a n d 12 = - 5 A , co m p u te
co il resista n
fori
asy
(a) the m ech an ical w ork done in in crea sin g x from 0 .5 to 1 m,
(b) the energy su p p lie d by each electrica l source in p a r t (a),
( c ) c h in fie ld energy in p a r t (a).
a n g e
gin
is eq u a l to the energy su p p lie d by both sources d u r in g the m o tio n fro m x
eer
S o l u t i o n . For a lin e a r ca se,
I
‘ 2
Wfld («»- '2 .* ) = \ l x i , 2 + \ L 2 t22 + i , *2 M
w 10 r w
^ 4?
- f 10 2 5 - 2 5 = _ — w a tt-sec
t
” nuch Jo.5 ^ J 0.5 ^2 4 4
0.5
(6) = ijd v 1 +
1 \ 5
H ere y i - L j i l + M i 2 - 13 + ^ 10 + ( - 5)
£ H 0+s
Vj/2 —L 2 *2 "*■ = ( - 5 ) t ^ (1 0 )= -1 0 +
pV2(x= 1.0)
E n e r g y s u p p lie d b y so u rce 1 , ^ i2 d Vl
[ forx 5 ^ _ f 3 0 + #5- ^
= 10 30 + # -
2x 2x
LV J x = 1.0 V J x=0.5-J
b c a n n e ffiy ^ a m 5 c a n n e r www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
s u p p lie d b y S0UrCe 2 is
gjjoji*11" r V2 (x = 1°)
W ,fcC2= J V i(I = 0S)
( 5N
= (-5 ) - = 12.5 w a tt-se c
r 10+l
- \ ■1 0 + ^ *= i \ / i = 0.5 -
ww = 175 + m . f = - — w a tt-sec
4
Here
w.E
This verifies th e r e q u ir e d r e s u lt .
= - 1 2 . 5 = W.elec
jm atx = 0.5 m i f
asy
Example 2 .2 0 . F or f/ie t o o coifc o f E xam ple 2.19, compute the value o f average m agnetic
(a) both coils are connected in p a ra lle l across a voltage o f 220 cos 314 t volts,
En
(b) both coils are connected in series across a voltage o f 2 20 cos 314 t volts
gin
(c) coil 2 is shorted a n d coil 1 is connected to the sam e voltage as m p a r t (a).
(d.) both coils in series carry a current o f 0.5 cos 314 t A.
Solution. For a lin e a r ca se,
Wfld (iit h, X) = \ L \ h 2+ i L 2 i? + i x i2 M
eer
1
2
■2 1
+ 2 ing 'jt
2x
. d\\f\
dV i dy 2
the coils are in p a ra llel, v = ^
dt ■;i
d ix d i2 d ix d i2
3 .
= or is = 5 >,
dt 1 dt ‘ 2
d ix _ ... . 40
or — = 4 0 co s 3 1 4 t or ix= ^ s in 3 1 4 1
• 60 •
l2 = 3 1 4 Sm
S u b s titu tin g th e v a lu e o f i lt i2, in t h e e x p r e s s io n for fe g iv e s
-1 2 .„ * .2 —
f< = [(40)2 + (6 0 )2 + 2 (6 0 ) (40)] s in 2 314
(3 1 4 )2
= - 0 .1 0 1 4 2 4 s in 2 3 1 4 t
fe(av)
iv) = - 0-------
.0 5 0--------
712 N
(6) v= + +
ww dt dt
For s e r ie s co n n ected co ils, i x = i 2 = i
\
dt dt
J
'
\
dt dt
w.E
2 2 0 cos 3 1 4 = 9 ^
dt
or i=
9x314
s in 3 1 4 t
asy
/ 220 N
fe = ~ 4 s in 2 3 1 4 t
9x314
or
(c) W ith coil 2
£<«,) = - 0 .0 1 2 1 2 N
sh o rted and coil 1
En
co n n ected to v o lta g e so u rce,
„ dis du
0 = 4 - # + —#
dt dt gin
) 0 - 4. r> d i 2
u ~ ^ 7 7 + o - 7- or eerd ix
=- 3
d i2
—-
220 cos 3 1 4 t = v = -
dt
. f [*2 _
dt
U d i2 ing
dt dt
.ne
dtdt ~ dt
or • 20 .
l2 = ~ sin 3 1 4 t
and ; 60 • o
1 = 3 i 4 sin 3 1 4 I t
fe = ( 3 1 4 ? 1(60)2 + (20)2 ~ 2 ( 2 0) (60)] s in 2 3 1 4 1
( 40
314 s in 2 3 1 4 t
or
•fe(ao)
r tat/j = - 0 0^0v8u1n1 N .,
d w fid *) 1 B 2A
prom Eq- (2 .2 1 ) f< = -
dx 2 Ho
*2 ,
= /9 ^A W V/
^ 1 A4” I = — X 107 N
2 4 jc x *10
ww
movable p la t e s . A c u r r e n t s o u r c e fe e d s th e co n
denser. L eak age cu rren t o f th e co n d en ser is repre
w.E
sented by con d u ctan ce G. T h is m e a n s th a t electric
field betw een th e tw o p la te s is co n serv a tiv e, i.e. all
energy supplied is reco v era b le from th e device. The
asy
energy flo w in a n e l e c t r i c f ie ld s y s t e m is a ls o
governed by Eq. (2 .3 ) a s in a m a g n etic field sy stem .
En
When cu rren t so u rce is con n ected , cu rren t and
charge flow in to th e d ev ice o f Fig. 2 .3 7 and th e dif
ferential electrical en erg y in p u t to th e con d en ser in
time dt is gin Fig. 2.37. Singly-excited electric-field energy
conversion device.
dW eUc = v id t = vdq
eer ...(2 .7 4 )
lf» . lg £
...(2 .7 8 a )
^ /w = c J o ^ = 2 C
AIbq ...(2 .7 8 b)
1 q2
W/m ( 9 , * ) = 2 W —(2-79)
Eq. (2 .7 9 ) rev e a ls th a t electric field en erg y can b e c h a n g e d e le ctric a lly by changing ?0r
m ech a n ica lly by c h a n g in g x (i.e. by d rift o f th e m o v a b le p la te). ie f
T h e en erg y d e n sity in electric field is g iv en by
cD 1 D2
wfld = )o E d D ~ 2 eo ,"(2-801
ww
w h ere D = electric field flu x d en sity , C o u lo m b s/m
E = electric field in te n sity or p o ten tia l g ra d ie n t, v o lt s /m
this
^
D
w.E '
anc
asy
(6) C o e n e r g y . For a lin e a r ca se, th e v a ria tio n o f q w ith v is a s sh o w n in Fig. 2.38. As in
i a
m a g n etic sy ste m , coenergy Wfjd is th e a rea O ACO . »
to 1
En
C om pare th is figu re w ith Fig. 2.4 (c).
(2.f
f u‘ f ”1
OACO = q ■d v = C vdv
gin
A rea J0 JQ ant
a linear circult
t
or coen ergy fu n ction s as in th e ca se o f m a g n etic sy s- F iS' 2 -38- Electric field energy and coenerg) in
clo
0J>
dii
caj
dW fu (q , x) = vdq - fe dx •••(2-83) vii
T he field en erg y Wrfld (q , x) can also be ex p ressed m a th e m a tic a lly in term s of its two partial ca]
d eriv a tiv es as
...(2.84)
dW nd (q, x) = dWM d q + ™ l i dx
" dq * dx
T h e field en erg y in E qs. (2 .8 3 ) and (2 .8 4 ) is sa m e, th erefo re th e co efficien ts associated
d q and dx m u st be eq u al in both th e s e eq u a tio n s. of
dW lu \ v . x ) = ^ - d v * ^ - d x ...(2 .8 9 )
ww 9 “
dWfuXv, x)
dv
and w.E •*
3 ^ /M
dbc
asy
Eqs. (2.86) and (2 .9 1 ) g iv e th e force ex p ressio n s for electric field sy stem ; correspondingly,
to Eqs. (2 21) an d (2 .2 3 ) for th e force in m a g n etic field sy stem . N o te th a t field en ergy in Eq. 11 • i
En
(2 86) m ust be ex p lic itly e x p ressed in term s o f q an d x and coenergy in Eq. (2.91) in term s o f v
and x.
Substituting v a lu e o f W ^ ' (u, x) from Eq. (2.81) in Eq. (2.91), w e g et
r _ * 2 d C (x) gin ...(2.92)
'* _ 2 dx
eer
The above e x p r e ssio n for force s ta te s th a t electric force acts in su ch a direction as to in
crease the ca p a cita n ce o f th e co n fig u ra tio n .
ing ^
The exp ression for e lectric force, a s g iv en by Eq. (2.86), can also
be obtained by r e fe rrin g to F ig 2 .3 9 . In th is figu re w h en sw itch is
.ne
dosed, capacitor g e ts ch a rg ed to so u rce v o lta g e V,. S w itch S is th en y
opened. N ow th e u p p e r p la te is g iv e n a v ir tu a l d isp la cem e n t dx in th e
d irectio n o f e l e c t r i c f o r c e . D u r i n g t h i s d i s p l a c e m e n t , c h a r g e o n
capacitor,, = C V . r e m a in s co n sta n t. A s t h e s w i t c h S .s o p e n ^ d u n n g r*
s
t
Witual displacement electrical energy input, d W elec = 0 and the mecham
<*1work done, d W ^ = f e dx.
From Eq. (2.3), 0 = fe dx + d at constant q.
dWfu (<q, x) ...(2.86)
9x
In Eq. (2.86), field energy stored in the electric field must be explicitly expressed in terms
0f9an d x.
Example 2.22. T w o parallel plates, each o f area A = 1 mJ, ore separated by a distance g.
* dectric field intensity between the plates is 3 x 10s V/m. a value equal to ^ breakdown
•""Wh of air Find force between the two plates. Use both energy and coenergy method,.
q = DA —ZqEA,
For
1 2 _ 1 2 ^*-0
T h e co en erg y is g iv e n by Wfld(v, x) = - C v = ^ v ^ _ x
a y ( M ) _i 2 AZr
From Eq. (2.91), /f" ax 2 (g -x Y
ww
For y = E (g - x ), £ = \ E 2 ZqA.
- 9
w.E fe = | ( 3 x l 0 6)2
10
36n
X 1 = ~r~ X 10 N .
8n
B oth th e m eth o d s g iv e th e sa m e force. It is a s e x p e c te d . I t m a y b e in t e r e s t in g a t this stage
asy
to com pare th e force produced by m a g n e tic field w h e n B is n e a r t h e s a t u r a t io n level with the
force produced by electric field w h en E is eq u a l to its b r e a k d o w n v a lu e .
En
ft per u n it area in m a g n e tic field (E x a m p le 2 .2 1 )
0 .3 2 x 1Q/ x 8 n gin
ft per u n it area in e le c tr ic field (E x a m p le 2 .2 2 )
= 25600.
) n x 103
eer
T his sh o w s th a t force d e n s ity in th e m a g n e tic fie ld is 2 5 ,6 0 0 t im e s it s v a lu e in the electric
field at th e m axim u m p o ssib le field s tr e n g th s a s s u m e d .
ing
k-^r'*ijn *S Lhe rcason
.ne
p ra ctic a l e n e r g y c o n v e r s io n d e v ic e s m a k e u s e o f the mag
n etic field rath er th a n th e e lectric field a s th e c o u p lin g m e d iu m . E le c tr ic fie ld d ev ices operating
at very Iow -pow er le v e ls a re s o m e tim e s u se d fo r r e l a t i v e l y h ig h f r e q u e n c y a p p lica tion s.
w here x = d ista n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o p la te s .
'V ( v ,* ) = I v 2 ^
2 x
Force b etw een th e tw o p la te s ,
f _ dW /z/ (V, x ) j
t / 2 £ 0 A
e dx --------
2 ~~T N
x
Fig- 2.40. P e rta in in g to Example 2.23
f i o ~ 9 x 3 0 x 10 - 4
25 9 .8 1
4 X 1000
-iv“ 36 k (1 x 10“ 2)2
1/2
2 5 x 2 x 3 6 k x 104 x 9 .8 1
or V= = 2 1 5 0 0 .8 2 2 V
4 0 0 0 x 10" 9 x 3 0 x 10" 4
ww ~ 2 1 .5 0 k V
Thus th e v o lta g e a p p lie d b e tw e e n th e tw o p la te s is 2 5 .1 kV.
w.E
The b asic p r in c ip le d e m o n s tr a te d in t h is e x a m p le m a y b e u s e d for th e m e a s u r e m e n t o f h ig h
voltages q u ite a c c u r a te ly .
2.7. D ynam ic E q u a tio n s
asy
The e le c tr o m e c h a n ic a l-e n e r g y -c o n v e r sio n d e v ic e s o p era te w ith e lectric a l s y s te m on o n e
En
side and m e c h a n ic a l s y s t e m on th e o th e r sid e. It is th e b eh a v io u r o f th e e n tir e e le c tr o m e c h a n i
cal system th a t is im p o r ta n t, b e c a u s e a p a rticu la r s y ste m m a y o p era te s a tis fa c to r ily u n d e r
gin
steady s ta te c o n d itio n s b u t m a y fa il m is e r a b ly u n d er th e electro m ech a n ic a l tr a n s ie n ts . In v ie w
of this, th e o p e r a tio n o f th e e n tir e s y s te m , co m p risin g o f electric a l s y ste m , co n v ersio n d e v ic e
eer
and m ech an ical s y s t e m , sh o u ld b e in v e s tig a te d in d e ta il d u rin g th e e lectro m ech a n ic a l s y s te m
planning. T h u s th e c o m p le te a n a ly s is o f a p h y sic a l s y ste m in v o lv e s electric circu it e q u a tio n s ,
!
energy con version r e la tio n s a n d e q u a tio n s o f m o tio n s.
ing
Sim ple m o d e ls o f s in g ly e x c ite d ele c tr o -m e c h a n ic a l s y s te m s are illu s tr a te d in F ig s. 2 .4 1 (a)
.ne
and (6). M odel o f F ig . 2 .4 1 (a) is a p p lic a b le o n ly to restricted lin e a r m o v em en ts, b e c a u se o f th e
iH i
is .
t
■3£>
(a) Model o f a sin g ly excited translation al electrom echanical system , involving restricted linear m ovem ent.
1
+o--------'WW'-:-----r \ le (Or
/*t
(6) Model of a singly excited rotational electromechanical system, involving restricted rotary motion.
Fig. 2.41
21 8 Electrical M a c h in tn
. di . (d L \
dft,
-tr + L j + i
dO, d t
. . di . (d L \
= ir + L -r- + i ••(293)
dt dOr
ww
tim e d e r iv a tiv e o f c u r r e n t T h e th ird term o f E q . ( 2 .9 3 ) is th e s p e e d or ro ta tio n a l voltage term
b e c a u s e o f th e p r e se n c e o f sp eed w, in it N o te th a t it is th e s p e e d v o lta g e term th a t determines
w.E
th e (low o f e n e r g y b e tw e e n ele c tr ic a l and m e c h a n ic a l s y s t e m s .
In P*ig 2 41 (a ), th e m a g n e tic force f, is o p p o se d b y in e r tia force f u , d n m p in g force fDand
r e s tr a in in g s p n n g force fK T h erefo r e th e force b a la n c e e q u a tio n is
asy
fr* fu * fit * ft:
« St
dt En^
*
f ud t
or
gin ..(2941
w h e r e S t ® m a s s in k g s.
eer
D ■ co efficien t o f friction nr d a m p in g c o n s ta n t in n e w to n s | mt m e tr e p er sec.,
ing
K « lin e a r sp rin g c o n sta n t in n ew to n * j**r m e tr e d is p la c e m e n t,
_ ,d \ dQ, tr
or ...(2.95)
T' m J 7 ? + D - 3 r * x *'
w h e r e J - m o m e n t o f in e r tia in k g m :
D - d a m p in g c o n s ta n t in N -m p er ra d /sec.
K = ro ta ry s p r in g c o n s ta n t in N -m p er ra d ia n
cf0r
an d a n g u la r v e lo c ity in ra d /sec.
T
T , -= Jr d1 ^Fr + D
„ d_Qr, + TL
plained before.
to-*)
Thus b o th t h e E q s . ( 2 .9 3 ) a n d (2 .9 4 ) d escrib e
the total b e h a v io u r o f a lin e a r e le c tr o m e c h a n ic a l
— SE Lh
system and b o th t h e E q s . ( 2 .9 3 ) a n d (2 .9 5 ) t h a t o f a
N
rotary e le c tr o m e c h a n ic a l s y s t e m . O
/TJ0 tdP----
For i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e f o r m u la t io n o f d y n a m ic
e q u a tio n s for a s y s t e m , c o n s id e r t h e co n fig u r a tio n (9-*)
shown in F ig . 2 .4 2 . R e lu c ta n c e o f t h e tw o a ir g a p s
in series is Fig. 2.42. Typical electromechanical system .
R l = * iiL z ja
Ho A
ww
A ssum ing th e ir o n to h a v e in f in ite p e r m e a b ility , s e lf-in d u c ta n c e o f th e co n fig u ra tio n is
w.E L (x) =
Rl 2 (g - x)
From Eq. (2 .2 8 ),
asy
r _ 1 & d L (x) _ 1 ,2 N Ho-A _ 2 iV2 • Ho A
,fee ~ gn I
^ ~ 2o 1 2 ( g _ xyx2 4a ( g - x..*2
)
En
Therefore, t h e tw o d iffe r e n tia l e q u a tio n s g o v e r n in g th e sy ste m d y n a m ic p erfo rm a n ce a re a s
under:
From Eq. (2 .9 3 ),
rT .
‘
N * Ho-A di . N • Ho-A dx
U t = ir + —
2 (g -x)
r x -r + i
dt gin
2 (g - x) 2 * dt
...(2 .9 7 )
From Eq. (2 .9 4 ),
2 N* H qA
=M
d2x
eer
n dx „
...(2 .9 8 )
5
I
ing
fe = i
4 (g-x)* dtf2 + D d i + K 'X
.ne
on a digital co m p u ter. T h e s e e q u a tio n s ca n , h o w e v er, be lin e a r ise d for sm a ll m o v e m e n ts a b o u t
the equilibrium , or o p e r a tin g , p o in t a n d th e n can be so lv ed for d y n a m ic or s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i
tions as d esired .
E x a m p le 2 .2 4 . F or th e p lu n g e r m a g n e t shotvn in Fig. 2.43, the relu ctance o f the iron p o rtio n
is n e g le c te d . T h e c o il h a s N Cylinderical
iron stru ctu re-^
t •i
^a n
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IArt. 1.7
220 Electrical Machinery
m a ^ e t k ^ f o r c e ^ ’ ' ^ s ^ i l l ' s h o r t e n ^ t h ' e ' a l r - g a ^ l e i ^ ^ 11®11^ 0" ^ 61^ ® relim tan re'of t h i g ^
le n g th (g - * ) is
Rl
1 M-o ^
R elu c ta n c e o f th e n o n -m a g n e tic m a te r ia l b e tw e e n th e ir o n p lu n g e r a n d th e cylindrical iron
s tr u c tu r e is
21
R l2 =
V(A
M +JL '
ww T o ta l relu cta n c e Rl =
>
1 ,2 dR l d fg-x
w.E
M a g n etic force, 2 dx MoA
V
1 §m ax
= -* iA x
2 M
asy
(1 + co s 2 art)
For $ = 4>mox cos f e ~ 2 tymax 4 \i0 A
M
En
d \f _ _ A .
e = - — = - ^ ( W < t W co s coi)
(b )
gin
. e = U)NQmax s in otf.
) (c) T h e m a g n etic force fe h a s to o v erco m e th e fo rces d u e to
( i ) s p r in g (ii) frictio n an d (iii) m a s s M.
eer
N ow K is th e spring con stant in n ew ton s per u n it d isp la cem e n t. F or an y displacem ent x,
fK = Kx n e w to n s
ing
an d fD = D ^ n e w to n s
.ne dx
t
w h e re D is th e c o efficien t o f frictio n o f th e m o v a b le p a r t in n e w to n s p er m etre per sec. an ^
is th e v e lo c ity in m /sec.
fu = M ^ - f n e w to n s
dt
or 4 Luyl 0 + co s 2 (0 /) = M ~ A + 0 + i£ r
#1
Ainctia*1
(d) N o r m a lly th e so lu tio n o f s u c h a n e q u a tio n s h a ll c o n s is t o f a c o m p le m e n ta r y 1 jy-si tatf
p a r tic u la r in te g r a l. A C .F . g iv e s th e t r a n s ie n t p a r t o f t h e s o lu tio n a n d P I . g»v e s the *
A ...(2 .9 9 )
x = P + Q cos 2o )t ...(2 .1 0 0 )
3 7 = - 2 wQ sin 2 ok
then dt
d 2x
= - 4cu2Q cos 2 ok.
and
d t1
ww d 2x . m
The values o f P a n d Q a r e o b ta in e d by s u b s titu tin g th e v a lu e s o f x and — ^ in Eq. (2 .9 9 ).
dt
Therefore,
- 4 w.E
o>2 Q M cos 2 ok + K P + K Q co s 2 ok = C (1 + cos 2 ok) ...(2 .1 0 1 )
asy
a2
<hm
where C =
4 Mo A
En
Comparison o f th e te r m s on r ig h t and le ft h a n d sid e s o f Eq. ( 2 . 1 0 1 ), g iv e s
K P = C, P =|
gin C
eer
2 - -
and K Q - 4o> Q M = C, Q =
K - 4oo2 M
ing
Substitution o f th e v a lu e s o f P a n d Q in Eq. ( 2 . 1 0 0 ) g iv e s th e ste a d y -sta te so lu tio n a s
A2 K cos 2ok
C C cos 2 ok
x- — i +
K K - 4 io2 M
If the transient p art o f th e solution is required, then additional term s like A j e
K - 4o )2 M
.ne
and A^e
t
1
Rl =
M
jV2 iV2Ho A _ a
C oil in d u cta n ce,
L = n r 2g ~ 2g
(1 0 0 0 )2 (4 ti x 10 ) (0.05)
= 2 x 0 .0 1 " ° - 15708 H
w h e re a = N 2[IqA = (1 0 0 0 )2 (4n x 1 0 " 7) (0 .0 5 )2 = n x 1 0 '3
at2M a
ww
N ow
- - L i 2- - -
2 (g-x)
w.E
•I
2 2 (g-x)
' dW fu (i , x) i 2 o
Force on th e a rm a tu re.
asy S 4' ^
En
= 2 (5)2 n x 10 23 = 1 9 6 .3 5 N
4 (0 .0 1 )2
gin
(6) E lectrica l en erg y in p u t a t c o n sta n t-c u r r e n t m o v e m e n t
W elec = ( V 2 ~ V i ) I
eer
= |[LZ w h en gap h a s red u ced to 0 .5 cm ] - [Lx w h e n gap length = 1 cm]) f
J tx lO " 3 ‘ 1
0 .0 0 5
1 '
0.0 1 ing
(5)2 = 3 .9 2 7 W att^ sec
.ne
1 ............................. 2
f 05 l r 05 -i
= Jo
ww
(fe) the ra dial m agn etic force ten din g to burst out the solenoid
(c) the ra dial p ressu re on the sides o f solenoid
w.E
(d) the solenoid inductance.
Assume no flux ou tside the solenoid.
asy
S o lu tio n , (a) For th e d irection o f cu rren t i show n in Fig. 2.46, the
magnetic field in sid e th e solen oid is d irected a x ially upward.
En i-N
M agnetic field in te n s ity in sid e th e solenoid, H = —7 — A T /m
/ iN 9
Flux d en sity B = \i0 H = [i0 — W b /m . gin Fig. 2.46 Pertaining to
Example-2.27.
___ 1 iN
ing
J /m 3
= 2*>
i_N
h x
n2
r c r
2 ,
^ =
1 (iN)
2 M°~~hT X n r
2 t
» ) Radial m a g n etic force, f. = = Mo! * * (2D = M, ^ - N
N /m 5
2 ti r h 2 Mo
N N 2 Mo ■nr
W) Solenoid inductance
ouienoia m a u c ia n c e ^ =
u ~ m ~= h
• - —t = 4 t
S o l u t i o n , (a ) A p p lie d v o lt a g e a t a n y t im e g
di
4 «= ^ + L ^ " 4 l + 2 d#
I ts L a p la c e tr a n s fo r m g iv e s , - j - 7 (s) [4 + 2 s]
4
or I ( * ) = s * ( 2 » + 4) s 2 (s + 2)
2 K .1 ^o2 .
L et .2 + S + 2
s 2 (s + 2) s
C o n s ta n ts K al. K M a n d X , c a n b e d e t e r m in e d in t h e u s u a l m e t h o d .
■K„1 = l,tf< ,2 = - f a n d K i = 2
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2
_L I 1
!(« ) = 2 s + 2 ’s + 2
w.E i (t) =
*
2 2
-2^
II
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A t t = 2 sec, c u r r e n t 7 1 = ~ [ e 4 + 2 x 2 - l ] - 1 .5 1 A
E x a m p le 2.29. F o r
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m a g n e tic c irc u it o fF ig . 2 .4 7 , le n g th o f ir o n p a t h = 120 cms., g = 0.5
cm , area o f cross-section o f iron = 5 x 5 cm 2, m. = 1 5 0 0 ,1 = 2 A , N = 1 0 0 0 tu rn s.
flux.
S o lu tio n . T o ta l r e lu c ta n c e = o f ir o n p a t h + G a p le n g t h
Ho Hr x A r e a jiq x A r e a -^9
T
1 2 0 x 10"2 I—2
0 .5 x 1 0
v-7
4 7 1 X 1 0 " x 1 5 0 0 x 2 5 x 10" 4 4 it x 10" 7 x 2 5 x 1 0
109 T 120
120 0.5 1
Y = 1 8 4 6 2 x 1 0 A 'W b 1 1 . mag"
4 7tx25 1500 Exam ple 2.29.
N i.
A_ H I 1000 X 2 ,
F lu x ,
Rl 1 .8 4 6 2 x 1 0 6 X 10 = 1 0 8 3 3 m W b
F ie ld e n e r g y sto r e d in ir o n = \ f x r e lu c t a n c e o ffe r e d b y ir o n p a t h
120 x 10r 2
= 1 .0 8 3 3 x 1 0 " 3 J = 0 .1 4 9 4 2 J
4 n x 10" 7 x 1500 x 25 x 10r t
.-2
0.5 x 10
= ± [1 .0 8 3 3 x 10" 3l2 x — = 0 .9 3 3 8 7 J
4 7t x 10 7 x 25 x 10i- 4
_ en e r g y sto red in iron
Energy d en sity in iron
v o lu m e o f iron
0 .1 4 9 4 2
-r
4
= 4 9 .8 0 7 J / m 3
120 x 10"2 x 2 5 x 1 0 '
0 .9 3 3 8 7
Energy d en sity in air gap - r4 = 7 4 7 0 9 .6 J/m "
0 .5 x 10" 2 x 25 x 10
Energy stored in a ir g a p _ 0 .9 3 3 8 7 _ 25
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E nergy sto red in iron 0 .1 4 9 4 2
Energy d e n sity in air g a p = 74709^ =
'
1499 98 ^ 1500
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Energy d e n s ity in iron 4 9 .8 0 7 '
This exam ple d e m o n str a te s th a t m o st o f th e field en erg y is stored in th e air gap.
asy
Example 2 .3 0 . For the electrom agn etic relay o f Fig. 2.48, the exciting coil has N = 1200
tum, and core area A = 6 cm x 5 cm. The relay is m ade from infinitely perm eable m agnetic
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material. Neglect frin g in g effects.
Arto.A
(а) Find the coil in du ctan ce for x = 1 cm. For a coil
current of 2 A, fin d the fie ld energy stored a n d force on
thearmature. gin S 3 "
Armotur#
(б) Find the m ech an ical w ork done (or the mechani-
oi energy output) a s the a rm a tu re m oves from x = 1 cm eer 1/
rv:,. . N 2 ^ Ho A
11 inductance, L (x) = = Yr
a 2 0 0 ) 2 x 4 7t x 1 0 ~ 7 x 3 0 x 1 0 J 4 _ Q 2 7 1 4 H
Por* = l c m ,
2 x 1 x 10
field energy stored ,
w . . . i i? L, = | « 2 ax 0.2714 = 0.5428 J
rf t d- 2
1 .2 d AT2 ^ 1 .2 AT2 Up A
2 1 <fx 2 x " “ 2* 2 .t ‘
V , = t, = 2 x 0 .2 7 1 4 = 0 .5 4 2 8 W b t
W h e n x = 0 .5 c m , co il in d u c t a n c e ,
L 2 = 2 L , = 2 x 0 .2 7 1 4 = 0 .5 4 2 8 H
V2 = *i L 2 = 2 x 0 . 5 4 2 8 = 1 .0 8 5 6 W b t.
• • M e c h a n ic a l e n e r g y o u t p u t or m e c h a n ic a l w o r k d o n e
= 2 (^ 2 - V i) »i = ^ ( 1 .0 8 5 6 - 0 .5 4 2 8 ) x 2 = 0 .5 4 2 8 J .
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(C)
OX 2 rd/xr 9 rv 2 ---------- X— -
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2x2
F o r ij = 2 A, / > - ! * 22 x ^ - _ f C ^
4 =2 2*
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) M e c h a n ic a l w o rk d o n e ,
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c/x
0.005
1 J 001
gin
Xo 1
1
X
0 01
= (1 2 0 0 )2 x 4 n x 10 " 7 x 3 0 x
eer 10 ' 4
1
_ _
= 0 .5 2 4 8 J.
id ) F lu x lin k a g e s for x = 1 cm a n d i , = 2 A ur = 0
W h e n x r e d u c e s to 0 5 t h e flu x linkacr ' * ing 88 m P 3rt
5 4 9 ft [ ° :° 0 5 ° ' 01
t
•*. M e c h a n ic a l w o r k d o n e i f t h e flu x li n k a „
x UX *m k a ^ s a r e m a in t a in e d c o n s t a n t
= 2 v, (‘ 1 - i 2) = - X 0 .5 4 2 8 ( 2 - 1 ) = 0 .2 7 1 4 J .
(e) E le c t r o m a g n e t ic fo rce , fe - ~
But
w fld - 2 I (* ) i 2 a n d v = L (x) i ori = _m _
l(x)
= x L (x ) •
£ (X) 2 Z, (a)
H ere
Rl
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W 1 V2 2 * x •y 2
fld 2 AT2 n0A \ v V o A
f (V» *) _ x ■\y2 = _ _ . V2 .
u a* = 'a * rfH o A
A JV 0A .
For * - 1 cm, vjf = L (x) • t = ~ •i
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Substituting the values, we get
asy PROBLEMS
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2.1. (o) State the ad v antages of analysing energy-conversion devices by field-energy concept ?
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(ft) Describe the principle of energy-conversion. From a consideration of the various energies involved,
develop the model of an electrom echanical energy-conversion device.
(c) Show th a t th e reaction of coupling m agnetic field on th e electrical or mechanical system is essential
forthe electromechanical-energy-conversion process.
eer
2.2. (o) Draw and explain fully th e general block-diagram representation of an electrom echanical energy-
conversion device.
ing
(ft) For a singly excited m agnetic system , derive the relation for the m agnetic stored energy in term s of
reluctance.
2-3. (a) Based on the principle of conservation of energy, w rite an energy balance equation for a motor.
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t
Discuss briefly about th e four energy term s involved.
(D) Write the following expressions :
(i) magnetic field energy stored Wfa in term s of <|>and Rl
(“) W/y in term s of vg a n d i
^ W/id in term s of L a n d i
Wfa in term s of v a n d L
(u) wfu in term s of F and Rl
) Wfld in term s of F a n d 4>
W) magnetic field energy density w/u in term s of B an d H
Ufa in term s of g an d B
(tt) wfid in te rm s of p and H. ,An8- Se* Art- 2 21
C t (a) A is excited by a single coil. Discuss th e conditions under which th is toroid can ex tract energy
e "upply system. '
Write expression for m echanical work done L dx from a physical consideration of Fig. 2.49 (a) and
“‘d an expression for th e m agnetic force fr (c) R epeat p a rt (6) for Fig. 2.49 (6).
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dW
[Ans. (b) fe d x ~ -d with constant y, ft = - ~ (V> *)
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2.5. (a) For a linear m agnetic circuit, derive the following relations for th e stored magnetic energy IV
and co-energy W ^' 1,4
= l**-: 4 F t i 4 ♦ * « 4 2 £A ”4 2 /?/
£
asy1 ,2 1 ^ . .
=2 = 2 L J0ule9
En
Hence show th a t th e m agnetic stored energy density
1B
Wfjd is given by —— joules/m 3.
gin 2 p
(6) A 10 kW , 1440 rpm d.c. sh u n t g enerator h a s a tim e constant —- of 0.2 sec for its field winding. Under
.
eer Tf
norm al o perating conditions, th e I^rf loss in th e field w inding is 400 w atts. Compute the energy stored in the
m agnetic field produced by th e field w inding, under norm al operating conditions. lAns 40 watt-sec I
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2.6. F or an electrom agnetic system , show th a t th e m echanical work done is equal to the area enclosed
betw een th e two m agnetization curves a t open and closed positions of th e a rm a tu re and the y-i locus during
th e a rm a tu re m ovem ent.
/i—
dWju dW„d
j f - ( ¥ .* ) — _-a f - ( f c x ) .
t
2.7. (a) Describe th e principle of v irtu a l work and hence show t h a t th e m agnetic force ft is given by the
expression
(3b) 3----
T he---------------
functional--------
relationship
— of m.m.f. 1F,> flux y<)>aim
and m
th ee position
position co-ordinate
co-ordinate xx oi
of »a device is ^gi'en •
.3 3 ry . . . i . . . . .1 ... r . . r— - t e n d ' 0
F= x . C om pute th e stored energy and th e m agnetic force acting in th e x-direction. Does this force
increase or decrease x ?
.decrease*
Verify your resu lt by the use of co-energy function. Ans.
2 .8 . (a) W hat is the principle of virtual work ? Illu strate its use to show th a t m ag n e tic
in an elem entary magnetic relay is given by
dx •t*n
relation bet*
(b) A sim ple electrom agnetic relay, w hen excited from a voltage source, gave th e following
c u rre n t a n d flux linkages :
M echanical unit.
f'eCf » Cvamnle 2 7 find the mechanical work done, if the plunger is allowed to move instantaneously rom
(ib) I" Example . , (A n «. (b) 0 .6 0 Joulesl
. 2.00 cm to g = U.o cm.
I' ^ ^ s ^ t e and briefly explain the various phenom ena useful for th e electrom echanical energy coriv
m in rotating m achines.
5 lb) Derive an expression for reluctance to rque in a ro tating electrical m achine.
\ H int, (t) C u rren t-carry in g conductor in a m agnetic field experiences a force. Also force exists betw een
!nt-carrying circuits, because of th e interaction of th eir m agnetic fields.
ft) A ferromagnetic m ate ria l w hen placed in a m agnetic field, experiences a force which ten d s to b n n g it
into the minimum reluctance position !
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2 11. (a) Show th a t th e to rque developed in a doubly excited m agnetic system is equal to th e ra te of increase
f field energy w ith respect to displacem ent a t constant currents.
° Hence or otherw ise, derive an expression for the torque developed in a cylindrical rotor m achm e w ith one
w.E
rotor S n g excited w ith d.c. and an o th er w inding on th e sta to r connected to an a.c. source. S ta te th e
assumptions m ade for obtaining th e torque expression
2.12. A simplified reluctance m otor is illu strate d in Fig. 2.16 (b). Assume sinusoidal inductance v ariation
with 0r and designate
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Ld= maximum inductance when long axis of movable iron slug is in the direct a n s. Le. when 0r = 0 and n
En
and Lq= minimum inductance when long axis of movable iron slug is in quadrature axis, Le.. when 0r = \ and
Note that
Ld.Lq and 0r. gin
Ld and L„ m u st rem ain positive, (a) W rite an expression for the variable inductance in term s of
eer
(6) Find an expression for the in sta n ta n e o u s torque on the rotating elem ent. Assum e 9. - < M - « > "d
i-Imcos cut.
ing
(rl If the movable iron slug speed re, is m ade equal to th e tim e an g u lar speed <«. is a non-rero fm e -av e rag e
torque possible? If yes, find its expression.
(H in t: For th is problem , refer to Art. 2.5 (c)l.
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lA na (a) | I L d + t , l + j O w - f.,) cos 2 9 ,
(41 T, = - I I j (Ld - L,) J ein <2to,J - 2S) + \ sin (2<«,r + 2 ter - 28) e \ sin <2o>,r - 2 eg - 26) j t
- 4 ,1 “ n 2 t
2.13. Two windings, one on e te to r and th e other on rotor, h as th e following p a ra m e te r, :
r, = 2.5 ft = 0.03 H
rr = 3.00 fl £,r = 0.12 H
= 0.06 coe 0,
Whtre 6, is the space angle between atator and rotor winding axes.
The ,W„ w inding, a re connected in parallel a n d the rotor i . locked . 1 9 , - D0-. W ith th e c u rr e n t, i n i t i a l ,
* '•. the windings are sw itched on to a voltage source of 30 volte d.c a t tu n e I - 0.
1°) Find ilt ir as functions of tim e.
(!>) Find an expression for th e m agnetic torque Tt as a function of tim e.
(Ana. (o) i4 - 12(1-e ~ “ 3‘) ,ir tx 10(1 - e °-5' )
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89° i e th e torque h a s a tendency to increase th e angle lrom 89 to W .
- u r fnrmip ten d s to d ec re a se th e an gble from 91 to 90 , Thus, between
F o re = 91°, torque is negative, therefore, to rque te n d s to d ec re a se i
8 = 0 ° and 0r = 180°,
w.E stable rest position is 90°]. (Ana. (a) 0.2083 /,„ sin 20, (1 + cos 2<of).
(6) Between 0, = 0° and 180°, stable rest position is a t 90°. Between 0,= 180° and
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360°, the stable rest position is at 270°.|
2.15. (a) Find an expression for the m agnetic force developed in a doubly excited translational magnetic
system .
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(б) Two air-cored coils have th e ir m agnetic axes coincident. T h e ir p a ra m e te rs a re :
L , = 0.4 H,
M 12 = A/2i =0.1e_4*H
L2 =0.2 H
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) where x is the distance between the two coils.
eer
ing
For steady c u rre n t of / j = 10 A and / 2 = 5 A, calculate th e m ag n etic force developed. Does this force tend
to increase or decrease x ? C alculate th e m ag nitude of force for x = 2.5 cm.
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IA na. ( - 20e~ **) N ; decrease x ; - 18 097 Ml
c t r o m a g n e t i c rela y show n in F ig . 2.4b is wound w ith tw o coupled co ils having the following
The ele«
2 .1 8 .
outers .
. 2 , 3
L\ — , — , M —
1 x x x
,«ain an expression for the force on the arm ature as a function of tune if ij = / m] sin oil f and i2 - Im2 s i n to 2 f . f*m
oide of a v e ra g e force in case (a) to, * to2 and (6) w, = u>2.
^ magwluu
[ A m . - \ t , sin2 (o, I -| •■ li,, sin2« , I - L , ■ “ i ""
I 2 + - 12 ( 5) 2 fm, + 2 + |
(°)
2x mi 2 * 2x
219 (a) Define field energy and co-energy. Give the significance of coenergy in the derivation ot torque
r force in an electrom echanical energy conversion device.
devices m ake use of the magnetic field as a coupling medium ra tn e r
lb) All practical energy conversion
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ihan an electric field. Discuss.
linear magnetic system are given by identical expressions.
9 20 (a) Prove th a t energy and coenergy in a . .
m An electric m achine h a s cyim drical s ta to r and ealient.poie roior dusiify .he e e r,e c t„ ,.S on =therw,se
w.E
ofthe following sta te m e n ts :
Ii)Reluctance torque is produced w hen exciting winding is on rotor.
(ii) Reluctance torque ie produced when exciting winding is on stator.
« asy
When s ta to r an d rotor hoth carry exciting ~ ^ g l a n c e torques are
(iv) When stato r and rotor both c a n y exciting W1^
En sg (^ Incorrect (ii) Correct (iii) Incorrect Uv) Correct.l
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producet1' ae . if N = 1000 i = 1 Amp . X - 0.5 mm,
2.21. F ig. 2.50 shows a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t used to lift an iron pi • •
1— eer
ELECTROMAGNET
?
m r r r e *
N -TUR N S
ing
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.CROSS -
s e c tio n a l
a r e a =a
M---1
IRON PIECE
r s >—
r ; * - - - mr r r r r : r r : L . . y a , n , .
'5) voltage-source power o u tp u t a
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asy
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Fig. 2.51. Pertaining to Problem 2.24.
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N tu rn s and an unw ound ro ta tin g core (rotor). A voltage e = 20CW2 sin (100rt£) V is applied across the stator
w in d in g w hile th e rotor is ro ta tin g a t lOOn rad /s such t h a t its position 0 a t any in sta n t is given by
0 = lOOrrt + 8, w here 5 is th e position a t t = 0. Rotor surface is sh ap ed such t h a t th e air-gap reluctance is of the
form
eer
R „ + f l j R „ —R j
“ V ^ - - ^ cos2e
ing
(а) W rite th e num erical expression for th e core flux due to th e applied voltage (neglect winding resistance,
leakage an d fringing flux) as a function of tim e i f N - 1000 tu rn s.
(б) C alculate th e average torque developed as a function of 5, if R j = 108/ 4 x a n d .ne
Rq =3Rj.
t
[GATE, 19MI
[Ans. (a) 0.9002 cos (lOOn t) mWb (6) 1.61258 sin 25 Nm)
2.25. (a) D istinguish betw een singly-excited a n d doubly-excited m agnetic system s.
(6) In a doubly-excited ro ta ry m achine, th e in d u ctan ce co-efficients a re
= (1.1 + 0.4 cos 20); L>22 = (0 03 + 0.005 cos 20)
Ll2 - 0.2 cos 0.
The exciting c u rre n ts a re ij = 8 A a n d i2 = 50 A.
Ac 19# I
O btain th e to rq u e/an g u lar displacem ent relatio n . D erive th e expression u sed , if any. 11 " , ,
,A n.. (5, ( -3 ..1
2.26. D erive a n expression for th e to rq u e in a doubly-excited m ag n etic sy stem having salient of
s ta to r as well as rotor. H ence show th a t d ifferen tial changes of c u rre n ts do n o t contribute to the pr°
m agnetic torque.
2.27. F or a c e rta in relay , th e m ag n etizatio n curves for open a n d closed positions of armature a
show n in Fig. 2.52. A t a rm a tu re open, air-gap len g th is 1 cm.
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i A n s . , . ^ . ^ 2 C (x) ’ 2 e0
1 ? th = 0 5 cm and its iron
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asy
X v n ao n et r e la y ta k e s a c u rre n position, the relay position.
En
2.30.a 230 v . » » j r 5 s ^ i — * - * ‘t e p
” “ ture 15 h f otor o f 0 .0 8 lagging F '» d the work done ^ 0 .7 lU !
1 A at power factor ^ ^ energy stored - 2 i
230 ft, X\ = aiQe i = ^
(Hint. Find 2 X= 3 ........ „ in Fi*. 2.63,
gin Rest posrt*"
y Of
jArmotur*
eer
-9
r
J 3 S S S S ' - 8 “ S » ^ t h e m agnetic force as a function
.ne
- A —|
d
(b) W rite
l.Xns.
N Poi..SL + ------ ^
(b)vt = 2 ( g ' x) dt 2 ( e ~
dt
■ nr to P roblem 2.31.
t
vie. 2.53 Pc-W'"'*
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_______ THREE
Basic Concepts o f Rotating
Electrical Machines
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The basic principles, developed in Chapter 2 for describing the behaviour of
electromechanical energy conversion devices, apply equally well to rotating electrical
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machines. The purpose of this chapter is to develop general expressions for electromagnetic
torque and generated e.m.fs. in rotating machines and to make use of the basic principles of
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Chapter 2 . These basic torque and e.m.f. expressions are applicable to both d.c. and a.c
machines, because the fundamental principles underlying their operation, are the same. The
constructional features of the various types of rotating machines are also described, so that the
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general torque and e.m.f. expressions are modified to suit the particular construction of a
machine. It must be emphasized at the outset that both d.c. and a.c. machines work on the same
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basic principles ; they differ only in construction. The final forms of the generated e m f. and
torque expressions for the two types (a.c. and d.c.) of electrical machines differ only because
their constructional details are different.
3.1. Physical Concepts of Torque Production eer
« J At thf k in n in g of ‘ his cbaPter' a brief ing
of the physical concepts of torque produc
.ne
tion in rotating electrical machines is presented.
3.1.1. E lectrom agnetic (or interaction) torque. Fie a \ (n) illnBtmfon „ „ ■■ . .
stator magnetic flux is set up and its path is as shown in Fip 3 l („\ «
rotor conductor. If rotor conductor carries a current in d ic t. H i
flux picture ia as depicted in Fig. 3.1
t
stator with 2 poles and a cylindrical rotor with one conductor. When stator coils are energised6
energisea,
.1 . 1" ° current in the
^ ‘ he
and rotor conductor, both carry currents then the flux nrodn . h C ' ” Stat° r C°
with the stator-produced flux, giving the resultant Z n Y r0t° r CU" ent interaCtS
Fig. 3.1 (c ).Since the magnet,c flux lines behave like stretch “ lst1nbukt,on1as illustrated m
ductor experiences a force m the upward direction The cl \ ° bands. the rotor con-
interaction of stator and rotor magnetic fields is calm 1 f* °ckw‘se turciue developed due to the
’ lb t&hed interaction or electromagnetic torque.
Consider now one current-carryint/ coil o n mu ,. . ...
indicated by dot under stator-north pole and hv r a direction of current in the coil is
rotor current produces rotor flux and ^ ^ ,R g ‘ 3 1 ^ ^
attracts rotor N nnle and r(,n«ic o ..., tW0 poles 011 the rotor. The stator S pole
.Direction of Fixed
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(d)
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Fig. 3.1. Illustrating the production of interaction torque.
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Thephysical understanding of interaction torque can further be highlighted by referring to
Fig, 3.1 (e). In this figure, one permanent magnet free to rotate, is placed in the field of a
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stationarymagnet. The tendency of the two fields to align themselves in the same direction is
^led interaction torque. The angle between stator-field axis and rotor-field axis is called the
torqueangle 8 [Fig. 3.1 (e)]. Note that the torque angle 5 in Fig. 3.1 (d) is 90°. The magnitude of
ing
eMtromagnetic or interaction torque in all rotating machines is given by
sin 8.
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. ••'. Te« (Stator field strength) (Rotor field strength) .
issh l 2' * ^ uctance (o** alignment) torque. In Fig. 3.1 (a), thepath of the magnetic flux
HamT W^6n stator coils carry current. If a ferromagnetic rotor is suitably placed in this
Weet,1C^leld. the path of stator-produced flux is effected considerably as shown in Fig. 3.2.
refocta 6 ma^ne^ c ^ ux has a tendency to follow a minimum
t
fotoreXl.Ce ° r ^ as a tendency to shorten its flux path, the
lanceor e,1?ences a counter-clockwise torque, called the reluc-
the st ^nment ^orQue- When the long rotor axis coincides
!ero. Note^k'1' ^°^ar ax^s>the reluctance torque is reduced to
^hced n l ^ rehJctance or alignment torque can be
^ges ^ en the reluctance seen by the working flux
Pyn e rotor movement, see Art. 2.3.
S c an n ed by C a m S c a n n e r www.EasyEngineering.net
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netic torque is developed due to rotor poles and S2.
Hence the resultant electromagnetic torque developed due to 2-stator poles and 4 rotor
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poles is zero. In view of this, it is essential that in all rotating electrical machines, the number
of rotor poles be equal to the number of stator poles for the development of electromagnetic
torque.
asy
3.2. C onstructional Features o f Rotating E lectrical
M ach in es
En
All the rotating electrical machines, used for generation purposes, electric drives or for
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control systems, have many common essential features from the construction point of view. For
example, every rotating electrical machine must possess (i) stator (stationary member) (ii) rotor
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(rotating member) (iii ) air-gap separating the stator and rotor and (iv) shaft, bearing, founda
tion etc. In addition to it, every electrical machine usually has
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(а) exciting or field winding, which produces the working flux and
(б ) armature winding in which the working e.m.f. is induced by the working flux.
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The current in a winding that varies as the machine is loaded is called load current. The
current that produces only a working magnetic flux and does not vary with the load on the
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machine is called magnetizing current, exciting current or field current. The winding on the
machine that carries only load current is called armature winding. The winding that handles
only exciting current is called field winding. Current in the field winding is always dc. A wind
ing which handles both the exciting current and load current is called the primary winding of
that device. The primary winding is usually the power-input winding. The power - output wind
ing for such machines is called the secondary winding.
The armature winding handles all the power that is being converted or transform ed. The
rating of armature winding is equal to the power rating of the machine. The field winding
rating is about \ to 2% of the rated power of the machine. The power input to dc field winding
is dissipated as I2R loss in the field winding (once the required field current is established)-
The armature windings of both the d.c. and a.c. machines have to deal with alternatJJJ
current only-this is the reason why the armature structures of all rotating machm^ ines
laminated in order to reduce the eddy current losses. Further, almost all the rotating ^ oT
have even number of alternate N and S poles (called hetropolar structure). If power is
taken from the rotor it is obvious that sliding contacts are essential. All types of large ro
machines are provided with radial and axial ventilating ducts for cooling purposes.
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The essential parts of a 3-phase induction motor are illustrated in Fig. 3.4 (a) and (b ). For
simplicity, the stator n ; shown to have 6 slots, though actually the numbef of stator slots is far
®ore.t^ a of t W h r i! ' Pll aS8 Wlnding design’ Three coils aa'< w and cc' rep-
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T A hv 120° electrical a n ^ ^ ^ ° respectively- Three windings are space dis
placed by 120 electrical and may be connected in star or delta as illustrated in Fig. 3.4 (c).
Many a time, the six ends of the three phase windings are brought out to the terminal box on
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(hestator frame. The six ends are suitably marked to indicate the starting and finishing ends
! ^ r e e -p h a s e windings. Note that three-phase winding in the stator slots is uniformly
Idistnbuted along the air-gap periphery.
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Ei Fig. 3.4. Constructional features of polyphase induction motors.
N l v i 8120 motors use open slots so that already prepared and properly insulated coils can
S o r t e d >n open slots. Small size induction motors use semiclosed slots so as to reduce
^eairGgap *en£th between stator and rotor.
*^ N u gap between stator and rotor should be as small as is mechanically possible; this will
^*) leaj 6 fenkage flux between stator and rotor
Qto better operating power factor of the induction motor.
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ro to X h
on the cast-iron spider carried by the shaft. • aftt.
_ , . * „ „_ n fvmp the rotor winding consists of uninsulated conductor* •
of “ S n i r r e d d e d in the setni-Cosed slots. These s „ , ^ >
UI —------------------------ .~ j l
•
circuited at both . by
ends . end-rings
. •--------otSkewed
the rotor f-rt.
ho
same material. For good electrical connec- s lo t s
tion, the bars are riveted, brazed or welded
with the two end-rings (Fig. 3.5). In smaller
UmrSa,'»
sizes, say below 40 kW, the assembled rotor r0,0r COr,
core is placed in a mould and the molten
conducting material, usually aluminium, is
forced into the slots. Thus the rotor bars,
end rings and the cooling fan, are cast in
one operation. Without the rotor core, the
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rotor bars and end-rings look like the cage
of a squirrel, hence the name squirrel cage
induction motor. Note that the rotor bars End rings
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form a uniformly distributed winding in the
rotor slots. As the rotor bars are short-cir
Fig. 3.5. Constructional details of squirrel cagero’xr
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cuited by two end-rings, no external resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit of a squirrel
cage induction motor.
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In the wound-rotor type, the rotor slots accommodate an insulated winding similar tothat
used on the stator. The rotor winding is uniformly distributed and is usually connected instar.
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The three leads from the star connection are then connected to three slip rings or collector rir^s
mounted on but insulated from the shaft, Fig. 3.4 (b ). Carbon brushes pressing on the s/tp rings
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allow, external resistors to be inserted in series with the rotor winding for speed and startmg-
torque control. Actually, the wound-rotor type of induction motor costs more and requires in
creased maintenance ; it is therefore only used where (i ) the driven load requires speed contrc:
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or (ii ) high starting torque is required. Since the rotor is wound with polyphase windings and
carries slip rings, it is called wound-rotor or slip-ring induction motor.
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In both the types, the rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft axis, i.e., the rotor slots are
skewed for obtaining a quieter and smoother operation of the induction motor.
The squirrel cage type is simpler and more economical in construction than the wound-
rotor type. Further the cage type is more rugged and requires less maintenance than
wound-rotor type, since the former does not require slip rings and carbon brushes.
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A polyphase induction motor receives electrical energy from one alternating
source ; it is, therefore, called a singly excited machine. The stator carries the field mo ‘
armature winding is on the rotor. The stator winding connected to the supply. is cn *
W,n. }n.?' ‘5' m^ ar to transformer primary winding. The rotor winding15 c , Pf»
tr'insf W1 ? BinC<i rcce*VCfl encrgy from the stator by mutual flux, as in
I T S h o 7 WOrr 8’ an indllcti°n motor may he regarded as a generalized j
a now o f t , r ° WOr ,tran8f° rrnati0n fr™ Rtatnr to rotor, along with a change in f i e * * '
a How of mechanical power, see Art,. 6 . 1 . ***
by means oHndnr t *7 ° cn,lo(* aH induction motor, because stator dcfivcr* ^ jj^ n « n,fd
t h e p a r t c u l l " lr formcr ncti0,' )- The type of the rotor used, dec.de* *
ine particular type of induction motor. . fith'r
expo rts a* nowe r7 !iv° ' U m ach ‘ n° 8* In synchronous machines, the nrmnturt> f^ h cft
exports a.c. power (synchronous generator) or imports a.c. power (synchronous mo
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arc ^ e n bdow^ 8 ° f Pr° Viding the fleld ^ d i n g on rotor and armature winding on the stator
(а) More Economical. It is economical to have armature winding on the stator and field
winding on the rotor. In order to illustrate this, consider a 3-phase, star connected 20o1vIVa|
II kV, synchronous machine. Its line current is = 10,500 A. If the armature winding
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thre°f l UP ringS f aCh caPable handling 10,500 A would be required.
ringm ust be properly insulated from the shaft for a voltage of 1 1 /V 3 , i.e.
6.35 kV. The star-point of the 3 phase winding must also be brought out through fourth slip-
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nng, in order to connect it to a grounded metal plate through a resistance.
Assume now that the low-power required for the field winding is 1 MW at 500 volts. Then
the exciting or fleld current is
2000 A, are required. Also each slip ring should be insulated from the shaft for a voltage of 500
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volts only. This shows that it is cheaper to have field winding on the rotor rather than the
armature winding. Thus the construction of synchronous machine with armature winding on
the stator and field winding on the rotor is much more economical.
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(б) More Efficient. With armature winding on the stator and field winding on the rotor, only
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two slip rings are required in a synchronous machine. There are, therefore, reduced slip ring
losses and a more efficient synchronous machine.
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(c) Better Insulation. Stationary armature windings can be insulated satisfactorily for
higher voltages, allowing the construction of high-voltage, say 33 kV, synchronous machines.
(d) Efficient Cooling. Stationary armature winding can be cooled more efficiently, thus per
mitting the construction of large synchronous machines, say 1000 MW or above. .ne
(c) More Output. Low-power field winding on the rotor gives a lighter rotor and, therefore,
lowcentrifugal forces. In view of this, higher rotor speeds are permissible, thus increasing the
synchronous machine output for given dimensions.
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(f) Lesser Rotor Weight and Inertia. Field winding on the rotor requires less amount of copper and
Insulation. This reduces overall weight of rotor and its inertia. Reduced rotor weight allows the use of
^ ‘Priced bearings and also their longer life because of minimal wear and tear.
l. te) Rigid and Convenient Construction. Three-phase armature winding, capable of handling
niW voltage and high current can be more easily braced against electromagnetic forces when
f 18 Placed in stator slots In addition, flexible water tube connection for water cooling can be
^tailed more conveniently on stator than on the rotor. This all results in a rigid and con-
nient construction of a synchronous machine.
m ature ToothStrength. High-current synchronous machines require more ar.
7 tuta Conner for each idol Greater amount of copper can be accommodated by making the
SO that wider and stronger tooth are prepared for the armature Armature oji
> r would have wider and stronger tacth whereas the armature on rotor would lead to nor
and weaker teeth Strong teeth also results in less noise due to vibrnt.on and are less
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and end-covers serve merely as a mechanical support to the stator core and
carry the magnetic flux.
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ot designedto
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Synchronous generators are usually of 3-phase type because of the several advent
sociated with 3-phase generation, transmission and high-power utilization N e v e r th ^
smgle-phase alternators are also constructed for specific requirements. For the g e n e r a l
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three-phase voltage, at least three coils (one coil per phase), phase displaced by 120 electrical
degrees in apace, are required. In the elementary synchronous machine of Fig. 3.6 (a), the
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Stator
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a rm a tu re
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(a)
(6 )
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Fig. 3.6. (a) 4-pole, 3-phase salientpole construction. (6) Schematic diagram of star and delta
with coils m series, (c) Schematic diagram of star connection with coils in pnra
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ture has a total of 1 2 slots, i.e., 4 slots per phase ; though the stator of an actual machine
larger number of armature slots, depending on the 3-phase winding design. In Fig
< e a c h phase is shown to possess two coils. For example, phase a coils afe d e b a t e d £
36 Vandfl2. ^ tW° COlls ° f eajch phase are connected in series so that their voltages add.
I n the 3-phases may be connected in star or delta as shown in Fig. 3.6 (6 ). In this figure, the
^ terminals are designated by letters a lt < c,. The two coils of phase a may be connected
parallel with a x, a 2 as one terminal and a,\ a2' as the second terminal. Similarly, the coils of
lases b and c can be connected. The parallel connection of two coils will increase the current
parallel path to double the value. These parallel-connected coils with six terminals may be
Interconnected in star or delta. Star connection of parallel connected coils is shown in Fig. 3.6 (c).
The frequency of the generated e.m.f., from Eq. (3.5), is
PN
120 H Z ‘
In India and man) other countries, alternators feeding the power systems, generate a fre
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quencyof 50 Hz.
. . Number of poles,
6,000
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Speed in r.p.m., N
Oil engines and hydraulic turbines operate best at relatively low speeds, therefore, the
...(3.1)
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alternators driven by these prime-movers, must have relatively large number of poles, Eq. (3.1).
Foraccommodating large number of poles, the rotor diameter must be comparatively increased
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andfrom mechanical considerations, salient pole construction has been found to suit best for
lowspeed prime-movers. Salient pole rotor structure is also employed foi comparatively small
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synchronous machines, as depicted in Fig. 3.6 (a). For larger machines, the laminated salient
poles are dove tailed to the spider keyed to the shaft, Fig. 3.7 (a). Damper bars are usually
»uit hi ‘V he P° le S^ °0, t0 damp out
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rotor osciMations. The pole shoe of a salient pole, is
' a y shaped so as to obtain a s^ne wave for the radial flux density along the air-gap
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nr^Pj ery' ^ommercially, the salient pole synchronous generators are called hydro-alternators
" ’^generators.
Oamper S t o t o r fra m e
S ta to r
S ta to r
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sl° "
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core
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U n ifo rm
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(«)
3’7- Syncihn* . (6) (c).
nous machine, (a) Rotor spider and one salient-pole lamination (b) 2-pole cylindrical-rotor
1 ^axn construction and (c) 4-pole cylindrical-rotor construction.
^ ^ r h a t o i ^ ^Ur^>^nes have best operating characteristics at relatively high speeds, there
a t* con«stJ?V^n ^ these, must have a fewer number of poles, say 2 or 4, Eq. (3.1). If
^ ^ d th e g j. c^ on Is used for such high speeds, the rotor structure may not be able to
^ ^ ^ c t i o n ^ L 118 Cen^rihigal forces developed by the salient poles. Therefore, cylindrical
ls es* suited from mechanical considerations, for high speed primemovers.
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synchronous motors.
For synchronous machines of largo sizes, adequate cooling arrangements must be int0,
porated to dissipate the heat produced by the various losses. For relatively large sues, close)
circuit cooling, using air, water, hydrogen or helium, is often employed.
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A synchronous machine is usually connected to an energy system, fed by other alternators
In a synchronous generator, the frequency of the generated e.m.f. depends on the rotational
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speed and poles. Thus a synchronous machine can be connected to an energy system, onlywhen
the frequency or rotational speed of the synchronous machine is equal to the frequency ofthe
supply system. In other words, for successful operation, the rotational speed of the synchronous
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machine must synchronize with the frequency of the energy system and this is the reason for
naming it a synchronous machine.
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A single synchronous generator may operate at any frequency or speed, since it is not tobe
synchronized with any energy system. However, a single synchronous motor fed from an energy
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system must synchronize its rotational speed with the system frequency.
3.2.3. Direct Current M achines. In a d.c. machine, the field winding is on the stator
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and the armature winding is on the rotor. The constructional features of a typical two-pole
d.c. machine are depicted in Fig. 3.8.
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Stator. The stator consists of (t) yoke (or frame) made of unlaminated ferromagnetic
material, (ii) the salient field poles bolted to the inner periphery of the yoke and (iii) bearings,
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brush-rigging carrying brush-holders, end-covers etc. The yoke rests on a supporting base and
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electromcs converters, the yoke is constructed from laminations in order to reduce the eddy-
current loss.
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iSkml du ° f u3St ir° n f° r SmaH machines- In larger machines, the yoke is made of fabricated steel
as igher permeability than cast iron. In modern dc motors to be driven through power-
Yoke or frame
The field poles are made of a stack of
.•Concentrated
stee plates (1 to 1.5 mm thick), rivetted
field winding
together. The pole core, where the exciting
Air gap
mall' , " 1 ? ' 8 W0Und' i8 u8ual‘ y of
polv fa ss' scctlon than the pole shoe (or
Pole face), duoto the following reasons:
com rC? UCCd cro88's®ction of the pole
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M ic a s h e e t
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Shaft
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Rotor. The armature core consists of a stack of circular steel laminations about 0.4 to 0.6
mthick The periphery of these laminations is slotted to receive the distributed armature
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winding Fig. 3.8. These laminations are insulated from one another so as to decrease the eddy-
currentiosses. In case of small machines, the laminations are assembled tightly on the shaft,
butonthe cast-iron spider in case of large machines.
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Inaddition to the field and armature windings, a d.c. generator must have a commutator,
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toserveas a mechanical rectifier for the alternating e.m.f. generated in the armature winding
todirect e.m.f. at the brush terminals. For a d.c. motor, the commutator serves as a mechanic a
inverter to invert the direct applied voltage to alternating voltage in the armature winding.
Theserequirements of mechanical-rectifier and mechanical-inverter operations demand that
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4earmature and commutator be placed on the rotor and field winding on the stator.
Thecommutator is a group of wedge-shaped copper segments, insulated from each other by
J^raicasheets. The copper segments are tapered and arranged side by side to form a cylinder.
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h 3.9illuStrates a hard-drawn copper segment, with two V-shaped grooves, insulated proper-
W a n ite M, from cast-iron sleeve or hub H and from rin g *. The V-shaped construction
h t1te the “ "m utator segments from flying out due to centrifugal force. The threaded nng
totk e^s the various components together and is kept in position by nu . e u is ey
L V haft, taking care that the commutator is kept some distance away (for the armature
> 2 ^ ’ fr0m tha ^m ature core. One end of each commutator segment is Projected to form
^atu COmrautator is 80 placed that riser is facing the armature core, see Fig. 3.9. Two
re wires are soldered to each riser.
be seen that a d.c. machine is equivalent to an a.c. machine Plus a mechanical rec-
'*rlte ; “ mmutator. Since the armature winding is closed on itself, d£
V l ? o a ?elta-c°nnected three-phase alternator, if the armature winding is tapped at inter-
u Metrical degrees, from the other side of the commutator.
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Fig. 3.10. (a) Elementary two pole machine, (6) Flux density variation along air-gap periphery and
(c) Pulsating flux.
Suppose the field coils of Fig. 3.10 (a) are excited with alternating current i = Im sin otf.
under the poles is Bm. After (at = the flux density wave starts decreasing. At (at = n, the flux %
density is again zero. After (at = n is crossed, the direction of current in the field coils is reversed
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and consequently field poles of reversed polarity are created. At = the flux density is
Note that the axis of .field flux remains along bd. Such a flux is called alternating or
pulsating-stationary flux.
Note that the pulsating flux at any instant is distributed sinusoidally along the air-gap
periphery.
E lectrical and m ech a n ical d egrees. The e.m.f. induced in a conductor is g i'cn ^
Faraday’s law of electro-magnetic induction, which can be expressed in many different orm
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In one fbnu, (he generated o.m.f. «■in given by 1)1v volts ; where /lux density B in T, length of the
conductor I in metros and velocity t> in m/see, arc orthogonal or normal to each other. If a
conductor of constant length /, moves with a constant velocity u, the e.m.f. e, induced in the
conductor, has the waveform of flux-density variation. That is, for square flux-density wave,
e.m.t. waveform is square ; for rectangular (lux-dcnsity wave, e.m.f. waveform is rectangular
and for sine flux-density wave, o.m.f. waveform is also a sine wave.
In Fig. Jh.ll) hi), assume that one conductor rotates at a uniform angular velocity. When the
conductor is at a, conductor o.m.f. is zero (because I) is zero), at b the conductor e.m.f. is maxi
mum (because /» is maximum) and so on. In one revolution, one cycle of conductor e.m.f. is
generated, as shown in Fig, 3 ,1 1 (a). Assume now the conductor rotating in a 4 pole machine of
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jf O.InElecrad, Pole-
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Time angle
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(a) For two-polo machine nnd ( b) For 4-polo machine (c) An elementary 4-pole machine.
Fig. 3.11 (c). When the conductor is at a, e.m.f. is zero ; at 6 , e.m.f. is maximum ; at c e.m.f. is zero
t
Fig. 3.11. Flux-density variation with spneo nnglo 0 and corresponding e.m.f. variation with time angle col
Md so on. In one complete revolution, two cycles of e.m.f. are generated as shown in Fig. 3.11 (6).
Since one cycle of e.m.f. or current is equal to 360° electrical, in one revolution of 360 mechanical
degrees, 2 cycles are equivalent to 720° electrical for a 4-pole machine. In other words, 720 electrical
degrees in n 4-pole machine enn be related to 360 mechanical degrees as follows :
or
^clect q
For a P-polo machine, — cycles of o.m.f. will bo generated in one revolution. Thus for a
^'Pole machine,
Jclrct mrch
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IArt. 3J
246 Electrical Machinery ------- ----------------- -------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------
dt
p ...(3.3)
gular speed in electrical radians per second and fflm is the angular speed in
where oo is the an
mechanical radians per second. 4\
of e.m.f.
As has been shown above, for a 4-pole machine , in one revolution, y
are generated. Therefore, for a P-pole machine ; in one revolution, f cycles are generated. For
P
a P-pole machine, in one revolution per second, f cycles per second are generated. This thought
P
process leads to the conclusion that for a P-po,e machine, in n rev./sec„ * - n cycles/second are
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generated. But cycles per second is referred to as the frequency f a t the e.m.f. wave.
Pn cycles per oornnrl
f -_ — second nr HftrtZ
or Hertz -(3.4)
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If the speed N is in r.p.m., then
2
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m Hz
120
.-(3.5)
• ,i nfPiu
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1 1 (a) or (b) rives the variation of flux density B as
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rotation involves time, it may be stated that space variable quantity B is transformed to line
variable quantity e, on account of rotor rotation.
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Pole-pitch. The peripheral distance between two adjacent poles, is called pole-pitchyPole-
equal
theti
ing
p i t c h , s a l w a y s expressed in electrical degrees, rather than in mechanical degrees It can t o -
fore be inferred that pole pitch is always equal to 180 electrical degrees or a electrical radians.
*
y,
Pole pitches are indicated in Fig. 3.10 (a) and Fig. 3.11 (c).
Coil. Fig. 3.12 (a) illustrates a 2-pole machine, with one coil a, a housed in^two stator s o .ne Mh
Its developed view, with coil laid out flat is illustrated in Fig. 3.12 (6 ). Fig. 3.12 (c) gives
of the cod a, a'. Fig. 3.12 (c) reveals that coil a, a' has one turn. The e.m f. is generated m active
lengths AB and CD only. These active lengths are called the two coil-sides of a coil. Forth
P
eld
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1
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of Fig. 3.12 (c), each coil-side has one conductor. Thus it is seen that one turn consu ^ ^pic
conductors and one coil is made up of two coil-sides. In Fig. 3.12 (c), the two coil-si es ^ ^ ^
CD are connected in series by end connection so that the e.m.f. at coil terminals i, *>nVl
summation of two coil-side e.m.fs. en$j
If the plan of the coil o, a' is as depicted in Fig. 3.12 (d), then this coil is seen to» jj.gide ^
It can alternatively be stated that Fig. 3.12 (d) represents single two-turn coil. ba ^ ^
has two conductors and total conductors in the coil are 4, Fig. 3.12 (d). If one c0‘ duct0rs
then it is termed as single AT-turn coil, with N conductors in each coil side ana a
in the coil. Fig. 3.12 if) illustrates one iV-turn or multi-turn coil. .g ^ Ii
A coil, with two coil-sides 180 electrical space degrees apart (or one polc-pitch‘ ^il-sides ^ c
called &full-pitch coil. A full-pitch coil can alternatively be defined as a cod whose ^ jts ,
span one pole-pitch. It may be seen from Fig. 3.12 (a) that coil a, a is a full-piior’coi|.span
two coil-sides are one pole-pitch apart. Thus a full-pitch coil is a coil, with coil-p
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Fig. 3.12. (a) Elementary 2-pole machine with one coil. (6) Its developed view
(c) One-turn coil and (d) Two-turn coil.
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equal to 180 electrical space degrees. Coil-span (or coil-pitch) is defined as the distance between
the two coil-sides of one coil. Coil-span is measured in terms of electrical degrees, coil-sides or
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slots. In Fig. 3.12 (e), coil span = 180° electrical space degrees, this coil is, therefore, termed a
full-pitch coil. In Fig. 3.12 (/), coil-span is less than 180° ; this coil is, therefore, called a short-
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pitch, or chorded coil. A chording angle e is defined as the angle by which coil-span departs from
180° electrical space degrees. In Fig. 3.12 if), chording angle is e ° , therefore chorded roil of this
figure has a coil-span = 180° - e.
F lux p e r p o le . For calculating the flux per pole, consider Fig. 3.13 (a) and (6 ) ; where the
field windings are taken on the rotor and stator respectively. Field winding in these figures is
depicted on the cylindrical structure and note that it does not make any difference if the field
t
winding were on the salient pole structure. In both the figures, the origin for space angle a, for
convenience, is taken 90° away from field winding axis. In view of this, when a = 0°, the flux
density B is zero, when a = 90°, B is maximum say Bp, when a = 180°, B is again zero. This
variation of flux density with space angle a is illustrated in Fig. 3.13 (c) and if this variation is
assumed sinusoidal, then the flux density B can be expressed as,
B = Bp sin a ...(3.6)
In order to calculate the flux per pole, consider an elemental angle da, a degreesaway from
zero of the flux density wave, Fig. 3.13. If I is the axial length of the armature core and r is its
radiu8, then the pole flux component passing through the elemental surface area Irda, near the
a‘r gap, is given by
dty = B. elemental surface area = B lrda = Bp Ir sin ad a ...(3.7)
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(c)
Fig. 3.13. Pertaining to flux per pole. En Fig. 3.13. (d ) Sine distributed flux-density
wave over one pole pitch.
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Total flux per pole $ can be found by integrating Eq. (3.7) from a = 0 to a = n
<J>= Jo Bp lr sin a da
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= 2Bp lr
ing . . . ( 3 .8 )
.ne
Eq. (3.8) gives the value of flux per pole for a 2-pole machine. Its magnitude for a P-pole
machine will now be obtained. For a machine of given dimensions,
per pole area for a 2 -pole machine
2 nrl
= nrl t
per pole area for a P-pole machine
2 K rl 2 / IX
= ~ p ~ = p (n r l)
(2 4
flux per pole is given by 2 Bp lr p iir l = p B p lr ...(3.9)
7trZ
. )
Another method of obtaining Eq. (3.9) is as under :
For a P-pole machine, the variation of flux density B with space angle a will again be
imilar to that shown in Fig. 3.13 (c) and will be given by Eq. (3.6). For obtaining the flux per
S le the elemental angle must be expressed in mechanical degrees. So consider an elemental
sp a ce angle d a min mechanical degrees (similar to d a in Fig. 3.13 (a)). The flux passing through
the elemental mechanical surface area lrdam is given by
<f<|>= B lrdam = Bp lr sin a d a m ...(3.10)
ww =
p
(mechanical degrees)
a
w.E P
a =-a m
2
p
asy
da = 2 d a "
Substituting the value of d a m in Eq. (3.10), we get elemental flux cty as
2
d<\>= — Bp lr sin a d a En
2 f* . gin
Total flux per pole, <J>= — Bp ■lr JQ sin a d a
eer
m± . B p lr
ing ...(3.11)
Alternatively, total flux per pole for a P-pole machine can be obtained as under :
Sine distributed flux density wave produced by one pole, spans one pole pitch. This sine .ne
wave can be replaced by a rectangular wave of average magnitude B av again spanning one po e
pitch, Fig. 3.13 (d ), provided the flux per pole calculated from Bp or Bav is the same. In view of
this, the flux per pole <|>can be written as
t
<t>= (Average value of constant-amplitude flux density wave under one pole)
x (Area pertaining to one pole of the flux density wave)
- ( \Ba
~ R „) p
. Now recall that the average value of the positive or negative half cycle of a sine wave is
&ven by
, . .h view of
of this, the average value of the flux density wave over one pole-pitch. Fig- 3.13 «f)
this, the
45 -
by
2 „
= - Bp
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(2 b V 2icr/A
Total flux per pole =
K
= ^ Bp rl
3.4. G enerated em fs
In rotating electrical machines, emfs can be generated in armature windings (a) by rotating
these windings through a magnetic field (6 ) by rotating the magnetic field with respect to these
windings or (c) by designing the magnetic circuit to have variable reluctance with rotor rota
tion.* In this article, generation of e.m.f. due to relative motion between field flux and armature
winding is only considered. Elementary forms of rotating machines, depicted in Fig. 3.14, are
used in deriving the generated e.m.f. expressions. It does not make any difference whether the
field poles are created on the cylindrical rotor of Fig. 3.14 (a) or on the salient pole rotor of Fig.
3.14 (6 ). Similarly the field poles created by the cylindrical stator of Fig. 3.14 (c), may be
produced by a salient pole stator of Fig. 3.14 id). It is the relative motion between field flux and
ww
armature winding that matters. The distribution of the flux-density wave in the air gap is
assumed a sine wave. In Fig. 3.14 (a) and (b ), stator-coil (or armature-coil) axis is stationary
while field-winding (or field) axis rotates. In Fig. 3.14 (c) and (d ), field axis is stationary but
w.E
armature-coil axis rotates with the rotor.
asy
N -tu rn coil
En
gin
eer
ing
N-turn coil
(b)
N-turn coil .ne
Field axis
t
Field axis J— 0=0
e=ur t
Armature Armature
coil axis coil axis
(c) (d)
Fig. 3.14. Pertaining to the generation o f e.m.f. in single N-turn full-pitched coil.
of
3.4.1. G enerated e.m .f. in a fu ll-pitch ed coil. In Fig. 3.14, the two coil-sides a, a
one coil, are diametrically opposite to each other, i.e. the coil spans 180 electrical space def reesd
For simplicity, two-pole machines, with one N-turn full pitched armature coil are consider
first in Fig. 3.14. Actually an electrical machine consists of a large number of properly conncc e
* Inductor alternators work on this principle, see the book, “Generalized Theory o f Electrical Machines *>) 111
same author.
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e coils. The resultant armature voltage in any machine is obtained by adding the in-
^du al cQ-j e m.fs. in a manner decided by the armature winding design.
^,Vl p. 3 . 14 , the time origin is chosen arbitrarily, at the instant coil axis coincides with the
inding axis. That is at the time origin t = 0, time angle 0 = = 0 and the field winding
■ d coil axis are coincident. Here id,, is the angular velocity in radians per second, at which
3*'S^ r rotates. An examination of Fig. 3.14 reveals that at the instant 0 = 0, the flux passing
f° h (or linking) the coil is maximum (= 0 cos 0°). In other words, at 0 = 0, the entire flux 0
^IwTced by one pole, is passing through the coil. When time angle 0 = o),t = 90°, the field wind-
Pr UC hecomes in quadrature with the armature coil axis and, therefore, the flux passing
ing h the coil is zero ( = 0 cos 90°). For 0 = <D,i = 180°, the flux passing through the coil is
^ r°Umaximum ( = 0 cos 180°), but reversed in direction. In view of the above thought process,
a^am rpccion giving the variation of flux passing through the coil can be written as 0 cos 0 or
^ 6X^ t Therefore, the flux linkages y with the full-pitch A-turn armature coil, at any time t, are .
a cos “V ■ ,
w.E
By Faraday’s law, the e.m.f. induced in N-turn armature coil is given by
asy
In Eq. (313), N $ w, sin to, I is the speed-voltage term, because it contains speed to, in it.
gin
vohage’ tor’ speed e.m.f.) alone. Thus forelectrica^m achinesw.tht™ ^ux, e
eer
generated e.m.f. is equal to the speed, rotational or motional e.m.t. alone g ^
e = N wr 0 sin <V
coil. Note
total flux per pole and (Or is the relative ve oci y
that Eq. (3.14) represents the general e.m.f. e(l uatl0 .ne
therefore applicable both to d.c. and
constant).
a.c. machines in which the field flux is
If the single N-turn coil belongs to a .c . machines,
generated e.m.f. E mai occurs when sin (Ort - 1.
t
maldmum value of the speed or
E max = cor N 0 = 2 n fr N 0
The r.m.s. value of the generated e.m.f. in a full pitched coil is
p . .. . ...(3.15)
p_ = V2 it N 0 = 4.44 f. N0
1,2 , w frmuencv since its value depends upon the
Here f t may be called the rotational orspeed / q _’ coi| The magnitude off, is
re!ative velocity between the flux-density wave and the arma
&ven by
f - — Hz
2 Jr r n q ) between the armature coil
Wh» » » , is therelative speed in revolutions per second (i.e. P ■
an<1 nux-density wave. atcd e.m.f. in single turn full-pitch
M°te that Eq. (3.15) gives the r.m.s. value of g
ature coil of an a.c. machine.
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An examination of Eqs. (3.12) and (3.16) reveals that the speed or generated e.m.f. lags by
90° the flux that generates it. This statement is true when the flux is time-invariant and is sine
distributed in space. Nothing has been said about whether the armature coil moves or the
flux-density wave travels. It is the relative velocity between flux-density wave and the coil that
matters.
3.4.2. G enerated e.m .f. in a short-pitched coil. Let the AT-turn armature coil be short-
pitched by e electrical space degrees, so that the coil-pitch or coil-span is (180-e) electrical space
degrees. For the short-pitched or chorded coil, Fig. 3.14 (6 ) is redrawn as shown in Fig. 3.15
(a). The chording angle £ is shown as e /2 at two places, in order that coil axis and field winding
ww
axis coincide. A chording angle , as already defined, is that angle by which the coil pitch departs
from 180° electrical. Chording angle is also sometimes called short-pitching angle. It is obvious
w.E
that the flux passing through the fractional pitch or chorded coil of Fig. 3.15 (a) is less than
the flux passing through the full-pitched coil of Fig. 3.14 (6 ).
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Fig. 3.15. Pertaining to the generated e.m.f. in a short-pitched coil.
Note that the total flux per pole is again equal to 2Bp lr for a 2-pole machine and | Bp lr for t
nrder°tn o fs? ace anSl e a is aBain taken as 90° away from the field axis. In
order to determine the flux passing through or linking the coil, Eq. (3.7) should be integrated
from a = - t o a = n - | , refer to Figs. 3.15 (a) and (b ).
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through the coil is zero -<J>cos ^ cos 9 0 ° , In Fig. 3.15 (c), though one flux line is
passing V J
arou n d coil aa', the flux passing through the coil is zero. This fact may further be ascer-
Sh° * 5 , 0bServing that the coil magnetic axis and the field winding axis are 90° away
ta’ne rher. F °r 0 = o^. f = 1 8 0 °, the flux linking the coil would again be maxii
(>8ch ® \
J. cos 180° , but in the reversed direction. Therefore, a general expression for the flux
' ij)cos 2
passing through the chorded coil is
<j>cos ^ cos 0 or f cos ^ cos a\t.
Li L,
By Faraday’s law, the e.m.f. induced in N-turn short-pitched armature coil is given by
w.E
In Eq. (3.18), flux <|>is considered time-invariant.
The maximum value of the speed voltage Emax occurs when sin <0,2 = 1.
•••
asy |
Emax=N<ba>r cos
gin
It may be seen from Eqs. (3.15) and (3.19) that the effect of short-pitched coil is to reduce
...(3.19)
eer
the generated e.m.f. An examination of these equations reveals that this reduction factor is
ing
c°s - and is referred to as coil pitch factor, coil-span factor or pitch factor, symbol kp.
»-c. machine.
, 3; « . A.C. M achines. In rotating electrical machines, the armature turns are usually dis-
b W in sl»te rather than concentrated in single slot. This is essential from the view-po.n
■‘'Bing the completely. The -effect
the armature periphery completely effect of
o f distributing ‘the
he turns in different
turnskin difforen t
t)je re*ults in a
^ ln a further
further reduction
reduction of
of generated
generated e.m.f. by the factor kd. This factor is called
e.m.f. by
stribution, breadth or spread factor (see Art. 3.5.1.).
hus “ >e generated e.m.f. for a short-pitched distributed winding, from Eq. (3.21) is
Of E = ^J2nkp kd fr Nty ^ 22)
% re/fe E = 'l2nklufr N<b
(~ kp kd) is called the winding factor.
n (3.22), note that N is the number of distributed turns in series.
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The basic expression for the generated e.m.f. in a.c. machines is given by Eq. (3.22). This ^
expression is now modified for the more common types of a.c. machines, in which the air-gap ^
flux ^ is constant in amplitude.
(t) Synchronous machines #
(а) Arm ature winding. Two or three phase (i.e. poly-phase) armature winding is dis
tributed in the slots along the armature periphery. The field winding is excited with d.c., there
fore, the amplitude of the field flux wave does not vary with time. If Nph is the total number of
series turns per phase of the polyphase armature winding, then the e.m.f. generated in any one 4
phase, from Eq. (3.22), is given by ^
E —V2 71 kwf r Nph <}> ...(3.23)
If time origin is taken at the instant when fluxlinkages with phase a aremaximum, then
e.m.f. ea for phase a can be written as
ea = 'l2E sin ayt
ww
For a phase sequence a, b, c ; voltages for phases b, c can be expressed as
eb = V2 E sin {(at - 120°)
f
and
En
ftni
between the flux-density wave and the armature winding must be synchronous speed. The rota
tional frequency/;, is equal to
Pns 2 1
gin
In a synchronous machine P ( ^ ^ o n o u s speed in r.p.s.) .
’ 2 B
eer
2 is equal to the frequency f in Hz, for which the synchronous machine is designed. Thus the
generated e.m.f. in any one phase of a synchronous machine is given by
Eph = '& K fk wNph§
ing (3 2 4 ) In
t J t
primary and secondary coils. In a r o ta tin /m a r h W f^ T?
° “ rnr ■ a; e r r r 1na-
.ne
induced in the stationary
**
pole. In a transformer, the windings are concent' f machine>flux <t>1S the total flux per
armature winding is distributed and the reducHn f + m a Synchronous machine>the ’
sion. 6 reductl0n factor kw must appear in the e.m.f. expres-
(б) Field-winding. The field winding of a u
direct current. Under steady-state condiHnnc ^ , f ous machine is always energised with
y ’ e e^d 0r exciting current is given by
/, = 7 ...(3.25) ,.
where f t . direct voltage applied to the field winding '
and rf = field winding resistance. ,
(«) Induction Machines v*1
(a) Stator. The polyphase stator winHinrr c • 1 . ^
ture winding of a synchronous machine wru a,n lnduction machine is similar to the arina- b
machine. When balanced polyphase voltages are applied to the 1
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J
i
t ti £r ww
the number of stator* p o W P . Assume that the rotor runs at a speed <o,(= nPn,)less than
speed Cl). If the rotor revolves in the direction of rotating field, then the relative
4 w.E
* teed between the rotating fluic wave and rotor is (to - <o,) rad/sec. It has been shown before that
velocity between the coil and flux-density wave, determines the magnitude of in-
I r
En
e = N (to - (o,.) (J) sin (oi - u>r)t
gin
vl
Slip s =
0 )-
,
t
CO
S ynchronous_sgeedj^Rotorsgeed ...(3.29 a)
= Synchronous speed
ns ~ n r __ N s - N r ...(3.29 b)
~ ns Ns
o)r - o X l - 5 ) ; n r = ns ( l - s ) ...(3.30)
or Nr = Nt ( l - s )
in r n q and r p in. respectively. Further nr and
Here and N . are the synchronous s p e e d y n ■>"<* ^ P
K are the rotor speeds i n r.p.s. and r.p.m. respectively.
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If the rotor is made to revolve in a direction opposite to the rotating flux wave th
relative velocity between the rotor winding and the rotating flux wave becomes (to + oi) * j
e.m.f. induced in one phase of the rotor is given by [from Eq. (3.14)]. r 811
e = (o) + <or) Nphr kw <>sin (co + cor)t
Now co+a)r = a) + C D ( l - s ) = o ) ( 2 - s ) - • a)
Eq. (3.33) becomes
e = a) (2 - s) N Ar <j>sin (2 - s) atf
t —\o.6i)
its r.m.s. value is
ww E = y l2 n f( 2 -s )N phrkw$ ^
w.E
Eq- (3-34) indicates that the frequency of the e.m.f. generated in the rotor cirri.;*;
f ( 2 - s) Hz. It can thus be concluded that a polyphase induction motor of the slip-rine or vimmA
rotor type can be used as * frequency converter (or changer) for changing the supply freaurnrv
asy
f to other frequencies s f and (2 - s) f at the slip-ring terminals.
3.4.4. G enerated e m.f. in d.c. m achines. Before deriving the e.m.f. equation for a d c
En
machine, it is worthwhile to know the difference in the construction and operation of an ac
S K £ £ iT ? iE s T t
gino f a n 3 C g“ 311113 d c - "
Fixed
Active length
eer Fixed brushes
brush*
1 N- * r I ing i -
( X
coil
.ne
i __ ib t u r n __
slip rings
1
(a)
( 1
' • $ r
■Copper
segment
t
(Ib)
Fig. 3.16. Elementary forms o f (a) a.c. generator and (ft) d.c. generator.
ends o f t h e ^ c ^ * two'p° 1® alternator, with single AT-tum full-pitched coil. The two
Two carbon brushes staF 0nne? two S^P r*nSs mounted on, but insulated from the shaft
r a b on th e s e r o t a t , n g « * * * ° r s lip * * * • for
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Art- 3-41
— C° " » p l s °r Rolating B e d r i d Machines
Note that alternating e m n C --------------
fig. 3.16 (a), it is directly collected'C t h e l f i n r i ^ “ 2 ° f b°*h F,« 3 1 6 <a >*"<< (A). In
UK external c.rcmt. In Pig. 3 .16 (b) > “ »''P ngs and brushes in a.c. form and delivered to
and • then collected by the fixed carton b r u s h ^ f o r Z “ h ,'" d'C' by means ° f 1* “ s t a t o r
For understanding the process o f r onward transmission to load circuit,
view of the coil of Fig. 3 .16 (6), seen from^ Catl0n by means of commutator, consider end-
Fig. 3 1 7 ^>- The variation of field flux density^™ Slde‘ Thi® end view is illustrated in
3.17 (a). For the present, only fundamental s W " r g*P PeriPhery * depicted in Fig
ental sine component of the flux-density wave is con
D
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
. (/)
Fig. 3.17. Rectification o f a.c. to d.c. by means o f commutator
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____________________ IArt. 3.4
25# Kln'tricul M a c h in e r y -------------------------------------------- ' ~ ~
-------------------------- , , a r inrkwise speed of tor rad/second. For the position
sidered. The rotor is assumed to revo vc • ^ ^ ,g gince the instantaneous
of the coil shown in Fig. 3.17 (b ) the e.mX in ^ ^ ^ q{ flux cutting is zero. After 90*
velocity of the coil is parallel to the magne jg maximum, since each coil side lies
travel of the coil, the e.m.f. induced l&iven y' q-■ ^ utting is maximum. The direction of
in the peak of the flux density wave and the rate .g indicated by dot and cross respec-
e.ni.f. in coil-sides a, a', as determined y rig connected via the commutator segments, to
lively. Fig. 3.17 (c). Further, co. -sides a andla are co ^ ]oad current comes
brushes B x and B respectivey. Z Z ™ ^ B ' and *>
from brush B, and enters a b r u s h ^ ^ ^ ^ (<f) ^ ^
positive and negative polarities r p the e m f induced in the coil is maximum, Fig.
induced is zero and after a Ibrthe,■travel o fM , theeap.b ^ contact with coil
8.17 M , but of reversed po anty. Note h a t n Fig. 3.17 M ^ ^
side a which is under south pole and in t i g . J . u iet, . ... .,
coil-side o' under the south pole. In order words, brush B, is always in contact with that coil-
side which is under the south pole and brush B2is alwa
ww
comes under the north pole. Consequently the polarities of the brushes B , and B 2 remain posi
tive and negative respectively. The e.m.f. induced in the coil is alternating but the voltage
available across the brushes B, and B i2s unidirectional, as depicte
w.E
The e.m.f. ec induced in one coil at any time t, as given by Eq. (3.14), is
ec = N co, 4>sin a\i
asy
The voltage appearing at the brushes is unidirectional as depicted in lower part of Fig. 3.17
En
(/) and its average or d.c. value is
1 f"
E = - I No),. <J>sin a\t d(u>,t)
71 J0
= 2 N Pn <(>
t - ( 3-37)
If z is the total number of conductors in one coil of N-turns, then
= ^ (2 N P n® \
.(3.39)
= 2Pn§
Art. 3.4]
------------------------- virvuidl
verage e.m.f. per conductor, from Eq. (3,38) or from Eq. (3.37)
E* = 2 (Pn<te)
P • , = Pn<t>
For a single coil of Af-turns o r n f , j ...(3.40)
the e.m.f. available across the tWo b l u s h e " ' A c t a ^ ' 3 '38’ ^ the aver^ e ° r d c value of
coils uniformly distributed at the a r m a t u r e W
' i ndi ng consist
appearing across the armature ternrinah, ! ^ r ^ thls has the effect of increasing the voltaee
(3.38) can be used to determine the terminal v o lt a v !T "g the " Pple “ the output voltage. Eq.
now replaced by the number of series c T n ^ L l t g^ ° T a practlcal d.c. machine, provided z is
of armature conductors arranged in a parallel p a th ^ th " brUSheS I tZ is the total number
are « . Thus the voltage E*aooea k Ser“ S COndUCt0rS betW
n oltage E appearing between the brushes, from Eq. (3.40), is
ww jZ n P
01 w.E E , = Kr\n
where constant g _ ?F
c a
asy
Now speed in mech. rad/sec. *om = 2nn.
En
Substitution of the value of n in Eq. (3.41) gives
F _ * Z P (om ZP
gin
a ---------- - 7r—= —----<t) Q)„
a 2n 2 na m
eer
where constant K =
° 2710
ing
Constants Ke and Ka depend upon the armature winding design.
I, ' tab° ald be --emembered that for d.c. machines, the armature winding is always a double .ne
^
y winding and is of two types, namely lap-connected type and wave-connected type.
n lap winding, the number of parallel paths a is equal to the number of field poles, i.e. t
fielr/U T aVG windinS, th e number of parallel paths o is always 2 irrespective of the number of
Poles, i.e. a - 2 whatever the number of field poles may be.
for h!!flhj Uld be n0ted that Eq‘ (3 1 4 ) forms the startinS P°int for obtaining the e.m.f. expression
ocn d.c. and a.c. machines.
deQ voltage available across the brushes is unidirectional. For the same value of peak flux
du. S’ y 5 P> It is easy to see that average value of brush voltage would be more for a flat-topped
becg sity wave of Fi&- 3 1 7 than for a sinusoidal flux density wave of Fig. 3.13 (c). It is
ase of this reason that dc machines are designed with flat-topped B-wave.
Xamp^e 3 *2 * A. dc gen era tor has 24 arm ature conductors. Average e.m.f. induced in one
>fthisCtor is 2 V an d each conductor is designed to handle a current o f 5 A. Calculate the rating
generator i f num ber o f pa rallel paths in this machine are (a) 2 (b) 4 and (c) 6.
^ Example 3.2.
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260 tb ie c in c a i M
Electrical i vachinery
ia c n m e r y _____________________ (An. 3.4
;
ww (6 )
Fig. 3.18. Pertaining to Exsn.pl. 3.2. (a. Twcparali.l paths (6. Fonr-par.Ue, paths <e, Six-parai.e. paths.
(c)
asy poi
p ath . o u C t
En
x (Average e.m.f. per conductor)
— - — Ik
Output current,
= 12 x 2 = 24 V
gin
/ . = (Current per path) x (Number of parallel paths)
KC
,.
= 5 x 2 = 10 A
7 = 24 x 10 = 240 W
-_ Ejya la eer * !he
ing
.% Power rating *
(б ) For four-parallel paths, there are 6 [ = f Conductors in each parallel path.
Output voltage = 6 x 2 = 12 V
V /
.ne
Output current
Power rating
= 5 x 4 - 20 A
= 1 2 x 2 0 = 240W
(c) For 6 -parallel paths, Ea = 4 x 2 = 8 , Ia - 5 x 6 - 30 A,
t
power rating = Ea Ia = 8 x 30 = 240 W . on
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Art. 3.4]
Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines
p n n r
ww
From Eq. (3.24), the generated e.m.f. per phase is
Eph = V2 n f N ph kw <(>
En
pole synchronous motor. The induction motor stator and synchronous motor are energised from
the same 50 Hz voltage source.
gin
(a) What will be the frequency o f the e.m.fs. at the rotor slip rings if the synchronous motor
is driven (i) in a direction opposite to the rotating field produced by the induction motor stator
(ii) in the direction o f the induction motor rotating field.
eer
(b) I f the frequency o f the 3-phase rotor terminal voltage is required to be 150 Hz, calculate
the number o f poles that the induction motor must have.
ing
(c) I f the induction motor is assumed to have 8 poles, calculate the number o f synchronous
motor poles, for obtaining 3-phase, 150 Hz voltages at the induction motor slip rings.
.ne
Solution, (a) Synchronous motor runs always at synchronous speed o f—^
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I .
120 x 50 n
1000 + — ^ •
r im
ww im
"
1000 +
6000n
im
or
w.E 120
Pirn
= 150
= 12 P°leS-
(120) (50) t (120) (50]
asy
(c) Relative speed between rotor and rotating field must be equal to " 8
B, = 'l2 K fk wNph,^,
= 310 volts at 50 Hz
From Eq. (3.32). the rotor per phase e.m.f. is
Er = V2n s f kw Nphr if
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Art. 3 ^
Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 263
At standstill, slip, s = — ~ °
= 1
n.
For rotor speed of 1440 r.p.m. in the direction of rotating flux wave, slip
1500 -1 4 4 0
ww 1500 “ ° -04-
From Eq. (3.32), the rotor per phase e.m.f. is
w.E Er = V27i (0.04) (50) (0.96) (80) (30 x 10" 3) = 0.04 x 177
= 7.08 volts at a frequency of 0.04 x 50 (= sf) i.e. 2 Hz.
sii asy
(c) When the rotor revolves at 1440 r.p.m. opposite to the direction of rotating flux wave
1500+ 1440
gin
= V2rc (1.96) (50) (0.96) (80) (30 x 1(T3) = 1.96 x 177
ing
This article develops the physical concepts of e.m.f. polygon and these concepts are then
extended to derive the expressions for distribution and pitch factors.
Consider Fig. 3.19 (a) in which 12 conductors housed in 12 slots are shown. The field cur
rent produces two poles on the rotor and the field flux is assumed to be sine-distributed in .ne
space. At the instant shown in Fig. 3.19 (a), the conductor 1 is being cut by the maximum flux,
Say ♦«» therefore, the e.m.f. induced in it is also maximum, say Em. This e.m.f. can be repre
sented by a phasor whose projection on the vertical axis must be equal to the r.m.s. value of the
t
em.f. generated in conductor 1. This is shown in Fig. 3.19 (a) by a phasor E x = E„/\l2 along the
vertical axis. Conductor 2 is being cut by a flux ( = <}>m cos y) less than <J)m, accordingly the mag-
^ude of generated e.m.f. is less than E m. This e.m.f. in conductor 2 is indicated by phasor
2*7 . ' whose vertical component E 2 cos y is equal to the r.m.s. generated e.m.f. in conductor
^ ote that E 2 is displaced from E } by an angle y , equal to the angle between adjacent slots.
8 an^ e Y (gamma) is usually called the angular slot pitch and is given by
v = —— -------^ E l e c t , radians
Total number of slots
_ —— — - — — Elect, degrees.
Slots per pole
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[Art 3.5
Electrical Machinery
(b)
ww F ig . 3 . 1 9 . '
The various phasor e.m.fs JEi, * 2, *3 .......*12
I y r ! , ? w l S d ^ o f S e c t o r e.m.fs o r star o f slot e.m.fs.
*
w.E
r Via q 19 (a) Y is equal to 30°. The e.m.f. generated in conductor 3 can similarly be re
presen tedinFig. 3.19 (a) by phasor E 3 ( = E .) whose vertical component E cos 2 y is equaHo
asy
the r m s generated e.m.f. in conductor 3. Note that E , is drsplaced from E , by 2y and from E,
by y At the instant shown in Fig. 3.19 (a), it may be seen that conductor 4 rs not cuttmg any
En
magnetic flux ; therefore, e.m.f. phasor E 4 ( = E ,) m ust have a zero vertical project,on
” E cos 3v - E cos 90°). The same thought process can further be used for conductor e.m.fs.
£~ e I
gin
E,o . Note that all phasors E „ E 2,...... E 12 are of equal lengths. Their projections on
the vertical axis, determine the magnitude of r.m.s. generated e.m.fs. in the vanous conductors.
eer
In Fig. 3 .1 9 ( 6 ) ,£ ,( = AB) is drawn parallel to E , of Fig. 3.19 (o). At the point
drawn parallel to E 2 of Fig. 3 .1 9 (a) and so on. It will be found that conductor e.m.fs.
= E2is
E £,
conductor e.m.fs. E „ E 2
ing
E 12 constitute a closed e.m.f. polygon. The perpendicular bisectors of each of the
£ 12 (i.e. A B , BC, CD etc.) will pass through a point O, indicatmg
that if a circle with O as center and OA as radius is drawn, it m ust pass through the points
.ne
A, B, C, D etc. The angle subtended by each phasor e.m.f. at the center O is seen to be equal to
the slot-angular pitch y.
Starting from the front end of conductor 1, join the back ends of conductors 1 and 2 in the
t
Fig. 3.19 (a). Further join conductors 2 and 3 by a connection at the front and 3 and 4 at the
back and so on. The resultant e.m.f. appearing between starting end of conductor 1 ana.the
finishing end of conductor 12 (i.e. after having gone through all the conductors once), will e
found to be zero. This is evident from Fig. 3.19 (6) by the phasor addition of e.m.f. phasors
^ 1 . &2> »^12-
3.5.1. Distribution, breadth or belt Factor. The e.m.f. generated in a full-pitched
mature coil of iV-turns is given by Eq. (3.14). In rotating electrical machines, however, J
armature winding is not concentrated in a single slot, but distributed uniformly along e
gap periphery. The advantages of distributing the winding in slots are :
(i) reduction of the harmonics in the generated e.m.f. wave, thus making it approach a sin
wave, see Prob. 3.30 (a).
(ii) full utilisation of the armature iron and copper and
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Art. 3.5]____________________________
Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 265
assumed to have^8 slot^In Hms^sfots1 f Stribution factor- the stator of Fi&- 3 1 9 (a) is
s, a single layer, 2-pole, 3-phase winding is placed, so that
the number of slots per pole oer dHaqp n o 1 . f 2 x 1 80 >
f p e per pnase qis 3 and the angular slot pitch y is 20° = . * . Its
developed view is illustrated in Fie 3 2 n r M a„ d M l „ , I J
under one pole, are connected in series In nrd ♦ 7 belonging to one phase and
distributing the winding, full-pitched coils are used attentlon entire‘y the effects of
ww
generated in it"then coil-side’ 1
though of opposite polarity. The
0 ^ 5 4 vd* « ’ T r '^ . T ' f ** 1 ^ ^
En 271
ITT
<t( fu n d a m e n ta l)
*■( 3rd h a rm o n ic )
II
r
gin
1 2 3 10 11 12
eer
ing
j i m : ; : ...
.ne
t
! (
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[Art. 3.5
7nh
266 Liecincai
Electrical w
Machinery
w v h _ __^ ^ _
• 1 r to £ and Es of Fig. 3.19 (a). The total
generated in coil-sides 2 and 11 are £ 2 and E „ , sum a .ndicated in Fjg 3 20 (<j)
e.m.f. in coil 2-11 is given by the sum of E2 an »’ s|ot-angular pitch y. The vertical
by b e , phase displaced from the niaximum e m.f p ted jn coi) 2- l l . Similarly the total
projection of b e gives the r.m.s value of « * < * ■ 8 2Q (rf) by cdi phase displaced from
e m f (£3 + £ , 2) generated in coil
tj.iii.i. \*-/3 1 Yc,t o ------------------- 3-12, is indicated in
_ r g
the maximum e.m.f. position by an angle 2y. of the three (or in general q) coils
The resultant e.m.f. appearing between the te n bc and cd and this resultant is
1-10 2-11 and 3-12 is the phasor sum ot tne e.n__ v denotes the slots per pole
seen to be equal to ad in the right hand side of Fig. 3.2U t ;
per phase. r Une.nr.anh he and cd must meet at a point o and
As indicated earlier, the right bisect.Dr: ofpha ^ draw perpedicuiars oe and 0f
the points, a, b, c, d would lie on a circle with ^ angle aob is equal to
to ab
to ana ad
ab and aa respectively. From Fig. ° d .w w , 1
the slot angular pitch 7, angle a o d = 97 and angle W = 2 -
ww
In the right-angled triangle aoe.
y_ _ ae_
sin ± =
or
w.E oa
ae = oa sin
sin 9„ l -=° L
oa eer
or
a f = oa sin 91
ing
The resultant e.m.f. ad, equal to the phasor sum of emfs ab, bc and cd, is given by
ad = 2 (a/) = 2 oa sin
91 .ne
The distribution, breadth or belt, factor is defined as the ratio of the phasor sum
j.m.fs. to the arithmetic sum of the coil e.m.fs. Its symbol is kd.
t ^
tl
P
The distribution factor can alternatively be defined as the ratio of: a
:oils distributed in slots to the resultant e.m.f. with the coils concentrated in • h
Phasor sum of coil e.m.fs. ad nr ad _ general)
Arithmetic sum of coil e.m.fs. 3 ab q •ab
„ . qy
2oa sm ^
2g oa sin
sin 91 ...(3.46)
q sm
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A rt. 3.51___________
ww s in
w.E k d„ = ~
q sin ^
2
- (3-47 o)
En
gin
tendY!o“ e U rg e t S s t n C t m l farf“ ^ “ oach^ “ * e' eCtriCal <<>r S’ ° tS P" P° ' e per phase
kd
h
sin 2„1
= ---------- 2
eer Q t
O
2
ing
and k,
dn
sin ^
--------± _
qnj .ne ..(3.47 b)
2
thJ ? h Fig h 20 <6) ° r <C>' i( adj ° inil’ e coil-sides 1, 2, 3 (or 1 0 ,1 1 ,12) belong to the same phase
t
hen this phase group in adjacent slots is called a phase belt or phase band. If slots per pole oer
phase is a whole number, then all the phase belts are alike. The peripheral angular d is ta n t of
a phase belt is called Its ph ase spread o( = qy) in electrical space degrees. Now Eq. (3.46) can be
re-written to include phase spread o as
a
sin
-------------- a
q sin£
. no
sin —
From Eq. (3.47 a), kdn = (3 48
? s m - -
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(Art. 33
Flectrical Machinet7_
sm -
p or y < 15° e le c tr ic a l, kd = o
2
nO
s in - ...(3.48 b)
: ; S T r ^ s ,~ « ^ x r : » . : i v
per pole per phase tends to be larg; , ^ ^ The phagor
tends to be small for a ^ c n p drcle whose
diagram of coil emfs now b « o » « the ar ^ The dis.
ww
chord ab is the resultant emt as s
tribution factor is there ore ^
w.E
nhasor sum ofkoiUmis__ --------- —
^ = arithmetic sum ot c o d e i a arc
2 oa sin a /2 _
Fig. 3 21. Coil emfs for uniformly
distributed winding.
i- asy . « s - r — ■«— « —
I„ fractional-slot windings (dtscusscd in Chapter
5 o *m En .
, . gin
Here Sis^the number of slots and m, the number of phases. If b is the
is not a whole number. 1kre
highest common factor between S /m and P, then q
be writtcn as
eer
S /m = -*
ing
The distribution factor for fractional-slot windings is obtained by replacing by S„ » H
Sk ol“
no
no
sin 9 o
t ...(3.48 c)
, P x 180 6 x 1 8 0
Slot angular pitch, Y= g = ^ - 20
sinn x 3x 20
From Eq. (3.47 a),
n x 20'
3 sin
. _ sin 30° _
dl 3 sin 10° ~ 0 9598
= sin 90°
d3 3 sin 30° " 0,6667
sin 150°
d5 = 3 ^ 5 ^ = 0 2 1 7 6
(6) Here 48 = 16 _ 8 _ S k
3x6 6 ~ 3 ~K
n x 60
sin
From Eq. (3.48 c),
n x 60
ww , _
2x8
sin 30°
8 sin
kd3 ~
sin 90°
= 0.6407
asy
8 sin 11.25°
sin 150°
kd 5 = = 0.1944
8 sin 18.75°
This example demonstrates that kd5 < kd3 < k(di-
^.
En
3.5.2.
gin
Pitch (or coil-span) Factor. An expression for the pitch factor has already been
derived in Eq. (3.20). An alternative way of obtaining Eq. (3.20) is presented here, for it leads
to better physical concepts of pitch-factor.
eer
ing
.ne
t
Ic '-C
fr jE a -E
Go oh
Ea=E
(b) (c)
Fig. 3.22. E.m.f. induced in one full-pitched coil.
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(Art. 3.5
270 Electrical Machinery
Fig. 3.22 (a, illustrates one full-piteh coil and Fig. 3 .^ i l l u s t r a t e s one fractions,.pitch.
short-pitch or chorded coil with c h o r d m g ang e eq maximum flux, these have, therefore,
m axta^m e.imTs^’^ V ^ 'l n d u c e d in thenTat the instant shown. The r.m.s. values of the e.m.fs.
ww
? A in Via 3 23 (c) on a larger scale. The resultant e.m.f. ER across the
3.23 (a) and are re-drawn in Fig. icj on a w b
coil-ends G, H is obtained by reversing £ / and adding it to i.e.,
w.E ER —£ a —£a
F lu x w a v e
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
jE a'cos C
t
Ata
G H
(c)
(b)
Fig. 3.23. Pertaining to pitch-factor.
In Fig. 3.23 (c), reversed Ea' is drawn as BC so that E R = OC. In order to obta’?
nitude of the resultant voltage ER, draw BD perpen^cular to OC. Now in triang e -
ZO B C = 1 8 0 - £
ZO B D = | [ZOBC 1 = 90 - 1
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Art. 3.5] .
— Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 271
The resultant voltage E „ from Fig. 3.23 (c) is given by ‘
E r = OC = OD + DC
= OB cos | + CB cos -
2
= 2 E cos ^
. 2
The pitch factor is defined tV»o »on <•
e.m.f. had the same coil been full nitrh ri° ° r®s^ tant e m f. of a chorded coil to the resultant
^ “ -Pitched, symbol kn. Thus
.ww
chording angk becomts n Z e t o r i c a t S ^ e t f o r e ^ ' t T f l ^ r f o r X h a ™ 2 c " *
l ne
w.E
pn — COS
rnu J 2 ...(3,49)
The advantages of using fractional-pitch winding are •
!‘J Z dZ T
wJ e almost a ^ e w a ™ 0niCS " asy
'Vhh6 C° PPer f0r ° Verhang- This results in leas
^
of the machine
thareb* -n d e n n g the output e.m.f'
\
En
more copper is essential. Since the advantage of reducing the
gin therefore,
s K - a s s ja r
eer r 5
as t h !S g fa c t" S i r °f diStribUU°n
ing
kd“ d the Pitch f a t o ia referred to
~ X ^p (3 50)
In case of three-phase alternators, the third harmonic e.m.f. can be suppressed by star or .ne
the a ' on" echon’ as ln ‘ he case of 3-phase transformers. Hence at the time of winding design
; r " ' h nT ” n yf ' T n ar thea“ enUatl° n of 5th and 7th orderharmonics, by I d o p W
a suitable chording angle. A chording angle of e = 30° (coil pitch = 150“ electrical) is most useful
since it gives the following pitch factors : ’
t
9th ha9r6monicfUndamenta1, ^ ^ harm° niC’ 0 259 f° r 5th and 7th harmonics, 0.707 for
Three-phase alternators are invariably star-connected to eliminate 3rd and 9th (i e multi
P es of 3, called triplen) harmonics from line e.m.fs. ; though 5th and 7th harmonic e m fs of
educed magnitude are present in the lines. ^ 01
From Eq. (3.24), the fundamental e.m.f. per phase is
Ephl = < 2 n fk w lNph 0!
For third harmonic, e.m.f. per phase is
Eph3 - (3f) kw3 NphiJ)3
In genera], for nth harmonic, e.m.f. per phase is
Ephn = ^2n n f k wn Nph <J>n
Here subscripts 1, 3 and n denote fundamental, third and nth harmonics respectively.
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r 272 Electrical M achinery
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lArt 33
ww
Similarly, 4>3 — '
2DL
3P
B
w.E 2DL n
In general, for nth harmonic, «>„ * ■ * *
asy
On = _____
n Bi
Eq. (3.51 a) in terms of B v B n becomes
Ephn _ ^wn B. En ...(3.51 b)
Eip/,1
r
gin
eer
The r.m.s. phase e.m.f. is
Eph = lE2
phi + E2
ph3 + ~~ + Ephnl
ing
The line e.m.f. in star connection does not include triplen harmonics.
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, (t'y) Distribution : The distribution of the armature winding along the air-gap periphery
tends to make the emf waveform sinusoidal, see Prob. 3.30.
(a) Chording : With coil-span less than pole pitch, the harmonics can be eliminated, see
gq. (3.49).
(ui) Skewing : By skewing the armature slots, only tooth harmonics or slot harmonics can
be eliminated,
/**»*■----- see
' Example* 3.6 in this chapter and
VW Art
*.Miivi« 5.17.4*
kl VAI•A
(uii) Fractional slot w in d in g : An introduction to fractional-slot windings is given in Art.
7.8 in this book. In fractional-slot windings, the space relation between teeth and slots under a
given pole face is not the same as under the next and the succeeding pole faces. It follows that
the pulsation of flux and the emf produced in the coils under one of the poles are more or less
neutralized by other out of phase pulsations in the remaining coils of the winding.
(viii) Alternator connections : Star or delta connections of alternators suppress triplen
harmonics from appearing across the lines,
see Art 8.4.2.**
Example 3.7. In an alternator, show
ww
that the output e.m.f. wave can’t contain even
harmonics.
w.E
Solution. Fig. 3.24 illustrates one full-
pitch coil a, a'. The fundamental component
of the field flux wave induces maximum
asy
e.m.f. in coil-sides a, a , since these are cut
ting the maximum flux <>ml. If r.m.s. value of
the e.m.f. in each coil-side is E h then the
resultant e.m.f. of the fundamental frequen En
cy across the coil ends A, B is 2E^, as ex
plained before. gin
The second harmonic component of field
(lux wave also induces maximum e.m.fs. in eer
coil-sides a, a' , because these are cutting the
maximum flux <\>m2 at the instant shown. ing
The direction of the second harmonic e.m.fs.
is indicated by arrows in the lower diagram .ne
t
Fig. 3.24. Pertaining to Example 3.7.
oiriE. m e rresultant
of Fig. 3.24. The of the
e s u iw u n w m o second .har-
— #
monk e.m.f. between coil terminals A .B is seen to be zero, since the two second harmonic
e.m.fs. are opposing each other in the coil circuit.
This shows that the second harmonic e.m.fs. or in general, even harmonic e.m.fs., cannot be
generated in an alternator. Consequently the output e.m.f. wave is free from even harmonic
e.m.fs. ‘
This example demonstrates that even if the field flux wave contains second harmonic com
ponent, the output voltage if1 free from second harmonic ™ ^
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In case even-space-harmonics are present in the field flux wave the positive
a.f cycles will not be identical, which however ,s never the case m rotating o l e c t r i ^ }
Exam ple 3.8. For a 3-phase winding with coil spar,, o f l 6 0 \ determ ine the distrib
nnding factors
winding factors in
in case
case the
the winding
winding has a .ph ase spread o f 120 . Take the three-Pbase
.. r , ,1
(a) to be uniformly distributed and (b) to have 9 slots p e r pole. « Un^
Solution, (a) When the winding is uniformly distributed, the distribution factor*
Eq. (3.48 6) is rffr°'Hi
a • 120
sin — sm 3 sin 60c
ks = = 0.827
a/2 120 n
2 X 180
w.E
(6) Slot angular pitch
180
= 20c
En
For a phase spread of 120°, 6 adjacent slots [6 x y = 6 x 20 = 120°) must belong to fh.
phase. Therefore, distribution factor kd, from Eq. (3.48 a) is Same
. o
sm -
gin
sin
120
______________ sin 60°
eer
9 s i n ^ ' 6 s i n ^ = 6 s in 10'
2q 2x6
= 8.8312
Order of harmonics, n = (2 Q ± l)
Substitution of the values nf v nnw • r-,
(2(? ± l)th harmonics as n m (3 .4 7 a ) gives the distribution factor for
s i n | ( 2 Q ± l,"
qn
qn ±
kd (2Qr 1) = Q 2Q
i si« h (2<? ± i) *
Q q sin
2Q
sin qn cos 2 * + cos qK si„
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In t^e.a^° ^5 e^ ress*0^ ’ s*n *n numerator and sin x in denominator, are always zero
any value of q (the number of slots per pole per phase). In view of this, the distribution factor
for
becomes
± cos qn sin
± 1) ^
± q cos n sin —
. qn
l Sm 2 Q
kdi2Q 1 1) -
q Sin 2 Q
ww
For the fundamental component, the distribution factor, from Eq. (3.46) is
w.E
. qn
k d1 - Sm2<? h
— ~ Kdl2Q 1 1)
asy q Sin 2Q
The pitch factor for (2Q ± l)th harmonic, from Eq. (3.49), is
l
kP (2Q 1 1) “ cos En
(2Q ± 1)
2
e
gin
Here Q is the number of slots per pole. As one pole covers an angle of 180° electrical or n
eer
electrical radians, the angle covered by Q slots is n radians. In view of this, expression for
kp (2q ± i)can be written as
l.
*p (2Q11) = COS
{2n ± 1) e
------ = COS a e ± f
ing
E, . . £
= COS 71E COS — ± Sin 71 e sin —
m z .ne
For any value of chording angle £ in electrical degrees, sin n e = 0 and cos tie is equal to
1 or - 1. Therefore, t
*p(2Q± 1) - cos ^ = kpx
These higher order harmonics of the order of (2 Q ± 1), are referred to as the slot harmonics,
tooth harmonics, slot ripples or tooth ripples. These harmonics are attenuated by skewing the
slots.
faJ Single phase winding placed in (i) two-thirds o f the slots and (ii) all the slots.
(b) All the slots are wound with (i) single phase and (ii) 3-phase windings.
fc) All the slots are wound with (i) two-phase and (ii) 3-phase windings.
For each o f the above cases, calculate the ratio o f outputs and the amount o f copper required.
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■•• a
276 Electrical Machinery
Solution, (a) When two-third of the slots are wound, the phase spread a, for single phase
winding is o = - (180) = 120°. From Eq. (3.48 b ), the distribution factor for the fundamental
3
component is
. 120
sin ——
* ,, = — = 0.827
120 _JL_
2 180
f2 \
Output voltage with two-third of the slots wound is ^ (0.827).
< ) .
When all the slots are wound, phase spread o = 180° and from Eq. (3.48 6 ),
180
sin
K = 1on - = 0.637
ww dl 180
2
x
n
180
w.E
Output voltage with all the slots wound is « (1) (0.637).
In all the cases, it is assumed that frequency f, flux per pole <}) and the conductor cross-sec
asy
tion are the same.
.. . . . [(Current) (Voltage)] with all the slots wound
.. e ra 10 o ou pu s - Current) (Voltage)] with two-third slots wound
1 x 0.637
En
2 . . rinn.' —1.15.
I x (0.827)
gin
Corresponding ratio of copper required = 7^
eer
= 1.5.
ing
It is thus seen that for 50% increase in copper, the output is increased by 15% only. This is
the reason why approximately two-thirds of the slots are wound in case of single-phase induc
.ne
tion machines.
(b) For a 3-phase winding, the usual phase spread a is 60° (narrow-spread). .
kdi = 6Q
. 60
sm —
x
= 0.955
t
2 180
When all the slots are wound with single-phase winding, then kdl = 0.637, from part (a).
■ Ratio of outputs = t(Current)(Vo^ age)1 for a 3-phase winding with all slots wound
[(Current)(Voltage)] for a single phase winding with
all slots wound
_ (1) (0.955)
(1) (0.637)
Thus for the same amount of copper, the output for a 3-phase winding is 50% more than for
a single-phase winding with all the slots wound.
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^ i o ^ r - 0 -90
x
2 180
Distribution factor for 3-phase winding, as calculated in part (6) is 0.955.
Example 3.11. (a) A 3-phase, 6 pole, 1000 r.p.m. alternator has an air-gap diameter o f 28 cm
and a core length 23 cm. A two-layer narrow-spread (o = 60°) winding is employed and the wind
ing is accommodated in 4 slots per pole per phase, with 8 conductors per slot. The coils are
ww
short-pitched by one slot. When the flux density wave covering two pole pitches, is analysed into
space harmonics, the fundamental is found to have an amplitude o f 0.87 T and the 3rd and 5th
w.E
harmonics to have amplitudes o f 0.24 and 0.14 T respectively. Estimate the resultant phase and
line voltages on no load if the alternator is (i) star-connected and (ii) delta-connected.
(b) I f per phase reactance o f the alternator at 50 Hz is 10 fl, calculate the circulating current
asy
when the machine is delta connected. Neglect alternator resistance.
The effect o f slot ripples should be ignored.
Solution. Pole pitch =
r
= -? (0-28) m
6
En
In the presentation leading to Eq. (3.51 b), it is shown that
gin
a,
0, =
a 2DL n 2 x 0 .2 8 x 0 .2 3eer
= 2 x 0 28 x 0 23 x o.87 = 0.0187 Wb
________
Also, 03
ing
x 0.24 = 0.00172 Wb
2DL n 2 x 0.28 x 0.23 „ ...........................
.ne
4>s = B s= -------------- x 0.14 = 0.0006 Wb.
Y= I83!_____ = m = 1 5 c
Slots per pole 4 x 3
t
The distribution factors from Eq. (3.47 a) are
qY .6 0
sin f z sm —
kdl = ---------- = --------- yg- = 0.9576
q sin j: 4 sin —
. 3<7Y . 3 x 60
sin sin — - —
kd3 = --------= - = r ^ T - = 0.6533
dd . 3y . . 3 x 15
q sin g 4 sin — 2 —
. 5qy .5x60
sin -?-*■ sin — z—
kd5 = ------------------------------------= 0.2053
. 5y a • 5 x 15
q sin -pf 4 sin — - —
z z
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and
ww t * . * « x * „ - 0.2053 x 0.793 = 0.163.
IVU ”v *
Subscripts 1, 3, 5 are used to denote fundamental, third and fifth harmonics respectively.
w.E
Total number of slots = 4 x 3 x 6 = 72.
72x8
= 288.
asy
Total number of turns 2
288
Series turns per phase, Nph - ^ - 96.
En
From Eq. (3.24), the fundamental e.m.f. per phase is
Ephi = ^2 n fk,o\NPh$\
gin
= y/2n (50) (0.949) (96) (0.0187) = 378.4 volts.
For third harmonic component, Eq. (3.51 a) gives
eer
K s 3 <t)3
EPh 3 - Ephi kw] 4>1
ing
- T 7B 4 x 0-6035 x 3 x 0.00172
" 378 4 X 0.949 X 0.0187
Q 4Q volts.
.ne
Similarly, E' ,nL
* 5c —E r <(,, t
= 378.4 x x5* - 10.427 volts.
0.949 0.0187
(t) For star-connected alternator, the magnitude of the p *r ph:u;e e.m.f
Eph = ^Epli i + E)
/vri i — i/,3 + —
£'*/ / no
= V(378.4? + (6 6 .4 ? + (10.427?" = 334.32 volte ^
Recall that for star-conncctcd alternator, the third frequency e.m.fs- dont *I
the lin
’ E linc= ^3 _______
. 655.63
.. = ^3 V(378.4? + (10 .4 27 ? = n/3 (378.54) t
closed^?.r ^c*ta'connected alternator, the third harmonic e.m.fs. are
dosed delta and consequently don’t appear in the lines.
(b) When the alternator is delta connected, the resultant of fundamental and 5th harmonic
e.m.fs. m the closed delta is zero, but the resultant of 3rd harmonic e.m.fs. is 3E3. This e.m.f.
3Es gives rise to a circulating current determined by the total 3rd harmonic reactance of
3 x (3 x 10) Q at 150 Hz.
3E* 3 x 6 6 .4
.\ Third harmonic circulating current = = 2.213 A.
3 x (3 x 10) 3 x (3 x 10)
Example 3.12. F c a 3-phase winding with 3 slots per pole per phase and coil span o f 8 slots,
compute the breadth and pitch factors.
The flux density wave in the air gap o f this machine is found to have 20c7( third harmonic.
Calculate percentage increase in per phase r.m.s. e.m.f. due to harmonic.
Solution. Slot per pole per phase, q = 3, Slot per pole = 3 x 3 = 9
ww sin 91
sin 30°
w.E kd\ =
q sin
_y 3 sin 10°
= 0.9598
asy
For a coil span of 8 slots, the coil is short-pitched by one slot and the chording angle is
e = y = 20°
En
kpl = cos ^ = cos 10° = 0.985
= 0.9598 x 0.985 = 0.9454
u _ sin 90 _
- 3 sin 30 - 0 667 gin
kpj = cos 30° = 0.866
kw3 = 0.667 x 0.866 = 0.5776 eer
From Eq. (3.51 b), EpM = BpM x 0.20 = 0.1222 ing
.-. Eph = VF^1 + (0.1222 Ephx? = 1.00744 Ephx
.ne
Therefore, percentage increase in generated e.m.f. due to third harmonic flux density com
ponent
1.00744- 1.0
1.0
x 100 = 0.744%.
t
Example 3.13. A 6-pole, 50 Hz alternator has 42 slots with two-layer winding. The flux per
pole is 0.012 Wb and each full-pitch coil has 8 turns. Determine the phase and line e.m.fs. in case
(he narrow-spread coils are connected to form (a) 2-phase winding and (b) 3-phase star-con
nected winding.
Solution, (a) Slots per pole per phase,
S/m 4 2 /2 3 x 7 7 H
;•>
q~ P ~ 6 3x2 2 [\
As q is not an integer, the 2-phnso winding is a fractional-slot winding with 5* = 7. Its , ';1
•j
distribution factor for the fundamental from Eq. (3.48 c), is, t»
90 if
sin
r* : •i
= 0.9022
n • 1
7 B ,n -T90
• ir - ‘ |
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IArt. j
280 Electrical Machinery
kw = 0.9022 as kp = 1
. 42 x 8 _ <ro
Per phase series turns, N ph = ^ ~ A
E nh = ^ 2 K f k wN phto
? =V2n (50) (0.9022) (168) (0.012) = 4 0 3 .9 8 V
E, = V2 x Eph = 571.23 V
4 2 /3 _ 2 x 7 _ 7
(b) 7 - c " o2vxi3t 3
60
sin
From Eq. (3.48 c), = 0.9558
. 1 60
7 sin 2 T
ww
... Eph = V2n (50) (0.9558) (112) (0.012) = 285.322 V
asy
narrow-spread winding with coil-span equal to 13 slot pitches. The flu x density distribution ii
the air gap is given by B(Q) = sin 8 + 0.4 sin 3Q + 0.25 sin 50.
En
Determine the r.m.s. value o f third and fifth harm onic ph ase e.m .fs. in term s o f fundamenta
phase e.m.f. Also, calculate the ratio o f resultant line e.m.f. to the resultant phase e.m.f.
Solu tion. Slots per pole per phase,
gin
8 1 /3
6
3x9
3x2 eer 9
2
60
sin
From Eq. (3.48 c), = 0.9555,
Q . 1 60
9 sin — •—
2 9
. £ 20
kp\ = cos - = cos = 0.9988
, sin 90° .
*<*3 - ^77 = 0.6399,
Q • 60
IT
'1 0
kp2 = cos = 0.9848.
T x3
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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 281
sin 150
= 0.1937,
300
9 sin
Ephs - E
>*> S :* ° - 25 = ° 0 4 86
-,1/2
Resultant phase e.m.f., EPs = [ E%hi + E2
ph3 + E,pW] = 1.0355 Ephl
ww
Resultant line e.m.f.,
1/2
E ( = d3 [fipM + Epfts]' 2 = 1.734 Ephi
w.E Ei
Eph
1.734
1.0355
= 1.675
asy
Note that line e.m.f. is not equal to V3 times the phase e.m.f. It is because of the presence
of third harmonic e.m.f. in the phase voltage.
E xam p le 3.15. The flux density distribution along the air-gap periphery o f a salient-pole
En
machine is rectangular as shown in Fig. 3.25 (a). Draw one complete cycle o f the em f generated
in a single-turn coil ofcoil-span 150° electrical. The coil moves with a velocity o f 20 m l sec in a
gin
peak flux density o f l T. The effective length o f armature conductor is 0.8 m. Calculate rms value
of the voltage in the single-turn coil.
eer
ing
.ne
t
Solution. The flux density distribution is shown in Fig. 3.25 (a). With coil-span of 180“, the
*»veform of the em f generated in a singleturn coil will bc similar to B-wavcform. For coil-span
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follows: . . )as
(0 For 0”< 6 < 30*. instant 1 , coil on' is shown movrng m zero wave. Theref„re, em
coil for this range is zero as shown. the
(ii) For 30” < 0 < 60”, instant 2, coil-side a is cutting through = l T but cofl.sid .
tine zero B - wave. The resultant emf across the single-turn coil .s ««• ,,
cutting zero
e = Blv = 1 x 0.8 x 20 = 16 V
(m) For 60°< 0 < 150°, instant 3, both coil-sides are cutting through 1 T. Therefore,
net emf
generated in conductors of single-turn coil is
e = 2Blv = 2 x 1 x 0.8 x 20 = 32 V
In this manner, emf waveform of Fig. 3.25 (b ) is sketched. RMS value of this generated
emf
ww
in one single-turn coil
I l 6’ x f x 2 + 32’ x §
1 /2
= 24.44 V
w.E
Example 3.16. A 50 Hz, salient-pole alternator has the field flux-density waveform of Fig.
asy
3.25 (a). This alternator has the following data :
Total turns = 360, phase spread = 60*, pole-pitch = 0.6 m
En
stator length = 0.8 m, coil-span = 180° electrical
Calculate rms value o f the fundamental e m f per phase.
gin
Solution. The fundamental value o f peak flux density, by Fourier scries analysis, is
1 n n 6 eer
By = - B „ cos e = - x 1 x cos - = 1.10266 T
Pole pitch
nD
P
2nr
P
= 0.6 m
ing
Fundamental air-gap flux per pole, from Eq. (3.11), is
.ne
« , = | B , lr = | B , /
t
Taking the winding as uniformly distributed
60
sin
= 0.955, kpl - 1
kdl 60 71
2 X 180
Per-phase emf, Ephl = V2x kwl Nph
= V2ji x 50 x 0.33695 x 0.955 x 120 = 8576.7 V. ^ B jS
Example 3.17. The em f generated in a conductor at any instant is given by Blv, Tol
the air-gap flux density in a rotating machine, I is the conductor length and v is
velocity. ...
With the help o f this expression, derive e m f expressions for (a) dc machine (b)
synchronous machine.
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i tion. In c = Blv, as I and u are constants, the waveshape of emf e is the same as that
— *i -. _wave
^°flux-density _■ ■i/\ iin
m oair
i *•rr /\%ra••a rra %
gap. Average t a Ii i a at a 4 % a a aa
value wm*J■•a4aw«■ ■
of emf in one conductor .> given
is ■a. •■a* I.
by ■■
oftbe
Eal, Ba, l v - x / x nDn = P0n
shes. Here Z = total armature conductors and a = number of parallel paths for armature
finding. Therefore, output or brush voltage in a dc machine is given by
Number of conductors Average value of
E= in each parallel path emf generated
between the two brushes in one conductor
ww a a
Here n is the armature speed in rps. The above emf expression is the required expression
for a dc machine.
w.E
(b) From above, average emf generated in one conductor,
asy Pn
Eav = P0n = 2/0, where f = —
En
rms value
Now = form factor
average value
gin
Assuming the waveshape of flux-density wave sinusoidal, its form factor is
1
FF =
2V2
n
eer
Also
n B"
rms value of emf per conductor _ ^
average value of emf per conductor ing
.-. rms value of emf generated in one conductor, E rms ~ EF X Eav 2yj2 X 2/0
.ne
n
n/2
/0 t
Emf per turn =2 kp = ^2nf<t>kf
E,nax = \ (B„) I V
I x nDn = 710/"
nDl
P
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, , 4 x 180 OAO
Slot-angular pitch, y = — ^ — = 40
ww
A full-pitch coil would have its.one coil-side in slot 1 and its other coil-side in slot 10 B t
here coil A is overpitched by one slot because this coil has its coil-sides in slot 1 and 11 , Fig. 3 L
In Fig. 3.26 (a), e.m.fs generated in coil-sides 1 and 10 of a full-pitch coil would be maximum
O
3.26 (6 ), while thatP afor
/ L \ ...V t C ls N m /% v-k-v
asy
but of opposite sign. Phasor diagram for e.m.fs generated in coil-sides 1 and 11 is shown inFig
e.m.fs generatedi n in/ » coil-sides
n il .P in n c ? O o n n l 10 c n m t m
2 and1 f10 is showni n inI ? Fig.
i/« O O P / \
3.26(c).
—Pole pitch -
=9 Slots =180' En
U J Coil A-> Coil B
LU
gin
y
eer
•
11
1
11 j
*
* 1
• 1 \
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
ing
■IEI
i 2 3 I
I
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
.ne E,= E
t
1
fa) (b)
Fig. 3.26. Pertaining to Example 3.18.
One coil-side of 80-turn coil has 80 conductors, r.m.s. value of generated e.m.f. in one con
ductor, from Example 3.17, is /<j).
E\ = | x 50 x 0.015 x 80 = 133.306 V
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285
Hasic r w p p u o f Rolaling Electrical M a ch in e
i t “ i i a coil * i. . h . . . - r » - ■ » » * • <” *
* js r = r - ^
(6), (as done during ihe derivation of pitch factor).
^ . Resultant e.m.f. generated in coil A is
„ , 1 . p. - i.. » . ; C
, ^ng behind Similarly, e.m.f. E 10 is shown leading E n yY >
ofcoil B is 160°. As in coil A, resultant of e.m.f. in coil B is
ww r Vrre q oa th\ qnd fci reveals that resultant e.m.fs EA and EB are in
(a) An examination of Figs. 3.26 (b) and (c) reveais i connected series
pha e with each other. Therefore, resultant e.m.f., when coils A and B are connecte
w.E
aiding,ER- E A + ED= 2 x 262.56 = 525.12 V.
(5) When series opposing, ER = EA ~ E B~ 0.
asy
En i , i > . ......
is the field winding.
gin
eer
The pattern of the magnetic field along w t u n o f i h e m m n t flowing through
rinding, depends upon (O §uch as airJ p length,
he winding and ( i n ) &
ing
m f howcverj depends only on the winding arrangement and
he winding^u rrent A knowledge of the air-gap flux distribution in a machine helps in deter-
nining the (i) generated e.m.f. waveform and its magnitude and (u) the electrical torque.
The object of this article is to investigate the m.m.f. produced by a winding distnbuted in .ne
he slots along the air-gap periphery. For this purpose, the attention is first directed to the
« f variation over one sbt-pitch and the conclusions drawn from it, are applied for■determm-
the distributed-winding m.m.f. For one slot-pitch-m.m.f. variation, refer to Fig 3.27 and
all the Amperes Circuital Law. According to this law, the m.m.f acting on any closed path
t
qual to the total current enclosed by that path. In Fig. 3.27 (a), each slot is assumed to
tain 9 conductors and each conductor carries a current i. If path 1 is traversed the ampere-
ductors enclosed are 3i and this is therefore the m.m.f. change as shown in Fig. 3.27 (6). If
h 2 is traversed the current enclosed is 6i and for the path 3, the total current enclosed is 9i.
s m m f variation is sketched in Fig. 3.27 (6) and it is seen that the m.m f. changes linearly
n zero to 9i over the slot portion or slot width. If the tooth is traversed , the enclosed current
lains 9i till one slot-pitch is covered. When the three conductors of the adjoining slot are
ered, the enclosed current is again 3i as shown in Fig. 3 27 (6). It can, therefore be concluded
t the m.m.f. changes linearly over the slot portion and does not change for the tooth portion
shown in Fig. 3.27 (6). .
In order to moke the analysis simpler, the changi in m.m.f. over the slot portion is taken as
pped at the middle of the slot width. In other words, the total change of m.m.f. li e. 9i tn Fig.
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Distance along
air-gap Periphery lc>
along
lb)
ww
air-gap periphery
w.E (a)
asy Tooth
En Conductors
3 27 m gin
Fig 3 27 Variation of m.m.f. along air-gap periphery.
over the slot portion, is taken to occur at the centre of the slot, as depicted ia Fig. 3.27
eer
(Cl 3.6.1. of a coil. Consider
ing
dfrection^of current irf thetwo'coil'-sides isindicat^ ^ ca l ^
.ne
u p b 7 tS
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N-TURN
COIL
GAP
MAGNETIC A)Ss
OF STATOR COIL
STATOR ROTOR
I I
f«*— POLE PITCH POLE PITCH—H
STATOR
SURFACE
ROTOR J
ww ~"f l i ? i f r f c T t t w] ’
Ji I LL-i-dJ
SURFACE
N-TURN
w.E
COIL'
asy
En
SPACE A N G L E ,(X
gin
eer
Fig. 3.28. (a) F u ll-p itch coil on stator, (6) D evelop ed v iew o f Fig. (a)
and (c) m .m .f. d istrib u tion alon g a ir-g a p periph ery,
17 N l
g H = ~2
ing ...(3.52)
Thus the magnetic potential difference gH across each gap (there are two air-gaps in series) is
!M, Since any closed path around any coil-side, satisfies Eq. (3.52), the variation of magnetic potential
.ne
difference along the air-gap periphery is of rectangular waveform and of magnitude ^ Ni. The magnetic
fluxentering the stator (or leaving the rotor) is considered positive, therefore, the variation of mag
netic potential difference along the air-gap periphery is as shown in Fig. 3.28 (c).
It is seen that the air-gap m.m.f. wave at any instant is rectangular. If the coil current is
t
d.c., the magnitude of m.m.f. wave does not vary with time and space. For a.c. in the coil, the
amplitude of m.m.f. wave varies with time, but not with space, i.e. the air-gap m.m.f. wave is
time-variant but space invariant.
The rectangular m.m.f. wave of magnitude \ Ni can be resolved by Fourier series into its
fundamental and higher order harmonic components. The fundamental component of rectan
gular wave is found to be
4 Ni ...(3.53 a)
Fa1 = - cos a = F lp cos a
"'here a is electrical space angle measured from the magnetic axis of the stator coil as shown
^ Fig. 3.28. Here F lp, the peak value of the sine m.m.f. wave for a 2-pole machine is given by
...(3.53 6)
Fin-*' ^ ATs per pole
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This peak m.m.f., F lp is always aligned along the magnetic axis of the coil.
If i is alternating current, then peak value of the fundamental sine componen(.
accordance with i. That is when i is zero, F Xp is zero, when i is maximum, F Xp is . Vafies jn
so on. When i = Imax = V21, then time maximum of the peak m.m.f. for a 2-pole machi and
4ATV2/ neis-
F'\pm — ATs per pole
71
•■•(3.54)
and for a P-pole machine,
4 NV27
F 1pm ATs per pole
71
(3-55)
3.6.2. M .m .f. o f distributed w indings. Fig. 3.29 (a) depicts three full-pitched •
distributed winding on the stator and Fig. 3.29 (6) illustrates the develoneH
developed view of_r.S?. °f
(a). Each coil has Nc turns and each turn carries i amperes.
ww sheet
w.E
asy (a )
En (6 )
gin
Fig. 3.29. Pertaining to the m.m.f. produced by (a) a distributed winding and (b ) an equivalent current sheet
By referring to Fig. 3.28 (6) and (c), the m.m.f. variation due to coil 1 ,1 ' alone is seen tobe
eer
a rectangular wave of amplitude ± ±NCi as shown in Fig. 3.29 (c-i). Similarly, the m.m.f. varia
ing
tions due to coils 2, 2 and 3 ,3 are as shown in Fig. 3.29 ic-ii) and (c-iii) respectively, The
combined m.m.f. produced by the three coils can be obtained by summing up the ordinates of
the individual coil m.m.fs. For example to the left of ccil-side 1, the combined m.m.f. is
.ne
- 3 /2 Nc i, between the coil-sides 1 and 2 the combined m.m.f. is —^ N c i, between the coil-sides
2 and 3 the combined m .m .f is + ~ N c i, between coil-sides 3 and 1' the combined m.m.f. is
3 /2 Nc i and so on. This resultant m.m.f. variation along the air-gap periphery is depicted in
Fig. 3.29 (c-ii»). It should be noted that the effect of winding distribution has changed the shape
t
of the m.m.f. wave, from rectangular to stepped.
When the machine has more than three slots per pole per phase, as is usually the case, the
steps are neglected and m.m.f. variation is taken as smooth over these slots. As a consequence,
stepped m.m.f. wave changes to trapezoidal m.m.f. wave as shown in Fig. 3.29 (c-iv).
The smooth variation of m.m.f. over 3 slots per pole per phase in Fig. 3.29 (c) m a y be as
sumed to be produced by a uniformly distributed current sheet placed on the inner periphery0]
the stator as shown in Fig. 3.29 (d). The current sheet is, therefore, a thin strip of conducting
material attached to the stator and is used here to replace the uniformly distributed wiping'
the slots ofFig. 3.29 (a). In other words, the m.m.f. produced by uniformly distributed™"
® f ° , F'g ,3 '29 (<0 'S Identical, in all respects, with the m.m.f. produced by unlfo? . nthe
tnbuted Winding of Fig. 3.29 (a). If the distributed winding in the slots is on the rotor, then t
umtormly distributed current sheet would be wrapped around the rotor accordingly.
Trapezoidal
m m f w ave
ww
w.E
N o rth p o le
asy
- S o u t h p o le
(c )
N o rth p o le -
En
F ig . 3 .2 9 . D evelop ed dia gram and m .m .f. w a v e o f the m a ch in e o f F ig. 3 .2 9 (a).
Actually, the m.m.f. distribution along the air-gap periphery depends on the nature of slots,
gin
winding and the exciting current. In case the m.m.f. produced by uniformly distributed winding
is sinusoidally distributed in space, then the equivalent current sheet must also be sinusoidally
distributed in space.
eer
In Fig. 3.29 (a), the total ampere conductors in the band covering an angle o are 3Nci and,
—— - ( = —J a) of Fig. 3.29 (c), can therefore be obtained as illustrated in Fig. 3.30 (a) by a
2 2 .ne
Trapezoidal
m m f w a ve [ /
F u n d a m e n ta l
comp.
M a g n e tic
a xis S in u s o id a l
t •
current i. 2
\ sheet 7 i
/
j
J
-9 0 -
S in u s o id a l'
m m f w ave
M a g n e lic J
axis o f - ^ * 1 (b)
cu rren t sheet
(a)
Fig. 3.30. (a) M.m.f. from current-sheet concept for Fig. 3.29 (c).
(b) M.m.f. wave produced by a sinusoidal current sheet.
•
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ww
current density is The amplitude of magnetic
. 1 1 ., •
w.E
potential difference across each gap is 2
asy
The Fourier-series analysis of trapezoidal m.m.f. wave
of Fig. 3.30 (c), gives the peak value of the fundamental
M a g n e tic
a x is of y
c u r r e n t sheet
sine-component as,
sin o /2 ( 1 w En (c)
Fig. 3.30. (c ) M.m.f. wave produced by
F ATs per pole
gin
N p h s e r ie s tu rn s distributed over an
n o /2 2 ph a n g le a .
N.ph
= * *■
ATs/pole
eer ...(3.56)
ing
For F Xp, the subscripts 1 and p stand for fundamental and peak respectively.
Note that the effect of distributing the turns in the various slots, has resulted in the intro
duction of breadth factor kd in Eq. (3.56). If the winding is fractional-pitch winding, then the
coil-span factor^ must also be introduced ; modifying the peak value of the m.m.f. given b> Eq .ne
(3.56) as,
4
F iP = - k d k
N
knp - 12— ATs/pole
t
k —^ —- ATs/pole.
7 1 “’
...(3.57 0)
For P-pole machine, F, = z k ATs/pole
n P
As the fundamental component of m m.f. is a sine wave as shown in Fig- 3.30 (cM
tion of m.m.f. Fol along the air gap periphery can be expressed as
F - z4 l N z_ph__ i ■ J3-57 ^
a] _n K ,i>
... pn cos a = F Xp cos a
where a is measured from the magnetic axis of current sheet.
iiiMf*P
Note that Eq. (3.53 a) gives the space fundamental distribution of m.m.f- aI<^ ft) is th‘‘
periphery for a single full-pitched Af-turn coil having 2 poles, whereas
modified form of Eq. (3.53 or) for a distributed F-polc winding having Nph acr,c8
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If the winding carries sinusoidal alternating current, then at the instant i = 0, F Ip = 0 and
*’hen i = Iniai>F\p *s a^so maximum. Thus the time maximum of the peak m.m.f. for a 2-pole
machine is
flote that the axis of F lp is always along the magnetic axis of distributed winding or along
the magnetic axis of the current sheet as shown in Fig. 3.30.
The field winding in a cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine is distributed in rotor slots as
shown in Fig. 3.7 (6) for a 2-pole machine. The number of turns per slot can be varied in order
tominimise the harmonics in the field flux waveform. Like the armature winding mmf given
ww
byEq. (3.59), the peak value of fundamental mmf wave Fy produced by field winding in a P-pole
machine can be expressed as
w.E
Fv = ^
eer
(ii) only the fundamental sine component of trapezoidal m.m.f. wave is considered.
ing
The time origin of current in single-phase winding is taken at the instant current is positive
and maximum as shown in Fig. 3.31 (a). At a)/! = 0, i j = / max and the m.m.f. waveform along the
air-gap periphery is sinusoidal with a peak value of Fpl (= Fm) proportional to maximum cur
rent Imaz. At cof2, the current in single-phase winding is i2 and the m.m.f. waveform is again
.ne
sinusoidal with a peak value
.
proportional to *2, see Fig. 3.31. Note that the peaks Fpi> FP2
. . K .
are always along the axis of single-phase winding. At otf3 = —, i3 = 0 and therefore no m.m.f. is
St
produced. At a = 7t, i4 = - Iniax and m.m.f. waveform is sinusoidal with peak - Fpi as shown. If the
t
8Pace angle a along the air-gap periphery is measured from the axis of single-phase winding as shown,
toenm.m.f. Fj at any space angle a can be expressed as
F, =F pi cos a
^ with current variations *,, i2, i3 ■■■ ■ But the currents i,, i2, i3 ... vary sinusoidally with
^•consequently the m.m.fs Fpl, Fp2, Fp3... must also vary sinusoidally with time.
m m
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K -< r - A !
ww
w.E (6 )
Fig. 3.31. P ertain ing to pu lsatin g m .m .f. p rod u ced b y s in g le -p h a s e distributed winding.
fimum nositive
maximum positive value.
asy
In Fig. 3.31 (a), the time origin of current i is taken at the instant of its passing through
value Therefore, at (»f x= 0, ix = Imax-
This gives peak value of m.m.f. at instant fj as
En
Fp « (single-phase winding turns) (Jmax COS (Ofx)
In Eq. (3.60 (b)\ F3 is zero because at cof3 = ~ , current is zero. An examination of Eq.$-60
(6)) reveals that a general expression for the stationary (or standing) pulsating m.m.f- 'vav' ’
tirmc aS8 d*stributed winding carrying alternating current, can be expr°s
terms of both tune angle mf and space angle a as, f)
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In Eqs. 3.60 (6) and (c), Fm is the m.m.f. per pole corresponding to the maximum current
j ^ and is equal to F ipm as given by Eq. (3.58) for a 2-pole machine or by Eq. (3.59) for a P-pole
machine. In Eq. (3.60 (c)), the term cos oof indicates that m.m.f. varies cosinusoidally (or
sinu soid ally) with time and the term cos a denotes its cosinusoidal, or sinusoidal, distribution
jnSpace along the air-gap periphery.
In order to give physical significance to Eq. (3.60 (c)), the reader should assume himselfTherself
seated at a = 0°, i.e. on the axis of the single-phase winding in Fig 3.31 (6). Now at time t = 0,
inf= 0 and the m.m.f. seen by the reader, as per Eq. (3.60 (c)) is maximum (cos a = cos 0° = 1). As
the time progresses, ait changes and the m.m.f seen by the reader also changes. At oii = 60°, the
reader sitting at a = 0° sees — Fm ; at arf = 90°, the m.m.f. seen is zero ; at arf = 180°, the m.m.f.
seen is - F m and at (of = 270°, m.m.f. seen is zero. This shows that the reader seated at a = 0° on
the axis of single-phase winding, where cos a is always unity, comes across an m.m.f. pulsating
between + Fm and - Fm. Suppose the reader is sitting at 60° away from the phase axis, i.e. at
o
ww
a = 60°, then at cof = 0°, the m .m.f seen by the reader is Fm cos 0° cos 60° = - F m and at
w.E
*
a)f = 180°, the mmf seen is - ^ Fm. Thus the m.m.f. seen by the reader at a = 60° is again pulsating
between + - Fm and - ^ Fm, but he/she can never see maximum m.m.f Fm. If the reader is sitting
asy
at a = 90°, the m.m.f. seen by the reader is always zero for all times to come, because cos 90° is
always zero.
3.6.3.
En
Current-sheet Concept. Concept of current sheet has already been introduced in
Fig. 3.30. It may be summed up that current sheet
gin
(i) is a thin strip of conducting material carrying current in the dot and cross directions,
(ii) is wrapped around the stator or rotor and
eer
(im ) develops m.m.f identical to that produced by the winding it replaces.
It is also observed from Art. 3.6.2 that
ing
(а) uniformly distributed winding having larger number of slots per pole can be replaced by
an uniformly distributed current sheet,
.ne
t
(б) uniform current sheet produces trapezoidal m.m.f wave and
(c) sinusoidal current sheet gives birth to sinusoidal m.m.f wave leading it by 90°.
The object of this part of the article is to develop a relation between the current sheet and
associated m .m .f For this purpose, consider a sinusoidal current sheet producing a
sinusoidal m .m.f wave as shown in Fig. 3.32 (a). Note that sine-current sheet lags the sine-
0-m.f. wave by 90°, as per Fig. 3.30 (b).
The sinusoidal current sheet with peak value A amp per metre length of air-gap periphery
'■an be expressed as J
J = A s i n a amp/m
re a is any angle measured from the origin of current sheet.
Now consider a differential element d 0mat an angle 9 from the origin as shown in Fig. 3.32.
Peripheral width of differential element = r dQm, see Fig. 3.32 (6).
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Si nus o
mmf w a v
Space
angle,*
ww D
Here r = rotor radius = —
eer
Note that m.m.f. per pole at any angle dependsupon b“
one pole-pitch apart. This means that m.m.f. at mgl th. m.m.f
current contained in the angular spread of it rad'an^Thus for det * ated from ato
any angle a, Fig. 3.32 (a) the current expression o fE q .(3 .6 1 )
a + n. As m.m.f. crosses the air-gap twice, m.m.f. t (oc) or tne magneuc p ing
difference
=
^ s i n 0 •d 0 = ^
cos a ATs/pole
| - c o s 0 |“
t ...(3.62)
It is seen from Fig. 3.32 (o) that peak value of m.m.f. Fp occurs at a = 0. Therefore,
( 3 -62)> jn ...(3.63)
FP = F (a) la=0 = ' p “ ATs/pole
Fp = - J (pole pitch)
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(a). The angle subtended by 5 slots is a = 5 y = 5 x -yjy = 60°. The slots of phase a are numbered
ww
1, 2 ,... 5 and 1 , 2 , ... 5 . For double-layer winding, each slot contains 2 coil-sides or 2 Nc con
ductors. Slots pertaining to phases b and c are also shown. Note that sequence of phase belts is
w.E
a c b a cb clockwise and each belt has phase spread a of 60 degrees electrical. Current flow in
coil-sides is indicated by dots and crosses.
Developed view of Fig. 3.33 (a) is shown in Fig. 3.33 (b). For any closed path around slot 1, the
asy
total current enclosed is 2 Nc i ampere conductors, therefore magnetic potential difference across each
gap is — (2 Nc ij = Nc ■i. Thus, the m.m.f. variation ffom - Nc i to + Nc i is shown at the middle of slot
En
1 in Fig. 3.33 (ci). Like slot 1, the m.m.f variation for slot 1' is from + Nc i to - Nc i as shown. Thus,
gin
m.m.f variation for coil 11' is of rectangular waveform with amplitude ± Nc i. Similarly, the rectan
gular m.m.f. waveforms of amplitude ± Nc i are sketched for the coils 22', ..., 55' in Fig. 3.33 (c ii) to
eer
Fig. 3.33 (c v). The combined m.m.f. produced by 5 coils is obtained by adding the ordinates of the
individual coil m.m.fs. The resultant m.m.f. waveform shown in Fig. 3.33 (c vi) consists of a series
ing
.ne
t
Fig. 3.33. (a) A 3-phase, 2-pole stator with double-layer winding having 5 slots per pole per phase.
c b
-A -
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
North
“ pole
■South pole
..
* t
North
pole
(c)
Fig. 3.33. Pertaining to Example 3.19. (6) developed view o f Fig. 3.33 (a) and (c) m.m.f. wavefo
M before, the resultant m.mT. waveform of Fig. 3.33 (c vi) can be resolved into fundamental
,„ d a senes of odd harmon.cs. The peak value of fundamental sine component is
CT
8in 2
[5 N c i] = £ . kd [5 N c i] A T /pole
7T o /2 - ' /I - -
For Ac = 4, / m = < 2 x 2 0 A. This gives the maximum value (h e re /max is used) of the peak
of resultant m.m.f. wave as
60
sin
f 1pm ~ • [5 x 4 V2 x 20] = 687.687 AT/pole
30 x
180
R.m.s. value of this peak is given by
4 3
F \P = ~ ~ • (5 x 4 x 20] = 486.342 AT/pole.
w.E
n case this machine has 300 full-pitched turns with phase current o f 24 A, then calculate
[a) peak amplitude o f the m.m.f. wave
3 s /T h ^ r n r r J f 6 asy
(b) peak as well as r.m.s. value o f the fundamental m .m .f wave.
beltS ° f a 2'Pole>3'Phase machine are shown as ac' b a' cb ’ in Fig.
Likewise
•" a
* k
° !? Sh° r En
“ as™ med towards the reader and is therefore indicated by dot.
y Cr° SS- 11,8 m m f variation due to uniform current
currenTih A
gin
T *7 refernne to FiS- 3 -30 (a). The m.m.f. is zero at the middle of
current sheet and vanes uniformly over the spread of phase-belts. In between the phase-belts
varifrionThus^btalnldhasT11 'fcU£ bp
eer
is Positive *this ^ as expected. The m.m.f.
van at ion thus obtained has trapezoidal waveform as shown in Fig. 3.34.
(a) Peak value of uniform current density
J= <21
phase spread of one belt ing
300
Series turns per phase, Nph = —^ = 1 00
3 .ne
Phase spread, a = 60°
... J 100 X V2~x 24 2400 x 3 x <2
AT/rad
t
60 x
180
‘ 1 2400 x 3 x V2 n
= - X Q
2 n J
= 1200 x <2 = 1696.8 ATs/pole.
Peak value o f fundamental m.m.f. wave, from Eq. (3.56), is
. o
sin
• [Peak value of trapezoidal m.m.f. wave]
a/2
60
sm
2 [1200 x V2] = 2063 06 ATs/pole
30 * 180
r — F
R.m.s. value of the fundamental m.m .f. wave - ^ Xpm
_ ww n n
, M m f waveform of commutator m achines. The armature winding of all the com-
3.6.4. M anX wav because of the necessity of commutator action. Fig. 3.35 (a) il-
mutator machin
w.E
lustrates the cross-sec *
ourent dtrechons are showri by
p
- mutator machine of both a.c. and d.c. types. In this figure,
d d ts
^
direction of current in any conductor is in one
of current * it gets reversed, see Art.
asy
j T l t a t o direction of current as shown under each pole, remains unaltered despite Uie rotor
Z
En
movement The m.m.f. established by the armature currents is always perpendicuW tothe a.aia.Seld
aTrfmwn Since the current direction under each pole remains unaltered the uadoraily dis-
gin
rtbuted armature winding of Fig. 3.35 (a), may be replaced by a uniformly distributed oarenWiert
wrapped around the rotor as shown in Fig. 3.35 (6). Now according to the current sheet concept, all
eer
rnecoWuTtors under each pole are equivalent to a u n i f o r m l y totnbutodsuigle
the whole current under each pole. The developed diagram of Fig. 3.35 (6) is shovm in Fig. 3.35 (c),
ing
where current sheet with cross is shown positive and that with dot is shown negative.
If the total number of armature conductors is Z, then for a P-pole machine,
under each pole are ZIP. For a conductor current it, the total current u n i f o r m
.ne
under each pole is {ZIP) iz. Since the spread of each pole is equivalent to n electrica ra ians,
ly distnnnea
J=-
1 zp iz Ampere conductors per electrical rad.
Current
t
A rm a tu re sheet
m a g n e t ic a x is
or q- a x is
M a in field
a x is o r
D ire c t
a x is
(Q) (6 )
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Art. 3.61 www.EasyEngineering.net
i ? ± C o n c ! pt! r f R ^ , , in(! FJ(ctr.cj|
Machines 299
— 3 -r
J '" : ; U n ifo rm , ,
c u rr e n t lc >
sh e e t
— (d )
ww
w.E q -a x is d - a x is q -a x is d -a x is
Fig 3.35. (c) and (d). Pertaining to the m.m.f. wave produced by
the current sheet of a commutator machine.
q - a x is
asy
By referring to Fig. 3.30 (a), the m.m.f. wave produced by the constant current sheet in Fig.
3.35 (c) is seen to be a triangular m.m.f. wave*. If i is the total current at the armature ter
En
minals, then for a parallel paths, i / a is the current in each conductor. Since the commutator
winding has a phase spread of o = n radians, the peak of the triangular m.m.f. wave, as per Fig.
3.30 (c) and Eq. 3.64, is given by
-1 Jr o = "1
1Z 1 gin
2 2
\
nP a
—2
n
eer
ing
* I n o r d e r to s h o w t h a t t h e m .m .f. p r o d u c e d in F ig . 3 .3 5 (c) is a t r ia n g u la r m .m .f. w a v e , o n e m a y p ro c e e d
a s f o llo w s :
.ne
C o n s i d e r t h e d o t t e d c lo s e d p a t h 1 in F ig . 3 .3 5 (c), w h ic h e x t e n d s o n e p o le - p itc h fro m o n e 17- a x is to th e
a d ja c e n t 9 - a x is . S i n c e t h e c u r r e n t e n c lo s e d b y p a t h 1 is in d ic a t e d b y d o t, t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t e n c lo s e d is - - or
P a
is ^ ^ — 0 r \ j n a n d t h i s is p lo t t e d a s s h o w n in F ig . 3 .3 5 (d ). N o te t h a t ^
2 r a & 2, r a
B a n d n e g a t i v e u n d e r b r u s h A, t h is is in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h r ig h t - h a n d g r ip r u le , s e e F ig . 3 .2 8 (a ).
t
Jn a m p e r e s . T h i s p a t h t r a v e r s e s t h e a i r g a p t w ic e , t h e r e f o r e , th e m a g n e t ic p o te n tia l d iff e r e n c e a c r o s s e a c h g a p
— is s h o w n a s p o s itiv e u n d e r b r u s h
N o w co n sid e r a n oth er path 2 , exten din g one pole-pitch again, n /4 radians away from both the 9 -axes a s
3 Z i 3n ,
sh o w n . T h e t o t a l c u r r e n t e n c l o s e d is — — — w i t h d o t s a n d - 7 ; - |= w it h c r o s s e s . T h u s th e n e t
4 r a =T
* 1 , . Z i [3 n = — - a n d t h e m a g n e t i c p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e a c r o s s e a c h g a p is
c u r r e n t e n c lo s e d is — -
P a 4 4 2 Pa
\ Z i t k ' ; t h i s is p lo t t e d a c c o r d i n g ly in F ig . 3 .3 5 (d). F o r p a t h 3 . e x t e n d in g fr o m o n e d - a x is to th e a d ja c e n t
4 Pa - 7 v
d-axis, t h e c u r r e n t e n c l o s e d is £ w i t h d o t s a n d s a m e c u r r e n t is e n c lo s e d w i t h c r o s s e s , t h e n e t c u r r e n t
e n clo se d , t h e r e f o r e , is z e r o . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e m a g n e t ic p o t e n t i a l d iff e r e n c e a c r o s s e a c h g a p is z e r o a s s h o w m
A lin e p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e s e p lo t t e d p o in t s g i v e s t r i a n g u l a r m .m .f. w a v e w i t h it s p e a k v a l u e e q u a l to
1 2 * f= - «/) B u t J - - - ~ a n d t h i s g i v e s a g a i n t h e s a m e p e a k v a l u e o f t r i a n g u l a r m .m .f. w a v e a s .
2P 2 | nP a
nJ (\ Z i } 1Z i ...(3 .6 5 o)
2 n Pa 2 Pa
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300 Electrical M a c h in e r y .
_ AT/pole
"2 Pa F
, • a the Deak of the triangular m.m.f. wave becomes A . i
For a dc commutator ma ^ ^ ^ armature terminals. For a single phase com-
_Z 1 — AT per pole, where / is the r.m.s. value of the total armature current.
ww
w.E
^ ^ p ^ f° r 3 Single' PhaSe C° mmUtat0r ^ ;
[Fig. 3.35 (d)] is
' ” 8^2 . ^
E . — AT/pole
AT/Dole -(3 67)
F -A
° n2 2P
asy
Here also W is the total number of a r m a tu r e ih m ^ the armature
In a dc machine, armature currenti oas
wave for a d.c. machine remains con , ; En
mude and.doesnot depend on the armature
tb armature m.m.f. wave, uneffected by
speed. In case of single-phas,^commutator machine, the^a -mat
gin
ponent, coincide with the brush axis or g-axis. eer ^ two poles
Halong
1^air_goP
N peripniU
Uniform
c u r r e n t sheet
Armature
m m f wove
(/)
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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 301
A * ill
and armature winding around its periphery, the m.m.f. and magnetic circuit conditions under
one pole-pair repeat under the next pole-pair.
3 ,7 . Rotating Magnetic Field
When balanced polyphase currents flow in balanced polyphase windings, a rotating mag
field is produced. In other words, all polyphase a.c. machines are associated with rotating
netic
magnetic fields in their air-gaps. Consequently, a knowledge of the rotating field produced by
a polyphase winding is essential for understanding the theory of polyphase ac machines such
as polyphase synchronous and induction machines. As three-phase machines are more com
t .
mon, attention will primarily be focussed on the production of rotating field in these machines.
For a 3-phase machine, the three windings are displaced from each other by 120 electrical !! .
space degrees along the air-gap periphery. Fig. 3.36 (a) illustrates a 2-pole 3-phase stator wind *!
:
ing. Note that each phase is distributed or spread over 60° electrical (called phase-spread a),
under each pole. For convenience, the three-phase winding a, b, c is represented by three full
ww
pitched coils, aa\ bb\ cc' as illustrated in Fig. 3.36 (6). For instance, the concentrated full-
pitched coil aa' represents phase a winding in all respects. A current in phase a winding estab i
■i i
lishes magnetic flux directed along the magnetic axis of coil aa'. Positive currents are assumed
w.E
to be flowing as indicated by crosses in coil-sides a', b', c'. It means that when phase a alone
carries positive current, the flux produced by this phase is directed horizontally from left to
right - if phase a current is negative, the flux produced is directed horizontally from right to
asy
left. The three-phase currents flowing in the three-phase windings, are varying sinusoidally
with time as depicted in Fig. 3.36 (c). In order to have better physical insight into the production
.ne
P h a s e ‘a ’
w inding
t
I I I
A t
I 'A
'P y
- j.
- -.- I !
' • • j
a•
1
Fig. 3.36, (a) 3-phase winding space displaced by 120 degrees electrical, from each other,
(b) 3-coils aa', bb’, cc' represent three-phase winding and (c) 3-phase instantaneous currents. 1
I
1 '*** i
■
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302 _________________________________________________
Electrical M achinery
d lls in coil-sides V.<f. Right hand grip rule gives the distribution of flux at instant 1, as shown
in Fig. 3.37 (a). Note that two poles are created on the stator. At instant 2, i„ = - * =, - = and
i =_ / Therefore, crosses most be shown in coil-sides a’ b' and c [Fig. 3^37 (b)\ and the resul-
0 .* ’ . fn„ nj tn as shown in Fig. 3.37 (b). Note that two poles are created
!“ u » " ° o nf the resultant flux has turned clockwise through 60 electrical degrees in
ww
space. At instant 3, i_ = - ' f , i„ = K and Therefore, the crosses and dots are as shown
in Fig 3 37 (c) and the 2 poles produced by the resultant flux are seen to have turned through
w.E
r f W fin P prtrical soace degrees. At other instants of time, i.e. as the time elapses, the two
poles rotate further. In this manner, a rotating magnetic field is produced. Note that the space
anrie traversed by rotating flux is equal to the time angle traversed by currents. In one cycle,
asy
the two piles musl come to the position indicated in Fig. 3.37 (a). Thus m a 2-pole machme, the
A x i s of
r e s u lt a n t
v
*“\ ^ - l n s t a n t 2
En
gin
eer
ing
(b)
Fig. 3.37. Production o f rotating magnetic field illustrated by magnetic flux plot, .ne
rotating field travels a distance covered by two poles (i.e. two pole pitches) m one cycle. For a
_
4-pole mm
machine, .i
the i t•
rotating /* 1J __ ill i.
field will travel1 a distance
J-I ni a n/nimt'Qr]
covered by ftwo
Wfl T”) fll P.S.
poles, i.e. ^a
t 4A/2
/O y
vered by
revolution in one cycle. For a 6-pole machine, the rotating field will travel a distance cov
. l f — 1 revolution in one cycle and so on. This thought process reveals
two poles, i.e., —
6/2
l . i d therefore
the rotating field speed, for a P-pole machine, is revolution in one cycle a
:• fm
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M - WQf
or " “ ~p r-P-in. U 3m
The speed at which rotating magnetic field revolves is called the synchronous speed.
The graphical analysis presented above brings out clearly the production of rotating mag
neticfield, but it fails to establish that the magnitude of rotating flux remains constant at all
instants of time. The graphical analysis given below, proves this fact.
Graphical analysis-space phasor representation. When phase a alone carries cur
rent, an m.m.f. is established along its magnetic axis. Neglecting space harmonics, the m.m.f.
issinusoidally distributed along the air-gap periphery. Further, phase a m.m.f. wave is station
ary but pulsating in nature. For convenience, this sinusoidally distributed m.m.f. is repre
sented by a space phasor Fa directed along the axis of phase a. Note that the magnitude of Fa
is proportional to current ia and is directed from left to right with positive ia and from right to
left with negative ia (Fig. 3.38). In other words, the space phasor Fa is oscillating along the axis
ww
of phase a. Same state of affairs exist, when phase b alone or phase c alone carry currents.
When currents ia, ib, ic flow in their respective phase windings, then the three stationary pul
w.E
sating m .m .fs. Fa, F b,F c combine to give the resultant m.m.f. FR which is rotating at
synchronous speed.
asy
©c\
En
J A
'1 I ^R=2Fnri
gin
R2 m eer
p --1 F
..
(a) (b)
ing C (c)
Fig. 3.38. Production of rotating magnetic field illustrated by space phasor m.m.fs.
For obtaining the resultant m.m.f., refer to Fig. 3.36 (c). At the instant 1, the cunent in phase
a is positive and mt ximum, i.e. ia = Im. This current sets up maximum m.m.f. Fnl [ = F lpm of Eq. .ne
(3.59)] in phase a. This m.m.f. Fmis represented in Fig. 3.38 (a) by space phasor Fa = F malong the
axis of phase a. At the same instant, ih = ic = - y and these are indicated by crosses in coil-sides
t
b, c and dots in coil-sides b\ c'. The m.m.f. phasors Fb and Fc are along their respective magnetic
. . . I,n .
axis, but are in the negative direction as shown in Fig. 3.38 (a). Since ib = ic = - the magnitude
of both Fb and F c is equal to Fm/ 2. The resultant of m.m.fs. Fa,F b, Fc in Fig. 3.38 (a) is FR and its
magnitude is given by
Note that at instant 1, current in phase a is maximum and the resultant m.m.f. FR = ^ Fm,
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to ^ in magnitude, are along their respective magnetic axis in the positive d„ec„0„ ^
At instant 3, ia = *c = “ jjT and Ife = Inr The m m f PhaSors F°' Ff>, Fc are as shown in Fig. 3 3g
3 .
(c) and the amplitude of resultant m.m.f. FR is again ^ Fm directed along phase 6-axis. In other
words, the resultant m.m.f. has turned through a further space angle of 60° from its position
ww
occupied at instant 2. At other instants of time, i.e. as the time passes, the resultant m mf.
revolves further, but its amplitude remains equal to ^ Fm. In this manner a constant-amplitude
w.E
rotating m.m.f. or rotating field is produced in the air-gap of a three-phase machine.
asy
Note that at instant 3, current in phase b is maximum and the resultant m.m.f. FR= - F„
is directed along the axis of phase 6 . It may be summarised from above that resultant m.m.f.
2
3
En
1 > 1
FR = - F m(or peak o f rotating m.m.f. wave) is directed along the axis o f that phase which carries
£
gin
the maximum current at that instant. Fig. 3.38 reveals that rotating m.m.f. revolves from phase
a towards phase 6 and then phase c in case the phase sequence of supply currents is abc. A
eer
reversal of the phase sequence of supply currents will reverse the direction of rotation of the
resultant m.m.f. wave.
ing
The speed of this rotating field, as shown above, is given by Eq. (3.68) or Eq. (3.69).
Sinusoidal rotating mmf wave creates in-phase sinusoidal rotating flux-density wave inthe
air gap. With negligible reluctance of the iron path, the peak value of B -wave is given by
.ne
t
to fu 3 d
8 2 gP
The resultant mmf FR crosses one air-gap length g. The expression for the flux per pole
rotating at synchronous speed, from Eq. (3.11), is given by
a = — . /. r ^ MoFm _ 6 Fm
e . . p 2 * =P ~ J ~
Substituting the value of Fm from Eq. (3.59), the expression for the fundamental flux pe-
pole is given by
- ^ 2 .3 7(n
M or lk,„NphI '3 ™
The nux given by Eq. <3.70) ie total (lux per pole rotating at synchronous speed.
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f B a s ic C o n c e p t s o f R o t a t in g E le c t r i c a l M a c h in e s 305
---------------------------------------------------------------
. foregoing analysis can be extended to show that a rotating m.m.f. wave of constant
| jjtude Fm is produced by two phase currents flowing in two-phase winding. In general,
^hase currents flowing in m-phase winding results in a rotating m.m.f. wave of constant
fft'P fj7
mplitude equal to F m. Note that F m is the maximum m.m.f. of any one phase when current
mrresponding to maximum current Im and its value is given by Eq. (3.59). If this value o fF m is
3 •
substituted in FR = — Fm, then the amplitude of rotating m.m.f. wave, in terms o f series turns
ww
per phase N p/„ r.m.s. current I etc., is given by
^ 3 „ 3 Nphl Am y ,
4^2 ,
F r = g F>» = 2 T " W~P~' ATS/P° le
w.E = 3
n r
ATs/pole -( 3 .7 1 a )
=2
.7
asy k
,^A
Ts/pole -'3 .7 1 A)
- 0.90 m ATs/pole
eer ...(3.72 6)
ing
In the foregoing analysis, only the fundamental component of the m.m.f. produced by each
phase of a 3-phase winding has been considered. If the space harmonics are also taken into
account in the single phase m.m.f. waves, then the resultant m.m.f. produced by 3-phase cur
rents flowing in three phase windings, will consist of the following components :
(t) Constant amplitude fundamental m.m.f. wave rotating in the air-gap at synchronous .ne
speed.
(ii) Space harmonics of the order of 3, 9, 15...... i.e. triplen harmonics are absent.
(iii) Fifth harmonic m.m.f. wave— sinusoidally distributed in space with its amplitude con
t
stant and equal to one-fifth of that of the fundamental component. Constant amplitude fifth
harmonic m.m.f. wave rotates in a direction opposite to that of the fundamental component and
at a speed of one-fifth of that of the fundamental synchronous speed.
(iv) Seventh harmonic m.m.f. wave-sinusoidally distributed in space with its amp itude
constant and equal to one-seventh of that of the fundamental component. Constant amplitude
•- seventh harmonic m.m.f. wave rotates in the direction of the fundamental component and at a
speed equal to one-seventh of that of the fundamental synchronous speed.
In general it may be stated for nth harmonic m.m.f. waves that these are sinusoidally
distributed in space with their constant amplitude [refer to Eq. (3.71 6)] equal to
- 1 In n J. N p h ] _ A T s /p o le
2.7 kwn
F"~~n
I is the constant amplitude o f nth harmonic component and kwn is the winding factorfor-nth
\ harmonic. Note that n can be equal to 6k ± 1 only, where k is an integer 1, 2, 3 Space
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harmonics of the order of 6* + 1 (7, 1 3 ,1 9 ....... ) have them constant amplitude equal to? ^
amplitude equal to ^ F t and rotate in a direction oppos.te to that of the fundamental m.m.t
ww
by Eq. (3.57 (6)) as
4 N ph . n
v
where rpm~K
_ 1 . Kw
b • p •Ixmax gin ...(u’i)
eer
Eq. («) is the same as Eq.(3.60 c) and F m as given by Eq. iiii) is equal to F lpmof Eq. (3.59).
ing
As stated earlier, F m is the m.m.f. per pole correspondingto maximum current 7max. As exciting
current varies, magnitude of F m also varies accordingly, but its axis remains along the magnetic
axis of single-phase winding.
In Ea. (ii), cos a indicates that m.m.f. is sinusoidally distributed in space along the air-gap
.ne
periphery and cos (tit implies that m.m.f. amplitude varies sinusoidally in time at frequency (o
as shown in Fig. 3.31 (b ).
By using the trigonometric identity, cos a cos b = ^ cos (a - b ) + ^r cos (a + b), Eq. Ui) can be
Z Z
t
re-written in the form
t-i 1 tx 1 " (iv)
F al = 2 m C° S ~ ^ + 2 F m C° S ((X +
= Ff + F b
Here F f= ^ F m cos (a - (tit) represents a rotating m.m.f. wave travelling in the forvva
(positive a) direction at synchronous speed (o. The other com ponen t^ = | F nl sin {(& + « ) als
a rotating m.m.f. wave but travelling in the backward (negative a) direction at synch*0,101
1 v nf the
speed co. The amplitude of both Fyand F b is ± F in which is half of the amplitude 01
z
sating m.m.f. wave.
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Pulsoting
mmf
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
A physical picture of the two counter-rotating m.m.f. waves can be gained from Fig. 3.39, where
ingle-phase winding is represented by one coil aa on stator. When i = Imax at cut - 0, amplitude ot
t
F ig . 3 .3 9 . T o ta l m .m .f. o f s in g le -p h a s e w in d in g re so lv e d in to tw o c o u n te r -r o ta tin g m .m .f w aves.
n.m.f. is Fm along the axis of single-phase winding as shown in Fig. 3.39 (a). The m.m.f. Fm is
esolved into Ff = F b = ^ F m as shown. Both forward and backward m.m.f. waves travel at
ynchronous speed in opposite directions. At angle wth i = •cos <of,, pulsating m.m.f.
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108 Electrical Machinery ~~
----------------------- T T T ^ s i n g l c - p h a s c winding when excited by an alternating
It must be kept in mind that sing p waves. It always produces one stationarv nt
does not produce two counter-rotating • decomposition of the m.m.f. of a s in g ly ,* 'f
wave pulsating along its magnetic a . . . thi js a very important concept whirl, u
winding into two counter-rotatmg n tn rr w a v ^ _ P wh)ch ^
in the understand,ng of a , , e l ^ t r . c a ' mach.nery „ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
E xam ple 3.22. A sm8 le'pf ° ? * " I " ? 1''decom posed in to tw o cou n ter rotating
one pulsating m.m.f. wave w ' concept to p rove that a rotatin g magnetic field of"**
currents. • .
Solution. A three-phase rotating electrical machine is woundI with three windingsQ fc c
displaced from each other by a space angle of 120 as shown in Fig. 3.36 (&)• Consider that these
windings are excited respectively by three-phase balanced currents given by
ia = Lax C0S
ih = /««,, cos ( o y - 120°) ...Ii)
w.E
These m.m.fs are directed along the magnetic axis of phases a, b, c as indicated in Fig. 3.36
(6 ). For the currents given by Eq. (i ) and with the magnetic axis of 3-phase winding displaced
in space by 120°, the three m.m.fs Fa, Fh and Fc can be expressed mathematically as
36
asy
Fa = Fm cos a cos mt (CM Sf au
En
Fh = F,„ cos (a - 120°) cos (otf - 120°)
Ft = F,„ cos (a - 240°), cos (i»t - 240°)
H <*!>(<' ' V
k>
^
gin
Note that angle a is measured from the axis of phase a as shown in Fig. 3.36 (6). As in
Example 3.21, the pulsating m.m.f. of phase a canbe expressed as
eer
Fo = 2 F>n cos (« - orf) + | Fni cos (a + mt) ...(in
(i), ( i D X T m m f' F r (a’ ^ can be obtained by adding the three m.m.f.s given by Eq*
F r (a, t ) = F a + Fh + Fc
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^in.f sinusoids displaced in phase by 120°. Therefore, there sum must be zero, i.e.,
L-
» fr-
At (at = 0°, Fr (a, t) -j
At ww
(at = 45°, FR (u ,t) =
At (at = 90°,
w.E
F r (a., t ) = | Fm cos (a - 90°) = | Fm sin a I
asy
In the above three expressions for FR (a, t), put different values of a and plot these three
waves with a as the base. These waves are shown in Fig. 3.40 for different instants of time
i i
3
En
corresponding to 0°, 45° and 90°. It is seen from this graphical plot that m.m.f. wave is of con-
,
stant amplitude -= Fm and is travelling in the positive a direction at a speed determined by the
Z
time angular frequency (a.
gin
mmf tot=0
J u>i
Ut=45
wt*90
eer
Speed , cj
ing
.ne
Space
ongle,«t
t
D i r e c t i o n of
a. travelling wave
Thus the snace anele a in Eq. (vi) means that the m.m.f. wave at any moment is sinusoidally
spare thong the air-gap penphe^. Tke hme “ e S
•sveform is travelline alone the air-gap circumference at a constant angular w - Zitf electrical
(called s£>chronous speed). For a E-pole machine, the synchronous speed <o„.
^ E q . (3.3), is
o) = -| to = ^ rad/sec
u ,m p p
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3.7
310 Electrical M a c h i n e r y -------------------------------------------------------------------
^ros
or « . = p rPS
or N .^ r p m
(if)when oot = 120" and a = 120”, current 4 is maximum and peak oftravellmg m.m.f wave
is along the axis of phase 6 ; because, from Eq. (vi). F r = 2 F" C0S (12° ° " 12° ° ’ = 2 F"
m Similarly, when cot = 240” and a = 240”, peak of travelling m.m.f. wave ts aligned aloe*
is q bc
ww o 8'phase" he clockwise in Fig. 3.36 (6)1 when phase sequence of three-phase supply
w.E
Example 3.23. In a uniform air gap Inon-salienl pole) machine show that the space har
monics present in the rotating m.m.f. wave, generate only fundam ental frequency voltages in Ihe
stator winding.
Solution. Flux = m.m.f. x permeance asy
En
Neglecting magnetic saturation, the permeance offered to the magnetic flux is constant for
a uniform air-gap machine. Thus the flux is proportional to the m.m.f. In view of this, nth space
harmonic m.m.f. wave will produce nth space harmonic flux wave.
gin
Let the speed of the fundamental component of rotating flux wave be N sV Then speed of the
120
(Relative speed) (Poles P)
N s\P
= 120
t
Frequency of the generated e.m.f. in the stator winding, due to nth space harmonic rotating
m.m.f. wave having nP poles is given by
(Relative velocity ) ( Harmonic poles)
120
(nP)
n Nt l P
~120 ~ 120
This
ABMBtJ proves
| V l V T W O the
UIIVw required result.
1VwVj U I I t u 1CO U lt.
Example 3.24. Find the amplitude o f m.m.f. produced by a squirrel cage winding' ^
Solution. A squirrel cage winding, as described before, consists of one bar in each slot
these bars are short-circuited by end rings at both the sides. If rotor has S slots, then
S bars or 8 conductors. In effect S bars are equivalent to f phases, each phase having 1
^ll.pitched turn. Since the winding factor of single full-pitched turn is unity, the amplitude of
^ultant m.m.f. wave, from Eq. <3.72 b) is
F r = 0.90 | ATs/pole
= 0.45 ~ ATs/pole
ww
referring in Eq. '3 .6 0 c) as
Fa - Fm c o s oX c o s a .
w.E
Suppose the supply terminals to phases b and c are interchanged, then for phase b, the
space angle displacement remains at 120c, but time phase angle must now become 240° instead
asy
o f 120°. In other words., cos o X - ~ f o r phase b m . m . f ,
must be replaced by ccs u it
3
because supply terminals 6 and c arc^interchanged. In view of tnis, phase b m.m.f. Fh should
be written as
En 2*0
cos a - "7T
gin
Fh = Fm cos OX - —
3 3 J
> ^
m.m.f. as
Fc = Fm cos ( . 2nl
3”
COS f 4,0
a"T eer
v „
The resultant of three pulsating m.m.f. waves is
F r ( a , t) = Fa + Fb + Fc
^ /
ing
F rr cos ayt cos a + cos 03/ -
=•
4n
cos (la - ~T
2n ] cos 03/ -
2 jO
cos a -.ne4n
=
Fm
(cos (a - oX) + cos (a + aX) + cos (a - 03/ - 120
But cos (a + 03/ - 2rr) = cos (a + 031 ) and cos (a - 03/ + 120°) = cos (a - 03/ - 240°)
Fm
F r (a, t ) = — Icos (a - 03/) + cos (a + 01/) + cos (a - 03/ - 240°) + cos ( a + aX)
Celling in the negative a direction, Fig. 3 .41 (a). If the phases and c were not interchanged, b
***« the m.m.f. would travel in the positive a direction as depicted in Fig. 3.40.
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ww F ig. 3.41 P e r t a in in g to E x a m p le 3 .2 5 .
(/»
w.E
This proves that if any two supply terminals are interchanged, the amplitude o f rotating
field remains unaltered, but its direction of rotation is reversed.
asy
For graphical analysis, refer to Fig. 3.36 (c) and Fig. 3.38. At instant 1, ia = /,„, ih = ic = _ J£ Since
2
t/, and ic are interchanged, ih = ic = -
En'f,
and the resultant m.m.f. is directed along the phase a
e eri
of phases b and c are interchanged, current - f nows in phase winding c (indicated by cross in
i
c' and dot in c) and current - /,„ flows in phase winding 6 (indicated by dot in 6' and cross in b),
Fig. 3.41A b) As a result of it, the resultant m.m.f. wave is as shown in Fig. 3.41 (6). Note that ng.
the resultant m.m.f has rotated anti-clockwise through an angle of 60 electrical space degrees.
At instant 3, F R will travel further by an angle of 60 electrical space degrees. This shows that
f termi" a,T
S/ ° 3phase ™ d i n g are interchanged, the direction of rotating
n et
rotating m m f w I v p ^ ih ^upp teri^*na^s phases b and c were not interchanged, then
•rrlnh l i \ W° U ? ,n e clockwise direction, as shown in Fig. 3.38. Thus
graphical analysis also proves the required result.
a b EeXa ^ e ! a l T h v Ft L 3* 4l $hoi“ sf hree ™ ils «. b, c ; with their m agnetic axis coincident. Coils
a, o, c are excited by three phase balanced currents
Flg 3 42 ‘ G a i n i n g to Example 3 .2 6 .
Solution. The m.m.fs. produced by three coils a, b, c are proportional to their respective
rr e n ts . These can, therefore, be expressed as
Fu = Fm sin co/ cos a
2rt
Fh = F„. sin C 0 < -y cos a
4k ]
Fc = F m sin CO/ - cos a.
and
The three currents are displaced in time phase by 120° or 2 n/3 radians, but the angle of
< p a c e displacement between the magnetic axes of the three coils is zero as shown in Fig. 3.42.
It is due to this reason that cos a appears in all the three m.m.f. expressions given above. Their
resultant m.m.f. is
(a, t) = Fa + F/, + Fc (I
.’ 1
S3
r . . f . 4k^
X
= Fm sin co/ cos a + sin c o / - y cos a + sin co/ - — cos OC
ww
u
L I J -
F r ' 2 k ] 2rc 1
= - y j^sin (co/ + a) + sin (a)/ - a) + sin co/ + a —— sin co/ - a -
asy
{ 2k ( 47c'
+ sin CO/ + a - y =0
But sin (o)t + a) + sin co/ + a - y
En /
eer
t-
ing
Thus the magnitude of resultant m.m.f. wave is always zero. This example demonstrates
.ne
that rotating m m.f. wave of constant amplitude can be produced, only if the time angle dis
placement between currents and space angle displacement between winding axes, are equal
Example 3 27 A three phase star-connected winding is fed from 3-phasc balanced supply,
with their neutrals connected together. (This arrangement results in rotating m.m.f. wave o f
constant amplitude). . .i
I f one o f the three supply leads gets disconnected, find what happens to the m.m.f. wave.
r t
Solution. Suppose supply phase c gets disconnected. Then in Fig. 3.36 (c), t'r - 0.
7 F i
. . . • t ■ ; - n •t:.orofnre F = F F, = - F,. = 0 -this is illustrated
At instant l,c a = /„1,ift = - - 2" . ' c - u . t‘ -'ercloro' r " r » " rh 2 ’ e
in Fig. 3.43 (a). The amplitude of the resultant m.m.f. wave is ^
p R = V(Horizontal comp.)"* + (Vertical comp.)
(F ^
A Fm + - f cos 60c
2
sin 60
'\'3 r
A 4
— F
4
V7
F... = 1.32 F„r
.■>1
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ww
w.E Fig. 3.43. Pertaining to Example 3.27.
asy
From instant 1 to instant 30° away from it, the time-phase angle covered is 30°, whereas
the space angle covered is only 19.1°. This means that between these two instants, rotating
m.m.f. has changed its amplitude from 1.32 F m to 0.866 F m and travels at a speed less than the
synchronous speed given by Eq. (3.65).
En
I
At instant 2, ia = ib = ~ £ ,ic = 0 and Fa = F b =
F
gin Fc = 0, Fig. 3.43 (c).
eer
F r = V(Horiz. comp.)2 + (Vert, comp.)2
T
m
_
F
1 m
T cos 60ing
_ - ,Q*
— sin 60°
-V (F,mY2
.ne
The resultant m.m.f.
-l N 3 ..4 n
V
4 *m
t
FRat instant 2 is displaced from phase o-axis, by a
f r o n f l r l T o ?■ thare™ 'taat m m f -wave will be found to be 1.32 Fm and it will be seen that
^ “ m o * than 60 .' ‘ lme Ph38e “ " » * *• where”as the space phase angle
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F -2 'N
■ Uniform flux density over pole pitch.
„ Mo, Mo 1 '
ww B = — (F) = —
g
Flux per p<»lc. 0 = (area under one pole) <B>
g 2 "V
w.E 2 nrl Mo
P g
iN
Mo nr/
gP
Ni
Y Self-inductance of coil. L -
NO
asy
. =
Mo * r l V 2
•
En
s gi ven bx
gin
eer
, Ih^ 1 i. u S
MW
, N ‘ /or a 3 phase machine
, 6 1 , 6 , — / m d iir io n r e - i.« n - ^ 1 —
tW
gar phase winding with S , series turn s. given by
/f>Mc i j N I
Mo - Mo 4 . iN
~kd
Now
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I 1 A \I
/ ^ ngP2
J ngF*
(i) For a two-phase winding, the phase spread o is 90
90
sin o /2 sm ¥ 2>/2
k., =
o /2 90 n_ 71
2 * 180
Thus the self-inductance for any one phase of a two-phase machine is
ww sin
60
3
w.E
« , ________
d 60 k 71
y
2 180
asy
La = Lh = Lc =
16Mo^ (3 f N 2 = 144 Pqt/ ^
n
■ -g
C P
- 2
TV.
En
-v S S
(6) Current is in the stator series turns N s produces a fundamental sine-flux 0, given by
16 |i0r/
> (*</* A^s) is
7 lg P gin
Mutual-inductance,
eer
A/ = M effective rotor turns) _ 16 p0r/ (kHs N s) js
ing
(* rf, A ff.)
1* is ngP1
w 16por/
M = — p < ** w.) <*„, Wr).
.ne
metres. t e s t a t o r t t u t a n d laid out ^ 8 ^ hat rotT r
m.m.f. wave. Find the linear velocity o f the t r a v e l l i n g 8 ^
so lu tio n , speed of rotating m . ^ f wave “ ““ "
° ^
t
diameter of 12
W° Ve n° W becomes a travellin6
= \p r p .s .
For a diameter £> = 1 2 m, the speed o ft ||' Wavc and ‘ s equal to two pole-pitches
= 2f
g - 62.82 m /sec.
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Example 3.31. Sketch the resultant m.m.f. wave for a 2-pole, 3-phase balanced winding
yhenphase a carries (i) maximum current l m (ii) l mcos 30° and (iii) Imcos 60°. Consider each
fcIt of the winding as a current sheet o f uniform density.
Solution. The stator shown in Fig. 3.36 (o) is cut and laid out flat as shown in Fig. 3.44 (a),
jfote that the sequence of phase belts is a, c', b, a', c, b'.
(i) When ia = Im,ib = ic = - 2. These currents are indicated in Fig. 3.44 (a) by dots and
(posses. For convenience, phase belts a, c\ b etc. are shown in the same plane. Note that dots
jnd crosses in Fig. 3.44(a) are identical to that in Fig. 3.38(a). By referring to Fig. 3.30, m.m.f.
forphase a is as shown. For 7m, maximum m.m.f. is Fmas given by Eq. (3.59). For phaser b and
f the maximum m.m.f. is Fm/2 as |i6 | = |ic| = | / m. Note that for phase belt with dot, the
inm.f. variation has positive slope and for phase belt with cross, the m.m.f. variation has nega
tive slope. Summation of the ordinates in Fig. 3.44 (6), (c), (d ) gives the resultant m.m.f. varia
tion as shown in Fig. 3.44 (e).
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
~*0)
Phase
c-axis
Fig. 3 4 4 . Pertaining to Example 3.31.
H
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ww
tributed in space, i.e. along the air-gap
directed along stator magnetic: axi .
the stator magnetic axis is taken to be
similarly, currents in the rotor winding produce
horizontal, with F, directed from left fc n g h t S m.la y of rotor „ m f
w.E
rotor m.m.f. which is also assumed a spatial si n,e wsms
directed along the rotor magnetic axis as shown
P^ ^
J .
^ ^ ^ ^
crossmg) respectiveiy. If stator or
asy
rotor has m o r e th ^ ^ n ^ w in trin ^th en ^ is the resultant stator man.f. per pole produced by al,
En
stator windings and F, is the resultant rotor m.m.f. per pole produced by all rotor windmgs.
gin
eer
to r q l« ^ d e v e b p e d ” tl"sh o w n bn tlris^rtlcle^m t^h em a^itu d e of^Mtromagnetictor^eis
nrnduct of stator m .m .f, rotor m.m.f., and sine of the angle between their
ing
.ne
t
(a:
Fig. 3.45. Production o f torque in non-salient pole machine
(a) Elementary two-pole machine and (b ) Space phasor diagram for m.m.fs. Fs and Fr-
(jf gfatOf
In Fig. 3.45 (a), the length of the radial air-gap isg and the average radius (averag ^^
and rotor radii) is r. The effective axial length is I. For deriving a general torque expres >
following assumptions are made :
(i ) The stator and rotor iron is assumed to have infinite permeability. This also me
the saturation and hysteresis are neglected.
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(jj) Tangential (along the air-gap periphery) component of the magnetic field is negligible
pared with its radial (along the radius) component. In other words, mutual flux path
the gap length g is radial.
? (»i)The length g of the air-gap is assumed much smaller in comparison with average radius
•This effectively means that there is negligible difference between the flux density at the
rjator surface, at the rotor surface or at any radial distance in the air-gap.
(iv) Only the fundamental sine components of the stator and rotor m.m .f. waves are con
sidered.
Since the m.m.fs. Fs and F,. are spatial sine waves, these can be represented by space
phasors Fs and F,. directed along their respective magnetic axis in Fig. 3.45 (a).
The phasor sum of Fs and F,. gives the peak value of the resultant m.m.f. wave FR acting
across one air-gap. The magnitude of FR is given by
Fp = + F ? + 2F, Fr cos X ...(3.73)
Here X is the space angle between peak values of stator m.m.f. Fs and rotor m.m.f. Fr.
ww
Resultant field intensity H, produced by m.m.f. wave FR, is sinusoidal along the air-gap
periphery. As stated before, F R acts across one air gap, therefore, peak value of magnetic field
intensity Hp is given by
w.E
H = ^R ...(3.74)
P g
asy .
Resultant m.m.f. F R crossing the air gap, gives rise to resultant flux, called resultant
En
mutual flux per pole. Some stator flux may not cross the air gap—this flux linking the stator
winding but not the rotor winding, is called the stator leakage flux. Similarly, the rotor
gin
produced flux, not linking the stator winding, is called the rotor leakage flux. Note that leakage
fluxes do not take part in the production of torque, it is the resultant mutual flux that produces
eer
the electromagnetic torque. The effect of leakage fluxes on the electrical charact°ristics can,
however, be accounted for by means of leakage reactances, as done in a transformer.
-1 ^ 1
1 ,
2
g t ...(3.75)
” 2 rr2 R
8
Since m.m.fs F s and F , are sine waves, their resultant m.m.f. F R must also be a sine wave.
Now recall that the' average value of the square of a sine wave is equal to half the peak value of
the sine wave. Sine F R is the peak value of sine wave, the average value of the square of FR is
equal to | (F*)2.
.'. Average co-energy density in the air gap, from Eq. (3.75), is
=- ^ (average value of F 2
R)
2g
2
1 Mo 1 (F r ...13.76)
= 4M o
2 8
2 g2
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For a 2-pole machine, the number of electrical degrees are equal to the number of m h
cal degrees. Thus, for a 2-pole machine, the electromagnetic torque, as per Ea (2 (n\ \ ^
obtained as Vl can be
^ dWfid
e = - g f - (Fs, F r, X)
ww
In general, for a P-pole machine,
w.E J T
=
En
ord J. = £ d > . m
• _P
dK ~ 2
gin
From above, torque is given as
eer
T = r . ™ i l , F , ,,
* 2
_P ^0^
3 X ^ s’ r> ^
a _o _ n ing
~ 2 '~% T
_ P Ppnrl
J l [F1 + F ; + 2 Fs ■Fr . cos X)
.ne
upon the number of poles,
2 g s ' F r ■sin X Nm
^
'
t ^ yg'
I
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Hence it can be stated from Eq. (3.78) that electro-magnetic torque can develop only when
0f the two m.m.fs (here F s or F ,) has a component (here Fs sin X or Fr sin X) perpendicular
tothe other m.m.f. or flux.
It is usually more convenient to express Eq. (3.78) in terms of resultant m.m.f. wave FR. In
rder to obtain this expression, refer to Fig. 3.45 (6) which gives
g:
A E - F4 •sin X = CH - FR sin 5f.
BD = F,. sin X = CG = FR sin 5S
Substituting these values in Eq. (3.78), we get
P
W ri „ „ . j.
C Cl9 8' ^ S n
2 8 i, ...(3.79)
P uanrl „ „ .
or Te = _ L . * L - . F r . FRsindr
o
An examination of Eq. (3.79) reveals that the torque is proportional to the product of one
ww
m.m.f. (here Fs or Fr) and a normal component of the resultant m.m.f. FR.
Note the difference between the torque expressions given by Eqs. T3.78) and (3.79). In Eq.
w.E
(3.78), torque is proportional to the product of two m.m.f.s (or fields) produced by their respec
tive currents and sine of the angle between them. In Eq. (3.79), torque is proportional to the
asy
product of resultant m .m .f (or field), one of the two m.m.f.s and sine of the angle between them.
Torque expressions given by Eqs. (3.78) and (3.79) contain fields in terms of their peak
En
m.m.f. waves. When magnetic saturation is neglected, it is permissible to express fields in
terms of their peak flux density waves. For this, refer to Eq. (3.73) from which peak value of
resultant m.m.f. FR is
FM- g Hp = g ^ gin
eer
where Bp = peak value of flux density wave due to peak resultant m.m.f. wave FR.
Substitution of this value of FR in Eq. (3.79) gives
ing
Te = - ^ nrl Bp Ft sin 5S
.ne ...(3.80)
Te = - ~ nrl Bp - F, sin 8r
During the design of rotating electromagnetic devices, a final check is that flux density m
teeth should not exceed 1.8 to 2.2 T. This check imposes a limit on the peak value Bp of the
t
roenUant flux densitv wave in Eq. (3.80). The maximum value of m.m.f in Eq. (3.80) is also
limited from a consideration of the temperature rise. Thus, Eq. (3.80) is quite suitable to the
designer of electromagnetic devices as it contains important design parameters.
An alternative form of torque expression can be obtained in terms of total flux per pole *.
For a P- pole machine, total flux per pole, from Eq. (3.11), is
0=| Bp l r
_ P± ...(3.81)
or p ~ 4 Ir
7 ’, = - | P 2 0 F l, s i n 8s Nm ...(3 .8 2 o )
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ww
If load angle Sr is time-varying, say 8,. = Qt, then instantaneous electromagnetic torque f
Eq. (3.826) is, r°m
asy
The average torque over a complete cycle is zero.
Te = 0.
En
This shows that for the development of electromagnetic torque Te, it is essential that space
phase angle br (8S or X) must remain constant with time. If Fr is a travelling m.m.f. wave at
gin
some speed, then $ must also be a travelling flux wave at the same speed, so that space phase
angle 8r between Fr and <J) remains unaltered with time. Further, if Fr is a stationary m.m.f.
eer
wave, then <{>must also be a stationary flux wave for 8,. to remain time-invariant.
ing
T orqu e in B asic M achine T ypes. The general torque expressions derived above, apply
equally well to all types of rotating electrical machines. In order to obtain torque expressions,
.ne
-identical with those already obtained by conventional methods, different pairs of axes are con
sidered for different machines.
DC M ach in es. For d.c. machines, use Eq. (3.78), i.e. the magnitude of torque for a d.c.
machine is (replacing Fs and Fr by Ff and Fa respectively),
m p u 0n r l
Te = j ^ - F f Fa sinX af
t ...(3.83)
Here Ff is the peak value of the field m.m.f. per pole and Fn is the peak value of the arma
ture m.m.f. per pole. Angle Xaf\s the torque angle between i^-and Fa. The p e a k value of th e flux
density under each pole is
The total field flux per pole fy, from Eq. (3.11), is
= 8 P\ Fc s in V Nm ...(3.85)
AC Machines. For synchronous and induction machines, Eq. (3.826) is preferable. For
polyphase a.c. machines, the basic torque expression (3.826) can be expressed in a more useful
form, by including the voltage and current in it. This is done as follows :
The rotor m.m.f. F n from Eq. (3.72 a) is
Fr= m^
f= m — k nw
w^ p—ATs/pole.
and the resultant air-gap flux per pole, from Eq. (3.24)' is
ww d. Erh
Substitution of the values ofFr and <t>in Eq. (3.826) gives the magnitude of electromagnetic
torque T. as
w.E , . ) rm2v2 z j )
sin 8r
Te = \ P 2
\
asy
V2n f N hk,v
J \
n w P
/
=¥ /^ ^ sin 8f
Speed in mechanical En
2 Speed in electrical
For an a.c. machine,
2
radians per second
2 _ . 4k f gin
P radians per second
Note that Eph is the per phase voltage induced in the armature by air-gap flux 0 and I is the
per phase armature current.
.ne
Load angle 8^ will be shown to be equal to (90 + 9) degrees, where 9 is the time-phase angle
between Eph and /. In view of this, Eq. (3.91) becomes,
Tc = — m Eph I cos 9
t
or Te (om = m Eph I cos 9.
°r Mechanical power developed
= Electrical power developed.
The power balance in case of d.c. machines is demonstrated in the chapter on d.c. machines.
3.8.1. Alternative Derivation for Torque. The object of this part of the article is to
derive expression for electromagnetic torque through the concept of rotor-current sheet.
Stator flux-density wave, in phase with stator m.m.f. wave, are shown in Fig. 3-46 (a) with
^eir respective peak values of B. and Fr Rotor m.m.f. wave, with peak value Fn is shown m
P'g 3.46 (6) lagging stator m.m.f. wave by an angle X as in F i g . Ro^ ' C_U" rfie.n,t'
Wave, with peak value A n leads rotor m.m.f. wave by 90° and is stretched in Fig. 3.4 ( ).
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ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Fig. 3.46. (a) Stator m.m.f. and flux-density waves
(6) rotor m.m.f. and current-sheet waves (c) differential angle 00.
... - i Si n A .- i 8 i n ( 2 e + X )jd 9
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r2*
value o f J sin (2 0 + X) dQ will be found to be zero. This gives the electromagnetic
torque as
Te = r2l Bt A r - - sin X 0
F
Peak value of stator flux density, B , = p0 H„ = p0 —
P ■F P •F
From Eq. (3.63), for a P-pole machine, peak value of rotor-current wave is A r = ^r '
ww
Substituting the values of Bt and A r in Eq. (3.87), we get
w.Erp _ 2. Mo P» P ' Pr
i - —— r / •
g
• n
2r
. .
•sin K
g
P
2
M
asy
' r
o — F .F r 8inX ...(3.78)
This is the same expression as obtained in Eq. (3.78). One can proceed further as in Art. 3.8.
En
E xam p le 3.32. A 2-pole, 50 Hz cylindrical-rotor machine has the following data :
D = 1.6 m, 1 = 1.8 m, g = 12 mm
gin
Peak value o f sinusoidal rotor and stator m.m.fs are 4000 A T Ipole and 6000 A T Ipole
eer
respectively. Rotor m.m.f. leads stator m.m.f. by 140° and both run at synchronous speed. Cal
culate
(а) resultant peak gap m.m.f.
(c) total gap energy
ing
(b) peak gap flux density
(d) electromagnetic torque and
.ne
(e) electromagnetic power
Solu tion, (a) Resultant peak gap m.m.f. Fr , from Eq. (3.73), is given by
F r = [40002 + 60002 + 2 x 4000 x 6000 x cos 140°]1/2 = 3902.55 ATs/pole.
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_ . , 4n x 50 , ^ 3ji
(e) Synchronous speed, oom = —
p = ^ “ 100 K rad /sec \
w.E
Similarly, Fr = = | x 6000 x 0.8 = 2400 AT
p u„ nrl
asy
m
From Eq. (3.78), = sin A.
g
_ 2 4 n x 10-7 x n x 0.4 x 0.5
” 2
En 5 x 1 0 "3
x 4000 x 2400 sin 60°
= 1312.83 Nm
rp _
6
ing
6 4n x 10r 7 x n x 0.4 x 0.5 4000 onn . cno
.ne
x —- — x 800 sin 60
e 2 5 x 10“ 3 3
= 437.61 Nm
t
Exam ple 3.34. In rotating electrical machines, the component o f rotor m.m.f. norm al to the
stator m.m.f. (or component o f stator m.m.f. normal to rotor m.m.f.) gives rise to the production
o f electromagnetic torque. Explain the function o f rotor m.m.f. component in phase with the
stator m.m.f. (or stator m.m.f. component in phase with rotor m.m.f.).
Solution. Refer to Fig. 3.45 (a). Stator m.m.f. Fs causes the a p p e a r a n c e ofN, S p o I e son ^
stator. The rotor m.m.f. component Fr cos \ in phase with Fs, also cause t h e appearance
N, S poles on the rotor, as illustrated in Fig. 3.47. Now stator poles
produced by Fs attract the rotor poles produced by Fr cos thus caus
ing the appearance of radial {i.e., along the radius) forces in opposite
directions. If the two air-gaps encountered by m.m.fs. Fs and Fr cos \
are of equal radial lengths, then opposing radial forces are equal. In
case the air-gaps are different, the two radial opposing forces are un
equal and their difference gives rise to unbalanced magnetic pull,
rapid wear of the bearings, noisy performance etc. Poor workmanship
or wear of the bearings with the passage of time, may be the causes of 3 4?. p«rwifl'ng
different air gaps around the periphery. Example 334
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In Vl“ VVU1 v*»w vw.t.^.ivnv VI »wtui ill.III.I. m WHI1 aldiui III.111.1. \Ul LUIIlJJUIlCllt Ul
tator m.m.f. in phase with rotor m.m.f.) is detrimental to the operation of rotating electrical
Machines and should therefore be made as small as possible (and therefore F, Fs sin A. as large
as possible).
When a machine is switched on, a large thud is heard only because of the presence of
f Fs cos A. in an electrical machine.
Example 3.35. A 4-pole, 3-phase, star-connected, 50 Hz turbo alternator has the following
data:
Field winding has 12 concentric coils distributed in slots with slot-angular pitch o f 8°.
Turns per field coil = 6, Series armature turns per phase = 28
Armature radius = 0.6 m, Armature length = 4 m
Gap length = 0.06 m
Winding factor for armature winding = 0.96
ww
Field current = 1000 A.
Calculate (a) peak value o f fundamental m m f produced by field winding,
w.E
(b) peak value o f fundamental air-gap flux-density wave,
(c) the fundamental value o f air-gap flux per pole and
asy
(d) rms values o f phase and line emfs at no load and at rated speed.
Solution, (a) There are 12 concentric coils for 4 poles. This means there are three con
En
centric coils distributed in slots to create one pole. Therefore, distribution factor for field wind
ing,
. 3x8
sin —
gin
kd = Y
3 sin -
= 0" 35
eer
Coil-span factor, kp = 1
Winding factor for field winding, ing
kf - kd x kp = 0.9935
.ne
Number of field turns, Nf = 6 x 12 = 72
From Eq. (3.59 a), the peak value of fundamental mmf produced by field winding is
.p . „ E=. V 2 it x 5 0 x 1 .1 4 4 6 x 2 8 x 0 .9 6 = 6833.64 V
(d) Per phase emt, *pk
E = y l3 E h = >/3x 6833.64 = 11835.86 V.
1 , \ n Hz star-connected cylindrical-rotor alternator
Example 3.36. A ■ 3-phase 6-po e ^ has 36 siots with two-layer winding of
bvelops an open-circuit emf of 415 V. IM arm*
* ■
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_ _ _ _ _ _________________________
^ = ^ = 4 8
ww ,
Slots per pole per phase, q = 6 x 3 " ^
36 - 9
. _
Slot angular pitch,w.E Y=
180 _ on=
g -
asy
hd -
. 60
sin —
^ = 0.966, kp - l
2 sin —
En
Per-phase emf, Eph - ^2nf Npfl-^ kw
gin
Flux per pole,
eer
= V3 x 1/2 x x x 50 x 48 x 0.966 = 0 0233 W b
p ° iP
ing
Peak value of fundamental flux-density wave,
_ g j > _ 6 x 0 .0 2 3 3 _ Q 9 7 1 T
.ne
(6)
V Mr 4 x 0 . 4 x 0 . 0 9
B » = pc Hf = ^
t
.*. Peak value of fundamental field mmf wave,
T - — • ^°'nr^ p p • *
2 ~ y - \ F irF la*™&af
.*. Peak value of fundamental armature m m f is
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„ 114x 10071 „
ww
... Power factor, 6 = 3 x ^3 x 415 x 29.65 = ° ' 5602
As Fr < Flf, the pf is 0.5602 lagging.
I
w.E
3.9. Losses and Efficiency
In electrical machines, the power input (mechanical or electrical) is always more than the
asy
nower output. The difference between power input and power output, under steady state con
ditions, is called power loss in watts. Thus, in accordance with the law of conservation of power
\ (or energy),
En
power input = power output + power loss
1 or power loss = power input - power output
gin
Power loss in a machine does not perform any useful work, it leads only to heating of the
eer
cfflisidemtion of the power losses in electrical machines is essential for the following three
I
ing
' “ ©Losses influence the operating cost of electrical machines. For example, a machine with
, lower efficiency has more losses and therefore increased operating cost.
(® Losses cause heating of the machine and therefore its temperature nse Greater the .ne
\u) uosses cause nearing ui
OSS, more is the temperature rise and th®ref° re'
insulation. Temperature rise determmes h ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
winding insulation. It can, therefore, be stated tn
fo0fPr
tj
the deterioration of the machine
through its effect on the life of
and hence ^ ,osses t
iotermlne the rating, or safe power < ^ ^ hgreas current component, like core-loss
(iu) Voltage drop IR is associated with ohm Obviously, this suggests that losses
current, pertains to the iron loss m electnca ^ appropriately taken into account
associated with voltage drops or current' ^ m.P°1prtricai machihe analysis can be carried out as
mthe equivalent circuit of a machine so that ele
desired.
Machine efficiency is defined as
^ . Output ...(3.88a)
Efficiency
, 0r Input-Josses
71 =
Input
Losses ...(3.886)
_ 1 Input
‘ '
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For computing the efficiency, an electrical machine may be s u i t e d I to direu load test and
its output and input measured simultaneously. Eq. (3.88a) t:hen gi es the machine efficiency
It is however much difficult to perform the actual load test, because of the cost of providing
large inputs and difficulty of dissipating the large outputs. Moreover a small error m themeas-
urement of either output or input, causes about the same amount of error in the computed
efficiency. ,
Since the losses are a small percentage of output or input these can be measured more
conveniently and economically. Even more important is the fact that a small percentage oferror
in the measurement of losses, results in a still smaller percentage of error in the computation
of efficiency This is now illustrated with an example. Assume an electrical machine to have an
input of 1000 watts and output of 900 watts, so that the total losses are 100 watts and the
efficiency is 90%. Suppose there is an error of 10% less, in the measurement of output, then
efficiency is given by
x 100 = 81%.
1000
ww
If there is 10% error (less) in the measurement of losses, then
w.E i = ( 1 - T § 5 o ) x 1 0 0 = 91% -
Thus a given percentage of error in the measurement of output (here 10 /fr) results in almost
asy
the same percentage of error, in the calculation of efficiency. But a given percentage of error in
the measurement of losses (here 10%), causes about one tenth (here 1%) of that percentage
error, in the computation of efficiency. In view of this, the efficiency is computed by measuring
the losses in a given machine.
En
gin
When a machine is to be selected from a large number of available machines, then their
methods of loss measurement should be same. A machine having larger efficiency and, there
fore, less energy losses is then selected. But a highly efficient machine is more expensive and,
eer
therefore, involves more fixed charges such as interest, taxes and insurance. It should, how
ever, be kept in mind that a more efficient machine is likely to give better performance, wi
ing
more reliability, less breakdowns, less running charges and minimum maintenance cost, as
compared to a less efficient machine.
.ne
The various machine losses may be classified as (a) electrical losses and (b) mechanical
losses. These are described below :
(a) Electrical L o s s e s :
t
(i) Resistance losses or I2R losses. When current flows through various machine vvind^
ing, I2R losses occur. The resistance R, by convention, is taken as the d.c. resistance o
machine windings at the operating temperature of 75°C. Actually, effective winding resis
Reff, which is more than its d.c. value R&, should be used in computing the I2R loss. The e e .
winding resistance depends on the operating frequency and actual flux conditions ex*stint°ray
the conductor. This increment of loss, equal to (I2Reff- f R ^ ) , is usually included in thes ^
load loss discussed further. In the field circuits of d.c. and synchronous machines,^ on 3^ ^
resistance loss in the field winding is included for computing their efficiency. The 1 R
their field rheostats and other losses in the sources supplying the field winding are,
included while calculating the system efficiency
2 j. between
In addition to I R loss in the windings, there is brush contact loss at the contacts
the brushes and commutator (d.c. machines) or between the brushes and sllpetween
(synchronous and induction machines). In d.c. machines, the conduction of current in
brushes and commutator is through the short arcs in the tiny air gaps which are inb
such a contact. As the voltage drop across an arc remains substantially constant, the brush
voltage drop in a d.c. machine is taken as constant at 1 to 2 volts total. Thus, the brush contact
loss in a d.c. machine is proportional to its armature current. In case of synchronous and induc
tion machines, the brush contact loss is usually neglected for all practical purposes.
(ii) No-load core loss. This loss, also called open-circuit core loss, consists of hysteresis
and eddy-current losses. These losses are present in rotating electrical machines— in case their
stator and rotor irons carry an alternating, or time varying, flux under the condition that only
the main field (or exciting) winding is energized. In a transformer, therefore core losses are
always present. In rotating machines, the hysteresis and eddy current losses can be determined
from Eq. (1.46), but here f should be the frequency of the magnetic flux reversals to which a
given piece of stator or rotor iron is subjected in one second. Physical understanding of
hysteresis and eddy current losses in rotating electrical machines is presented below :
Hysteresis loss. For a 2-pole machine, consider a small iron piece such as ab, subjected to
alternating flux as it rotates under N and S poles, Fig. 3.48. When the small iron piece is under
N-pole, main pole flux passes through it from a to 6, caus
ww
ing the appearance of S-pole at a and N-pole at b. After half
a revolution, the iron piece comes under the influence of
w.E
main S-pole and now main flux passes through it from b to
a, causing the appearance of S-pole at 6 and N-pole at a.
Thus in half a revolution, the magnetism of iron piece ab is
asy
reversed. When the armature rotates, there are con
tinuous magnetic reversals of such small iron pieces and Fig. 3.48. Illu stra tin g h ysteresis loss.
En
power required for their reversals is called hysteresis loss.
It may be seen that hysteresis loss is directly proportional to the number of magnetic reversal
per second or the speed.
gin
Eddy current loss. Consider again a 2-pole machine with solid rotor iron. When the rotor
eer
rotates, e.m.fs. are generated in the rotor iron in exactly the same way as they are induced in
the rotor conductors. In Fig. 3.49 (a), these e.m.fs. are indicated by dots and crosses. Another
ing
view of this figure (plan) is given in Fig. 3.49 (6). The e.m.fs. generated in the solid iron give rise
A r e a A n o r m a l to
t h e d i r e c t i o n of
.ne
eddy c u rre n t v
I " - - * -------- 1
I 1 .---------- I \
1 N
1 1 r —i 1 *
f ♦ *
1 <•— j •;
T*t s
t
OMw
c u rre n ts
(a) (Ib)
A re a A / 4, norm al to
d ire c tio n o f eddy
, c u rre n t
T
j
TT
(C)
Fig. 3.49. Illustrating eddy current loss.
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■i^-3.9
to circulating currents which are called eddy currents. These eddy currents ar
nitude, because the resistance offered by the rotor iron is quite small. The povverT mag-
(eddy currents)2 (resistance offered to the flow of eddy currents), is referred to °SS ^ Ua|to
loss. as eddy Current
This loss can be minimised by using thin laminations for the rotor structu tu
illustrated by referring to Fig. 3.49 (c), where only 4 laminations are shown for sf i '8 °an *>e
flux linking each lamination is one-fourth of that linking with solid iron ; therefo C'ty' ^
induced in one lamination is one-fourth of that induced in solid iron. At the same f ^ e-m.f.
normal to the direction of eddy currents is reduced to one-fourth of that for solid iron rtf'6 area
resistance R lnd offered to eddy currents in laminated iron is four times the resistanc f°re’
fered in the solid iron, i.e. Rlnd = 4 Rsid. Here subscripts Ind and sld stand for laminate'** °f
solid respectively. In view of this, ^
Eddy current loss per lamination _ (e-m.f per lamination)2/i? /nd
Eddy current loss in solid iron (e.m.f in solid core)2/i?
ww
_
w.E
Eddy current loss in laminated rotor _
Eddy current loss in solid rotor
asy
If axial length of the solid rotor core is unity, then the lamination thickness in Fig 3 49 (C)
is j. Thus it can be concluded from above that eddy current loss is proportional to the square of
En
the lamination thickness. If there are more laminations for a given axial length, the lamination
thickness decreases and hence eddy current losses are also decreased. Thus the use of thin
gin
laminations minimises the eddy current loss. The usual lamination thickness is 0.4 mm to
0.5 mm. If lamination thickness is made less than 0.4 mm, the reduction in eddy current losses
eer
is achieved, but at the cost of additional labour charges in assembling the rotor.
The eddy current loss has been found to be given by Eq. (1.46). In case the effect of lamina
...(3.89)
For both the expressions for Ph and Pe, the frequency/and B m can be replaced respectively
.ne
by speed and voltage if required.
In d.c. and synchronous machines, the core loss occurs mainly in the armature iron. It is
because the armature in both these machines is subjected to alternating flux as it rotates under
the effect of main fleld poles. With the slotted armature passing across the field poles, the flux
t
density wave pulsates in magnitude as shown in Fig. 3.50. In Fig. 3.50 (a), slot is under the
middle of field pole and the flux density is A S . With the relative motion between armature and
POLAR AXIS
POLE FACE
TEETH ^ | ’- j SLOTS
1 ! 1 1.k. 1 I i i •
FLUX DENSITY
WAVE
Fig. 3.50. Main field-flux distribution in the air-gap aa affected by slotted armature.
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field poles, tooth may come un^ er the middle of pole as shown in Fig. 3.50 (6). Under this
rtjjdition, air-gap flux density is A 'B '. The field m.m.f. is same in both these figures. Here
£ ft >AB, as the air gap length along the middle of pole is less in Fig. 3.50 (6) than in Fig. 3.50
(a). These pulsations in flux density wave arising from slot openings cause losses in the field
particularly in the pole faces (or pole shoes). This loss in the pole shoes occurring due to
relative motion between field poles and slotted armature is referred to as pulsation loss. In
order to reduce this loss, pole shoes in d.c. and synchronous machines are laminated. The pul
sation loss is composed of hysteresis and eddy current losses in the field-pole shoes. As these
lo s s e s occur in the pole-faces of field poles, these are also called pole-face losses. In induction
machines, the stator has core loss, whereas rotor core loss is almost negligible because of
reduced frequency of the flux reversals (equal to slip frequency, sf) in the rotor.
(iii) Stray lo a d lo ss. When a machine is loaded, the load current establishes an m.m.f.
which appreciably changes the space distribution of air-gap flux density wave. This leads to an
increase in the core loss from no load to full load. This increment in core loss caused by distor
tion of the air-gap flux plus the increment in I2R loss due to non-uniform distribution of conduc
ww
tor current is called stray load loss. In other words, stray load loss consists of two components,
one originating in iron parts and the other in the armature conductors. In iron parts, the stray
w.E
load loss consists of (a) the eddy current loss in the stator frame, end covers etc. caused by the
armature leakage flux under load and (6) the increased teeth loss due to distortion of the flux
density wave. In the conductors, the stray load loss is due to the circulating currents set up in
asy
the conductors by the alternating leakage flux produced by load current. These circulating, or
eddy currents make the conductor current distribution non-uniform and as a result effective
En
resistance of conductor increases. This gives rise to additional conductor loss, called stray load
loss In d c machines, stray load loss also occurs in the coils undergoing commutation. This loss
gin
is usually taken as proportional to square of the load current. Stray load loss cannot be deter
mined accurately. In d.c. machines, by convention, it is taken as 1% of the r a t e d output for
rating above 150 kW. For synchronous and induction machines, it is taken as 0.5% of their
rated output.
(6)
__
eer t
M ech anical loss. This loss consists of bearing-friction, brush-friction and windage os-
ing
ses. The windage (wind-friction) loss includes the power required to circulate air through the
machine and ventilating ducts and is approximately proportional to square of the speed.
Brush-friction loss occurs in machines fitted with brushes, for example d.c machines
synchronous machines, wound-rotor induction machines etc. Squirrel-cage induction motors .ne
h ^ e no brush-friction loss. This loss depends on the brush pressure, coefficient of friction and
speed
Bearing-friction loss is approximately proportional to speed. This loss further depends on
t
the type of bearings, their lubrication etc.
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^4 Electrical Machinery
p 0r the ,. k c o fa q u ic k overview
account^ the p resen ce of voltages, currents and rotation of thei rotor. This diagram a^ ° »
sents almost all the losses that occur in a transformer in case the losses associated with rotSj
rotation are neglected.
Losses in
rotating electrical m achines
No-load M echanical
loss
ww
core (iron) loss
S tray load Brush contact O hm ic
loss (SLL) lOSS (oe f) loss - h
w.E
Hysteresis
loss
Eddy
current
loss
C onductor
SLL
Iron SLL
asy
W in d a g e Friction
Stator
P loss
Rotor
P loss
En
loss (°c speed2) loss (FL)
Brush gin
Bearing
FL (°c speed2)
eer
FL (on speed)
ing
Fig. 3.51. Various losses in rotating electrical machines.
M axim um efficiency. It is seen from above that rotating electrical machines have con
stant as well as variable losses. At light loads, output is low, variable loss is low, the efficiency
is also low because of the presence of constant losses. The machine efficiency, however, nses
.ne
progressively with the load. But at a particular load, depending upon the design of the machine,
the efficiency is maximum. Beyond this load, efficiency diminishes. Further, efficiency vanes
with the rating (or size) of the machine; for example, efficiency is nearly 75 7c for 1-kW machine,
90% for 35 kW, 93% for 350 kW and as high as 97% for 3500 kW machine.
t
The amount of conductor and iron materials required for a machine of given rating is inNer
sely proportional to its speed. This means that a low-speed machine would r e q u i r e more
material whereas a high-speed machine less material for the same rating. More iron an c
ductor would entail more losses. As a consequence, it can be inferred that for the same ratWj
efficiency of low-speed machines is lower than that ^h igh -sp eed machines, the tota -P
being 3 to 4%.
For qualitative purposes, the various losses in rotating electrical machines, operating
near y constant voltage and speed, may be grouped into three main losses : ^
)l( Constant, or fixed, losses. These losses do not depend on the load current. T h e ^
of no-load core loss, friction and windage loss (i.e. no-load rotational loss! constitute con
losses unless there is an appreciable variation in speed
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(2) Loss proportional to load current. Brush-contact loss occurs when current is to be
conducted to, or from, the rotating parts of the electrical machine through sliding contacts. The
voltage drop across the stationary brush and the rotating parts is essentially independent of
current.
If Vb = brush drop across the sliding contacts, then brush-contact loss or brush-drop loss is
given by Vh/, where I is the load current.
(3) Losses proportional to the square of load current. Resistance loss in various
machine windings and stray load loss are proportional to the square of load current.
In view of the above, losses in rotating electrical machines may be written as a + bl + cl2
and output or input as A VI where
a = constant losses,
bl = loss proportional to load current,
cl2 = losses proportional to square of load current,
A = constant N 3 x p f for 3-phase machines, p f for single-phase machines and unity for
ww
d.c. machines),
V = machine voltage.
w.E
Motor operation. Power input =AVI
AVI
L z £ r2
asy
; ■
t2i
_ „ „ dn ( A V - b - 2cl) (AVI) - [AVI - a - bl - cl2} (AV)
For constant voltage v, 77 = — : 7 72
dl
En (Denominator)
For efficiency to be maximum, dr\/dl must be equal to zero. S !.
(AV - b - 2cl) (AVI) = (AVI - a - b l -C l2) (AV)
. t2
cl = a
gin (n qi 1
eer
Its simplification gives, ‘ '
Thus, the motor efficiency is maximum at a load when variable loss cl2 is equal to constant I'
loss a.
Generator operation. Power output = AVI ing
... Efficiency, r\ = , ~2
AVI + a + bl + c l .ne...(3.92)
'
For constant V,
dr\ (AV) (AVI + a + bl + cl2) - (AVI) (AV + b + 2c/)
d /= (Denominator)2
t
For maximum efficiency, dv\/d l - 0 and its simplification gives c l - a
i.e. losses proportional to square of current = constant losses
It is seen from above that for both motors and generators, machine efficiency is maximum
when variable losses are equal to constant losses.
The variable loss, proportional to square of load current, depends upon the current density
specific resistance and volume of conductor material. Similarly, the constant loss is dependen
on flux density, specific density and volume of iron used in a machine As variable and constant
losses must be equal to obtain maximum efficiency, the value of maximum efficiency is
governed by the amount of iron and conductor materials used in a machine It is thus seen that
maximum efficiency at a particular load (near the rated load) can be obtained by suitab y
Proportionating the amount and quality of iron and conductor materials used in a machine.
^
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w
“ Canned oy u a m ^ c a n n e r
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n = A V I- a - b l- c l 2
The loss proportional to current I (usually brush-contact loss) is quite small '
be neglected without any appreciable error. In fact, this loss is regarded as" ^ ■ a".theref«re
a.c. machines. Under these conditions, n lndustria|
P0 = A V l - a - c I 2
The motor will have maximum efficiency when
dP0
= A V - 2cl = 0
dl
or I = A V / 2c
The maximum power output Pom is, therefore, given by
ww
(A V ) (A V f
Pom = A V -a - c _
2c
\ > K
w.E _ {AV)
2c
—a -
“
(AV)2 _ (AV)2
Ac ~ 4c
- a
n=
4c
En x 100 = 5 0 -
200 ac
L (AV) /2c
— J
gin (AV)2
)
eer
there are nmre^mn^abmiTst^^ ^ maximum Power 0utPut is less than 50%. This means that
power input annpart n l * osses occuring in the machine. In other words, about halfof the
cause temperature of the°nS U° a F f]Ilaxin™ m Power output conditions. Such a situation would
ture rise Hence it m a v
ing
GV1Ces to be much more than the specified allowable tempera
devices used in power s y s t o m ^ ^ e ^ e r a t e d ' that electrom cchamcal “ l>versta
tice these are nnerai*»H ot o i a
.ne
operated to deliver maximum power output. Inprac-
maximum. This however is nnftK so” ,ew^lat less than rated load, at which the efficiency is
power devices The electronic
put As the total power hanHW 8mS *** desi&ned to operate to deliver maximum power out-
devices. P
t
* * S1 uat‘on.in electronic equipments which are usually low-
“ / r : r forr rA
Solution, (a) For first transformer, the rating is
s i = K B mS A l l A U)1
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„ nI B a s ic C o n c e p ts o f R o ta tin g E le c t r ic a l M a c h in e s 337
" ”
For second transformer, core area
A ,2 = m 2A fl
ww
Second transformer I2R loss
asy
= m3 (Total losses in first transformer).
Output ______51 — -----—
Now efficiency - Output + Losses
En S x(pf) + Losses x
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-UrUio
3.10. Machine Ratings
A name-plate fixed to the outside frame of an electrical machine records the d t
to its rating. A machine rating specifies the voltage, current, speed, excitation 3 f Perta‘n-ing
power output etc. under which it can operate satisfactorily. Here satisfactory one P/ e^lc’er»cy>
that temperature rise of the machine above ambient (or si -rounding) temper t 10n llnPlies
exceed a specified temperature when machine operates in accordance with the ,re ^0es not
name-plate. For all types of a.c. motors and d.c. machines, output power rating is • °n
(kilowatt). Older practice was to specify the power output of a.c. and d.c. motors in h ^ 'n ^
(1 h.p. = 746 watts). For a.c. generators, rating is in kVA or M VA. orse-power
Electrical machines are rated on the basis of their temperature rise resulti r
power losses in iron and conductor. The temperature rise mentioned on the name^l t°^ tlle
temperature difference between the hottest part of the winding under specified cond't’ ^
load, speed, voltage, excitation, cooling and the ambient temperature. For reliable and ' r"? °f
tory operation of an electrical machine, it should be ensured that its temperature rise re
ww
within specified limits. The temperature rise not only affects the insulation of an elMri ^
machine but also its mechanical parts ; however, the extent of damage is more detriment?
w.E
insulating materials than to the mechanical parts.
Deterioration of insulation depends on the temperature as well as the time It has been
found that time to failure for organic insulation is reduced to half for every 8 to 10°C mp in
0
machine temperature.
asy
In|Ul^ lng ^ a^ f ria1^ m0,re commonly employed in industrial machines, are classified as
En
pi
Class E Class B Class F and Class H. Other classes of insulation are not of much commercial
interest. These classes of insulation can withstand the following maximum temperatures as per
gin
Insulation class :
Maximum temp. °C
E
120 eer B
130
F
155
H
180
a 81™ abT
ing
relater t0 20-year working life of an electrical machine under
average conditions. These classes of insulation consist of the following materials :
e^c ^ ass ^ ‘ Synthetic resin enamels, cotton and paper laminates with formaldehyde bonding,
.ne
Class B : Mica, glass fibre, asbestos etc. with suitable bonding substances. t
Class F . The materials of class B with more thermally-resistant b o n d i n g m a t e r i a l s .
Intermittent rating. It is the output that a machine can give continuously without cx-
rest periods BPe tcmporaturp a "'identical duty cycles c o " l X o f lo a d in g »»«
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The continuous, short-time as well as intermittent ratings depend upon the cooling and
^ermal capability of the machine. Out of these, continuous rating is the most common. The
loading period for a continuously-rated motor is so large that all parts of the machine attain
almost a steady temperature. Continuously-rated motors are used for fans, centrifugal pumps,
lathes, conveyors etc. In short-time rated motors, the loading period is so short that machine
does not attain steady temperature while the rest period is long enough for the machine to cool
to ambient temperature. Short-time rated motors are used for opening and closing weirs, bat
tery-charging unit, sluice gates, lock gates and bridges etc. The machines with intermittent
rating are loaded with a train of identical duty cycles so that finally the rise and fall in tempera
ture during each duty cycle are equal. Motors used for hoisting mechanisms, trams, trolley
buses etc. are subjected to intermittent duty.
Short-time rated motors are designed with higher values of flux and current densities in
iron and conductor respectively. As a consequence, these motors have better torque producing
capability but lower thermal capacity as compared to continuous-rated motors.
ww
A provision is usually made in continuous rated motors that they operate successfully for
±\0% variation in rated voltage and ±5% variation in rated frequency. The combined variation
w.E
in rated voltage and frequency should, in no case, exceed ± 10%. Continuous rated motors are
expected to have ample safety margin so that these can withstand short-time overload of 25 /<
at 90% of rated voltage without any damage to the machine.
asy
3.10.1. Choice of power of electric machines. The choice of power rating of a motor
for any type of load depends upon the load-time graph. For loads remaining substantially con
En
stant with time, the power rating P can be determined from the expression,
P=
Tun
lOOOq
kW
gin
where T = load torque in Nm ; wm= operating speed in rad/sec
and
eer
x\ = product of the efficiencies of transmitting device (gear, belt etc.) and the driven
equipment (fan, conveyors etc.).
ing
In many industrial applications, the load requirements vary periodically and over a wide
range. For example, during upward journey of a hoist, the motor is fully-loaded but during
downward journey, the motor is almost unloaded. The problem is now to choose a continuous
.ne
rated (C.R.) motor for such widely varying load cycles of periodic nature. A crude, yet quite often
used method is based on the assumption that losses and therefore heating of the motor is
proportional to square of the kW load. This assumption overemphasises the role of / R losses
as compared to the constant core loss. According to this method, rating of C.R. Motor - average
t
loss, or average heating, of the motor over a periodic duty cycle.
So for using this method, obtain kW load-time curve. Then rating of C.R. motor = average
value i f (kW l i d )2 - time curve over one periodic load cycle. A little thought process would
reveal that rating of C.R. motor = rms value of kW load - time penodic curve.
As such, this method of estimating the power rating of C.R. mohir for periodically varying
loads has come to be called rms power method. Thus, according to this method,
- , -*I/2
£ (*W r x time
rms power = rating of C.R. motor I time
is the same as
Here the constant k accounts for the poor ventilation during the standstill t' ^
is no forced cooling. For open-type motors, k = 4 and for closed motors, k ~ \ Wben there
note that r.m.s.-power method can be used only if period of duty cycle'is sm 11 1S 'mportantt0
the time for the motor to attain a steady temperature. as Spared
to
Though r.m.s.-power method does not give precise
results, yet it is used quite often. The error involved in
using this method is partially offset by choosing a higher
standard rating of the motor. Thus the need for precise
computations is avoided with the rounding of calculated- m
ww
rms-power rating to a higher commercially available
motor size. For example, if r.m.s. power method gives 01 B
motor rating as 46 kW, then a motor with continuous w
w.E
rating of 50 kW should be selected.
For duty cycles with high-torque peaks, a motor
selected on the basis of r.m.s.-power method cannot fur
asy
nish such torques. For these types of duty cycles short
time rated motors are better suited as they possess better F**■ 3 52- Pertaining to continuous and
torque producing capabilities.
En short-time ratings.
0/ = 0 / ( l - e ~ fA>)
or 0 ,
...(3.96)
0 ^ - 1 1 - e x p ( - t x/ x h ) ]
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ff = ^ = | l - e x p ( - ( , / t t )l ...(3.97)
rt.],ere losses Wr and Wx are corresponding to loads Pr and Px respectively. Loss W, at rated load
p is given by
W, = core loss, Wt. + ohmic loss, W0
Let the ratio (Wc/W 0) be a. Then
W,. = aW o + Wo = (l + a )W 0 - (3-98)
But ohmic loss is proportional to current squared. As load on motof is proportional to cur
rent (except series motor), it follows that ohmic loss is proportional to square of load, as
result, ohmic loss at load Px can be written as proportional to (Px) . Since W0 is the o mic os
ww
at rated load P r, total losses Wx at load Px can be expressed as
Wx = Wc + W0 (Px/Pr)2 = a W0 + W0 (Px/ P f
Wx a + (Px/Pr)
Wr ~ 1+a asy 1 - exp ( - tx/W
1+ a
En
-.1/2
- a
gin
P* = Pr 1 - exp ( - )
p -p \
-.1/2
eer
ing
I-----------
^ r 1 - exp ( - tx/\h)
From Eqs. (3.100) and (3.101), short-time rating PMfor duration tx can be obtained for a
motor with continuous rating P .and heating time constant t*.
.ne
Example 3.38. For the periodic load-time plot shown m Fig. 3.47, ft
r.m.s. value over the periodic time T. -iu(,n hv
Solution. For any time 1 measured from <„ the ordinate ,s g,ven by
an expression o
t
„ H2- H , H t^ H ± t
(Tf)
R M S value o f this e x p r e s s i o n j . .
i. from lft o t ' e from 0 to 7 , ; dividing it by penodie time
T and then taking its square root,
r.m.s. value
77 T Z "(ff, - Hi)2 <‘ d , + U h W i z M i l
1
w T
J , . H 2, dt + ----------- d l+ T,
F ig. 3 63 Pertaining to E x a m p le 3.38.
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1 /2
i )(//? + + H , t f2) r , / 3
Exam ple 3.39. A motor driving a coal-mine equipment has to supply a load rising Uny
ly from zero to maximum o f 2000 kW in 30 seconds during the accelerating period, 1000kw/
60 seconds during the full load period. During deceleration period o f 10 seconds when reBe
tive braking takes place, the kW returned to the mains falls from an initial value of600kW°"
zero uniformly. The interval for decking before I•
LOAD ~ IN
the next load cycle starts is 20 seconds. E s kw
timate a suitable kW rating o f the motor based
on r.m.s.-power method. 2000
Solution. The variation of load power over
a duty cycle of 120 seconds is illustrated in Fig.
ww
3.54. The r.m.s. value of this cycle gives the kW
rating of a continuous-rated motor. /
10 0 0 kw I
w.E
The slope of the load-time curve during ac
celeration is 2000/30 kW per sec. and that during
deceleration is 600/10 kW per sec. At any time t
1,1
f a
load kW is asy
measured from the zero of the load-time curve, the
f200 ' kW and (60 1) kW respectively
r '4 r
120
J
eer
dt + (1000)2 x 60 + J0 (60t) * d t + 0 x 2 0
1/2
120
200
\2
®
ing
- + 6 0 x 106 + 1200 x 103| = 918.33 kW.
So choose a motor of rating above 918.33 kW, say 950 kW. .ne
E xam ple 3.40. Points on the motor-duty cycle, estimated on the basis o f the proposed rolling
schedule and previous experience with rolling mills, are given in the following table: t
Time, sec 0 5 36 39 55 80
R epeat cycle
Output, kW j 150 1000 1400 300 150 150
The complete curve can be obtained by joinin g these points with straight lines.
Specify the continuous kW-rating o f the motor.
tampk'
Solution. The load-time curve for one duty cycle is shown in Fig. 3.55 for this ex
Continuous kW-rating can be obtained by taking the r.m.s. value of this load-time eye
Example 3.38, the r.m.s. power can be obtained as under :
LOAD IN
kw
36 39 55
TIME IN SEC.-
Fig. 3.55. Load time graph for Example 3.40.
.*. r.m.s.-power = I f (1502 + 10002 + 150 x 1000 + ^ (10002 + 14002 + 1000 x 1400)
80 I3 w
w.E
r i
= — {1954,166.6 + 45,053,333 + 2,470,000 + 840,000 + 562,500[J
80
l l 1/2
= 797.49606 kW
asy
Choose a motor with continuous rating of 800 kW.
E xam ple 3.41. (a) Temperature rise o f a 200
efficiency of9 En
,w as found to be 29°C after one hour and
%
8
unity
on
gin
fuU-load ohmic loss is 3 times the iron loss. What is the final steady temperature rise o f the
transformer on rated load ?
(b)
eer
I f the transformer cooling is improved by using a fan so that the effective heat dissipation
is increased by 20%, find the new kVA rating (i)for the same final temperature rise os above and
(ii) for a temperature rise o f 78°C.
Solu tion. (a ) From Eq. (3.95),
ing
20 = 0^(1 —e ~ 1/x>)
.ne
and
••
34 = 0^(1 —e_2/x*)
34
20
l - e ~ 2/T* _ i , e-
l - e ^T7Th~L 6
t
Its simplification gives T/, = 2.804 hrs.
20 r = 66.67°C
1 - exp ( - 1/2.804)
Hern 0, is the fine! steady temperature rise of the transformer on rated load
(6), ( i)F o r t h e s a m e t e m p e r a t u r e rise , with increased h eat dissipation, new allowable losses
V, are
Wx = 1.2 Wr. Here a = IVC/W 0 = 1 /3
M
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1
3 + {px/pry
1.2 _ L
or =
l+l
Px = 1.1255 x 2 0 0 = 225.1 kVA
(ii) For allowable temperature rise of 78°C, the new permissible losses are
78
W = x 1.2 Wr. As in part (i ),
* 66.67
78
x 1.2 =
66.67 i "
1+i
or Px = 1.241 x 200 = 248.2 kVA.
ww
Exam ple 3.42. The efficiency o f a 3-phase, 100 kW, 440 V, 50 Hz induction motor is 90% .
rated load. Its final temperature rise under rated load conditions is 40°C and its heatin tim
incase
w.E
constant is 180 minutes. For the same temperature rise, calculate its one hour rating
constant loss is equal to the variable loss at rated load, (b) constant loss is neglected
Solution. Here xh = 3 hours,
(a)
(a)
asy
a= 1
1/2
En
1+ 1
From Eq. (3.100), Pz = 100 - 1 = 246 kW
1 - exp ( - 1/3)
= 187.8 kW
eer
This example demonstrates that neglect of core loss gives pessimistic results for the allow
able one-hour rating.
ing
Exam ple 3.43. One hour rating o f a machine is twice its continuous rating. Its final steady
temperature rise, i f operated on one-hour rating, is twice o f that under rated load. Find the ratio
o f core loss to ohmic loss at rated load.
.ne
t
Solution. From Eqs. (3.97M 3.99),
*f W r i+ a
¥ a + (Px/Prf
1 1+ a
or or a = 2.
2 a + (2)"
Thus the ratio of core loss to ohmic loss is 2.
3.11. C ooling (Loss dissipation)
Cooling of electrical machines is essential for dissipating the heat generated by various
losses and thus to prolong the life of insulating materials. In small electrical machines, naW
cooling is adequate. In these machines, cooling by natural radiation and convection associ
with random air circulation inside the machine body is enough to keep their te* pf ef0l-
within limits. However, as the machine size increases, cooling becomes more difficult, i
lowing example illustrates this fact. ,^
Exam ple 3.44. A rotating electrical machine has its linear dimensions n\ ^,neSf 1vesatne
dimensions o f another machine. Compare their losses and cooling. Both the machines ha
flux and current densities.
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^ ■ —
«dS As thT w eilh t™1^ ! ? .! 616? " ' 31 ma<* in c’ core or ir° n ioss depends on the weight or iron
used. As the weight - volume o f iron x its density, it can be stated that
Core loss « Volume
First machine coreloss, Pcl « (volume)
*'• P c2 = m 3 P cl
w.E 3 ii •
= m (total losses in first machine)
Cooling surface area of second machine = m2 (cooling surface area of first machine)
_ asy
For second rotating electrical machine of bigger size, the losses per unit area
Losses in second machine
En
Surface area of second machine
or losses per unit area in second machine
_
gin
m3(losses in first machine)
m 2 (cooling area of first machine)
eer
= m (losses per unit area in first machine)
ing
This shows that for second machine of bigger size (m > 1), the loss per unit area is m times
that in first machine. In other words, heat to be dissipated per unit area rises as the machine
rating, or size, increases. It may therefore be stated that larger machines are difficult to cool
than smaller ones and hence require more elaborate cooling arrangements.
.ne
t
Forced air cooling is used for large machines. In this scheme, air is first passed through
cleaning filter and then forced into the machine for cooling purposes. A still better method of
providing clean cooled air is the closed-circuit ventilation system. This is used for small-rating
turboalternators. In closed-circuit scheme, hot air from the machine is cooled by means of a
water-cooled heat-exchanger and then returned to the machine by a fan. In order that heat
arising from the losses is removed more efficiently, cooling ducts are provided in large machines
along their core length.
Hydrogen-cooling. Large-rating turbogenerators require compactness from the view
point of economy and transportation. For such generators, closed air-circuit ventilation system
is not sufficient to cool the machine effectively. The fan size required to circulate air also in
creases considerably making the air cooling of large turbogenerators an uneconomical proposi
tion. For such machines, therefore, a better coolant should replace the air. Hydrogen has been
found a well-suited cooling medium and is more common in the totally enclosed ventilating
system of large turbogenerators. Hydrogen as a coolant has the following advantages over air :
(i) Efficiency and noise. Hydrogen density is only about 0.07 that of air at the same
temperature and pressure. There are, therefore, much less windage and ventilation losses. As
a result, machine efficiency is more.
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i,
Since tho revolving pnrts rotate in low-density hydrogen, the noise produced is less
(it) Cooling. On an equal-wcight basis, specific heat of hydrogen is about 14.5 times th
of air. Heat storing capacity is given by
mass (m) x specific heat (s) x temperature rise (0)
If heat stored in air is m s 0, then heat stored in hydrogen is given by
(0.07 m) (14.5 s) (0) « ms 0.
This shows that for the same temperature and pressure, heat storing capacity per Unt
volume is same for both hydrogen and air. But heat transfer between hot parts ofthemachin
and the cooling gas is about 1.5 times with hydrogen than with air. This means that cooling
with hydrogen is more rapid.
(iii) Life. When air is used in high-voltage machines, then during corona discharge the
oxygen and nitrogen in air may form ozone, nitric acid and other chemical compounds which
may react with organic insulating material. This reaction may harm the insulation, thus reduc
ing the life of insulating material.
ww
When hydrogen is used as a coolant, ozone and other chemical compounds due to corona
discharge cannot be formed because of the absence of oxygen. The life of insulation is therefore
w.E
increased and the maintenance expenses are reduced.
(iv ) Fire H azard. Fire hazard inside the machine is minimised because hydrogen-air mix
ture does not explode so long as the hydrogen content is more than 70%.
asy
(v) Rating. Hydrogen pressure inside the machine system is maintained at a pressure
above atmospheric. With this, the air cannot leak into hydrogen circuit to form an explosive
En
mixture. However, hydrogen leakage can only be outward. Hydrogen cooling at 1,2 and 3 times
the atmospheric pressure can raise the rating of the machine by 15, 30 and 40% respectively
above its air-cooled rating.
gin
The stator of hydrogen cooled machine must be gas tight and explosion proof. For this pur
eer
pose, oil-filled gas-seals at the rotor shaft ends are necessary.
D irect cooling. It is also referred to as conductor cooling or inner cooling. The tur
ing
bogenerator output can be increased by raising the hydrogen pressure inside the machine. But
beyond a certain pressure, the increase in output is not economical with the rise in hydrogen
pressure. This led to the development of direct cooling of large machines.
.ne
With direct cooling of turbogenerators, it is possible almost to double their output with the
t
same physical size. In other words, for the same output, the physical size of the turbogenerator
can almost be reduced to half. Here the coolant (liquid or gas) is forced through ducts inside the
conductors. Thus the thermal barrier presented by the insulating material is largely overcome
and conductor losses are very effectly absorbed by the coolant.
(a) D irect gas cooling. Large stator cores for turbogenerators are provided with bothaxial
and radial cooling ducts as shown in Fig. 3.56. For rotor of 100 M W or above, the rotor conduc or
consists of hollow rectangular tubes as shown in Fig. 3.57. The hydrogen gas is admitte
these tubes through in sulatin g s t a t o r CORE RADIAL COOLING DUCTS
flexible connections at the ends. I ______________________ jL_
D ir e c t w a te r c o o lin g . W ith A X IA L
T
ratings of 1000 M W or so, hydrogen COOLING:/
cooling is not sufficient to cope with DUCTS
the dissipation of large losses. For
such ratings, the volume of hydrogen
of
required is so large that its use be Fig. 3.56. Radial and axial cooling ducts in stator c
comes uneconomical. As the rotor core large machines.
A rt. 3.12)
-------------- B a s ic C o n c e p ts o f R o ta tin g E le c tr ic a l M a c h in e s 347
length in creases for large "WEDGE r-wcnrp
ratings, the middle portion may WtDGE rWEDGE
not be cooled efficiently even
with the use of hydrogen. These
limitations of hydrogen cooling COOLING
^CONDUCTORS DUCTS
can be overcome by employing
~7 CONDUCTORS
water cooling.
Turbogenerators of the
highest ratings are likely to
have hydrogen-cooled stator
cores and direct water cooled —COOLING
DUCT
stator and rotor windings. The (a)
advantages of using water over
Fig. 3.57. Turbo-rotor conductor cooling : (a) conventional
hydrogen are as under : (6) direct gas (c) direct water.
ww
therefore,Tarry “ o r T h e a f “ 8eVera‘ tHa‘ of ^ r o g e n i *«.
w.E
(«) Though water speed in the cooling ducts is limited to about 2.5 m/sec for avoiding
erosion and cavitation, yet water cooling is more efficient than hydrogen.
(itt) The duct area for water may be small, this permits more space for copper in the slot.
asy
The disadvantages of direct water cooling are that (i) cost of cooling system becomes more
and (ii ) water should be highly purified and distilled.
3.12. M achine Applications
En
gin
Machine application means choice of an electrical machine well-suited to meet the demand
of a load. A judicious selection of a machine for a given load requires that machine terminal
eer
characteristics and load characteristics are known to a fair degree of accuracy. In addition, it is
essential that machine and load characteristics are compatible with each other for stable and
efficient operation of the machine-load combination.
ing
For many industrial applications, electric motor is usually fed from a constant voltage
source. A motor connected to such a source would have one speed-torque curve as shown in Fig.
3.58 (a) for a 3-phase induction motor. The load requires torque that may, or may not, vary with
speed. In Fig. 3.58 (a), the speed-torque curve for a fan type load is shown by a dotted curve. .ne
The steady operating point P is obtained where the load characteristic intersects the motor
characteristic. At this point P, the torque developed by the motor electromagnetically is equal
to the torque absorbed by the load mechanically.
t
TORQUE TORQUE
(fl) (6)
Fig. 3.58. (a) Speed-torque characteristics of a motor-load system,
(ft) Speed-torque curves o f various types of mechanical loads.
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The torque required by a mechanical load, in general, depends upon the type of drivo,,
equipment. The speed-torque characteristic of a load represents he change in speed as the lnaJ
torque is varied. For various driven mechanisms, the speed-torque characteristics may broadly
be classified as under :
(а) S p e e d -t o r q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n d e p e n d e n t o f speed . For some driven
mechanisms, load torque T 1 does not depend upon the operating speed. This is indicated bv
curve 1 in Fig. 3.58 (6). Examples of such loads are cranes during hoisting and loads in which
friction is dominant like reciprocating pumps, air compressors etc.
(б) Parabolic speed-torque characteristics. This is illustrated by curve 2 in Fig. 3.55
(6). In such driven equipments, the load torque is proportional to some power of speed. Ex
amples of such loads are fans, centrifugal pumps, propellers in ships etc. In fans, the load
torque is almost proportional to square of speed.
(c) H vperbolic speed-torque characteristics. These type of characteristics are il
lustrated by curve 3 in Fig. 3.58 (b). For such loads, the dn\ en equipment requires a torque that
ww
is inversely proportional to speed. In other words, the load torque required is low at high speeds
and high at low speeds. Such type of characteristics are possessed by lathes, milling machines,
machine tools, winches etc. Since these loads are associated with high torque at low speeds and
w.E
low torque at high speeds, the power required to driv e such loads remains substantially con
stant.
asy
(d) L in ear speed-torque characteristics. These type of characteristics are indicated by
straight line 4 in Fig. 3.58 (6). Such characteristics are possessed by viscous friction and loads
in which loading torque is directly proportional to speed. Calendering machines, eddy-current
En
brakes and generators feeding fixed resistors display such type of speed-torque characteristics.
gin
In all types of mechanical loads discussed above, the motor must be able to supply the
starting as well as the running torques wdthin specified limits of current and temperature rise.
eer
The electromagnetic torque developed by a motor may remain constant with load or may
vary wuth it. Based on this, the speed-torque characteristics of motors may be classified as
under:
ing
(a) F la t-ty p e ch aracteristics. Some motors develop electro-magnetic torque which does
not depend on their operating speed. Such a characteristic is indicated by curve 1 in Fig. 3.59
(a). These type of characteristics are possessed by synchronous and hysteresis motors.
.ne
(b) S h u n t-ty p e ch aracteristics. In motors possessing shunt type characteristics, the
speed drops from no-load to full-load by a few percent as shown by curve 2 in Fig. 3.59 (a).
Examples of such motors are a.c. induction motors and d.c. shunt motors.
t
HI
o
GENERATOR /
p/
CURREnT
{1a) 01
1lb)
Fig. 3.59. (a) Various types o f speed-torque characteristics o f electric motors.
(6 ) Volt-ampere characteristics o f generator-load combination.
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ww
load. When several generators are operated in parallel, as in power generating stations, it is
desired that terminal voltage should remain almost constant over a wide variation of load.
w.E
However, when a motor is fed from a single generator, the output voltage of the generator may
be adjusted in a particular fashion so as to obtain a wide speed-control of the motor.
It is seen from above that the most outstanding features of electrical machines are the
asy
torque-speed characteristics for a motor and V-I characteristics for a generator. Equally impor
tant are the limits between which these characteristics can be varied without any damage to
En
the electrical machine. Other relevant economic features are efficiency, pf, initial cost and effect
of losses on operating cost, heating and ratings of electrical machines. Several of these impor
gin
tant features are discussed for the common types of electrical machines in the present book.
Steady state performance of electrical machines has been discussed in detail in this book.
eer
However, the role played by rotating electrical machines in modern technology has become so
wide that an understanding of their transient and dynamic behaviour is of paramount impor
ing
tance. For this purpose, the mechanical features such as shaft elasticity, system moment of
inertia and friction must be included in the equations governing the performance of a machine
load system. Such an analysis, being quite complex, is beyond the scope of the present book.
This type of analysis is, however, presented in the companion volume “Generalized Theory of
Electrical Machines” written by the author of the present book. .ne
PROBLEM S t
3.1. (a) Give the physical concepts about the production o f electromagnetic and reluctance torque in rotating
electrical machines.
(b) Show that the net electromagnetic torque developed is zero if the rotating electrical machine has
different num ber o f poles on its stator and rotor.
3.2. (a) Explain the production o f torque through the concept o f interaction of magnetic fields. Using this
concept, show that no electrom agnetic torque is produced if (i) stator has 4 poles and rotor has 2 poles, (n)
stator has 6 poles and rotor has 2 poles.
0b) Explain the concept o f alignm ent torque. Using this concept discuss the condition under which
reluctance torque will be developed in an electrical machine having cylindrical stator and salient-pole rotor.
[Ans. (6 ) The exciting winding must be on statorl
3.3. fa) From the construction point of view, enumerate the common essential features of rotating electrical
machines.
(6) Describe the constructional features of both types of polyphase induction motors. Why has induction
motor come to be called so ?
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in “ < » G ilX r n tC Iw o f »o*h < W " ofsyn ch ron ou s machines. W hy has sy n ch ron y ^
rotTr'spider having four salient poles with damper bars, cylindrical rotor having four-pole field .indin,
and the materials used for their construction,
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<g) different parts o f a dc-m achine stator and the m aterials used for their construction,
(h) different parts o f a dc machine rotor and the m aterials used for their construction.
3.7. (a) In what respect are ac and dc generators (i) sim ilar and (ii) different.
(6)
w.E
How can a dc generator be converted into a 3-phase delta-connected alternator ?
(c) What is yoke, pole core, pole-shoe in a dc m achine ? W hat purpose do they serve ?
asy
(d) W hy is pole-shoe area more than the pole-core area in dc m achines ?
(e) W hat is a com m utator ? W hat purpose does it serve in a dc generator and motor ?
En
(f) Distinguish between armature w ipding and field winding.
(g ) Distinguish between load current and exciting current.
3.8. (a) W hy are some parts o f electrical m achines lam inated ?
gin
(b) Which parts o f the following m achines are lam inated and w hich are not ? DC machines, 3-phase
--
3.10. (a) Explain the follow ing term s with respect to rotating electrical machines :
Pole-pitch, coil, coil-side, full-pitch coil, chorded-coil, chording angle, coil span.
(6 ) Show that for a P -pole m achine, the total flux per pole is given by
A
* = p B P lr
' (c) D efine the term s : conductor, end-connection, turn, tw o-turn coi1. 0f its relat‘ve
3.11. (a) D erive an expression for the e.m.f. generated in one N -tu m full-pitch coil because ^ ^ that
motion with respect to tim e-invariant flux (j). H ence show that the generated e.m.f. lag8 ^
produces it.
if •
.
Iternator "
(b) C alculate the phase and line voltages o f a three-phase star-connected 4-pole
total flux per pole 0.30 Wb. Each phase has a concentrated w inding o f 10 full-pitched ^ 666 33 V, H54‘
velocity between arm ature w inding and field flux is 1500 r.p.m .. * D ’
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3.12. (a) Show that e.m.f. generated in a short-pitched coil is reduced by a factor cos | where c is the
chording angle.
» 'yrite, a set o f voltage equations as a function of time for the line e.m.fs for
VrJ? alternator. Show that line voltages are also displaced from each other by a time angle of
1u\J •
(H int, (d) Line voltage ellb = e„ - eb etc.J
[Ans. (c) (i) ea = <2 E cos cof, eb = ^12 E cos (of - 120°), ec = V2 E cos (orf - 240°)
Ui) ea = >f2 E sin tat, eb = <2 E sin (lot - 120°) etc.
(d) (i) eab = V3 Emcos (a* +30°), = V3 Ein cos (col - 90°), eea = V3 Emcos (cot + 150°); E,„ = V2 £
ww
(« ) eab = V3' Emsin (col + 30°), = V J Emsin (col - 90°), efa = V3 E,„ sin (col + 150°)|
3.13. One A^-turn coil on cylindrical stator is short-pitched by e electrical space degrees and salient-pole
w.E
rotor has 2-pole structure which produces sinusoidal flux along the air-gap periphery. Derive general expression
for the flux linkages with the chorded coil in terms o f peak flux density and core dimensions. Find also the
ratio o f fractional-pitch coil flux linkages to that o f the full-pitch coil. |Ans. 2 fl,, l.r cos e/2, cos e/2]
asy
3.14. O ne Af-turn full-pitched coil rotates with an angular velocity o f wf rad/sec with respect to fleld flux.
Give an expression for the flux linkages with the coil as a function o f time t and hence derive therefrom
En
an expression for the em f generated in the coil. Discuss nature of the em f expression so obtained.
3.15. The stator o f a 4-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction machine is supplied from 3-phase, 50 Hz supply.
The slip rings o f the machine are open circuited. It is desired that frequency o f the voltage across slip rings is
gin
(a) 50 Hz (6 ) 75 Hz (c) 100 Hz (d) 25 Hz. Find the speed of the rotor to obtain these frequencies.
(A ns. (a) Zero speed, (6 ) 750 r.p.m. against the direction o f rotating field, (c) 1500 r.p.m. against the
eer
direction o f rotating field, (d) 750 r.p.m. in the direction o f rotating field.)
3.16. (a) Explain how a polyphase induction motor o f the slipring type can be used as a frequency changer.
ing
(b) The frequency o f the e.m.f. in the stator circuit o f a 6-pole induction motor is 50 Hz. If rotor circuit
e.m.f. has a frequency o f 2 Hz, then find :
(*") the direction in which the rotor is revolving with respect to the rotating field.
(ii) the slip and the rotor speed.
.ne
(Ans. (b) (i) in the direction of rotating field, (it) 0.04, 960 r.p.m.1
3.17. (a) Explain how a.c., generated in the armature circuit o f a d.c. machine, is rectified to d.c. by means
of a comm utator.
(b) Derive an expression for the e.m.f. generated in a d.c. machine.
3.18. (a) A 10 kW , 250 V, 8-pole, 600 r.p.m. lap-connected d.c. generator has 400 armature conductors. At
t
rated voltage and current, arm ature ohm ic losses are 150 watts. Compute the useful flux per pole.
(b) A 6-pole d.c. generator has a rated speed o f 800 r.p.m. Calculate frequency o f the e.m.f.
(i) generated in the arm ature conductors and
Ui) at the brushes.
[Hint, (a) = 150 w atts. Calculate E„ from the relation E„ = V, + /„ ru and then the flux per pole.l
(Ans. (a) 0.06344 Wb (b ) 40 Hz ; 0 Hz I.
3.19. (a) W hat are the advantages o f distributing the windings in slots?
(b) Define distribution factor and show that its expression for the fundamental frequency component is
given by gi-n ? Y / 2
q sin y/ 2
(c) Define the term s phase-band and phase-spread. In 3-phase a.c. machines, explain why a phase-spread
of60° is preferred to a phase spread o f 120°.
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352 E le c t r ic a l M a c h in e r y
IH in t, (c) For o = 60°. k = 0.955 and for a = 120°, = 0.827. T hus the phase e.m.f. js r e .
riven arm ature current, a.c. m achine ou tpu t is also reduced. F or a narrow nk ? 3nc*^ a
. . 0.955 . Se'sPread ftr»
the phase e.m.f. and output for a given cu rren t are q ^ 7 = 1-15 tim es their corresp ^
for the w ide phase-spread o f 120°. n8valuej>
Also for o = 60, k^ = 0.637 and for o = 120°, = 0. T h ou gh o = 120° eliminates third
com pletely from the phase and line e.m .fs., yet 60° phase-spread is almost al arrnonics
because third harm onics can be suppressed from the lines by connecting the k ^ * emP'°yed
delta.) b Ie Phases in star oj
3.20. (a) E num erate the advantages o f fractional pitch w inding.
( b ) Define pitch factor and derive an expression for it.
(c) W hat should be the value o f chording angle for elim in atin g
(i) third harm onics,
(ii) 5th harm onics and
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(ii) short-pitched concentrated w inding ?
3.21. (a) Discuss the effect o f pitch and distribution factors in an alternator.
(Ans. (c) 6Q0 360 ^
is 500
asy
m P^ ! r 0Sl ar‘ ; r neC! ef alternator has a ratinS o f 810 kV A at 2.5 kV and has 12 poles. Ratedspeed
00 r.p.m. There are three slots per pole per phase and num ber o f conductors per slot is 5 For a full nitJLi
En
winding, com pute the flux per pole to give rated term inal voltage at no load. * “
phase spread I V w t T l W ^ ^ ^
gin ^ ^ phaS6’ Caku,ate the breadth * «
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(b) An alternator has 3 slots per pole per phase. For a coil span o f 8 slots,find the winding factor.
IA ns. (b) 0.9598, 0.8312 (6) 0.94521
ne o n h e T ^ n T h V p e l e^C*
connec^e3 a p e m a tor has 120 stator slots and each slot has 10 conductors
V., JiyS
wi
em f harm onics is ^ h m in a te d *
fa) r X X X X a
P°'‘ “ ° 12 W b -
v e
t
‘ he induced em f between lines. Which rffc
(I.A .S .,
’ * 2 2 5 ° “ nd the last 2 2 '5’ - For 75% ° f P” 1' P^ 11” 135’ ' “"
(b) 8400.3 V, 5th harmonic.)
3.24. A 3-phase, delta-connected, 4-pole 50 a ir: v • j w . i . a in turn
coils, each short-pitched by one slot I f stator leek induction m otor has 36 stator slots and 101
rotating flux-density w ave in case the stator o f b i d u f f ,mpedanc.e 15 neglected, find the flux pei-pole®
winding. induction m otor has (a) single-layer winding (6) d°ublt‘ /L
3 2*5 A A. , J , ‘A ” 8 - <«> 0 03295 Wb lb ) 0 016
stator' s L w ; S S , ydeer X r e t n d t , UCt,° " T t " ‘ S SUPPUed from 416 V ’ 3'Pha“ " ^ 2
air-gap radius 10 c m ^ n d aair-rg r p nien^haf m m Urn Ch° rded by ° ne slot Its sta’tor' length iS 3° Cra' "1' 8n
(a) For negligible stator im pedance finH ikr. n .
<61 Find the line current drew n by X m o r in ^ ' t ? r° ,a ti" 8 " UX
(H in t. (6 ) Use Eq. 3.701 n° ' load b s s e s ore 1400 w alts' m 1SS67J«
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Prob. 3]
J r , - Concepts “ < Machines Vta
W indmg factor for arm ature winding = 0 955-------------------------------------------------------- — ------ —
For no-load arm ature em f o f 11 kV finH i
3.28. (a) How do the winding a- * L ' *..5 = 0.037786 ; 17 and 19, 0.9024)
(6 ) The line to line voltage o f a 3 phase t " WaVrf° ™ 0fth' ° UtPUt ’' 0" ae' " f ‘ synchronous generetor?
of Held Hux, is observed to have no thifd or n f t t i.u T lT c o t 'T n ^ haVi“ 6 Sp‘ “ distrib" ' i» "
. W hat are the most Hkeiy reasons for the absence o f these harmonics? Why ?
in voltage w a v e ? UC “ “ th‘ fundan" " t a l component o f voltage be increased by allowing full fifth harmonic
, J ’ Star connection eliminates third harmonics ;
3.29 The total fi , • ng a n g leof36° eliminat«9 fifth harmonics, (n) 5.1526%)
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distribution is given b y * *** P° 8 “ * ^ ^ ° f 3 50 Hz a c’ generator is 0.069 Wb. If the flux density
B = B l s i n 0 + B 3 sin 30 + B s sin 50
where B3
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- B j and f l 5 = - fl, and 0 is the angle measured from interpolar axis, then determine the r.m.s.
asy
value o f the e.m.f. per turn. The coil span is |th o f a pole pitch.
*/>5 = °'
gin
From the presentation leading to Eq. (3.51 b ),
eer
03 = g 0|.0S = ^3 0|-
ing
.ne
.'. Total flux per pole 0 - 01 + 0J + 05 = 01
, + 9 + 2fil= U 5 1 *
t
Fundamental flux per pole
01 “ I T S " 0-06 Wb
E.m.f. per turn, = V2 it fkp^$1 = 12.674 V
3.30. (a ) “Even though the field flux density wave o f an alternator is non-sinusoidal, the alternator voltage
can be m ade sinusoidal by distributing the armature winding in slots". Illustrate your answer with e.m.f.
waveforms.
[Hint: (a) N on-sinusoidal distribution o f field flux-density wave along the air-gap periphery is shown in
Fig. 3.60 (a). I f one full-pitch coil rotates with respect to this flux-density wave, then e.m.f. generated in that
coil has the sam e w aveform as that o f the inducing flux-density w ave-this is illustrated in Fig. 3.60 (6).
Suppose there are three slots per pole per phase, i.e. there are 3 coils in the phase-belt or phase-band.
Then w aveform s o f the e.m .fs. generated in the coils numbered 1, 2 and 3 are as shown in Fig. 3.60 (cl Note
that the zero-crossin g o f the e.m.f. w aveform s is displaced from each other by a time angle o f 20° (= slot angular
Pitch o f 20°).
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IProb. 3
354 Electrical Machinery
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(c)
Fig 3 60. Effect of distributing the winding. Problem 3.30.
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where 0 is the angle measured from the interpolar axis.
The alternator has 9 slots per pole and the coil-span is from 1 to 9. If r.m .s. value o
phase voltage is V j, then compute :
t fundamental
3.32. A 50-H z salient-pole synchronous generator, w ith tw o-layer full-pitched winding, l'as
ta :
D = 7 n i ,f = l m , stator slots = 600, rated speed = 120 r.p.m.
iductors per slot = 2.
The sinusoidal flux density has a peak value o f 1.2 T
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(W F in d th e p h a s e v o lta g e i f th e c o n d u c to rs a r e co n n ected to g iv e , b a la n c e d th r e e -p h a s e w in d in g .
c o n n ected m is e r ie s . T h e re fo fe .^’ p
p h a se
se SsPread
p re a d -*180®^etc
~180 etc.| ? tPU* V° lt a g e ’ Si" g !(Ans.
! ' p h a s(a)
e w in d in g V
28506.24 a s al1
h (6) th e tu rnV|
14294.47 s
3.33. A 4-pole oc machine has its winding housed in 48 slots with coils o f span i| ,* o f a pole-pitch.
Determine the winding factors and their relative kVA ratings in case this winding is
(a) 3-phase with a phase spread o f 60°,
( b) 3-phase with a phase spread of 120°,
(c) two phase,
(d) single phase. ,A „
IAns. W in din g factors : 0.9 4 9 5 , 0 .8 2 2 2 , 0.8 95, 0.6 33
kVA : 100, 86.593, 94.24, 66.271
3.34. The flux density distribution for a 50-Hz cylindrical-rotor alternator is
B = sin 0 + 0.3 sin 3 0 + 0.2 sin 5 0 + 0.1 sin 7 0
^ ‘I ™ ’ Alternator has pole-pitch = 40 cm and core length = 35 cm. Stator coil-
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span is four-fifth o f pole-pitch. Find equation for the e.m.f. generated in one-turn coil and its r.m.s. value.
IAns. e - 26.61 sin 0 + 4.935 sin 3 0 - 1.645 sin 7 0 ; 19.1762 V|
hoc t 3? ' * *
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a,ternator with sin8Ie lay er winding and full pitch coils, has 12 slots per pole. Each coil
has 30 turns. The flux is sinusoidally distributed in space and its value per pole is 0.03 Wb. The machine is
af SPf , 7b0 rr p m ’ P 16 current Per conductor is 50 A. For negligible internal voltage drops, find
the kVA output available from the stator if the winding is connected as :
(а) single phase and
(б ) three phase. asy
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IH i n t : In single layer winding, number o f coils = — (number o f slots).
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3.36. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 10 pole alternator with 90 slots has a star-connected winding to give a generated
e .m .f o f 11 kV at no load. The coils are chorded by one slot. If the flux per pole is 0.110 Wb, compute the
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num ber o f series turns required for each phase o f this alternator. -
[ H i n t : Conductors per slot must be a whole number.) |Ans 2701
3.37. A 3-phase, 3 kV, 50 Hz, 300 rpm alternator has the following data:
Armature diameter = 1.90 m, core length = 0.39 m
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t
Peak air-gap flux density ’ = 0.95 T
Number o f stator slots = 180
Air-gap length = 1 cm
T h is a lt e r n a t o r h a s s in g le - la y e r w in d in g a n d tw o c ir c u its p e r p h a s e . F in d th e to t a l a r m a t u r e t u r n s p e r
p h a s e . A s s u m e s in u s o id a l flu x d is t r ib u t io n . T h e w in d in g is s h o r t p itc h e d b y o n e s lo t. C a lc u la t e a ls o th e p e a k
v a lu e o f f u n d a m e n t a l fie ld m m f.
In c a s e c u r r e n t p e r c o n d u t o r is 10 0 A , e s t im a t e k V A r a t i n g o f th e a lt e r n a to r .
IAns. 240, 7559.9 At/pole, 1039.2 kVA|
3.38. T h e y o k e o f a 6 -p o le d .c. m a c h in e h a s it s e x t e r n a l a n d in t e r n a l d ia m e te r s o f 9 0 a n d 7 6 c m s r e s p e c t iv e ly
an d a x ia l le n g t h o f 3 0 c m s . T h e a r m a t u r e is w a v e c o n n e c te d w it h 7 2 s lo ts a n d 6 c o n d u c to r s p e r s lo t. T h e flu x
d e n s ity in t h e y o k e is 0 .8 6 T . C a l c u l a t e th e g e n e r a t e d e .m .f. a t th e m a c h in e t e r m i r a l s fo r a n a r m a t u r e s p e e d
o f 900 r .p .m .
[Hint: F l u x p e r p o le = 2 ( y o k e flu x ) , s e e F ig . 3.8] ( A n s . 7 0 2 .1 7 3 V|
3 .3 9 . A 3 - p h a s e d e lt a - c o n n e c t e d in d u c t io n m o to r h a s 6 p o le s , 3 6 s lo t s , 2 - la y e r w i n d in g a n d 1 2 - t u m c o ils
s h o r t- p itc h e d b y o n e s lo t . F i n d t h e flu x p e r p o le o f t h e r o t a t in g flu x d e n s it y w a v e , w i t h s t a t o r c o n n e c t e d to 4 0 0
V, 50 H z , 3 - p h a s e s u p p ly . T h e m a g n it u d e o f v o l t a g e d r o p in s t a t o r le a k a g e im p e d a n c e is a s s u m e d to b e 1 % o f
s u p p ly v o lt a g e . lA n s . 0 .0 13 2 7 W b|
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3.41. (a) Show that the m.m.f. changes linearly over the slot width and remains unaltered over the tooth
Wldth‘ . in s is t s of one full-pitch coil on the stator. If the coil has N turns, then for
(6) A uniform air-gap ma^ e h t the m m f . along the air-gap periphery is of rectangular waveform
a current of i amperes in each turn, show tnai m e m e>
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A single-phase distributed winding carries alternating current. Show that the tune-maximum of the pesk
m.m.f. for a P-pole machine is given by
3 43 In a balanced 3-phase stator winding, each phase-belt o f phase a has 100 ampere-conductors at the
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instant of its carrying maximum current. Sketch the m.m.f. wave for this phase in case slo s per pole per phase
(q) are 1, 2, 3 and 4. Find the amplitude of m.m.f. wave for this phase and comment upon the change in m.m.f.
as q is increased.
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[ H i n t : For q = 1, m.m.f. amplitude = ^ (Ni) = 50 etc.)
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[Ans. 50, 100, 150 and 200. M.m.f. wave becomes more closer to sinusoidal m.m.f. as q is increased).
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3.44. A 2-pole, 3-phase a.c. winding has 24 slots. Each slot carries 10 conductors. At the instant phase a
carries maximum current of 16 A, do the following :
(a) Sketch m.m.f. wave o f phase a only in a developed view of the slots. Comment upon the m.m.f. w a v e s h a p e
and indicate its amplitude in the sketch. .ne
(b ) Calculate the amplitude of the fundamental component o f the m.m.f. wave.
(H in t. Refer to Fig. 3.29 (c)] (Ans. (a) Stepped m.m.f. wave ; 320 ATs (b) 390.2 ATs/pokl
3.45. A 3-phase, 100 kW, 6-pole, 50 Hz, delta-connected induction motor has 20 conductors per slot arr“ ^
t
in 72 slots. For a line current o f 76 A, compute the peak value o f the fundamental m.m.f. wave of any p ^
Also calculate the peak value o f the resultant m.m.f. wave and its speed. The winding is short‘ pltc e i
slot. [Ans. 3000.8 AT/pole ; 4501.2 AT/pole. 1000 r.p.m-
3.46. (a) Show that the pulsating m.m.f. can be expressed in terms o f space angle a and time angle w
F (a, t) = Fm cos cot cos a
where Fm is the m.m.f. corresponding to the maximum current
• nf triangulw
(6) Show that the m.m.f. produced by the armature winding o f a commutator machine is o
1Z i
w a v e fo r m w i t h its p e a k v a lu e e q u a l t o - - - A T s / p o le .
3.47. T w o -
s u p p ly . I f t h e c u r r e n t s
p r o v e t h a t a s y n c h r o n o u s ly
th e s e r ie s t u r n s p e r p h a s e .
Prob. 31 m
Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 357
Hence show ,h . « » - p h a « in m.phase synchronous|y _ mf
w a v e o f c o n s t a n t a , n p „ t u d e o f f U m e5 th „ m , x im u m ^ ^ » _ 6 f
per pole <>, number o f poles /^andTotor'nf’n frtlr0 ^ £enera* tonlue expression in terms of total air-gap flux
the load angle or t o r ^ e a"gk “ m S S £ 5 w S i I T p U' “ « • * » « n develop J / w h * .
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r o to r d ia m e t e r = 0 .4 m, / = 1 m, sta to r bore d ia m e te r = 0.41 m
p e a k v a lu e o f sin u s o id a l g a p flu x d e n s ity = 1 T
Calculate the air-gap reluctance, peak air-gap m .m .f, flux per pole and total air-gap energy.
decomposed
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IAns. 12665.15 ATA Vb, 1989.44 A T s, 0.2 W b 1250 J1
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halnnr5^' 7711-66 C01,s a - b’ c bave their magnetic axis coincident. These coils a, b, c are excited by three-phase
alanced currents /„, cos cot, /„, cos (o* - 1 2 0 °) and /„, cos (a* - 2 4 0 ) respectively. Find the magnitude of resul
tant m.m.f. wave.
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is 11 essential to know the power losses in electrical machines? Show that the calculation of
efficiency by the measurement of losses is more accurate than by measuring the output.
(b) What are no-load rotational losses? How can these be measured?
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3.55. (a) Enumerate the various power losses in electrical machines. Which of these losses are affected by
U) rotor rotation (» ) the value of flux (Hi) the load directly and (iv) square of the load.
(b) What happens to the power losses in electrical machines? Are these reversible? ing
(c) What is the efficiency of a generator or motor at no load?
[Ans. (a) (i) No-load rotational loss (ii) Hysteresis and eddy-current losses .ne
(in') Brush contact loss (iu) I2R losses and stray load loss.
3 .5 6 . O u t p u t o f r o t a t in g e le c t r ic a l m a c h in e s is g iv e n b y
(c) Efficiency is zero.]t
S = K D 2L B ou r c n
[Ana. x4 S lt x3 W, where 5 , and W, are the rating & losses respectively in the first rotating electrical machine.l
3 .5 7 . (a) W h a t a r e t h e v a r i o u s e l e c t r i c a l lo s s e s in r o t a t in g e le c t r ic a l m a c h in e s ? G iv e a p h y s ic a l u n d e r
s t a n d in g o f h y s t e r e s i s a n d e d d y - c u r r e n t lo s s e s a n d s h o w t h a t th e u s e o f th in la m in a t io n s m in im is e s th e
e d d y - c u r r e n t lo s s .
(5 ) W h a t lo s s is d e s i g n a t e d a s s t r a y lo a d lo s s ? H o w is t h is c a u s e d in e le c t r ic a l m a c h in e s ?
[Prob. 3
358 Electrical Machinery
(c) Show that m aximum efficiency occurs when constant loss is equal to variable loss.
3.58. (a) The proposed load schedule for a sm all rolling m ill is as under.
B ille t in th e r o lls , 5 0 0 k W fo r 3 0 sec.
B ille t o u t o f th e r o lls , 8 0 kVV for 4 0 sec.
F in d a c o n t in u o u s k W r a tin g o f th e m o to r.
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T im e , sec
O u tp u t, k W
0
0
20
1000
20
1 0 0 0 to 5 0 0
60
500
60
5 0 0 to - 2 0 0
70
0
90
0
R epeat
cycle
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The complete load cycle curve can be obtained by joining these points with straight lines.
Specify a continuous kW rating o f the motor for this load cycle. [Ans. 450 kW (= 432.045 k\V)|
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3.60. (a ) A continuous-rated motor can deliver higher power outputs for short-time duty. Discuss.
(6) A 10 kW, 3-phase induction motor has a heating time constant of 2 hours and attains a final steady temperature
ohmic loss is twice the core loss and ambient temperature is 30°C.
En
rise of 50° C with continuous loading. Find the time for which this motor may be safely loaded at 20 kW. The fuU-load
[Ans. 0.811 hr]
3.61. (a) Explain the significance o f machine ratings.
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(6) Describe more common types of machine ratings based on thermal considerations.
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(c) Explain the method of determining the power rating o f electric motors for driving the loads requiring
almost constant torque.
ing
(d ) Describe the method used for the determination of electric-motor rating for a periodically varying load.
3.62. (a) An induction motor has a final steady temperature rise o f 40°C when running at its rated output
of 20 kW. Determine its half-hour rating for the same temperature rise if the ohmic losses at rated output are
1.25 times its constant losses. The heating time constant is 90 minutes.
(fc) For the motor o f part (a), the motor cooling is improved by 20% because o f its installation in the hills. .ne
Find its new continuous power rating (i) for the same temperature rise (ii) for a temperature rise of 50°C.
t
[Ans. (a) 47.17 kW (b) 23.324 kW, 27.57 k\V|
3.63. ( a ) What are the more commonly employed classes of insulation in electrical machines ? Discuss these
with respect to the maximum temperature, materials etc.
(fc) An electric motor with continuous rating Pr can deliver much higher output Px for a short-time duration
tx. Develop a relation that gives the short-time rating Px in terms o f P r, tx, heating time constant etc.
3.64. (a) Differentiate between short-time rated and continuous rated motors.
(fc) Temperature rise of an electric motor at rated load of 30 kW was found to be 20°C after one-hour run
and 50°C after three-hour run. In case its full-load ohmic loss is 1.5 times the constant loss, calculate its
one-hour rating without exceeding the specified temperature rise.
(c) In case temperature rise o f 10% is allowed for motor in part (fc), find its new continuous rating.
[Ans. (o) 88.74 kW (fc) 32.4 kWI
3.65. (a) The temperature rise of an 80 kW motor is 25°C after 0.5 h and 40°C after 1 0 h on full load. The
motor I B loss on full load is twice the core loss. When this motor is fitted with a fan to improve the cooling.
b M h ^ i b t i i ’ned1w ^ Z i t “ m ” 15 t0 48°C ' EStimatC the m ° t0r raU ne f° r thc fin al te ™Peraturc riSC 10
Derive the formula used for obtaining this rating.
Prob. 3]
J t a s i c C o n c e p ts o f M a t i n g E le ctric a l M a c h in e s 359
<6. For the m otor o f par, fa >, determine j(s ^ (j) ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
3.66. (a) What is pulsation loss? Discuss how this , ■ 'T 96 44 “ '° 8 “ ^ ' 3° '95 kWI
(6 ) Describe the advantages o f usinp h H ' S cau ln rotatlng electrical machines.
(c) Discuss where direct c o o , i n i T ” “ * C° ° 'ant ‘“^ " '- t o r s .
W1 npc ., eCt C00hne 15 P a i r e d over hydrogen cooling.
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FO U R
D.C. Machines
D.C. machine is a highly versatile energy conversion device. It can meet theRemand.of
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loads requiring high starting torques, high accelerating and dederating torques. e
time, d.c. machine is easily adaptable for drives requiring wide-range speed control a n d quiCK
reversals. These inherent characteristics can further be modified, if desired, by fee“ ba
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cuits. In view of these outstanding features, d.c. machine possesses a high degree ot ttexibility.
These are therefore widely used in industry, particularly for tough jobs as are encountered in
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steel-mill drives— inspite of their higher initial cost.
DC machines discussed in this chapter have hetropolar field system (alternate ^ a n d S
poles) and armature-commutator system. In normal dc machines, stator core is not lamina e
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armature core is, however, always laminated to reduce e d d y - c u r r e n ^
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machines used in control systems have their magnetic circuit completely laminated. This is
done to minimise the effect of eddy-current damping on the fast response required in d
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machines employed in controlled systems. •
At present the annual production of dc machines is about 40% of the rupee volume in
ing
electrical-machine production and sales. This is on account of the fact that most highway
vehicles use batteries for the storage of electric energy. In these vehicles and automobiles dc
motors are used as starter motors, windshield-wiper motors, fan motors and for driving other
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accessories in the vehicles. For these purposes, almost millions of dc motors are built each year.
In industrial applications requiring accurate control of speed and/or torque dc motor is un
ment. . , . ,
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rivalled Therefore, dc motors are almost universally employed in steel and aluminium rolling
mills. power shovels, electric elevators, railroad locomotives and large earth-movmg equip
, „
The constructional features of d.c. machines have already been described in chapter 3
where it has been stated that field winding is a concentrated winding on salient poles bolted to
the stator frame and armature winding is a distributed wmdinghoused in the slots around the
periphery of the cylindrical rotor. Basic principles underlying the torque production and e.m t
Generation in d.c machines are also outlined in chapter 3. The object of this chapter is to
present the physical concepts regarding the steady state behaviour of d.c. machines.
E x am p le 4.1. (a) Sketch a 6-pole dc machine. Indicate the flux path for the six poles.
(b) Draw neat diagram o f a dc machine. Label all its parts and mention the material used
for each part.
S o lu tio n . The object of this example is to supplement the constructional details alrcaay
described in Art 3.2.3. The reader must go through this article before studying the iol -
presentation.
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AH.
D.C. Machines 361
10) Sketch of a 6-pole dc machine is
Yoke
shown in Fig 4.1. In this figure, iron from
the bottom of armature teeth to the shaft
diameter is the armature core. The flux
paths for the six poles are also shown. It is
observed from this figure that
(£) each pole carries a flux 0 (say),
(ii) yoke handles half of the pole flux
i.e. cj)/2 ’
(in) armature core also handles a flux 0 /2 .
Examination of Fig. 4.1 reveals that main
flux 0 starts from a north pole, crosses the air Field
gap and then travels down to the armature w in d in g
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ves, each half enters the nearby south pole,
each half then passes through the yoke and
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reaches the starting point of north pole so as
to complete the flux path. Each flux line cros-
ses the air gap twice. Some flux lines may
.
F'e 4 1' Flux paths in a 6~pole dc machine
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not enter the armature ; this flux, called the leakage flux, is not shown in Fig. 4.1.
(6) Various parts of a 6-pole dc machine are shown in Fig. 4.1. Commutator forms the most
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important component of a dc machine. In Fig. 4.2 (a), various parts of a 4-pole dc machine alone
with its commutator are labelled.
F ie l d p o le • In te r p o le
gin Yoke
Field
w in d in g
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Fig. 4.2. (a) Constructional features of 4-pole dc machine and commutator.
Stator of a dc machine consists of yoke (or frame), field windings, interpoles, compensating
winding, brushes and end covers. Rotor consists of armature core, armature winding, com
mutator and shaft. Stator components are described first.
Yoke. It has two functions : (i) it provides path for the pole flux 0 and carries half of it
| 0 /2 (it) it provides mechanical support to the whole machine. Since the flux carried by yoke
is stationary (i.e. constant), it is not laminated. As stated before, case iron is used for small dc
machines and fabricated steel for large dc machines. In case dc motor is to be operated through
a power-electronics converter, the yoke is laminated to reduce the eddy-current losses
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[Art.
362 Electrical M a c h in e r y _ _
/■ i „ oaIp sihnp The pole core is made from cast
Field poles. Fieldpole consists of pole core a P ^ • riatcly.
steel but the pole shoe is laminate an ixe Thus both pole core and pole
,;» ) For dc compound machine, both shunt (thm wire) and series (thick
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interpole winding, consisting o a e
ture so that its magnetomotive force is propo
C om p en satin g windings.Thesewinding
|tQ arraature current.
P
^ ^ alots cut in the pole faces of
^ ^ armature circuit This
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a dc machine. Compensating winding is also conn
winding is, however, used in large c mac me ^ ^ tQ the gtator eiid cover
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B ru sh es. Brushes are housed in box-type_br
Fie 4 2 (a) or the stator yoke. A small spring; eep
rushes pressed on to the commutator
carefully adjusted. Too sma
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hrush pressure is too high, it . • y
brUSheS' „ gin
ade o f carbon for small dc machines, e .e c t r o g r a p h it e fo r a il dc machines an
BrU anhte f o r t w voHage high-current dc machines.
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C0PR „tfr components arc^nowi described below. rf tf)
ing to
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A rm a tu re w in d in g. havjng 0ne or more turns. The t
depending upon the
4 2 (a )‘ * * ^ It is ofcylindricalstructure.lt is
C o m m u ta to r . I g e n ts 0f h ig h c o n d u c -
fr o m co m m u ta to r se ^ ‘ Ss (i m e n ts fr o m fly in g o u t
shaped so as to prevent the segm
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Art. 4.1]
A commutator cerfnrmo +, •
vert alternating quantities to in 3 d c ’ m achine-the first one is to con-
S e Ilte°r 0I; arraatUre m m -f stationary in Z Z ^ the S6C0nd function is to keep
the alternating quantities in the armature a ? commutator function of rectifying
of a d c generator, has already been eXZ n o d ? ‘ ° f 6Ct “ uantiti“ at the outpu brufhef
quanta,es at the brushes are con verted t al t - ^ 3A A ' CaSe ° fa d c m ote, the dfrec
armature winding. Thus a c o m m u t a t o r c a n a qUantitieS <V° ltage and “ ™ « m the
as an inverter (d.c. to ax.). both as a c°nvertor or rectifier (a.c. to d.c.) and
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For duf development of e i^ tro m a ^ e h c torque ^he°^eS' 7 “ P" du“ Stati° ^ air gap flux,
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ary in space. The commutator in a d c machine r* rmature
rendering the armature m.m.f. wave stationary in sn T ° U
wave must also be station-
f S(? 0nd imP°rtant Unction of
r ‘7
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° f 'theC0“
commutator segments^umbered^lto 4 Ire totu[a^ ” t ' tched C
° r is a™ atUrB r° tati° n In
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,° U,S, housed in 4 slots. The four
centre line of the poles around which the field mil t i7 6 ° and from the sbaft- The
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the machine. The shape of the c oi l nd conn ctton makes h W° Und' * “ 1,ed the
brushes along the direct axis or field axis, as deputed t F i g T T * " * l° Pla“ ^
“» ° f
tW° Carb° n
Fig. 4.3 differs much from a real machine hn, E . ~ . eer Therefore the d.c. machine illustrated in
It may also be noted that the brushes make contactwiththe m f * ?
ing mng,the commutator action.
^r°ernoT°le andlirT el/S f ° r N‘ POle‘ ThG t0rqUC Pr° dUCed by the interaction of field and arml-
ure poles 1S caUed electromagnetic torque. If this machine is working as a motor the rStar
In t " I m u GdirCCti° n, ° f electroma^ etic torque, i.e. in the clockwise direction In Fig 4 3
m case the machine is working as a generator, then the rotor must be driven bv the nri™7
E d i r e c r nSt fh° fdiGeCtif0n ° f elect™ma^ etic torque for proper energy conversion. In Fiig. 4 3
direction of rotation for generator operation must be anticlockwise.
I
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[Art. 4.1
364 Electrical Machinery
r '
k ,
2
------N — f Ii
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Fig. 4.3. Armature m.m.f. is kept stationary in space along
interpolar axis by action o f the commutator.
ing
Fig 4 3 (6) illustrates the conditions when the rotor has turned through 45° clockwise.
There are again two parallel paths, one through coil 1 and the second through coil 3. It may be
seen that coils 1 3 (housed in slots 1, 3) have maximum e.m.fs. generated in them ; because
.ne
these coils are cutting the maximum flux. Coils 2 ,4 are short-circuitedby the brushes and carry
no currents because e.m.fs induced in these coils are zero. Currents in coil-sides pertaining to
slots 1 3 in Fig 4.3 (6), again establish armature m.m.f. that is directed vertically upward. Note
that coil current in each parallel path is again 7a/ 2 as it is in Fig. 4.3 (a). •
t
Fie 4 3 (c) depicts the condition when the rotor has turned through by further 45° from the
position of Fig. 4.3 (6). One parallel path is now through coils 4 ,1 and the second parallel path
is through coils 3, 2. Coils in each parallel path carry again Ia/2 as it is in Fig. 4.3 (a) and (6).
The armature m.m.f. is again directed vertically upward. Hence it can be concluded that arma
ture m m f is always stationary in space and is directed along the interpolar or quadrature
axis even though the armature rotates. For a motor, the electromagnetic torque is always ac
ting in the clockwise direction, (Fig. 4.3) and the rotation continues. For a generator, the arma
ture must be driven in anticlockwise direction (Fig. 4.3), for the necessary energy conversion
from mechanical to electrical. ,
An examination of Fig. 4.3 reveals that just before the coils 2, 4 are short-circuited by e
brushes, these coils carry current Ia/2 (or in general l a/a ) in one direction, oon
short-circuit is over, these two coils carry current - Ia/2 (or in general - / a/n ) jn r ^
direction as shown in Fig. 4.3 (c). Here a is the number of parallel paths and in Fig. - . ^
equal to 2. Thus during the time of short-circuit, the currents in the short-circune .
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Art. 4.2]
is t h ^ C e m a ^ i ^ o f ™ t e t m X c o U ^ f"8
remains constant and equa. to ,
mtude of e.m.fs. induced in the coils under each nnle i . IT * .,or '«"tiMng
stant- coil under the pole centre has m a x im fm 'e t f l T d , P°'e ^
in rt, whereas the other coils have their e m f m a r m it i 4'4' Vanatl0n o f armature-coil
proportional to the flux density wave present there CUITent Hnear commutati°n
The coils short-circuited bv the hm eU o ■
ww
sides in the zero flux density region so that e m f T f n r h m l T process must have their coi|-
coils undergoing commutation must have t h e i r c f l r i ^ “
field poles, i.e. in the interpolar or ?t * 5
^ In ° ther WOrds' the
*h° maB™tlc neutral axis of the
w.E
commutation in Fig. 4 3 (6) have their coil sides' •
The shape of the coil
°F examPle’ co*'s 2 ar)d 4 undergoing
° Tint6rpdar axis
B ru sh e s .ne
d - o x is
Field
w in d in g
t
— d-axis
A rm a tu re
Fi 4 . (?) (/»
g. *i.a. s c h e m a tic d ia g ra m o f (a ) 2 -p ole (i.e. m a ch in e and (6) d.c. m ach in e w ith an y n u m ber o f poles
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[Art. 4.2
366 Electrical Machinery
RESULTANT
RESULTAN T BRUSH VOLTAGE
in BRUSH VOLTAGE in
o
>
"X' >'
' A / \ a M ( \ A A / v V v ^ . ^
X vy -fc#1
COIL COIL I mi
COIL rrm
COIL mu
COIL t
1 2 1 2 3
(a) (b)
ww
Fig. 4.6. Resultant brush voltage for a d.c. machine for (a) 2-coils in series and (6) 3-coils in series.
Upper part of Fig. 4.6 (b) shows three coils 1, 2, 3 displaced from each other by 120 .
w.E
Waveforms of the rectified voltage in these three coils are shown in Fig. 4.6 (6). When these coils
are connected in series between the two brushes, the resultant rectified brush voltage as shown
in Fig. 4.6 (6) is obtained by adding the ordinates of the three rectified voltage waves. It is seen
asy
that with three coils in series (i) the resultant brush voltage has increased (ii) the brush fre
quency has increased and (Hi) ripple in the rectified voltage has reduced considerably as com
En
pared to their corresponding values with two coils in series between the brushes. As the number
of series coils between the brushes is increased, (i) the magnitude of dc voltage increases (ii)
gin
brush frequency becomes quite high so that (iii) ripple content in output voltage gets drastically
reduced. Actually, there are several coils in series in between the two brushes resulting in an
eer
improved waveform for the rectified voltage at the brushes. Strictly speaking, the brush voltage
waveform can’t reach a pure direct voltage obtainable from a storage battery.
ing
An expression for the brush voltage has already been developed in Art. 3.4.4. The same
expression can be arrived at, by a little different approach. The average e.m.f. Ec generated in
one coil of N c turns, as given by Eq. (3.37), is
Ec = 2Nc Pnty .ne
If C is the total number of coils on the armature, then for ‘a’ parallel paths, the series coils
between the brushes are C/a. •
Therefore the brush voltage or the total e.m.f. generated in armature is,
t
Ea = — -E e = — (2 N c Pn 0)
° a a
If Z is the total number of armature conductors, then total armature turns arc
f - C N c.
2 CNc n
E = -P n ty
a
_ Z Pn §
a
Another approach that gives better physical concepts about the generation oi dii oct \i P
is presented here.
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A rt. 4.2]
D.C. Machines 367
The r.m.s. value of the generated e.m.f. in a distributed winding is given by V2 n kwf r N <{>,
where kw>fn N and (J) are respectively the winding factor, rotational frequency, number of dis
tributed winding turns and total flux per pole, Eq. (3.22). From this expression, an expression
or e o a e.m. . generated in the armature of a d.c. machine can be derived. For this purpose,
assume the d.c. machine armature winding to be tapped at two diametral points A, B from the
o er en o e commutator as shown in Fig. 4.7. When the armature winding rotates, the
commu a or rus ics pick up direct or average voltage, whereas the diametral points A, B pick
up alternating voltage through two slip rings (not shown in the figure). When the tapping
u^Wnoo’i 11V 10 P?s^ 0n illustrated in Fig. 4.7 (a), the alternating e.m.f. at A , B is zero,
if rUSf V° a^ e 1S n0t zero' Wlien -A» B are in the position shown in Fig. 4.7 (6 ), maxi-
I tw 3 X° t3ge ’S P^c^e(l UP ^ Upping points A, B. An examination of Fig. 4.7 (b )
at commutator brushes are also collecting this maximum voltage. Since the brushes
nirknH , ! ° ^ rU vo^ a&e *n d.c. machines, is always equal to the maximum voltage
Up by the tapPin& P^uts A, B in Fig. 4.7 (b ). When the tapping points are in some other
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
th^niaximum voltage. From this, H c a n L ^
[Art. 4.2
368 Electrical Machinery
< 2 n ~ fr Nt>
71
...(4.3)
= 4 fr N<\>
zZ
Now rotational frequency f ,^and series turns between the
2a'two br
ww £ =4 ^ 0
Eja 2 2a v
_ 0 ZnP ...(3.41)
w.E a
In case the brushes are symmetrically displaced from the main field or direct axis, then
phase spread o is 0 radians. Therefore, the distribution factor is
d “ 0/ 2
asy
s i n 0 /2 _ 2 . 0
0 2
En
For total number of Z conductors, Z /a are the conductors in series, Z/an are the conductors
„ 1 (ZQ \ r nP gin
in series per radian. Therefore, series conductors in between the two brushes s e p a r a t e d by 0
radians as shown in Fig. 4.7 (d\ are Z 0/a7i. In view of this, series turns in between the two
- - - -
brushes of Fig. 4.7 (d) are IV - ^
an
eer
Also fr = — . Substitution of the values of kw , fn N in Eq.
(4.1) gives
E „ = V2
2 . 0 nP
^ 5 Sin 2 ' T ' 2 ■W *
1
ing
Z 6
0 Z nP . 0
.ne ...(4.4)
t
= ^ ~ Sm 2
An alternative approach, usually found in some books, is based on Faraday s law, i.e.
Average e.m.f. gen erated!________ Total flux cut by the conductor
in one conductor, Ez J Time, in sec., required to cut that total flux
For a P-pole machine, with <|>as the flux per pole, the total flux cut by one armature conduc
tor in one revolution is P$ Wb. With n revolutions per second, time required for cutting the total
flux P 0, i.e. the time for one revolution is 1/n sec.
...(3.40)
E‘ = i % = n P *
For total Z armature conductors, there are Z/a conductors in series in between the two
brushes.
Brush voltage or total e.m.f. generated in the armature of a d.c. machine is
...(3.41)
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D.C. Machines 369
Art1 413]---------------- ----------------------------------------------------------
The above approach presented after Eq. (4.4) is quite simple, but fails to give any physical
oncepts about the generation of alternating e.m.fs. in the armature coils and its conversion o
direct e.m.f. at the brushes.
Expression for em f generated in the armature of a dc machine can also be obtained asunder.
Average value o f generated em f in one conductor, E av = Bau l v
where B = average value of flux density over one pole-pitch as shown in Fig. 4.8 (6), T
I = active conductor length, m
v = 2 nrn = peripheral velocity of conductor, m/s
u m -c thP flux Der pole, then P(J) is the total flux in the dc machine. Total peripheral air-gap
area is S f “ r - mean air-gap radius. From this, average flux dens.ty is
d L
Dao 2 nrl
From above, the average value of generated emf per conductor is
ww E
av
= — ^7 •I •2 nrn = Ptyn
2 nrl
w.E
Now proceed as given above after Eq. (3.40).
I S
K should be noted that in d.c. machines, the
En
the field from wWch is usually a flat-topped waveform illustrated m F.g. 3.17 (o).
.ne
Now the peak value of the fundamental sine component F_ for a d.c. machine is given by Eq.
(3.66), i.e.
Z_ _ ATs/pole.
t
F
a n2 2P a
Substitution of the value ofF„ in Eq. 4.5 gives
_ It , _8
8 2P a
PZ
,(4.6)
T - <t)Ia -^ a ^ ^ a
le 2 na v 0
i. . . jr ZP . v p to 4Z) is called the armature constant.
where constant Kn = - — , as given by Eq. (3 4oj, it>
2 na _ ..
Note that in c a s e " generator, the electromagnetic torque T. opposes the primemover
torque and in case of motor, Tc rotates the driven e q u ip m c n
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370 Electrical Machinery (Art. 4.3
or T w
A
a)m = E I
e L a
...(4.7)
Power balance Eq. (4.7) states that mechanical power developed is equal to the electrical
power developed.
ww 27m
V
a
L
...(4.6)
w.E
The torque given by Eq. (4.6) is also called the torque developed or total developed torque.
Physical interpretation of Eq. (4.6) reveal? that for a given d.c. machine, Ka is constant and
asy
therefore, torque Te is directly proportional to field flux and armature current. The product
E I is called the electromagnetic power or internal armature power.
En
- ° Torque expression for a dc machine can also be obtained by referring to Fig. 4.8. In Fig A A
gin
eer
ing
t o r q u e 'w h o s e time variation is a replica of the B- wave. Th,s .s shown m F,g. 4.8 (6).
n
, Fl ux density,B
’— m / \
t A verage flux
density
Torque
Torque
(b)
(a) Fig. 4.8. P roduction o f torque in a dc machine.
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But B =
av 2nd
T II 7 P Z A .T
e 2nd = 2n
Ia Nm ...(4.6)
2 na
where
ww I = conductor current
= current in each parallel path
w.E a
Armature current
Number of parallel paths
It is thus seen that average electromagnetic torque for given flux per pole and armature
asy
current has uniform profile as shown in Fig. 4.8 (6). Eq. (4.6) also shows that motor torque in a
dc machine is independent of waveshape of B-curve. Motor torque, however, depends upon the
flux per pole for a given armature current.
Torque expression given by Eq. (4.5) em En
phasizes the interaction of main field flux <j>
with armature m.m.f. Fa for the production of gin
electromagnetic torque. From this, torque ex
pression of Eqn. (4.6) is derived. Slot
eer Armature
ing
Tooth conductor
Torque expression derived from Fig. 4.8
begins with a force on armature conductor.
.ne
(a)
This is a convenient way of deriving the
torque expression, Eq. (4.6). Mechanism of
torque production, however, is different in an
actual machine where the conductors are
placed in the armature slots.
t
In o rd er to u n d ers tan d th e physical
process of torque production, refer to Fig. 4.9. «>)
In Fig. 4.9 (a) is shown the distribution of
main field flux in the absence of any arm a
ture current in the slots. It is seen from this
figure th a t magnetic flux produced by north
pole passes the arm a tu re m ain ly through Torque
teeth because slot portion has long air gap
and therefore high reluctance. Fig. 4.9 (6 )
shows the distribution of flux produced by ar
mature current alone. Currents in the con Fig. 4.9. Magnetic flux distribution (a) due to main pole
ductors are indicated by dots. The arm ature- alone ( b) due to armature currents alone (c) when both
produced flux is upwards to the rig h t of slot main-pole flux and armature flux are present.
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When both main-field flux and armature flux are present, main field flux distribution gets
distorted as shown in Fig. 4.9 (c). Just above the slot, the armature flux flows from right to left.
This distorts the resultant flux distribution from right to left as shown. These tilted lines tend
to shorten their path and in doing so, a tangential torque from left to right is produced. It can
therefore be stated that the interaction of the main flux with the armature current causes the
resultant flux to act on the armature teeth and in doing so, electromagnetic torque is produced
in the clockwise direction in Fig. 4.9 (c). It is indeed fortunate that there is very little force on
the armature conductors. If all the magnetic force were to act on the conductors, it would harm
the insulation between the conductors and slots.
E xam ple 4.2. The armature o f a 4-pole lap-wound dc machine has core length = 30 cm,
diameter = 40 cm, total conductors = 500, speed = 1200 r.p.m. and current = 20 A.
For an average flux density o f 0.5 T, find the electromagnetic (or gross m echanical) p ow er
developed and the internal torque.
1200
ww
Solution. Here / = 0.3 m, r = u.zu
w.E
Flux per pole,
av 2nrl
* = M * 2 k x 0 . 2 x 0.3 = 0 04712 ^
4
Generated e.m.f., Ea =
a
asy
= M l 712 x 500 x 20 x 4 = y
En
4
Gross mechanical power developed = Ea l a = 471.2 x 20 = 9424 W.
Internal torque, Te = ^
gin
= 74.994 Nm ~ 75 Nm.
eer
Exam ple 4.3. A 6-pole dc machine has 300 conductors and each conductor is capable o f
ing
ls d ^ L 7 n a t % 7 o r p m eXCeSSWe temperature rise' The flux per pole is 0.015 Wb and the machine
(W W ien the conductors are lap connected, there are 6 parallel paths fi
Total current, Ia = 8 0 x 6 = 480 A ’ " 6*
300
K = (2.7) = 135 V
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E a Ia 64800
Electromagnetic torque, Te = = 343.5 Nm
wm 2n x 30
This example demonstrates that dc machine rating, in terms of electromagnetic power and
internal torque remains unaltered whether the armature winding is lap connected or wave
connected.
ww ra
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig. 4.10. Pertaining to the armature circuit of a d.c. machine.
eer
The field winding of a dc machine must also be represented in the circuit model. Therefore, the
schematic representation, or circuit model, of dc machines is as shown in Fig. 4.11 (a) for a dc gene
ing
rator and in Fig. 4.11 (b) for a dc motor. It is seen from this figure that for a generator, electromagnetic
torque Te is opposite to the rotor rotation, i.e. Te opposes the prime-mover torque. This is essential for
the conversion of energy from mechanical to electrical. This torque Te may, therefore, be called
counter-torque in a dc generator. The magnitude of this counter-torque is given by Eq. (4.6). For
motor, the electromagnetic torque Te is in the direction of rotor rotation. .ne
/
G enerating M ode. When armature current Ia is in the direction of generated emf Ea, dc
machine operates in the generating mode. Electromagnetic power is E J a watts and the electri
t
cal power output or load power is equal to terminal power VJa watts, Fig. 4.11 (a).
For a dc generator, shaft power input = E J a + no-load rotational loss
and Vt = Ea - Iara ...( 4 .9 )
where Vt = armature terminal voltage, V
Ia = armature current, A
ra = armature circuit resistance, ohm
Brush contact drop is usually taken as constant at 1 or 2 V. This drop is independent of
armature current as the conduction process is primarily through numerous short arcs. Taking
this drop as 2 V, Eq. (4.9) can be written as
Vt —Ea —Iara —2
or VJa = E J a - r„ - 2 /„
or Electrical power output = Electromagnetic power - Ohmic losses - Brush contact loss ...(4.10)
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0------ — W M -------- -A \V W
u+ 71
!a
+
71
Vi
m m 't fm v
( eq
rf rf
If
Vf 1) c>~~ • (
4
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.11. Circuit model of a d.c. machine for (a) generating mode and (b) motoring mode.
M otorin g M ode. When armature current Ia flows in opposition to generated emf Ea as in
ww
Fig. 4.11 (6), dc machine operates in motoring mode.
For a dc motor, shaft power output = EaIa - no-load rotational loss
and
or w.E Vt = Ea + Iara + 2
VJa = EJa + l\ra + 2Ja
...(4.11)
asy
or Electrical power input = Electromagnetic power + Ohmic losses + Brush contact loss
It is stated above that for generator operation, the emf and current in a conductor are in the
...(4.12)
En
same direction. This is shown in a 2-pole dc generator of Fig. 4.12 (a). In this figure, for anti
clockwise rotation of armature, generated emfs are indicated by crosses and dots below the
gin
circles in the slots (use right-hand rule). For assumed anticlockwise rotation, S and N poles
indicated on the rotor in Fig. 4.12 (a) must be created by armature currents. This magnetic
eer
polarity demands the current directions in the conductors to be indicated by crosses under S
pole and by dots under N pole. Current directions in slots are indicated by crosses and dots
ing
within the circles in Fig. 4.12 (a). This shows that generated emfs and currents in a conductor
are in the same direction for a dc machine working as a generator.
Fig. 4.12 (6) shows motoring-mode operation of a dc machine. Direction of currents in the
armature conductors is indicated by crosses and dots within the circles in the slots. These cur
.ne
rents establish N and S poles on the rotor and their interaction with the stator N and S poles
results in clockwise rotation of armature. With the armature rotation, the conductors cut the
same flux that gives rise to motor torque. This flux cutting action thus causes the generation of
emf in the very same conductors that experience motor action. The generated emfs in Fig 4 12
t
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*
Art. 4.4]
D.C. Machines 375
«,) are indicated by crosses and dots below the circles in the slots (use right hand rule). It is seen
that generate em s are in directions opposite to the flow of conductor current. Since this
generated emf opposes the flow of current, it is called counter electromotive force or counter
emf- Note that counter emf Ea can never be equal to applied voltage V,. Emf Ea must always be
less than Vt because direction of current, as per Eq. (4.11), first determines the direction of
rotation and then the direction of counter emf. The magnitude of counter emf is governed by Eq.
(3.41).
Summarising the above, emf Ea in Eqs. (4.9) and (4.11) is the generated emf. In a generator,
Ea > Vf and in a motor, Ea < Vt. When dc machine is working as a motor, the generated emf Ea
is often called the counter em f or back emf. As stated above, the word counter is used because
Ea opposes the flow of current Ia. The word back is used because Ea is the voltage at the back of
ra when viewed from the armature terminals. Therefore, the generated emf Ea for a motor may
also be called voltage behind armature circuit resistance.
ww
Example 4.4. A 6-pole lap-wound dc generator has 240 coils o f 2 turns each. Resistance of
one turn is 0.03 ohm. The armature is 50 cm long and 40 cm diameter. Air-gap flux density of
w.E
0.6 T is uniform over pole shoe. Each pole subtends an angle o f 40° mechanical. For armature
speed o f 1200 rpm, find (a) generated em f at no load and (b) the terminal voltage at full load
armature current o f 40 A.
P
asy 6
Solution. We know that 0rJcr = - 0nurh- Therefore, pole shoe subtends an angle 40 x - = 120°
electrical.
En
gin
Flux per pole = (air-gap area under one pole shoe) (uniform flux density)
( 2ru7 120
P * 180
x 0.6
eer
= fo. ^ 0_^
6
0-5
ing
| x o.6 = 0.042 Wb
3
|,
Total armature turns = 240 x 2 = 480. This gives total armature conductors,
Z = 4 8 0 x 2 = 960. .ne
Speed, n =
o ♦j
1200
c i
= 20 rps, P = 6, a = 6
(A rt. 4.5
376 Electrical M a c h in e r y ----------
ww
turns of fine wire and is connected to a separate or external d.c. source, Fig. 4.13 (a). The
voltage of the external d.c. source has no relation with the armature voltage, i.e. the field wind
w.E
ing energised from a separate supply can be designed for any convenient voltage.
(б) Self-excitation. When the field winding is excited by its own armature, the machine is
asy
said to be a self-excited d.c. machine. In these machines, the field poles must have a residual
magnetism, so that when the armature rotates, a residual voltage appears across the brushes.
This residual voltage should establish a current in the field winding so as to reinforce the
residual flux.
En
ii) gin
A self-excited d.c. machine can be sub-divided as follows :
Series excitation. The field winding consists of a few turns of thick wire and is con
eer
nected in series with the armature, Fig. 4.13 (6). In other words, the series field current
depends on the armature current and in view of this, a series field may be called a current-
operated field.
ing
(ii) Shunt excitation. The field winding consists of a large number of turns of fine wire
.ne
and is connected in parallel (or in shunt) with the armature, Fig. 4.13 (c). Therefore, the voltage
across the armature terminals and the shunt field is the same and it is for this reason that a
shunt field may be called a voltage-operated field.
t
Remember that series and shunt field windings are characterised by low and high resistan
ces respectively.
Ciii ) C om pou n d excitation. A compound excitation involves both the series excited wind
ing and the shunt-excited winding. In some applications, a shunt-excited winding may be
replaced by a separately-excited winding. Here a d.c. compound machine, with series and shunt
field windings will be discussed.
If the series field flux aids the shunt field flux, so that the resultant air-gap flux per pole is
increased, the machine is called a cumulatively compounded d.c. machine as shown in Fig. 4.13
(d). In this figure, direction of arrows corresponds to the direction of magnetic flux produced by
shunt and series field windings. As the two arrows are in the same direction in Fig. 4.13 (d ),
this figure is for a cumulatively compounded d.c. machine. In case the series field flux opposes
the shunt field flux, so that the resultant air-gap flux per pole is decreased, the machine is
called a differentially com pounded d.c. machine as shown in Fig. 4.14 (o). In this figure, direc
tion of arrows indicate that the two fields are opposing each other.
ww
w.E (b)
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
(c)
.ne
t
p ."
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An examination of the electrical circuits of Figs. 4.13 and 4.14 reveals that field and arma
ture circuits are always drawn at 90° with respect to each other. This circuit representation is
made to agree with the physical fact that the magnetic fields of armature and field windings
ww
are space displaced from each other by 90°. Reference to Fig. 4.5 (6) is also helpful.
S h u n t f ie ld w i n d i n g
In Fig. 4.13 (d ), each pole of the compound machine
w.E
(th in w ire )
is shown to possess shunt and series field windings. Fig.
4.14 (c) illustrates how these windings are arranged on
one pole of a d.c. machine. In this figure, shunt field coil
H
asy is placed near the yoke and series field coil near the pole
shoe just for the sake of clarity. Actual physical arrange
S e r ie s fie ld w in d in g
(th ic k w ire ) En
ment of these coils is as shown in Fig. 4.14 (d). It is seen
from this figure that first shunt field coil is wound
<c>
p. . . . e .
(d )
gin
around the pole body and over it is then wound the
senes field coil. The reasons for placing the series field
g., 4.14.
---------
one pole
Series and Diiuut
pole of
° f *a d.c.
shunt neid
d c compound
field winding;
“ “ " " “ "I machine.
» - » .
eer
windings on coil outside are ( i ) convenience in erm<5f i - i W
for its better cooling
A t
construction and («)
250 ~ 9 6 A
If the generated voltage under rated load is Eol, then
Vt = En\ ~ K ra
= 243.75 - 96 x 0.1 = 234.15 V.
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Example 4.6. A 230 V d.c. shunt machine has armature circuit resistance (including
brashes) o f 0.5 Q and field circuit resistance o f 115 Q. I f this machine is connected to 230 V
supply mains, find the ratio o f speed as a generator to the speed as a motor. The line current in
each case is 40 A.
Solution. Generator operation. The circuit diagram for dc generator operation is shown
in Fig. 4-15 (a)- ^ is fi£ure> = ^ ne current. If = field current and 7ol = armature current.
It is given that line current, IL = 40 A
. 230
Field current, Ir = =2A
115
KCL at point x in Fig. 4.15 (a) gives armature current IaX = IL + If = 40 + 2 = 42 A.
ww
w.E
asy
En - 6-
(a)
gin (*>
Fig. 4.15. Pertaining to Example 4.5 (a) dc generator operation and (b) dc motor operation.
eer
M otor operation. The circuit diagram for dc motor operation is given in Fig. 4.15 (6). In
this figure, Ia2 = armature current and field current = 2 A as before.
ing
KCL at point x in Fig. 4.15 (6) gives dc motor armature current Ia2 = l L - l f = 40 - 2 = 38 A.
.•. Motor counter e.m.f., Ea2 = Vt - Ia2 ■ra = 230 - 38 x 0.5 = 211 V
.ne ...(ii)
But
where nm is the motor speed.
Ea2 = 211 °c nm x <]>
or = 1.1896.
nm
Thus the ratio of speed as a generator to the speed as a motor is 1.1896.
ww
shown armature flux 4>a by a vertical phasor OB. Flux <J)a is produced by armature m.m.f.
w.E q -axis
gna— I
**>— MNA ( o f n o l o a d )
1
asy
r F l u x d u e 1o f i e l d c u r r e n t
a lo n e
GNA
En »— M N A (a f no lo a d )
gin 0
Field f lu x
A
— d -axis
P o le f a c e r (a)
eer
ing GNA
^q-axis
.ne
0
B
A rm atu re
~ f lu x
t d-axis
(b)
GNA
•M N A (o n l o a d )
i /
i/
M o to r
ro ta tio n
y S 1 V dRiesst rui lbt ua nt ito nf l u x
Fig. 4.16. Illustrating the space distribution o f (a) main-pole flux (6 ) armature flux and
(c) resultant o f both main-field and armature fluxes.
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/ y If thedc machine of Fig. 4.16 is working as a motor, then its arm ature must rotate anti*
II I ckwise>because of the fact th a t N, S poles of the main field must attract arm ature produced
c V poles. *n case mac^^ne working as a generator, then its arm ature must be driven
f clockwise by the prime-mover.
An examination of Fig. 4.16 (a) and (6 ) reveals that the path of arm ature flux 0 Ois perpen-
1 d'cular to the m ain flux path <fy\ In other words, the path of the armature flux crosses the path
(“the main-field flux. Thus the effect of arm ature flux on the main field is entirely cross-mag-
\ lizing and it is for this reason th a t the flux created by the armature m.m.f. is called cross-flux.
When current flows in both the arm ature and field windings, the resultant flux distribution
• nhtained by superimposing the two fluxes of Fig. 4.16 (a) and (6 ). This is illustrated on left-
if d side of Fig. 4.16 (c)- It is seen that arm ature flux aids the main field flux at upper end ol
Wnnle and at the lower end of S-pole, therefore, at these two pole ends (or tips), the armature
flnv strengthens the main field flux. Likewise, the armature flux weakens the main field flux
at lower end of N-pole and at upper end of S-pole. I f there is no magnetic saturation then the
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mint of strengthening and weakening of the main field flux are equal and the resultant flux
T r pole remains unaltered from its no-load value. Actually, magnetic saturation does occur an
w.E
as a consequence, the strengthening effect is less as compared to the weakening effect and
r e s u l t a n t flux is decreased from its no-load value. This is called demagnetizing effect of arma-
asy
^ t a t h e phasor diagram of Fig. 4.16 (c), phasor sum of field flux <tyand armature flux 0 gives
net flux 0*. This resultant flux 0* is seen to be more than the main-field flux at no load. This
is, howe , En
• v. m,,Br nnt true because of magnetic saturation in one of the pole tips of each pole. A
(ONA) is along the quadrature axis of the dc machine. Magnetic neutral
gin
of resultant field f l u . It is seen from Fig. 4 1 6
(a) that MNA at no load coincides with the GNA or qr-axis. When the dc machine is loaded,F g_
S i t h e eer
4.16 (c) reveals that MNA is shifted from GN A. TWs shift is dependent upon.the mapi.tu
magnitude of armature ( o r > o a ~ t £ - U r U ‘ he
ing
shift of M NA from GNA. It may therefore be stated from above that net effect of armature flux
on the main-field flux is
(i) to distort the main-field flux thereby causing non-uniform distribution of flux under
the main poles, . . .ne
(ii) to shift the MNA in the direction o f rotation for a generator and against t e irec 10
o f rotation for a motor and .
(iii) to reduce the main-field flux from its no-load value due to magnetic satura ion.
t
Graphical picture of arm ature reaction. For better understsmding•” f * e int^ “"
between main-field flux and armature flux, it is preferable an -g ...
developed diagram of armature conductorrs and polas.^ ^ % eve » P % ™ ^ rushes are nlong , ho
r Hnes m F i g ^ Co, show the
distribution of main-field flux in the air gap with no a ^ t u « R g. 4 H (ft), the
variation of main fiold-flux density
roiiauuil UI mam IIUlU-llUA utliom; along
O the air-gap periphery
- - a- fv 1 is shown by a solid line.
1.—- —m- ■aa-vrJ/x«« \/ i\ IA
T hvrints underS pole and crosses underNpole. Ihese
In Fig 4 17(c) currents are indicated Dy aois u i . _ . • t?' < i 't
hi rig. * .i < (a,, currents a* linnXCjtcd produce magnetic flux as shown in Fig. 4.1 i
a r m a tu r e c u r r e n t s , w it h fie ld w in d in g u n c x c u c u , p ; 0 n n rm n l i n t h o m a in fiolri fln v
(c) As the armature flux produced by armature currents alone is normal to the main field flux,
it;, ns me armature nux i j rreated bv armature currents in a dc machine, as
as before, it is called cross flux The "urnX crented by # solid „ nc in Fi„ 4 . „
; = C 1 n ^ t « r e and is depicted accordingly byasoHd line in Fig. 4 , 7
(d). The air-gap flux due to armature m.m.f. is given by njr finp reluctancc ^ nt*er
t
ft'
Flu x d u e to f i e l d
c u r r e n t a lo n e d -a x is
U - GNA
B ru sh
ww *£>
1
\
1
(s);
' r --v .-f -.-.r ;- r -
1
n
—
- -1-
>. » / » / 03; ®.
-
— '
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
Fig. 4.17. Flux distribution and flux-density waveforms respectively due to (a). (6) field current alone
(c), (d) armature current alone and (e), if) both field and armature currents.
the air gap is uniform therefore the air-gap flux variation under the poles is proportional to
arm ature m.m.f. and ,s shown m Fig. 4.17 (d). In between the poles ie ., in the to
region, the long air gap offers large reluctance, consequently the arm ature flux is much smal er
in this region, in spite of a large value of mmf. The arm ature flux density waveform created bv
arm ature currents is, therefore, saddle-shaped’ as depicted by dotted curve in F k 4 17<d, I t
is observed from this figure that arm ature flux-density waveform has (i) zero value at the
centre of the pole (ii) increases from zero to maximum value at the pole tips and then (Hi)
decreases rapidly to a m inimum value at the middle of main poles.
* Shape o f a cycle-saddle.
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When both armature and field windings carry currents, the resultant flux distribution is
obtained by superimposing the two fluxes, field flux of Fig. 4.17 (a) and armature cross-flux of
Flg' 1 lu * r<fsultant flux distribution, so obtained, is shown in Fig. 4.17 (e). This figure
reveals the strengthening of the resultant flux at one pole tip and weakening at the other pole
tip of each pole. As expected, this agrees with Fig. 4.16 (c).
For obtaining the resultant air-gap flux density waveform, when both field and armature
windings carry currents add the corresponding flux-density ordinates of Figs. 4.17 (6) and 4.17
(d ) at every poin a^ong the air-gap periphery. The resultant flux-density distribution in the air
gaps is shown by the solid curve in Fig. 4.17 (/). It may be seen from the resultant flux-density
distribution curve that the effect of cross-magnetizing armature mmf is to decrease the flux
density un er e eading pole tips and to increase it under the trailing pole tips for generator
operation. Actually the magnetic saturation in the iron does occur and its effect is to increase
the flux density under the trailing pole tips by a smaller amount than the decrease under the
leading pole tips. Saturation effect is indicated by cross-hatched areas in Fig. 4.17 (/). Thus,
under unsaturated conditions, the amount of flux increase under trailing pole tips is almost
ww
equal to the decrease under leading pole tips and the total flux per pole on load remains almost
unchanged from its no-load value. Under saturated conditions, the amount of increase in flux
is less^than the decrease and therefore total flux per pole on load is less than its no-load value.
w.E
Hence, under saturated conditions, the effect of cross-magnetizing armature mmf, i.e. cross
flux, is to demagnetize the main field. But note that the demagnetizing effect of cros-flux is due
asy
to saturation only.
Fig. 4.17 (/) reveals that point of zero flux density has shifted through an angle 0 from
En
C, C to D, D' respectively. In other words, MNA has shifted from GNA by an angle 0.
For a motor, a dot under south pole and a cross under north pole results in a anti-clockwise
gin
rotation in Fig. 4.16. Therefore, above results are also applicable to d.c. motor. Since the direc
tion of rotation is reversed, the leading pole tips for a motor are the trailing pole tips for a
eer
generator. Hence for a motor, the effect of cross-magnetizing armature m.m.f. is to decrease the
flux under the trailing pole tips and to increase it under the leading pole tips.
ing
Note from above that for a generator, the effect of armature reaction is to distort the flux
and shift the zero crossing of the flux density wave in the direction of rotation. In the case of
motor, the distortion of the flux and zero crossing of the flux-density wave is shifted against the
direction of rotation. In constant flux d.c. machines, such as shunt machines, the flux distortion
.ne
is much more prominent under heavy loads. In series and compound machines, the flux distor
tion is minimum, because with the increase of armature m.m.f., there is a corresponding in
crease in the field m.m.f.
The effects of armature m.m.f. described above, may be summarised as follows :
t
(i) Armature flux path is normal to flux path of main poles. That is why armature flux is
called cross-flux or cross-magnetizing flux.
(«) The armature section distorts the main-field flux distribution along the air-gap
periphery. This distortion is in the direction of rotation for a dc generator and opposite to the
direction of rotation for a dc motor. This also means that MNA is shifted in the direction of
rotation for a generator and against the direction of rotation for a motor. This shift of M NA from
GNA depends upon the magnitude of load (or armature) current.
(iii) The demagnetizing effect of armature mmf reduces the total flux per pole. This reduc
tion has been found to be 1 to 5% from no-load to full-load.
* If one travels along the assumed direction o f rotation (i.e. from left to right for generator operation and from
right to left for motor operation), the pole tip that comes first is called the leading pole tip. Obviously, the other
pole tip is the trailing pole tip.
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E xam ple 4.7. Explain how the demagnetizing effect o f armature m m f on the main-field flux
can be investigated through the use o f magnetization curve o f a dc machine.
Solution. The effect of magnetic saturation on the reduction of main-field flux caused by arma
ture reaction can be visualized with the help of Fig. 4.18. In this
figure, magnetization curve, triangular armature mmf varia
tion and S pole of a dc machine are shown. The brushes are in
w w ^ /iy y //^
the GNA. For field current I f , the field mmf is A T f . At no load,
the flux density Ba, under the entire pole shoe is ab for a field mmf
A T f . For armature current I a , armature mmf is + A T a under pole
tip Q and - A T a under pole tip P. The net mmf under pole tip Q is
( A T f + A T a ) and that under pole tip P is ( A T f - A T a) as shown. The
mmf ( A T f + A T a ) under pole tip Q corresponds to a flux density
B x . Under pole tip P, net mmf ( A T f - A T a) corresponds to a flux
ww
tip Q, proportional to (B x - Ba) is less than the decrease in flux
under pole P, proportional to (Ba - B2). This shows that under
saturated conditions, the resultant flux per per pole is reduced from
w.E
its no load value. Therefore, the field excitation has to be increased
under loaded conditions if the field flux is to be kept constant at its
no-load value.
asy
Note that the flux density at the middle of pole face is not Fig. 4.18. Demagnetizing effect of
En
effected by armature mmf. armature m m f on the main-field flux.
E xam ple 4.8. Discuss the detrimental effects o f armature reaction in dc machines.
gin
Solu tion. It has already been stated that effect of armature mm f on the main field flux is
two fold, (i) distortion of the main field flux and (ii) net reduction of the main field flux.
eer
Distortion of the main field flux gives rise to three detrimental effects and reduction in field
ing
flux leads to one bad effect. Rise in iron losses, poor commutation and sparking are caused by
distortion of main field flux, whereas the reduction in field flux influences the cost of field
winding. These are discussed briefly below.
(i) Iron losses. These losses depend on the maximum value of flux density in teeth and in
.ne
the pole shoes. The armature reaction, by distorting the main field flux waveform, increases the
flux density considerably over its corresponding no-load value. As a result ; iron losses, par
ticularly in teeth, are much greater on load than on no load. In addition, high degree of satura
tion in teeth forces the flux to stray into the core-end plates, end covers etc. This all leads to
t
more eddy-current and hysteresis losses. Roughly, iron losses at full load is taken to be 1.5
times its value at no load.
(ii) C o m m u ta tio n . At no load, zero-crossing of the flux density wave is along the GNA such
as point C, C ’. Under loaded conditions of the dc machine, zero-crossing of the flux density wave
is shifted by an angle 0, which depends on the magnitude of armature current.
For good commutation, the coils short-circuitoa Dy the brushes should have zero e.m.f. in
duced in them. The brushes are usually placed along the GNA. Since zero-crossing of the flux
density wave is shifted from GNA or <7-axis, the coils undergoing commutation do not have zero
e.m.f. induced in them. The induced e.m.f. in the commutated coils delays the reversal of arma
ture current in the short-circuited coils ; this may result in detrimental sparking, or poor com
mutation, at the brushes.
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Art. 4.6J
D.C. Machines 385
4.6.2. M ethods o f lim iting the effects of armature reaction. The cross-magnetizing
effect of armature m m f can be minimised at the design and construction stage of a dc machine.
Various methods of mitigating the effects of armature reaction are discussed below.
ww
(a) H igh-reluctance pole tips. I f the reluctance of the pole tips is increased, then the
magnitude of armature cross flux is reduced and the distortion of the resultant flux density
w.E
wave is minimised. The reluctance of the pole tips can
be augmented by using chamfered or eccentric pole
shoes. A machine fitted with chamfered or eccentric
asy
pole face has short air-gap length at the pole centre chomfervj j I &n9Qp
and longer air gap lengths under the pole tips, i.e. the
.ne
a i i o- .L • rig. 4.19. (a) Chamfered or eccentric pole (6)
quired pole depth IS developed. Since the iron area Laminations 1 and 2 are stacked alternatively
under the pole tips is almost halved, the reluctance to give a pole-face view as shown,
under the pole tips is considerably increased.
The two constructional techniques mentioned above reduce the main field flux to some t
extent. In order to maintain it constant, the main field mmf must be raised accordingly. But the
influence of increased pole-tip reluctance is more pronounced on the cross flux than on the
main-field flux.
In dc machines, the short air gap at the pole centre and longer air gaps at the pole tips are
kept only to lim it the effect of cross-magnetizing armature m m f on the main pole flux. The
distribution of the flux density wave along the air-gap periphery need not be a sine wave in dc
machines. But in synchronous machines, the air gap at the pole centre is short and at the pole
tips it is larger from the view point of obtaining sine wave for the flux density wave. In
synchronous machines of the salient-pole type, the non-uniform air gap under the pole faces has
nothing to do w ith the arm ature reaction.
(b) R e d u c tio n in a rm a tu re flu x . Another constructional technique of reducing the arm a
ture cross flux is to create more reluctance in the path of arm ature flux w ithout reducing the
main field flux noticeably. This is achieved by using field-pole laminations having several rec-
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[A rt. 4.7
386 Electrical Machinery
A rm m a g n e tic
F ie ld p o le \
laminalion-*
(6 )
(a )
Fig. 4.20. (a) One field-pole lamination with four punched holes
(6 ) Two-pole dc machine having punched field-pole laminations.
tangular holes punched in them. One such lamination having four holes or slots is shown in Fig.
4.20 ia). It is seen from Fig. 4.20 (b) that reluctance offered to armature flux is increased due to
four air-gap openings introduced in the path of cross flux. As a result armature cross flux is
reduced considerably, whereas the main-field flux remains almost uneffected.
ww
Combination of the constructional features described in Figs. 4.19 and 4.20 may be used
most effectively in reducing the armature cross flux.
(c) Strong main-field flux. During the design of a dc machine, it should be ensured that,
w.E
the main field mmf is sufficiently strong in comparison with full-load armature mmf. Greater
the ratio of main field mmf to full-load armature mmf, less is the distortion produced by arma
ture cross flux and predominant would be the control of field mmf over the air-gap flux. Actual
asy
ly, this ratio depends on the type of duty cycle the dc machine has to perform.
id) Interpoles. The effect of armature reaction in the interpolar zone can be overcome by
En
interpoles, placed in between the main polos. The magnetic axis of interpole winding is in line
with the quadrature axis. Interpole winding is connected in series with armature so that inter
gin
pole mmf is able to neutralize the effect of armature mmf in the interpolar zone at all levels of
load current not exceeding the safe limit.
eer
(c) Com pensating w inding. The effect of armature reaction under the pole shoes can be
limited by using compensating winding. This winding is embedded in slots cut in the pole faces
r
ing
of the dc machine. This is the best, but the most expensive method. This is described in detail
in Art. 4.9.
4.7. Effect of Brush Shift
.ne
of rotation in a generator and against the direction of rotaton in a motor. The brushes are along
the GNA. The coils undergoing commutation have, therefore, rotational e.m.f. generated in
them. As a consequence, sparking and poor commutation occurs. If the brushes are given a shift
t
It is seen from Fig. 4.16 or Fig. 4.17 that armature reaction shifts the M NA in the direction
through an angle 9, no rotational e.m.f. would be generated in the coils undergoing commuta
tion ; this would result in smooth commutation. This shows that for obtaining good commuta
tion, the brushes should be given a forward or backward shift so as to ensure good
commutation. In this section, the effect of brush shift in the direction of rotation (called forward
shift) or opposite to the direction of rotation (called backward shift) is investigated.
In Fig. 4.16 (c), the brushes are at GNA. Let the brushes be given a forward shift in a
generator or backward shift in a motor, so that brush axis is now along the MNA, Fig. 4.21
(a). In other words, the brushes are given a shift through an angle 0 and occupy a position PQ
as shown. The armature flux 6a = OB must be along the brush axis as before. Flux <}>a can now
be decomposed into two components ; OC and OD as shown in Fig. 4.21 (b). The component
OC = <J>a sin 0 is opposing the main field flux <[y. Therefore, OC has a demagnetizing effect on the
main-field flux. The other component OD, being perpendicular to the main flux <Jy, is the Cross-
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Art. 4.7)
D.C. Machines 387
GNA i /MNA
tA
(a) (fc)
F ig . 4 .2 1 . E ffe c t o f b r u s h s h ift on th e r e su lta n t flu x in a d c m ach in e.
magnetizing armature flux. Note that the resultant flux is obtained from the phasor sum of
<tyand (J)a, i.e. <J>* = «>a. It is observed from Fig. 4.21 (b) that with brush shift, the resultant
ww
flux gets reduced from its no-load value even if there is no magnetic saturation.
Draw RS making an angle 0 with respect to GNA and on the other side of brush shift, Fig.
w.E
4.21 (a). The total armature ampere turns can now be divided into two groups as illustrated in
Fig. 4.22. The conductors shown in angle ROP and QOS or the conductors lying in angle 40 for
every 360° electrical (or 20 for every 180° electrical) are producing a flux opposite to the main
asy
field flux., This can be verified by the right-hand grip rule. Hence the ampere turns due to the
conductors contained in 40 degrees for every 360° electrical are demagnetizing in nature.
GNA
MNA En GNA
gin
20 MNA c
" ~^ROQ./POS.180-26
P/
eer
ing
o ----- --- .ne
(a) (fc)
t
F ig . 4 .2 2 . E ffe c t o f b r u s h s h ift (a ) d e -m a g n e t iz in g a m p e r e tu rn3 an d (fc) c ro s s -m a g n e tiz in g a m p ere tu rns.
20 h ...(4.13)
or ATj =
180 a 2P
In the above expression for A T d, angle 0 is in electrica1 degrees. In Fig. 4.22 (6), the conduc
tors lying in angle ROQ and POS produce flux perpendicular to the fl“ * as shown-
Therefore, ampere turns produced by the conductors lying within angle (360 - 40) for every
360° electrical (or for every pole pair) produce cross-magnetizing ampere urns.
r /n i '
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IArt 4.7
388 Electrical Machinery
360 a 2P
<
h"
or
II
180 a 2P
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with brush shift is obtained as shown with solid line in Fig. . ( )•
waveform in Fig. 4.23 (c) reveals that reduction in flux density at pole tips 1,
ty
han the
addition in flux density at pole tips 2, 2'. For comparison purposes the r e s ^ t ^ t flux density
w.E
waveform without any brush shift is also drawn with dotted lin e . A n examination of Fig^ 4.23
(6) shows that the ordinates of resultant flux density waveform with brush shift are smaller as
asy
compared with the ordinates of resultant flux density waveform with zero brush shift. Conse
quently, the flux per pole is reduced if the brushes are given a forward shift in case o f a generator
En
Interpolar
or q-axis d-axis
gin
d -a x is or
or # i P o lq r a x is
1 P o ia rio x is iB ru s h 1 B ru s h
| s h if t Shift
1 A .
!
: A id
?
9 iX
1 ' XT'
eer
N
' i
i
i
Motor
ing G en-
(a )
R e s u lta n t f lu x d e n s ity
w pve w ith o u t b r u s h
.ne
(b )
t
(c)
Fig. 4.23. Effect o f brush shift on the resultant flux density waveform .
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Art. 4.7]
Prior to the invention of interpoles, brush shia was carried out to improve the commuta-
t,on-forward in a generator and backward in a motor. Now-a-days brush shift is never carried
out. However, during the assembly of a dc machine, the brushes may be displaced from the
quadrature axis unknowingly. Loose brushes in the holders or non-uniform brush pressure may
also shift the brush axis from q-axis. Then the question arises as to how to detect whether the
brushes are placed correctly along the quadrature axis or not. For this purpose, the following
procedure may be adopted.
Run the machine at rated speed as a dc generator, first in one direction and then in the
opposite direction. For the same field and armature currents, if the terminal voltages for both
the directions of rotation are the same, then the brushes are placed correctly along the quadra
ww
ture axis.
Alternatively, run the machine as a dc motor, first in one direction and then in opposite
w.E
direction. For the same field and armature currents, if the rotor speed turns out to be the same
for both directions of rotation, then the brushes are placed correctly along the quadrature axis.
asy
If the brushes get shifted inadvertently from the quadrature axis, then the terminal vol
tages in case of generator or speeds in case of motor, for both the directions of rotation, would
not be equal.
En
Example 4.9. A 6-pole, 148 A dc shunt generator has 480 conductors and is wave-wound.
Its field current is 2A. Find the demagnetizing and crcss-magnetizing ampere turns per pole at
full load if
gin
(а) brushes are on GNA,
(б) brushes are shifted from GNA by 5° electrical,
eer
(c) brushes are shifted from GNA by 5° mechanical.
ing
Solution. Here a = 2, P = 6, Ia = l i + If = 148 + 2 = 150 A, Z = 480.
(a) With brushes on GNA, 0 = 0, therefore demagnetizing ATs/pole = 0.
The entire armature reaction is cross-magnetizing in nature. .ne
Cross-magnetizing ATs/pole = * ^ 6 = 3° ° ° ^ Ts/po^e t
(b ) Here 0 = 5° electrical.
. . / i 2 -8 jg jg .
From. Eqn. (4.13), demagnetizing ATs/pole - fl . 2p
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Soon after the armature coil has traversed the brush width, the coil current gets reversed to
(~Ia/a). This reversal of current in the armature coil by means of brush and commutator bars,
is called commutation process. Good commutation means no sparking at the brushes and with
commutator surface remaining uneffected during continuous operation of the d.c. machine. A
machine is said >to have^poor commutation if there is sparking at the brushes and the com
mutator surface gets damaged during continuous operation of the machine.
The poor commutation may be caused by mechanical or electrical conditions. The mechani
cal conditions include uneven commutator surface, non-uniform brush pressure, vibration of
the brushes in the holders etc. The electrical conditions include an increase in the voltage be
tween commutator segments, an increase in the current density at the trailing edge of the
brush etc.
ww
In order to have physical concepts of the commutation process, the d.c. machine coils and
commutator bars are represented as shown in Fig. 4.24. Here the two ends of the coil are con
nected to adjacent bars (lap-connected winding is assumed). Attention will be focused on the
w.E
reversal of current in coil 1, whose two coil-ends are connected to bars 1 and 2. For simplicity,
it is assumed that
asy
(i ) the brush width is equal to the bars width and
(ii) the mica insulation between the bars is of negligible thickness.
En
In Fig. 4.24 (a), the brush is fully on bar 1 and coil 1 carries current Ic = from L (left) to
gin
R (right). The brush delivers a current 2Ic. The direction of armature rotation is taken from left
to right.
Ir 1,
eer
-1 3 12
I u 2 lc
ing
.ne
l b —► R otation
-R o ta tio n
L e a d in g ■T r a i l i n g
(2Ic-L2)
T
t
b ru sh edge b ru s h edge
2lc
(a)
Jx JcUc^tJJc Ic Ic *C Ic
ran
y
(W )
■c
i
r l
rBTYOTYCjTYJ^ rW Y r o w s
__ L J
!lc | 1
2
n
J_1____ t
m
>21 z
(C) (e)
Fig. 4.24. Pertaining to the illustration of commutation process.
As soon as the brush makes contact with bar 2, coil 1 gets short-circuited and current in it
starts decreasing from Ic. The current from bar 2 to brush is, say i2 and, therefore, the current
in coil 1 is Ic - i2 from L to R. Bar 1 delivers 2Ic - 12 to the brush so that the output current is
again 27C, Fig. 4.24 (6). If the area of copper-carbon contacts decide the distribution of current,
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then i2 would increase and 27c - i2 would decrease linearly. When brush makes equal areas of
contacts with bars 1 and 2, each bar delivers Ic to the brush and coil 1 carries no current, Fig.
4 24 (c). With further rotation of the armature and bars, area of contact between bar 1 and
brush, starts decreasing and therefore the current delivered by bar 1 decreases from Ic to say
1 Now the coil 1 carries current Ic — from R to L, Fig 4.24 (d) and the current carried by bar
2 is {21c - i\) so that output current is again 21c as before. When brush breaks contact with bar
1 and is fully on bar 2, the short circuit of coil 1 is over and it carries current Ic from R to L as
shown in Fig. 4.24 (e). The time required by the coil current to change from + ICto - Ic, is called
the commutation period Tc. In other words, the commutation period may be defined as the time
measured from the instant the brush is fully on bar 1 , to the instant the brush is fully on bar 2 .
It can be computed from the relation,
^ ___________ Brush width_________
c Commutator peripheral speed
ww
The nature of current flowing in the local circuit of the coil being commutated, depends on
the following factors :
w.E
(а) Resistance of the copper-carbon contacts.
(б) Resistance of the coil being commutated.
asy
(c) e.m.fs. induced in the commutated or short circuited coil, due to its—
(i) self-inductance and
En
(ii) mutual inductance with other coils undergoing commutation simultaneously. Note that
the e.m.f. due to mutual inductance effect is present only when the brush width is more than
one bar width.
gin
(d) e.m.f. induced in the coil due to its rotation in the armature cross flux.
eer
Resistance commutation. In the present section, the effect of e.m.fs. in<Ju£ed in thei com
mutated coil is ignored-however their effect is discussed qualitatively at a later' ^age. For
ing
time being, the effect of armature coil resistance and brush contact resistance is only taken into
account. For studying the effect of these resistances on the commutation process, refer to Fig.
4.24 (6) and let
Rc = coil resistance .ne
and
= resistance between bar 1 and brush
r2 = resistance between bar 2 and brush. t
With no e.m.fs. induced in the commutated coU as
law, for the local circuit consisting of brush, bar 1 , coi g
from Fig. 4.24 (6 ), is
{21c - i2)r i + {Ic - h)Rc ~ h r2 = 0
Rc + 2r,
or
In coil 1 the current is given by
" i?, + 2r,
ic = Ic - *2 _ Ic Rc + r x + r 2
r2- r x
7: or ic = Ic
I
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rx + r2 - 2rx
= /c
r x + r2 + Rc
2rx
1-
or rl + ' 2
W e
1+
rl + r2
^ If coil resistance Rc is small as compared with the copper-carbon resistances r x and r th
7X+ r2 may be neglected. With this, the coil current, from Eq. (4.15), is given by
2rl
Jc — Ic 1-
r 1 +Tn
I f A , and A 2 are the areas, between bar 1 and brush, and between bar 2 and b r u s h
ww
tively, then smce resistance is inversaliy proportional to area, we get coil c u Z t ™
w.E ic —Ic 1 - 2i =L 1-
2Ac
At +A<j ...(4.16)
^ asy Aj A2
W ith the rotation of the commutator to the right, area A , decreases and area A 2 increases
En
Thus, at time t = 0, the brush is fully on bar 1,
At time
A 2 = 0 and ic = / c.
Tc gin
t - 4 >A 1 = 3A2,
T eer ••• *c = 2/c •
ing
At time
t = ~2> = A2 ; ■•• ic = 0.
At time f=
4 ’
At time t = Tc, brush is fully on bar 2,
3A i = A 2, Ic = - I / C
.ne
A j = 0 and *c = - I c.
It is also obvious from Fig. 4.24 (e) that att = T , i e just
— r
J T l
t
Linear commutotion
Resistance
after the commutation of coil 1 is over, i£ = - / . '
The plot of coil current variation with ft 7 is sh™ — 1— — i__.
in Fig. 4.25. Under such a condition, there vrilfbeno f 7 533
mg at the brush and the commutat on ^ ^ 7 ? ^
t =0 t«Tc
1• _. ,
(4.15) and ^ “ “ * " egleCte<i' th6" E« S Fig. 4.25. Pertaining to commutation.
2A 2
1-
Aj + A 2
W e
7 7 a :
r, + r2
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.l r
3T * 2 I
At time t = —f L, 3 A i = A 2, ic = - — , i.e. t, < -7 7
4 i+
St 2
rl + ^2
and at time t = Tc, brush is fully on bar 2, .-. ic = - l c as before.
The variation of coil current ic with Rc included, is shown in Fig. 4.25. Such type of com
ww
mutation is referred to as the resistance commutation.
In fractional kW d.c. machines, resistance commutation provides good commutation and
w.E
this is achieved by using carbon brushes so that
(i) copper-carbon resistance is larger as compared with the coil resistance and
coil. asy
(ii) the brush contact drop is larger as compared with the e.m.fs. induced in the commutated
following lines. En
The effect of various e.m.fs. induced in the commutated coil is examined qualitatively in the
{ T\
gin
Delayed commutation. In the commutated coil, the current changes from + Ic
1(J
a
to - Ic in
eer
commutation period Tc . During this current change in small intend of time Tc (2 m-sec or less), an
e.m.f. ec is induced in the coil due to its self-inductance Lc and its magnitude is gi\ en by
dic
ing
.ne
6c = L c ~dt
Usually the brush covers more than one bar and the commu a e c y ..
duced in it due to mutual flux produced by the neighbouring coi s. *
AccordinE to Lenz's law the effect opposes the cause. Here the effect is the reactance voltage
t
According to Lenz si law ,.theejT W voltage opposes the reversal of current
and cause is the reversal 01 current, inus me , rirmiipH mil is
in the commutated coil. As a result of it, the revers 0 would attain by the linear
delayed and consequently it lags in time, the values of current it would attain by the linear
^ , A. A l a coil current is zero with linear commutation, but be-
commutation. For example at t - 9 , the con cu
& ji
a. 'ii up 7Pr0 after t > as shown in Fig. 4.26 (b).
cause of reactance voltage, the coil current 2
„ , j ^rr,mutntion or delayed commutation. I f the current
This type of commutation is called under breaks contact with bar 1, then
in the short-circuited coil has t0 brush is broken which appears in the
(t) the coil current is (Ic 1) an (u cur in ^ 4 26 (a). Thus, the effect of reactance
form of arc at the trailing brush tip a j. brush tip and temperature rise of the corn-
voltage is to cause sparking, heating ot the ira b
mutator.
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, ^ D e la y e d commutation
R o ta tio n
i a p p e a rs
a s a rc
^ r a ilin g b ru s h u p
ia p p e a rs
Qs Ore
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.26. P erta in in g to d ela y ed com m u ta tion .
Good commutation means linear commutation as shown in Figs. 4.25 and 4 26 (6) Two
lmg.t0 Pr° mote good commutation are (i) resistance commutation and (ii) voltage
m“
wwn- r ’ reS1StaTCe COmmutation always lends a marginal support to voltage com
utation so as to secure good commutation. These two methods are now discussed next.
w.E
pras^ce* otfarn(. ^ ^ 0 m m utatiffln *Qualitative discussion). It is seen from above that the
tion. Therefore 'fb"'slcuri™
value as possible It ha* h f
C° u" dcrgoin6 commutation leads to delayed commute-
commutation, reactance voltage must be kept to as low a
proportional to fho * 66n oun.
asy
t^ie magnitude of reactance voltage is approximately
0011 Pr ^ w in d in g and squire of the number of
by using (f) sm ^Uenrth „f
En
reactan<* ™ '‘ ago >" the commutated coil can be minimised
t u r e c o . l s a n d ^ l S ° arma*ure“ re b>' resort.ng to multipolar design (ii) chorded-arma-
gin
eer
of securinggood c o m m u t^ E j^ ^ ing
the r : ! ! age C° m T i a tr
' rOSSingof
? WU1 be S6en fr0m Fig' 4 1 7 that the armature reaction shifts
^ ux density wave from C, C to D, D \ Thus, as the coil is being com .ne
m u ta te d
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Art. 4.8]
D.C. Machines 395
of mterpoles is callod voltage commutation All m i 1
sizes, attain good commutation by means o f interposes"1 C0Tnmutat°r machines oflarger
4.8.1. Interpoles. In Pig 4.17 if thp h m e W „ . . .
generator (or against the direction of rotation for a mnTnrW *11 direc^ on ,of rotation for a
mutated coil comes under the influence of zero flux Hpn t ’ t° p01nts D ' ! then th e com-
e.m.f. induced in the commutated T of “ s SWft' the r° tati° nal
be improved. If the brush shift is more than the 6 to fig 4 ,7 (A’ e “ m.™utat,on 7 " “
coii under the brushes would be cutting the flux X p ^ l t Z d ^ e
!
SeHmpraovedr 3 " " coil and commutatfonls fu t
The disadvantages of this method are that (i) for improving the commutation, the brushes
will have to be shifted for every change in load, because angle 0 in Fig. 4.17 (/) depends on the
armature (or load) current and (») for larger shift of the brushes in the direction of rotation for
a generator and against the direction of rotation for a motor, the demagnetizing ampere-tums
increase and the main flux is reduced considerably (see Art. 4.7). This reduced flux may jeo
ww
pardise the operation of the generator or motor to a noticeable extent.
This method of shifting the brushes for improving the commutation was employed before
w.E
the invention of interpoles.
The interpoles are narrow poles placed exactly midway between the main poles. The inter
asy
poles are fitted to the yoke and are also known as commutating poles or compoles. In order to
make the flux density zero under the brush at C in Fig. 4.17 (/), the interpole must have a north
polarity. At C \ the interpole must have south polarity. From this, it may be concluded that for
En
a generator, the polarity o f the interpole must be the same as that of the main pole ahead of it,
in the direction o f rotation. For a motor, the polarity o f the interpole must be the same as that of
the main pole behind it.
gin
eer
In practice, the interpoles of appropriate polarity are strengthened so that in interpolar
zone ; the armature cross flux is neutralized and in addition some flux is produced there. This
ing
additional flux in the interpolar zone induces rotational e.m.f. in the commutated coil in such a
direction as to oppose the reactance voltage. If this rotational e.m.f. due to the additional inter-
polar-flux is equal and opposite to the reactance e.m.f., then the resultant e.m.f. in the com
mutated coil would be zero and therefore zero current in
that coil would amount to sparkless commutation. This is ~j .ne
i^~ Commutating
the reason why interpoles are designed to provide more
m.m.f. than the armature m.m.f. in the commutating zone. (>
In practice, the interpole m.m.f. may be 1.2 to 1.3 times the
t
armature m.m.f. per pole.
If the armature current increases, the armature reac
tion and, therefore, the rotational and reactance e.m.fs. in
the commutated coil increase. In order to enable the inter- \ /■------o
poles to do their duty faithfully with the variation of arma
ture current; the interpole winding is connected in series
with the armature. Fig 4.27 shows the series connection of F ig. 4 .2 7 . In terp oles for d.c. m a ch in e,
armature and compoles. Note from this figure also that the
interpole m.m.f. is opposite to the armature m.m.f. in the commu a mg zone.
Resultant flux density waveform is shown by solid curve in Fig. 4.17 (fl. When interpoles of
proper polarity are fitted to the yoke, the resultant flux dens, y waveform,, ; as>
Fig 4.28. An examination of this figure reveals that the, commutation, ofthe cod now takes place
in the field, the polarity of which is the same as that ofthe main field ahead for a generator. In
[A rt. 4.8
396 Electrical Machinery
ww
w.E
asy main poles ahead. This
En
the commutated coil and thus the commutation is improved in a dc generate .
In case of d.c. motor, the commutation of the coil takes place in the field, the polarity of
gin
which is o p p o s i t e to the main poles ahead. In view of this, rotational e.m.f. induced in the
commutated coil by generator action (apply right hand rule for generator action) is of the same
eer
sign (dot) as it would be under the main poles ahead. The current due to this rotational e.m.f
is^lso of the same sign (dot) as it is under the main poles ahead. This helps in the reversal of
ing
the current in the commutated coil and this improves the commutation in a d.c. motor.
In order to avoid saturation in the interpoles, air-gaps under these poles are kept longer
.ne
than under the main poles. All modern d.c. machines fitted with interpoles, can operate over
wide range without sparking. It has, therefore, become a common practice to install the mter-
t
poies in modern d.c. machines except in very small d.c. machines. The number of interpoles is
equal to the number of main poles but for low-power d.c. machines, say less than 3 or 4 kW,
number of interpoles may be half of the number of main poles.
4.8.2. B rushes. The commutation process is effected considerably by the type of brush
material. The various types of brushes are carbon, electrographite, copper graphite etc. C a r b o n
brushes are used for very small d.c. machines, electrographite brushes are used more f r e q u e n t
ly in all d.c. machines and copper-graphite brushes are used in low voltage (up to 30 V) heavy
current d.c. machines, as used for electroplating.
Carbon, electrographite and copper-graphite brushes are self-lubricating. In view of this,
no lubrication should be applied to the commutator surface.
It has been investigated that brush contact resistance is non-linear and depends on many
factors, namely brush and commutator materials, current density, brush pressure, commutator
speed, current direction, temperature, moisture in the air and atmospheric pressure. In vievv o
this, it is quite difficult to analyse correctly the electrical behaviour of the commutated coi,
since the brush contact resistance does not remain constant.
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Art. 4.8]
D.C. Machines 397
ic) Is the direction o f rotation the same in which it was driven as a generator ?
ww
tions of currents, when running as a motor,
are as shown in Fig. 4.29 (6). Since the
w.E
series field opposes the shunt field in Fig.
4.29 (6), it becomes a differentially com
pounded motor.
asy
(b) For cumulatively compounded gene
rator, the directions of currents in the ar
mature and interpole windings are as
shown in Fig 4.29 (a). When running as a En
motor, the directions of currents, both in
the armature and interpole windings, get gin
reversed. Thus the interpoles have proper
polarity for good commutation. eer
(c) For the direction of current in the ar
mature and main N, S poles as shown in ing
Fig. 4.29 (c) for a generator, the armature
must be driven in anticlockwise direction
(C)
.ne
(d)
Fig. 4.29. Pertaining to Example 4.10.
Since the shunt field is stronger than the series field, the main poles polarity remains un
changed for a motor. The direction of armature current, however, gets reversed for a motor as
shown in Fig. 4.29 (d ). Now the main N, S poles must attract S, N poles created on the arma
t
ture. The rotation is thus anticlockwise, the same in which it was driven as a generator.
Exam ple 4.11. A 4-pole, 100 kW, 200 V lap-connected d.c. machine has 256 conductors.
Find the number o f turns required on each interpole, i f interpolar air-gap is 1 cm and interpolar
flux density is 0.25 T. Neglect the effect o f iron parts o f the circuit and o f the leakoge.
Solu tion. The interpolar m.m.f. per pole Fcp should be equal to the combination of arma
ture m.m.f. per pole Fa and the air-gap m.m.f. In view of this,
B cp
Sep
p0
where B cp and g cp are the interpolar flux density and air-gap length respectively.
100,000
Full load current
° 200 ~
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B cpr
F =
2a P ' t o ' 8 "
cp
ww
under the pole faces remains dis
torted as illustrated in Fig. 4.28.
w.E
If a d.c. machine is subjected to
heavy overloads or if it operates with
a weak main field (as in a motor in
tended for wide speed control), then
the resultant field waveform is ex
asy
tremely distorted, as shown in Fig.
4.30. Any coil, whose two coil-sides En
are under the influence of these peak
flux densities will have a large rota gin
tional e.m.f. induced in it. In Fig.
4.30, at any instant, the coil sides a eer
and a' are shown under the peak flux
densities. If the rotational or speed ing
voltage induced in coil aa' exceeds
about 30 V (maximum permissible
.ne
Fig. 4.30. Extremely distorted flux density waveform without
compensating winding and its effect on coil, a, a'.
limit is of the order of 30 to 40 V),
the air between the adjacent commutator segments to which the coil aa' is connected, may
breakdown resulting in an arc. Such an arc may then extend to nearby commutator segments and
t
eventually spread rapidly around the entire commutator periphery. This is because the air near the
commutator surface is fairly ionised to result in conditions favourable for flashover. Such a flashover
is detrimental both to the commutator and the supply line, since the latter is directly short-circuited
by the flashover.
There is another factor which may cause voltage between adjacent segments to exceed 30
V (30 to 40 V). This is associated with the time-variation of armature flux caused by sudden rise
or fall of the load current. For understanding this, consider a d.c. machine subjected to rapidly
changing loads of wide range. Let us first investigate its operation as a d.c. generator. The
distribution of armature reaction flux or cross flux alone, is depicted in Fig. 4.17 (c) and also in
Fig. 4.17 (d). It may be seen that a coil under the pole centres has maximum cross flux a r o u n d
it and consequently has maximum cross flux linkages. Therefore, the effect of rapidly changing
flux caused by rapidly changing loads, is more pronounced on the coil under the pole centres
and naturally the attention will be focused on this very coil.
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Art. 4.9]
:
the pole centres is reduced if the load is suddenly i n c r p S the resultant e.m.f. in the coil u nc„
the generator falls suddenly from a high to a low value thp gf erator- th^ load on
decay. This flux decay is opposed by an e m f indu rpH1’, It armf ture reaction flux tends to
show that this e.m.f. under S-pole must be indicated by a dot i t htt]e, consideration will
the rotational e.m.f. already existing. Therefore, the L u lta n t'e ! T ™ *****
centres is increased if the load on the generator is snHHani ^ £ ln Under the Pole
in the coil exceeds about 30 V, the arc across the air near the m k T T ° f 11 COmbined e m f -
commutator bars (to which the coil is c o n n e c t e d
positive and negative brushes. resulting in flashover between
The reader may use the same thought process and mm* tp i • ,
occur if the load is suddenly increased from a low to a
ww
The trouble of flashover which is due to the distortinn nf fi,,v j ™ ^
shoes or due to the rapidly changing loads, can be effectively overcome by n e X a h z W o rc o m 6
pensating the armature m.m.f. under the pole faces. The besi way to achi
,
0 P !
w.E Wlndmg or comPensating winding embedded in slots in the pole faces’
, The armature and compensating windings are connected in series so that thmv
proportionu, to the same current. Furthef, in order
c
asy
Z
^rection of currents in the compensating winding must be opposite to that in the armature
winding just below the pole faces as shown in Fie 4 3 1 H a l f n f f h n ™ a- •
7 T W En
side o f a pole are
gin
the left hand side of the adjoining pole, Fig. 4.31. Consequently the pole-face winding or the
compensating winding is a concentric type winding.
eer
ing
.ne
t
v ia) ! . . . (fc)
Fig. 4.31. Compensating windings embedded in slots in the pole faces.
Fig. 4.31 (6) shows the physical arrangement of connections of armature circuit and com
pensating winding (CW). In this figure, top brush is connected to back end of the CW conductor
1 in iV-pole face. The front end of this conductor 1 is connected to front end of CW conductor 1'
in S-pole face. The back end of 1' is connected to back end of 2 in AT-pole face and so on till
conductor 4' is reached.
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ww
produced by the main field alone. This
means that the field windings have full
w.E
control over the air-gap flux. Since the
compensating winding neutralizes the
armature m.m.f. under the main poles,
the armature flux linkages are reduced.
This has the effect of reducing the arma asy
ture inductance. Thus the armature-cir-
cuit time constant is reduced and this
En
R e s u l t a n t flux
d e n s ity w a v e fo r m
results in quicker dynamic response of
the d.c. machine.
gin
Fig. 4.32. Resultant flux density waveform
with compensating winding and interpoles.
eer
Since the compensating winding m.m.f. neutralizes the armature m.m.f. only under the
main pole-faces, the compensating winding m.m.f. per pole A T Cis given by
Pole arc
ATc = Pole pitch X Armature m m f- Per P°le ing
_ Pole arc
Pole pitch
Z
.ne ...(4.17 a)
t
2 aP
As compensating winding carries Ia, the compensating winding conductors Z can be cal-
CIV
culated as under:
7 j
**c w Aa Pole arc Z
ATC= x I Interpole
2 Pole pitch 2aP winding
or 2 _ Pole arc Z
cw ~ Pole pitch X aP ...(4.17 6)
winding
A schematic diagram of a d.c. compound machine fitted with
interpole
,------------------ TVM,UU„„16 iruiuiugo
and compensating windings ia
is m
illustrated
u s t r a t e a iin
n rFig. 4.33. The
i g . 4.0,3. The
f A r m .) -
flux produced
flux produced by by the intemole and
the interpole and compensating
rnmnpncatir1r,m ,v j;
windings _ i___
is along Shunt
the brush, armature or quadrature axis, these are therefore shown winding w inding
along the same axis. Shunt and series windings produce flux along o__________
the direct axis, these are also shown accordingly 90° awav from r.- r
bru sh axis. Fig. 4.33. Schematic diagram of a
_ d.c. com pound machine fitted
The compensating winding increases the cost of d.c. machines wit^ interP°*e anc* compensating
these are therefore used in d.c. machines subjected to heavy over- windings‘
A n . 4.9) _________
ww
Solution. Peripheral velocity of commutator,
w.E v = nDn = n x 50 x
asy
.-. Time of commutation = — — x 60— = n *573
rc x 50 x 1000 M
En
F , J Z T ) e 4'\3' A single1 urn coil has an inductance o f 0.02 mH in the commutatine zone
Et = 0.02 x 10~3 ^
I •' £ r = 2B0„ l f - 2 ^
’ lc cc
'vhere <>c = average value of flux in the commutating zone.
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2 - = 0.02 x 10" 3 ^
te ' tc
or <t>c = 0.5 m Wb.
Exam ple 4.14. A 2000 kW, 400 V, 14-pole d.c. machine has a lap wound armature with
1100
j. j. Lw/tuuttu/
conductors.a. The pole arc iu
i ne pute to puie-pucri
pole-pitch ruuu
ratio is u.
0. 7.
t . Compute the number o f pole-face conduc-
tore o f the compensating winding in each pole, so as to obtain uniform air-gap flux density under
the pole faces.
Solution. For a lap-connected armature,
a = P = 14
ww IaZ
aP
5000x 1100
14 x 14
w.E
Ampere conductors per pole to be compensated by pole face winding
_ Pole arc 5000 x 1100 (5000) (1100)
En
.’. Compensating winding conductors per pole
0.7 x 1100x 5000
14 x 14 x 5000
gin
= 4.
Exam ple 4.15 . A compensated d.c. machine has 15,000 armature ampere turns per pole
eer
The ratio o f pole arc to pole pitch is 0.68. Interpolar air gap length and flux density are respec
tively 1 cm and 0.25 teslas. For rated armature current o f 850 A, calculate the compensating
ing
winding conductors per pole and the number o f turns on each interpole.
Solution. From Eq. (4.17), compensating winding ampere turns per pole are
ATC= 0.68 x 15000 = 10,200 ATs.
/. Compensating winding conductors per pole .ne
M.m.f. required for the air gap under the interpole
t
BcP r 0.25 , 9
^ 4 ji x 1 0 “ 7 X = 1989 ATs.
W ithout compensating winding, the interpole m.m.f. must be equal to 15,000 + 1989 ATs.
! lT r a^ r mug o f T dy ncutrali* « l 10.200 ATs. In view of this, the ampere
turns that must be furnished by each interpolo are 15,000 + 1989 - 10,200 = 6790 = 6800 ATs.
Number of turns on each interpole = - = 8
850 ’
4.10. Basic P erform ance E qu ation s for D .C . M achines
For d.c. machines, the expressions for the arm ature generated e.m.f. E . and electromag
netic torque „Thave already been derived in Eqs. (3.44) and (4.6) respectively. These expr
sions are re-w ritten below, for convenience.
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Art. 4.10]
___________ D.C. Machines 403
g _ <j) ZnP
IN. C » t ^ -
° a
and J Te = Ka $ I a
60 ...(3.44)
ww vt
lL ' h I
w.E rf :i vQ a
i>—■ - —
asy -6
( 6)
Fig. 4.34. Equivalent circuits for (a) d.c. compound generator (short-shunt) and
En
(6) d.c. compound motor (long-shunt).
gin
In the equivalent circuit, Ia is the armature current, 7,-the shunt field current, IL the line
current, Va the armature terminal voltage, Vt the machine terminal voltage, rt the series field
resistance and rythe shunt field resistance.
eer
For d.c compound generator (short-shunt), the voltage and current equations can be writ
ing
ten by applying Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws to Fig. 4.34 (a). Therefore,
Va = Ea + I a ra ...(4.18)
^
V t = V a ± I L rs = Ea ± l a ra ± I L rs
h = Ia ± I f
.ne ...(4.19)
...(4.20)
where plus sign is used for a motor and minus sign for a generator.
For the long-shunt compound machine of Fig. 4.34 (6).
Va = Ea ± I a ra
t ...(4.21)
v t = Va ± I a rs = Ea ± I a (ra + rs) ...(4.22)
and h =h±If ...... .
...(4.23)
Here also plus sign is used for a motor, minus sign for a generator. From Eqs. (4.18) to (4.23),
neglect those terms which are not required for the specified d.c. machine under consideration. For
example, for a d.c. shunt machine, neglect the terms pertaining to series field winding. For a d.c.
series machine, neglect those terms which are relevant to shunt field winding.
4.10.1. M agnetisation Curve. In addition to basic performance equations given above,
the magnetisation curve is also essential for determining the performance of d.c. machines.
£ 1
The magnetisation curve is the relationship between air-gap flux <}>and the field winding
m.m.f. or field winding current. From Eq. (3.44), it is seen that for constant speed a)m', the
armature generated e.m.f. Ea at no-load, is proportional to air-gap flux 4>only. In view of this, a
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[Art. 4.10
404 Electrical M achinery
EC------ 1
! Ea
•G ___ -3
Vt ----------------
no-load /
mag. / >/ Load
curve /
i / / if m.c.for
constant
V la
1
H If or
Ff
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.35. (a) Typical magnetization curve for a d.c. machine
(6) pertaining to the calculation of armature reaction m.m.f.
ww
plot between air-gap flux <j>or Ka <}>o)m i.e. Ea and the field winding current or m.m.f., at a given
speed, gives the magnetisation curve. This curve is also called no-load or open circuit charac
w.E
teristic, or saturation curve. Fig. 4.35 (a) illustrates a typical magnetisation curve at a given
speed, with only one field winding excited. The magnetisation curve for any other speed, can be
obtained from Eq. (3.44) i.e.
asy
to,,
-a
oo'in
, l
l
= Ka $
) or Eai ——
* O)
En tOn.1
gin
This is illustrated in Fig. 4.35 (a) for speed ooml < com. For d.c. compound machines, the magnetiza
...(4.24)
eer
tion curve is obtained with current in the shunt field winding only. During the d.c. compound machine
analysis, the series field m.m.f. must also be taken into account as follows:
- L ^ I ...(4.26)
f ~ Nf *
The dashed straight line, tangent to the straight line portion of magnetisation curve at
speed co,,,, is called air-gap line as shown in Fig. 4.35 (a).
4.10.2. Effect of armature m.m.f. on d.c. machine calculations. It has been d e scrib e d
in Art. 4.6 that the cross magnetizing effect of armature reaction produces demagnetizing effect
on the main pole flux. Since this effect is due to saturation, it can’t be included by a simple mathe
matical expression in the d.c. machine calculations. However, the following method may be used
to include the effect of armature m.m.f. on the performance of d.c. machines.
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1
I
fi
Art. 4.10]
D.C. Machines 405
No-load magnetization curve is the graph between armature generated e.m.f. Ea and Held
current/,(or field m.m.f. ,)with constant armature speed ei„. Load-magnetization curve is the
F
I graph between terminal voltage V, and I, (or Fj) with constant armature speed <a„ and constant
armature current fl . n Fig. 4.35 (6), the no-load and load magnetization curves are sketched
in one diagram and are respectively marked 1 and 2. In order to obtain curve 3, add armature
resistance drop Ia ra to each ordinate of curve 2. Here ra includes the brush contact resistance
i
also. For any field excitation equal to OA, AB is the armature generated e.m.f. at no load. For
load current Ia, CD is the voltage drop equal to Ia ra as per the construction. Therefore out of
the total voltage drop BD, voltage drop BC is caused by armature reaction. However, no-load
e.m.f. HG = AC can be obtained by an excitation equal to OH = O A - AH and in this manner the
voltage drop BC due to armature reaction, has been considered in terms of If or F f. In view of
this, the armature reaction demagnetizing m.m.f. ATd is equal to AH and is expressed on the
field current or field m.m.f. scale.
ww
The magnitude of demagnetizing m.m.f. AT* which accounts for the cross-magnetizing ar
mature reaction, should be calculated at the anticipated terminal voltage, because saturation
effects the value ofATd considerably. However, over the normal operating range of the voltage,
w.E
the demagnetizing m.m.f. ATd, accounting for the armature reaction, is taken as proportional
to armature current. With this, the net field m.m.f. acting on each pole along the d-axis is given
by
asy
Net m.m.f. = N flf±N sls -A T d ...(4.27)
En
The basic equation underlying the analysis of d.c. machines are Eqs. (3.44), (4.6), (4.18) to
(4.23), the magnetization curve and power balance Eqs. (4.9) to (4.12). The armature m.m.f. can
be accounted for as explained above in Fig. 4.35 (b).
gin
Example 4.16. A 250 V, 10 kW d.c. shunt generator has 1400 turns on each pole. At rated
speed, a shunt field current of 2 A produces a no-load voltage of250 V, but at rated load the same
eer
load voltage of250 V can be produced by a field current of 2.2 amp. It is required, not to change
the field current for maintaining load voltage constant, but add a series field winding. Calculate
ing
the number of series field turns per pole required for long-shunt connection.
Solution. Total m.m.f. required at rated load
The resistances o f the shunt field and armature circuit (including brushes) are 184 ohms
and 0.443 ohms respectively.
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ww
netization curve, refer to Fig. 4.36. AB is
made equal to the total armature resistance
drop of 20 V. Through B is drawn a horizon
w.E
tal line meeting the magnetization curve at
C. Then BC is the demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction in terms of shunt field
current.
asy
Demagnetizing effect due to armature
reaction = B C = 0.25 equivalent shunt field
current in amperes. En
Exam ple 4.18. A d.c. shunt generator
has a total o f 100 in the shunt circuit, in gin
eer
cluding the field winding as well as the regulator. Its terminal voltage is 50 Vwhen the generator
is run at 1000 r.p.m., 225 V a t 2000 r.p.m. and 405 V a t 3000 r.p.m. Draw magnetization curve
ing
at 2000 r.p.m. and hence determine the terminal voltage at this speed, i f the resistance o f the
shunt circuit is reduced to (i) 80 Cl and (ii) 70 Cl.
E
a E
a
.ne
t
A rt. 4.11]
D.C. Machines 407
, Solution. For a terminal voltage of 50 V at 1000 r
,t 2000
At iuuu r.p.m., the me terminal voltage is 100 V at tho «, .... , i“ !,=“ clu current
current isis 50/100
50/100 == 0.5 A
I i r r o n t n f an*>/1AA — A A C A . S3me field P l i r r n n f Q ; _ : l __ 1 «»
current of 405/100 = 4.05 A, the terminal voltaee of 4P4 v Similarly, for a field
405 X (2000/3000) = 270 V at 2000 r.p.m. The m a a‘ 3000 r p m' is ^ v a l e n t to
drawn. Resistance lines for 80 Q and 70 Q are seen to mppt f k ° n CUrVe at 2000 r P m- is thus
at C and P to give the terminal voltages of BC = 253 V and Q P ^ ^ V ^ 1011 CUrV6 ^ ^ 4 37
4.11. Operating Characteristics of D.C. Generators
The operating characteristics of d.c. generators Dre«sp t u- ^
tween the basic quantities relevent to generator ODeratinn ” gTaPhlcally. the relationship be-
voltage V„ armature current excitation 5C * are term” al
constant and is usually fixed by the prime-mover speed * * * ° f '“ “ geMrator is
below” ' ' mPOrtant CharaCteriSti“ ° f d c- generatOTS • " ^ r in number and these are given
ww
called saturation curve, open-circuit characteristic, magnetization curve or no-load maenetiza
tion curve. »**«Bucu£a-
w.E
(it) Load characteristic. V, = f ( l ,)with both 1. and
called the load magnetization curve.
(tit)
constant. This characteristic is also
asy
(ia) Armature characteristic or regulation curve. If = f ( l t ) with both V, and n con
stant.
En
of these characteristics depends upon the method of excitingthe field windings Note
gin
that in all the dc generator characteristics listed above, speed is held constant by the prime-mover
These characteristics are now described in detail for different types of d.c. generators.
eer
4 .H .I . Separately-excited generators. These generators are used when a wide range
of output voltage is required.
ing
(t) No-load characteristic. This characteristic gives the variation of armature generated
e.m.I. t a with field current If, for zero armature current and constant speed.
The connection diagram for obtaining the no-load characteristic is illustrated in Fig. 4.38
(a). The armature is driven at rated speed by the prime-mover and switch S is kept always .ne
open. It will be seen that even though the field winding is not energised, the voltmeter indicates
a small voltage (2 to 6 volts), due to the presence of residual flux in the main poles. This residual
flux voltage is shown by OA in Fig. 4.38 (6). The field winding is now energised and the exciting
t
current If is increased in steps—
at each step Ea and If are
Eat
recorded. Field current /.
if is m- /, c
*
creased till Ea is about 1.1 to —T—(AJ------- T" • ■■ / occ
1.25 times the rated voltage. 7
The graph between Ea and lf,
Field
called no-load characteristic or r-TTTn ( Arm. J ® 5 / s p e e d =n
saturation curve, is shown in
Fig. 4.38 (6). If the field current
f /
I OAx re s id u a l
flu x voltagi
(a)
---------- . r
■ (b)
U- —
original curve AC, but will lie Pig. 4.38 Separately excited generator (a) connection
above it due to hysteresis. diagram and (6) its no-load characteristic.
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The magnetization curve for low values of 7/is a straight line, because the entire field m.m.f.
is almost spent in forcing the flux through the air gap and the m.m.f. required by the iron is
almost negligible. With increased values of//-and above a certain value of field flux, saturation
sets in and m.m.f. required by the iron increases more rapidly than the flux. The knee of the
no-load characteristic is at the point D, Fig. 4.38 (6). (
(ii) Load characteristic. This characteristic gives the relationship between the terminal
voltage V, and field current If for constant /„ and speed. In order to plot it, refer to Fig. 4.38 (a).
Run the armature at constant rated speed and close the switch S. Adjust the field current till
Ia is equal to rated armature current (or any other specified current) and take the instrument
readings. Vary the load and field currents in such a manner that armature current Ia and speed
n remain constant, but terminal voltage Vt changes. Repeat this process till sufficient number
of points for the graph, Fig. 4.39 (a), are obtained. If the load resistance is made zero (i.e. short
circuit), then Vt = 0 and point a on the load characteristic is obtained. With the help of no-load
and load magnetization curves, demagnetizing effect of armature reaction can be found out, as
ww
explained in Fig. 4.35 (6).
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Fig. 4.39. (a) Load characteristic and (6) external characteristic, of a separately excited generator.
(iii ) External characteristic. This characteristic gives the variation of armature terminal
ing
voltage V, with load current IL for constant speed and fixed field current. External or volt-
ampere characteristic can be obtained experimently by using the connection diagram of Fig.
4.38 (a) The generator is run at rated speed and its field winding is excited to give rated ter
minal voltage at no load. Now close the switch S, vary load resistance in steps and for each step, .ne
note terminal voltage and load current. A typical external characteristic is shown in Fig. 4.39
(6), by curve 1. The decrease in terminal voltage with increase in load is due to the voltage drops
caused by armature reaction and armature circuit resistance. Curve 2 in Fig. 4.39 (6), obtained
t
by adding l a ra drop to the ordinates of curve 1, is known as internal characteristic. The internal
characteristic gives the variation of armature no-load generated e.m.f. Ea minus the voltage
drop due to armature reaction, with load current IL or Ia. In other words, internal characteristic
gives the relationship between internally generated e.m.f. and the load current for constant
speed and field current. Note that ra includes the brush contact resistance also and for
separately-excited generator Ia = IL. In Fig. 4.39 (b ), OA is the no-load terminal voltage Ea.
The performance of a dc generator is gauged by its voltage regulation. It is defined as the
change in armature terminal voltage, expressed as a percentage of full-load terminal voltage,
when full load is gradually reduced to zero with speed and field current remaining unchanged.
E -V
Percentage voltage regulation = - ~ z —- x 100
*r
where Ea = no-load generated voltage
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Art. 4.11]
D.C. Machines 409
(iv) Armature characteristic or reeulatinn * ,
current If with load current for constant C^ rve.‘ A plot P ving the variation of field
characteristic or regulation c u ™ . ' " al V° ltage and s» Md' is called
At no load, the field current is adjusted to rivp f • i , ^
age of the machine, Fig. 4 38 (a). The load current is now in“ e ^ ° i n
steps and at each step, the field current is adjusted to keep the ter-
mmal voltage constant. The regulation curve is then plotted as shown
m Fig. 4.40. In the beginning, the curve is almost a straight line and
as the saturation sets in, it bends upwards.
This characteristic can be employed for calculating the number of series
turns for any degree of compounding, in dc compound machines. For ex A IL
ample, for level compounding, the additional shunt field ampere turns Fig. 4.40. A rm a tu re
(CB) x Nf must be furnished by series field armature turns (OA) x N ch a ra cteristic o f a
sep arately ex cited generator.
Series field turns,
ww N- = m • */ ...(4 .2 8 )
4.11.2. Shunt generators. These generators are most frequently employed, because no
w.E
separate source for excitation is required. However the load current must be well below the
maximum current for avoiding large dips in the terminal voltage.
(i) No load characteristic. This characteristic for the self-excited shunt generator, can be
asy
plotted with the help of connection diagram of Fig. 4.41 (a) and by keeping the switch S open.
If the field winding circuit of the shunt generator is disconnected from the armature circuit and
En
separately excited, then the no-load characteristic with separate excitation will not differ from
that obtained with shunt excitation. This is due to the fact that small amount of current (1 to
gin
3% of rated current) flowing in the armature of the shunt generator, has negligible effect on the
main flux. It will rather be more convenient to run the shunt generator as a separately-excited
eer
generator for obtaining its saturation curve. The saturation or magnetization curve so obtained
can be used for shunt generator analysis without any appreciable error.
ing
(ii) Load characteristic. The load characteristic can be obtained in the same manner as
for the separately-excited generator. Actually the load characteristics obtained both for
separate and shunt excitation, are the same. The slight difference is due to the different arma
ture currents, Ia = IL + If for shunt generator and Ia = l i for separately-excited generator. Dif
.ne
ferent armature currents result in different armature reaction, giving slightly different voltage
drops in the two cases.
vt
1 ____________ G
t
A -• — I f ^ Internal
. charoct
<§Mf‘ 1 r \ !
E x te rn a l _i_ \ * X 11
cha ra ct. J
i ]B
Load
Pf< CD* lara drop A
O F -A R drop / i
/ i
FG * Drop due to i f i
to ll i n l o - — ^ 1 i
i
— i _____ i —
lm
(6 )
^ . . / v d ia g ra m an d (6) e x te rn a l c h a ra cte ris tic.
F ig 4 4 1 . S e lf-e x c it e d s h u n t g e n e r a t o r (a ) c o n n e ctio n a ia g ra v >
The generator is run at rated speed and the neia tun biik j »
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any other suitable voltage) at no-load. Switch S is closed, the load is gradually increased in
steps and the instrument readings at each step are recorded. A plot of the terminal voltage Vt
and load current IL, with preset value of field current and speed, gives the external charac
teristic curve 1 in Fig. 4.41 (6). The drop in terminal voltage is due to (a) armature resistance
drop Ia ra (b ) reduction in main flux due to armature reaction and (c) further reduction in field
current lf, since the terminal voltage has fallen because of the first two effects given in parts (a)
and (6). A reduction in field current causes the flux and therefore the generated e.m.f. to
decrease. Thus the terminal voltage of the generator for a given load current, will be lower
when shunt excited than when separately excited, provided no load voltage is same in both the
cases. In Fig. 4.41 (6), CD = I ara = voltage drop due to armature resistance, D F = voltage drop
due to armature reaction and FG = voltage drop due to reduction in field current. The total
voltage drop, from no-load generated voltage OA, is given by GC and consequently the terminal
voltage at full load is OA minus GC.
As the load resistance is decreased (load current increased), the terminal voltage drops
until point B is reached. If load resistance is further decreased, the load current increases
ww
momentarily. This momentary increase in load current, produces more armature reaction thus
causing a reduction in the terminal voltage and field current. The net reduction in terminal
w.E
voltage is so large that the load current decreases and the external characteristic turns back.
In case the machine is short circuited, the curve terminates at point H. Here OH is the load
current due to the voltage generated by the residual flux.
asy
Over the normal operating range, the internal characteristic given by curve 2, can be ob
tained by adding Ia ra drop to the ordinates of external characteristic, i.e. curve 1.
(iv)
En
Arm ature characteristic. Shunt generator armature characteristic is obtained by
running it as a separately excited generator. The test is carried out as explained before in the
case of separately excited generator.
gin
Voltage build up in shunt generators. Consider an unloaded shunt generator as il
eer
lustrated in Fig. 4.42 (a). In Fig. 4.42 (b ), the straight line Oa is the graphical plot of Ohm’s law
for the field circuit. In other words, the slope of the line Oa, drawn through origin, represents
the field resistance, i.e.
Voltage ba ing
.ne
tan ZaOb = = field resistance rf in ohms.
Current Ob
Shunt
f ie ld
When the armature is driven at a speed for which the magnetisation curve is given, the
residual pole flux generates a small voltage Oc, with switch S open, i.e. with zero field current
When switch S is closed, residual flux voltage Oc produces a small field current If the flux
produced by this small field current, adds to the residual flux, still larger voltages are
generated. In order to understand this, refer to Fig. 4.42 (6), where residual flux voltage Or is
shown to produce a small field current equal to Od, which in turn raises the generated voltage
to de. This voltage de, raises the field current to Of, which further raises the generated e m f
to fg, now e.m.f. fg raises the field current to Oh, which in turn increases the generated e m f
to hj and so on, till stable point n is reached. Note that stable point n is determined by the
intersection of field resistance line Oa and the magnetisation or saturation-curve Beyond the
ooint n, the generated e.m.f. given by the magnetization curve is less than that required to
maintain the corresponding field current, therefore, point n is the stable point If the voltage
build up from Oc to np fails, owing to small field current opposing the residual flux, then reverse
the shunt field terminals to obtain the voltage build up.
If shunt field resistance is increased to OA (slope of the field resistance line increased), Fig
ww
4 42 (c) then the field resistance line and the magnetization curve intersect at point r/,
fore the voltage will not build up further than point q . If shunt field resistance is such that
renr’esents the field resistance line, then the intersection may be anywhere between points r
w.E
and s The generated voltage in such a case, would vary between the voltage xr and ys, resulting
in unstable conditions. Note that field resistance line OB is tangent to the magnetization curve
asy
and the field resistance represented by line OB is called the critical field
speed If shunt field resistance is more than the critical field resistance such as i
* a * ven
OA there will be no voltage build up. In order to calculate the critical fieldresistanceatany
>
En
soeed a line is drawn through origin 0 and touching the maximum straight line portion o ^the
magnetization curve. The slope of this line is the critica 'fd d resistance at a speed for which
the m agnetization cu rve has been drawn.
gin
eer
ing
suitable point« on the linear portion of the normal map.et.zat.on curve at speed n,. Then, fo
of the following
it may be due to any one ot ionow.„K reasons. g^ ^ (m)y .f thererosldual
(i) No-residual m a g n c U s m . The vol^J ^ r a to r In case of new machine or the one that has
magnetism in the magnetic circuit of th g . trnnHp0rtotion, self-excited generator will
lost its residual magnetism due p aging J b exciting the field winding from a
fail to build up the voltage. This difficulty cmn 1k 0^ ^ ^ ^ ^ separate d.c. source
separate d.c. source for a few seconds wi' flux ftnd V0itaR0 build up can take place,
is disconnected, the main poles possess r
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The process of connecting the shunt-field winding to a separate dc source for creating the
necessary residual magnetism in the main poles is called field flashing. t
(ii) Field connections reversed. The small voltage due to residual magnetism, should
circulate current in the field coils in such a direction as to produce flux lines aiding the residual
flux. If the field connections are incorrect, the flux produced by small field current opposes the
residual flux and the generated voltage decreases to zero. This trouble can be remedied by
reversing the field connections with respect to armature terminals.
(iii) High field circuit resistance. In case the field resistance is more than the critical
field resistance, voltage will not build up. The voltmeter connected across the armature ter
minals will indicate only a low voltage (2 to 6V). This trouble is caused by an open circuit in the
field or armature connections, dirty commutator or a large external resistance in the field cir
cuit.
This drawback can be overcome by (i) checking whether field or armature circuit is open {ii)
cleaning the commutator surface and ensuring good contact between brushes and commutator
surface and {iii) by adjusting the external field rheostat to zero-ohm setting.
ww
{iu) Speed less than critical speed. With no external resistance in the field circuit, if
self-excited generator fails to build up, it may be due to the armature speed being less than the
speed.
w.E
critical speed. This trouble can be remedied by increasing the prime-mover speed above critical
asy
teristic of a shunt generator can be determined from the no-load magnetization curve or satura
tion curve, provided the field circuit resistance, demagnetizing ampere turns due to armature
reaction and armature circuit resistance are known.
En
Arm ature reaction neglected. In the left of Fig. 4.43, curve 1 is the no-load magnetiza
gin
tion curve (Ea versus If) and OA is the field resistance line {Vt versus If). At no load, BA is the
armature generated e.m.f. Ea for a field.current equal to OB. Under steady state operation and
S eer
with armature reaction neglected, the vertical distance between the saturation curve 1 and
l nce hnei 0A ,s ec*ual t0 armature resistance drop. For example, for field current
or
DD’ - CD - CD'
I r =E - V .ne .
or
aa “ V‘
Ea - V t
r„ t...(4.30 a)
...(4,30 6)
E x te rn a l
c h a ra ct.
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Eq. (4.30 a) reveals that for a known value of Ia, Iara drop and therefore V, is known.
For plotting the external characteristic, cut OG equal to Iara for any assumed armature
current Ia. Draw GH parallel to the Field resistance line OA intersecting the magnetization
curve at points M and D. From M and D, draw vertical lines meeting the field resistance line at
M' and D' respectively. In the right hand side of Fig. 4.43, make O' x - load current = assumed
(o g \ - •
armature current ----- minus shunt field current OC. A vertical line at x and horizontal line
l r° J
through points D\ M ’ meet at points d, m. These two points d, m lie on the external charac
teristic of the shunt generator. Similarly other points on the external characteristic can be
plotted. Noterthat maximum armature current can be found by drawing a line LN, tangent to
the magnetization curve and parallel to the field resistance line OA. The magnitude of maxi
mum armature current will be given by and maximum load current is equal t o minus
ra ra
OC'. When the terminals are short circuited, O'K is the load current due to the e.m.f. OF
ww
generated by the residual flux.
Arm ature reaction included. When armature reaction is to be included in plotting the
w.E
external characteristic from the magnetization curve, then the armature resistance voltage
drop DC and armature reaction demagnetizing effect GC as illustrated in Fig. 4.35 (6), must be
included. In the left-hand side of Fig. 4.44, magnetization curve and field resistance line OA are
asy
drawn intersecting each other at A, so that no-load terminal voltage is O'a = BA. For including
the armature reaction demagnetizing effect, draw OC equal to the equivalent reduction in
En
shunt field current caused by the demagnetizing effect of armature current. In other words,
OC is equal to the ratio
gin
Demagnetizing ampere turns due to armature reaction
Shunt field turns
eer
Total armature resistance drop, for the assumed value of current 7a, is 7a ra and it is drawn as
CD perpendicular to OC. Draw a line DH parallel to the field resistance line OA, intersecting
ing
the saturation curve at points G, H. Now draw Hh, Gg parallel to DO. In the right hand side of
Fig. 4.44, O'x is equal to the assumed armature current minus the field current OB'. The verti
.ne
cal line a tx and the horizontal lines through the points#, h meet at the points#', K . These two
points #', h' are on the external characteristic for a load current equal to O'x. Same procedure
can be adopted for plotting other points on the external characteristic. Maximum current can
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again be found out by drawing at the point N, a tangent parallel to the field resistance line. The
• C 'T )'
magnitude of maximum armature current is given b y and maximum load current is equal
?a
C'D '
to ~z — minus field current ON'. In Fig. 4.44, O'K again gives the short circuit current due to
'a
the e.m.f. generated by the residual flux.
Exam ple 4.19. The following data pertain to the magnetization curve o f a d.c. shunt gene
rator at 1500 r.p.m.
If, amp. 0 0.4 0.8 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.80 3.00
Ea, volts 6 60 120 172.5 202.5 221 231 237 240
ww
total shunt field resistance o f 100 Cl ;
(b) the critical value o f shunt field resistance at 1500 r.p.m .;
I w.E
(c) the critical speed for the shunt field resistance o f 100 f l ;
(d) the magnetization curve at 1200 r.p.m. and therefore the open circuit voltage for a field
resistance o f 100 Cl ;
asy
(e) the terminal voltage o f the generator i f the total armature resistance is 0.3 Cl, armature
current is 50 A and the speed is 1500 r.p.m. Neglect armature reaction.
En
Solution, (a) The magnetisation curve at 1500 r.p.m. is drawn in Fig. 4.45. The field resis
gin
tance line for 100 Cl is drawn, passing through the origin and say 240 volts, 2.4 amp. point A.
The field resistance line meets the magnetization curve at the point B, giving no load e m f of
1
eer
230 volts.
(b ) For determining the critical field resistance at 1500 r.p.m., draw a line OF passing
found to be — ing
through ongin and the straight line portion of the magnetization curve. The slope of this line is
= 150 Cl, which is the critical resistance of the shunt field circuit at 1500 r.p.m.
(c) For determining the critical speed, choose any suitable point S on the straight line por .ne
tion of the magnetization curve A vertical line from 5 , meets the field resistance line at t and
the horizontal line aty. From this vertical line and from Eq. (4.29), critical speed t
n2 = — x 1500 = 1000 r.p.m.
UD The data for the magnetization curve at 1200 r.p.m. can be obtained by multiplying,
each of the voltage ordinates of 1500 r.p.m. magnetization curve by or 1 Therefore the
If, amp. 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.80 3.00
E0, volts 4.8 48 96 138 162 177 185 189.6 192
(e) For an armature resistance drop 50 x 0.3 = 15 volts, cut OD equal to Iura drop i.e. 15
volts. Draw DG parallel to the field resistance line of 100 Q. From G draw a vertical line meet
ing the field resistance line at H, which gives the terminal voltage equal to 207 volts. Note that
GH = OD = 15 volts and Ea = 207 + 15 = 222 volts.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
Fig. 4.45. Pertaining to Example 4.19.
.ne
Exam ple 4.20. A separately excited generator gave Ihe following data for open circuit char
acteristic at 1000 r.p.m.
The armature resistance, including brushes, is 0.5 il. I f the generator is now shunt connected
and is driven at 1100 r.p.m., then, for a total shunt field resistance o f 180 £2, calculate
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mmm
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[A rL 4.11
416 Electrical
E < l C L ( l l \ . d i lM
T iachinery
aw iiiiivi j — ---------- -----------------
(/) For a shunt field resistance o f 150 n ,th e ter^ n^ ^ ^ f a t o r a n d ^ h e generated e.m.f.
certain load at 1100 r.p.m. Find the load supplied by the gene
Assum e that flux is reduced by 4% due to armat“ re Bq. (4.24) is given by the table
below. 1.40
1.00 1.20
0.6 0.80
/*r amp. 0 0.2 0.4
r 220 225.5
187 209
55 110 154
Ea, volts 5.5
ww
The shunt field current corresponding to the terminal voltage of 190 V is given by
Output current
.
w.E
r — J —1 r —
~ l a lf
- 45 — 1.06 = 43.94 amp.
fanfrpnt to the magnetization curve but
(c) For maximum output current, draw a
parallel to the field resistance line OA. The intercep
entire armature resistance drop. asy
u
MOP
j = 46J5 = 93 Amp.
la 0.5 En
gin
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ing
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t
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V' .
Art. 4.11] D.C. Machines 417
The tangent point R gives a field current of 0.635 amp and the corresponding no-load e.m.f.
of 160.5 volts.
ww
if) Terminal voltage of 180 V gives a field current of 180/150 = 1.2 A. For this If, generated
e.m.f. Ea at 1100 r.p.m. is 220 x 0.96 = 211.2 V.
asy
h = Ia ~ If = 62.4 - 1.2 = 61.2 A
Load power = 61.2 x 180/1000 = 11.016 kW.
E xam p le 4.21. A 200 amp., 30 volt d.c. generator for aircraft has the following no-load
saturation curve at 2200 r.p.m.
En
If. am p 2 4 6
gin 8
40
10
43
12
45
eer
VOltS 15 27 35
The armature resistance (including brushes) is 0.03 ohm and field winding resistance is 2.4
ohms. Armature reaction is negligible.
ing
Under normal operation, the speed with which the generator is driven may vary from 2200
.ne
r p m to 4500 r p m An external rheostat in the shunt field circuit is varied by a regulator to
maintain the terminal voltage at 28.0 volts over the complete range in speed (2200 to
and the complete range o f output current (0 to 200 amps).
t
What must be the range in ohms o f this regulating rheostat? What power mustitbe^capabk
o f dissipating ?
Solution.
At 2200 r.p.m., . , -
A no load E = 28 + 0 = 28 volts. For this voltage, the field current required, from the mag
netization curve of Fig. 4.47 is If = 4.23 A.
. - 2^ = 4 94 fl
/. Total field resistance - 5 67 •
R = 4 94 - 2.4 = 2.54 fl.
and external resistance •
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ww
w.E
asy
At 4500 r.p.m.,
En
At no load, Ea = 28 volts at 4500 r.p.m.
gin
.*. Ea at 2200 r.p.m.
” 28 4500
eer
_ 2 8 x ^ 5 5 = 13 7 V
From saturation curve at 2200 r.p.m., 16.62 V is produced by a field current of 2.17 A.
28
External resistance required = 2 1? - 2 . 4 = 10.5 ft.
It is seen from above that the minimum value of external resistance is 2.54 ft and the m*®
mum value is 12.87 ft. Thus the range of the regulating resistance is from 2.54 ft to 12.87 ft.
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Art. 4.11]
D.C. Machines 419
resistance. The chareine n *
1105 rpm respectively. F ind th ofi to^e
10 A. and 20 A for generator speeds o f 1055 and
armature reaction effects -circuit resistance and flux per pole o f the generator. Neglect
a ' ' (J.E.S., 1979)
Solution. Armature circuit resistance
= 500 x 2 x 10" 3 x i = 0 .5 n
Let If be the shunt field current.
ww Ea2~ I f x 1105
If x 1055 oclOO + (10 + If) x 0.5
w.E
and If x 1105 oc 100 + (20 + If) x 0.5
. 7^x1055 100 + (10 + /,) x 0.5
IfX 1105 ~ 100 + (20 + /f) x 0.5
Its solution gives If = 1 A.
asy
•••
En
E ai = 100 + (10 + 1) x 0.5
= 105.5 volts at 1055 rpm
Now Eal = ^ ^
CL gin
or
r <]>x 100 x 1055 x 2
lUo.o = — — ---------
60 x 2 eer
or f -
105.5 x 60
1000 x 1055
= 0.006 Wb
ing
.-. Field circuit resistance = ~ r =
V 1
= 100 Q
.ne
Flux per pole = 6 milliweber.
E xam ple 4.23. (a) The generator o f Example 4.20 is driven at 500 r.p.m and its field coilst
are grouped in two parallel circuits. A regulating resistance is included in the field circuit and
the machine builds up to a voltage o f 90 V. What is the value o f the resistance in the regulator ?
(b) A d.c. generator is fitted with the following two field windings :
(i) A separately excited winding o f 800 turns per pole and resistance o f 160 0. supplied from
a constant voltage source o f 220 V.
Hi) A shunt winding o f 500 turns per pole and resistance o f 200 Q. The open circuit mag
netization at 500 r.p.m. is given by the data as under .
Determine the no-load terminal voltages at 500 and 600 r.p.m., in case both windings are
connected to their respective source at both the speeds and their ATs are in the same direction.
r www.EasyEngineering.net
/I lf
uy 11 lo u d i rn er
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(Art 4.11
4 20 Electrical M achinery
Solution, (a) In Fig. 4.46, magnetization curve at 500 r.pin. w ^raw n as shown. For a
generated e.m.f. of 90 V, the field current is found to be 0.89 A. Thus the total resistance in the
field winding is 90/0.89 = 101.12 ft. When field coils are grouped in two parallel circuits, the
90x90
T h e r e f o r e , t h e v a l u e o f the
shunt-winding resistance reduces from 180 ft to 45 ft = 90 + 90
\ *
resistance R^ in the regulator is given by
27,(45 + 7?i) = 90
ATs/pole.
ww
.-. Total ATs due to both field windings = 1100 + 2.5 E ATs/pole.
For 500 r.p.m., the calculations in tabular form are as under:
Generated e.m.f. E, V
(1100 + 2.5 E), ATs/pole
w.E 154
1485
302
1855
396
2090
458
2245
505
2362.5
538
2445
En
Plot between field ATs/pole and E gives the magnetization curve. Plot between (1100 + 2.5
E) and E gives the variation of resultant field ATs/pole and generated voltage E. Their intersec
gin
tion at point P, Fig. 4.48, gives the no-load terminal voltage of 490 V at 500 r.p.m.
eer
ing
.ne
t
Field ATs / P o l e — ►
Fig. 4.48. Pertaining to Example 4.23 (A).
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These values are also plotted in Fig. 4.48. The plot between E and (1100 + 2.5 E) at 600
r.p.m. is seen to be coincident with that at 500 r.p.m. The point Q gives the no-load voltage as
621 V at 600 r.p.m.
4.11.3. Series Generators. These generators arc used mainly as scries boosters con
nected in the line, to neutralise the effect of line ohmic drop.
(i) No-load characteristic (no-load magnetization curve). In a series generator, the
armature winding, field winding and load resistance are connected in series, therefore the field
current is equal to the armature or load current. In view of this, the no-load magnetization
curve can only be obtained by separately exciting its field from a low voltage source as shown
ww
in Fig. 4.38 (a), so that armature current is always zero. The magnetization curve at one speed
for a series generator is illustrated by curve 1 in Fig. 4.49 (a).
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
(ii) Load characteristic (load magnetization curve). This characteristic also, can only
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drop Iar is added to the ordinates of curve 2, the internal characteristic shown by curve 3 is
obtained. Note that r is the sum of series field resistance and armature circuit resistance (in
cluding brushes). Thus the voltage drop BD is equal to the total armature resistance drop/or
and the voltage drop CD is due to the armature reaction. A horizontal line through D meets the
magnetization curve at F and DF gives the demagnetizing effect caused by the armature reac
tion for a load current equal to OA.
It is obvious from the shape of the external characteristic that the series generator is a
variable voltage generator— it is therefore never used as a voltage source.
4.11.4. Compound generators. Cumulatively compounded generators are more common
because these can furnish almost constant voltage from no load to full load.
(i ) No load characteristic. For the no load characteristic, same current flows through the
series field and shunt field turns in case of a long-shunt compound generator. Since the number
of series field turns is far less than that of the shunt field turns, the effect of series field m.m.f.
ww
may be neglected in comparison with the shunt field m.m.f. at no load. For a short-shunt com
pound generator, series field carries no current when obtaining its no load characteristic. Thus
the no load characteristic of a long-shunt or short shunt compound generator is the same as if
w.E
it were a shunt generator.
(ii) External characteristic. The external characteristics of a compound generator are
asy
shown in Fig. 4.50 (a). In a cumulatively compounded generator, with the increase of load cur
rent, the series field flux aids the shunt field flux. Depending upon the number of series field
turns, the cumulatively compounded generator may be under-compounded (terminal voltage
En
falls with increase of load), level or flat-compounded (terminal voltage remains practically con
stant with increase in load) or overcompounded (terminal voltage rises with increase in load).
gin
In a differentially compounded generator, with the increase in load, the series-field flux opposes
the shunt-field flux and consequently the terminal voltage falls more rapidly. These external
eer
characteristics, along with shunt and separately excited generators for comparison purposes
are sketched in Fig. 4.50 (a) where no-load voltage is assumed to be the same in all the cases.
ing
.ne
t
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.50. (a) External characteristics of various types of d.c. generators
and (6) circuit diagram of a compound generator with diverter.
Differentially compounded generators are not damaged by short circuit. In view of this,
these generators may be used for welding purposes, where sudden short circuit occurs
everytime the electrode touches the working part. However, modern welding generators are of
special design. Slightly overcompounded generators are used for maintaining constant v o l t a g e
at the load terminals.
The degree of compounding can be controlled by connecting a suitable low resistance called
diverter, in parallel with the series field winding as shown in Fig. 4.50 (6).
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Art. 4.11]
D.C. Machines 423
but u n d e r ^ h e ^ s ^ m n ^ n ^ f ° f Vanous types d c- generators are also drawn in Fig. 4.50 (c)
. , f , 0 same rated terminal voltage Vtr and load current ILr. The observa
tions made from these V-I characteristics are as under :
mmrlnJhT" ^1
eneirator»_curve 1, the terminal voltage rises rapidly with load current. At
.. ’ n vo age egins to decrease owing to saturation, armature reaction etc.
(ii) For cumulative overcompounded generator, curve 2, no-load voltage is less than Vlr.
(m) For level or flat, compounded generator, curve 3, the no-load and full-load voltages are
equa . owever, ermina voltage at light load is more than Vt but at overloads it falls below
V tr-
(iv) For cumulative undercompounded generator, curve 4, no-load voltage is more than
tr
(u) For both separately-excited (curve 5) and shunt (curve 6) generators, Vtr is less than
no-load voltage. Voltage variation from no load to full load is less in separately-excited gene
ww
rator than in a shunt generator.
(vi) For differential compounded generator, no load voltage is much higher than Vfr.
w.E voltag e
'DIFFERENTIAL
S EPARATEL Y E X C I T E D
J
asy
£
.L IT "
5 ____
____/
Z
y^UNDER COMF
^SHUNT
En
gin
eer
ing
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t
C UR RE NT
Fig. 4.50. (c) External characteristics of d.c. generators.
Fig. 4.50 (c) reveals that voltage variation from no-load to full load is quite high in series
and differentially compounded generators.
4 .11.5. Effect of speed on external characteristics. The external characteristics of
shunt and compound generators are affected considerably by the operating speed of the driving
motor. In this section, this effect is investigated first for a dc shunt generator and then for a
cumulative compound generator.
Shunt gen era tors. In Fig. 4.51 (a), magnetisation curves for two different speeds
ft! and n2 are drawn for a dc shunt generator. For the same no-load generated emf E, shunt-
field current or mmf is OB for speed n j and OA for speed n2 where rated speed n2 > n\. It is seen
from Fig. 4.51 (a) that at lower operating speed, flux or field mmf required for generating the
same no-load voltage is much greater (here OB) than that required at higher operating speed
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(here it is OA). As a result, the iron in the magnetic circuit gets highly saturated at lower speed
nv
When the shunt generator is loaded, armature reaction comes into play. For the same ar
mature current, the effect of armature reaction on the highly saturated field is less than on the
weak field. Let this effect be BC for strong field at speed n\ and A D on weak field at speed n2.
These two armature reactions are indicated in Fig. 4 .5 1 (a). The n et field m m f is
OC = (OB - BC) at speed nxand is OD = (OA - AD) at speed n2. At speed nj, resultant field mmf
OC gives rise to voltage CP and resultant field mmf OD generates voltage DR at speed n2. Note
that voltage at reduced speed has higher value CP than the voltage DR generated at rated
speed n2. This shows that voltage drop at high speed is more than at lower speed. As a conse
quence, external characteristic at high speed lies below the external characteristic at low speed
as shown in Fig. 4.51 (b).
vt
ww
w.E *n t ( low er
speed)
asy 'n2(higher
speed)
En
D A C gin R a te d
c u rre n t
eer
mmf
F ie ld , m m f Loa d c u rre n t
• ^
ing (A)
Fig. 4.51. Effect o f speed on the external characteristics o f a dc shunt generator.
- « *
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Art. 4.11]
D.C. Machines 425
A A' mmf
F ie ld m m f
(a)
This shows that external characteristic at high speed lies above the external charac
w.E
teristic at low speed as illustrated by solid curves in Fig. 4.52 (b ).
It is seen from above that the effect of speed on external characteristics of a cumulative
compound generator is opposite to that in a dc shunt generator.
asy
Effect of speed on voltage regulation. Effect of speed on the voltage regulation in both
dc shunt and compound generators can be examined by
En
referring to Fig. 4.51 (b ) and 4.52 (b). In Fig. 4.51 (b), if
dc shunt generator runs at rated voltage, rated load cur
rent and rated speed n2, then external characteristics at
speeds n2 and ni < n2 can be sketched as shown in Fig. gin
4.53. These two characteristics at speeds n2 and
eer in
ing
Fig. 4.51 (b) are pushed upward bodily so as to get the
same load voltage OA in Fig. 4.53.
Similarly, the external characteristics of Fig. 4.52
(b) are pushed bodily downward so as to get the same
.ne
t
load voltage OA in Fig. 4.53. It is observed from these
curves in Fig. 4.53 that at reduced speeds, voltage varia
tion from no load to full load gets reduced. In other
words, the voltage regulation at reduced speeds gets im
proved in both dc shunt and dc cumulative (under, level Fig. 4.53. Effect of speed on external
and over) compound generators. characteristics and voltage regulation.
Let ATd) proportional to armature current Iu, be the demagnetizing effect of armature reac
tion. In a cumulatively compounded generator, the series field m.m.f., proportional to armature
current, counteracts ATd. Therefore the net m.m.f. is NJs - A T d and in terms of equivalent
shunt field current, it is given by
N Js - A T d
...(4.31)
Nr
For a cumulatively compounded generator, the effect of net equivalent shunt field current
given by Eq. (4.31) may be demagnetizing if ATd > NJ S; magnetizing if N JS> ATd, or zero if
NJs =A T d.
For a differentially compounded generator
NJS+ ATd
...(4,32)
Nf
and the equivalent shunt field current given by Eq. (4.32) is always of demagnetizing nature.
.I
ww
In order to obtain the external characteristic from OCC, draw OC equal to the equivalent
shunt field current obtained from Eq. (4.31) or Eq. (4.32), for any armature current Ia. In Fig.
w.E
4.54, note that the equivalent shunt field current has been shown as magnetizing. In case
equivalent shunt field current is demagnetizing, draw OC opposite to that shown in Fig. 4.54.
The total armature resistance drop (including brushes) is indicated by CD. Draw a line DH,
asy
parallel to field resistance line OA, meeting the saturation curve at H. Make Hh equal to CD.
With O'x equal to load current IL (= armature current/a— field current OB), draw a vertical line
En
at x and a horizontal line through h. Their intersection at W, gives the required point on the
external characteristic. Other points can be plotted similarly. At no-load, shunt field resistance
gin
line meets the open circuit characteristic at A, which gives the no load terminal voltage O'A'.
Vt
eer
ing
.ne
t
v, av n rr
magnetization curve at 1200 r.p.m.
-*
If, amp. 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80
Ea, volts 6 53 106 160 209 241 258 272 282 28S
n s J ! % T mt inef reSi Stanl e °f! t f ries Windins and ^m ature Winding (including brushes) is
u J u ,“ S„ tUrns' At m tcd ou‘Put current, the speed is 1150 r.p.m. and
shunt field current is 1.00 A. For negligible armature reaction, calculate
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Art. 4.11]
D.C. Machines 427
(a) the terminal voltage at rated output current iftho r u .
(b)the num ber o f series field turns oer n 7
1
rator. converting it into a flat-compounded gene-
ww
.-. The equivalent shunt field cur
rent is given by
w.E {N flf+ N Jf) or
1.00 + 4 1QQQ5 = ^ ^
asy
t^ S
current, the generated e.m.f., from the
magnetization curve of Fig. 4.55, is 257
volts. For a speed of 1150 r.p.m. the ac
En 02 0-4 06 08 1-0 12 1-4
tual generated e.m.f. Ea is
gin Fig. 4.55. Pertaining to Example 4.24.
eer
Ea= 257 x = 246 volts.
ing
.-. Terminal voltage
(6 ) Vt = 230 volts, Ia = 44.5 A.
/. The generated e.m.f. in the armature at 1150 r.p.m.
= Vt + Iara = 230 + 44.5 x 0.5 = 252.25 V. .ne
For using the magnetization curve, the generated e.m.f. at 1200 r.p.m. will be given by
252 25 x
1150
= 263.3 volts. From open circuit characteristic, Fig. 4.55, the field current cor-
t
responding to 263.3 volts is 1.26 A.
The total m.m.f. must be equal to 1.26 x 1000 ATs. This total m.m.f. must be produced by
the combined action of shunt and series windings.
1.26 x 1000 = 1.00 x 1000 + Ns (44.5)
_0 .2 6x _1 0 00 = 58 2
.•. Series field turns 1’ ~ 44.5
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Solution, (a) When the demagnetizing effect is accounted for, then from Eq. (4.27), we get
1.26 x 1000 = 1.0 x 1000 + Ns x 44.5 - 0.0022 x 44.5 x 1000
nr k, 0.3578x 1000 . .
or AT = -----------—— = 8 turns.
s 44.5
(6 ) If there are 10 series field turns, then from Eq. (4.27),
1.26 x 1000 = 1.00 x 1000 + 10 Is - 0.0022 l s x 1000
or i - ...Qffi = 33 3 A
' 0.0078
Out of total armature current of 44.5 A, only 33.3 A should pass through the series field.
This can be achieved by putting a resistor, Fig. 4.50 (b), in parallel with the series field winding.
mu r 4 4 5 X R di
Therefore, 33.3 = 5 -5 ^
OT
ww = 0 l H 3 = 01487
Thus the resistance of the diverter Rdi should be 0.1487 Cl.
w.E
Example 4.26. A 250 V compound generator has armature, series-field and shunt-field
resistances o f 0.4 O, 0.2 Q and 125 Cl respectively. I f this generator supplies 10 kW at rated
asy
voltage, find the e.m.f. generated in the armature when the machine is connected (a) long shunt
(b) short shunt. Ignore armature reaction and allow 1 volt per brush for contact drop.
(c)
En
I f a diverter o f resistance 0.3 Cl is connected in parallel with series-field winding, find the
percentage decrease or increase in series field ampere turns.
Solution. For this example, refer to Fig. 4.14.
gin
eer
Load current, IL = -1^ ° = 40 A
Ic = Il + //r= 42.064 A
“ ^ ^Lr») "*■ ^ 2 x contact drop per brush
= 258 + 42.064 x 0.4 + 2 x 1 = 276.8256 V.
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Art. 4.12]
In a d.c. motor, e.m.f. Ea generated in the armature is called back or counter e.m.f. as ex
plained before.
___
ww
For d.c. motors, the supply voltage is usually constant and the quantities of common inter
est are speed, torque etc. The following are the three important operating characteristics of d.c.
motors.
w.E
(i) Speed-armature current characteristic
asy
(ii) Torque-armature current characteristic and
(iii) Speed-torque characteristic.
En
The object of this article is to describe these operating characteristics for different types of
d.c. motors.
4.12.1.
gin
D.C. Shunt Motor. For constant supply voltage, the field current is constant. At
small values of armature current the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction is almost neg
eer
;;;
ligible and therefore the air gap flux is uneffected. For larger values of armature (or load) cur
rents, the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, decreases the air gap flux slightly.
The speed of a d.c. motor, from Eq. (3.44) is given by
ing
t»m = T7-^7
.ne ...(4.33)
nr. ^
But
••
V. - I r
Ea = V , - l , r ,
t - < 4-34)
Ka §
—
(i) Speed-current characteristic. For constant supply voltage Vt and constant field cur
rent If, the motor speed is affected by l ara drop and demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
With the increase of Ia, the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction increases^hich reduces
the field flux— therefore the motor speed tends to increase. But with the increase of7a, \oltage
droP L ra increases and the numerator (Vt - Iara) decreases— therefore the motor speed tends to
decrease. With the increase of Ia, the numerator decrement is more than the denominator
decrement; in view of this, the speed of d.c. shunt motor with increase of 7„ drops only slightly
from its no-load speed wmo. Since 7„ at no-load is negligibly small, the shunt motor no-load speed
is given by
vt ...(4.35)
w"'° ~ K a Q
(A r t 4.12
430 Electrical Machinery
In case the effect of armature reaction (AR) is neglected, t h e n thedenominator of Eq. (^34)
is constant. As a consequence, speed drops faster with /„. Fig. 4.56 (a) i us
characteristics of a shunt motor with and without AR. The curve mar e spee is
included.
(ii) Torque-current characteristic. The expression Te = Ka * l a reveals that if the flux
0 is constant as in a shunt motor, the torque would increase linear1^ . ^ ^/armature
Ia. However, for larger Ia> the net flux decreases due to the demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction. In view of this, the torque current characteristic deviates rom /Characteristic
as illustrated in Fig. 4.56 (a). In case the effect of AR is neglected, Te versus Ja characteristic
would be a straight line as shown.
/.i_
t S peed, ?
A.R.Neglected y
at
ww 01 T o rque,A R
Neglected
w.E
asy
(a)
En (b)
gin
Fig. 4.56. D.C. shunt motor, (a) speed current and torque-current characteristics and
(6) speed torque characteristics.
(iii)
eer
Speed-torque characteristic. The speed-torque characteristic is also called the
mechanical characteristic and under steady state conditions, it can be obtained as follows.
Kn 0 ing
But
.ne
t
Ka *
Substituting this value of Ia in Eq. (4.34)
1 T .r .
Vt -
Ka $
Vt
r°
= (1) —f
w mo ' a ...(4.36)
It is seen from Eq. (4.36) that w ith increase of T „ the speed drops. Note th a t for larger T„
larger /„ is required and this has the effect of reducing the a ir gap flux 4>, due to saturation and
armature reaction. Since w ith increase of „T*,<is reduced, T,/<^
the speed drops more rapidly w ith the increase of torque in a shunt motor as shown in Fig. 4.56
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A rt4 ,1 2 j______________________________________________________________________________ D.C. Machines 431
If effect of AR is neglected, then [Ka (j))2 in Eq. (4.36) remains constant. As a result, the speed
drop with Tc is slow as shown in Fig. 4.56 (6).
4.12.2. D.C. series motor. For a series motor, the field current is equal to the armature
current.
(i)Speed-current characteristic. If saturation and armaturereaction areneglected,
then main flux 0 isdirectly proportional to armaturecurrent /„. Therefore, itmay e wri en
that $ = CIa, where C is any constant.
N ow +
Ea = Ka <t>com = V, - Ia (ra rs)
vt lg (r° + rs) ...(4.37)
or Wm = Ka <$> Ka <t>
Vt _ (ra + rs) ...(4.38)
or " Ka CIa Ka C
It is seen from Eq. (4.38) that with saturation and armature reaction neglected, the sPeed-
current characteristic of a series motor is a hyperbola, as illustrated by solid line in big. .
(a).
ww .
Let us now investigate the effect of including saturation and armature reaction. At in
...
w.E
creased values of Ia, the flux <)>should increase with Ia, but due to the demagnetizing effect o
armature reaction and saturation, the air gap flux * tends to remain approximately constant.
An examination of Eq. (4.37) reveals that for constant <(>, the term ^
A asy is constant and the term
En
Ig (ra + rs) increases linearly with la. Thus the speed-current characteristic of a series motor, for
At no load, the armature current is very small, because the power input to motor has to
overcome the no load losses only. Thus the voltage drop Ia (ra + rs) at no load, is almost negli eer
gible as compared with Vt and from Eq. (4.37), the no load speed a)m0 is
ing
.ne
V,
Wmo KJSf
Since w
Vt
KaCIa
is inversely proportional to 70, the no load speed of the series motor becomes
t ...(4.39)
dangerously high due to small no load current. In view of this, the series motor must always
start and operate under load mechanically coupled with it.
(ii) T o r characteristic. With saturation and armature reaction neglected,
q u e - c u r r e n t
<\>= CIa
... Te = Kat>Ia
_ k C ll = C j/2 ...(4.40)
En (4 40) shows that the torque is proportional to the square a( l„ and, therefore, torque-
current characteristic is a parabola. But for larger /„, the net flux tends to ren.am approx,mate-
ly constant (as explained in speed-current characteristic^ Consequently he torque-current
characteristic approaches a straight line for larger values of/„, Fig. 4.o7 «■).
[Art. 4.12
■o
01
01
Q.
-Torque
01
D
Q*
Speed
:~ -A _
__ Speed-
( s o l & A ? neglected)
(a) w,
(6)
Fig. 4.57. D.C. series motor (a) speed current and torque-current characteristics and
(b) speed-torque characteristics.
ww
then from Eq. (4.40),
w.E i .y f K
“ V K.C
Substituting this value of Ia, in Eq. (4.38),
a„sy Vt
m <KaCT'
ra + rs
KaC ...(4.41)
En
Thus with negligible saturation and armature reaction, the speed-torque characteristic is
a hyperbola, as shown by solid curve in Fig. 4.57 (fe).
gin
With saturation and armature reaction included, large torques require large currents and
eer
these large currents tend to make air gap flux 0 constant as explained before. This has the effect
of making Te approximately proportional to Ia (i.e. Te = K J a) and in view of this, Eq. (4.37)
becomes,
Vt Te (ra + rs)ing
ka
.ne
ft
Thus, above a certain value of T „ when air-gap flux $ remains approximately constant due
to armature reaction and saturation; speed-torque characteristic approaches a straight line as
illustrated by dotted curve in Fig. 4.57 (6). It is s p e n frnm
speed drop at increased load torques is almost negligible.
JTtu * r sira»gnt line as
a or a series motor, the
t
fhia of c^ U tV v e * und
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With increase in Ia, 0^ increases ; as a consequence, denominator of Eq. (4.42) increases but
its numerator decreases. Thus, with increase in 70, the speed drops at a faster rate in cumula
tive compound motor than in a shunt motor. This fact is indicated in Fig. 4.58 (a) where speed-
current characteristic of cumulative compound motor is shown below the speed-current
characteristic of. a dc shunt motor. Here no-load speed is assumed to be the same. For com
parison purposes, speed-current curve of a dc series motor is also sketched in Fig. 4.58 (a).
ww
w.E (a)
Fig. 4.58. Comparison of (a) speed-current and (b) torque-current characteristics of different dc motors.
asy
(ii) Torque-current characteristic. The electromagnetic torque Te is
Te = Ka $ I a
= Ka (0*/i + En
0«) h ...(4.43)
gin
At no load, Ia = 0, 0SC= 0 and therefore Te = 0. As the armature current Ia rises with load,
shunt field §sh remains almost constant but series field <|>se rises. As a result, motor torque Te
eer
also rises as per Eq. (4.43). Shunt motor produces torque = Ka <j)sfc Ia ; this shows that cumula
ing
tive compound motor developes a torque higher than that developed in a dc shunt motor. This
is shown in Fig. 4.58 (6). For comparison purposes, dc series motor torque-current charac
teristic is also sketched in Fig. 4.58 (6).
(iii) Speed-torque characteristic. From Eq. (4.43)
.ne
*<♦ *+♦ «>
Substitution of this value of Ia in Eq. (4.42) gives
t
Te (ra + rs)
V ,-
K<
, ** + ♦„) Ka (0«a + 0«)
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[Art. 4.12
434 Electrical Machinery
ww
ing of dc motors is limited to about 1.5 times the rated current. Thus, for loads requiring high
starting torque such as for hoists, cranes and traction-type loads, series motors are the most
suited machines.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
<°> . (b)
Fig. 4.59. (a) Speed-current (6) torque-current and
.ne
(C)
In a differential compound motor , series-field flux <f)sc opposes the shunt-field flux <|>h.
Therefore, Eq. (4.42) and (4.44) for this motor become
t
- ^ ~ rs)
" Ka (0rt - <jy .'..(4.45 a)
At the ume of starting differential compound motor, series field dominates the shunt field,
as a result, motor runs in one direction (say anticlockwise) due to the development of motor
r r ^
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torque. Soon after, shunt field dominates series field, so the direction of net field gets reversed
and therefore the motor torque is also reversed. Therefore, now the motor torque is in clockwise
direction. As a consequence, motor speed falls from its anticlockwise direction, speed becomes
zero and eventually motor begins to run in clockwise direction. When the motor passes through
zero speed, armature current Ia = (V./ra) becomes dangerously high and the commutator and
armature winding may get damaged. ‘
It is seen from above that a differential compound motor possesses inherent instability
during starting as well as during running conditions. This motor is, therefore, rarely used in
industry. Through the starting problem can be overcome by short-circuiting the series-field
winding during starting, yet the instability during running conditions cannot be avoided.
Example 4.27. A 230-V, d.c. shunt motor, takes an armature current o f 3.33 A at rated
voltage and at a no-load speed o f 1000 r.p.m. The resistances o f the armature circuit and field
circuit are respectively 0.3 ft and 160 ft. The line current at full load and rated voltage is 40 A.
Calculate, at full load, the speed and the developed torque in case the armature reaction weakens
the no-load flux by 4%.
ww
Solution. At no load, the counter e.m.f. is
£«i = V , - / o lra •
loU
= 1.44 A.
At full load,
asy
Ia2 = IL - I f = 4 0 - 1.44 = 38.56 A.
.-. Counter e.m.f. at full load is
En
Ea2 = 230 - 38.56 x 0.3 = 218.43 volts.
At full load, the field flux is
<(>2= 0.96 <)>! (given).
gin
The counter e.m.f. Ea is given by
eer
.
Ea ~ Ea 0 0)m
Eai _ Ka 0)ml _ <t)t n x ing
E 02 Ka 4>2 C0m2 02 n2
.ne
or
n2 = 993.6 r.p.m.
t
At full load, Ea2 = Ka <|>2 com
„ . 2 18 .4 3x 60
or *•** = 2**995
/
.\ Electromagnetic, or developed, torque at full load, Te = Ka §?Ia2
218.43 x 60
x 38.56 = 80.95 Nm.
2tt x 995
Exam ple 4.28. A 220-V d c shunt motor has an armature circuit resistance o f 0.2 Q and field
resistance o f 110 ft. A t no load the motor takes 5 A and runs at 1500 r.p.m. I f the motor draws
52 A at rated voltage and rated load, calculate the motor speed and its rated shaft torque Nm. in
The rotational losses at no load and full load are the same. Neglect armature reaction.
ww
.
Ea2
Eg\ _ n \4>i
n2 4*2
nr
Shaft power,
w.E _ _
2~ ♦,
. . ^ 2 (1500) (210) ____
219.4 =1435rpm
Psh = Electromagnetic power - Rotational losses
.‘.S h a ft torque ^
En
=f f = 6 5 . 4 NB.
gin
_ ® *amP*e 4*29. A d.c. shunt machine has total armature circuit resistance o f 0 4 Q. and
fudd-circuitresistance o f2 0 0 Cl. Its open-circuit voltage at 1500 r.p.m. is 230 V fo r a field current
o f 1.1 A and 210 V for a field current o f 0.9 A.
eer
I f thismachine is made to run as a d.c. shunt motor from 230 V supply mains at its full-load
armature current o f 24 A and at 1500 r.p.m.. find the external
in the field circuit. Neglect armature reaction. ing inserted
f F° r
at full load is given by F .ne
d C ShUnt m° t0r’ the C0Unter or &enerated e.m.f. Ea at 1500 r.p m and
For a terminal voltage of 230 V across shunt field winding, a field current of 1.004 A re
quires a total shunt field resistance o f— 0- = 29 Q nfta n
1.004 “ •
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pole is 0.02 Wb. Armature reaction is neglected. I f the motor draws 14 A from the mains, then
compute
(a) speed and the internal (total or gross) torque developed,
(b) the shaft power, shaft torque and efficiency with rotational losses equal to 300 watts.
Solution. P = 4, Z = 500, ra = 0.25 Cl,
7 = 1 2 5 0 = 0.02 Wb.
or
ww 247 =
0.02 x 500 x n x 4
247.0 x 2 247
w.E
Electromagnetic power
n=
10 x 4 20
r.p.s. = 741 r.p.m.
asy
Pe =EJa= 247 x 12 = 2964 watts.
(Dm 2n X 741
En
Internal torque developed = — = ^ 64 x 60 = 38.30 Nm.
gin
P»h - P t ~ Rotational losses = 2964 - 300 = 2664 watts.
P,h 2664 x 60
eer
Shaft torque = 34.4 Nm.
<om 2n x 741
_ Output at the shaft
Efficiency
Power input
ing
2664 = 0.762 = 76.2%.
250 x 14
Exam ple 4.31. A fan has the following speed-power characteristics: .ne
Speed., r.p.m.
Input, kW
700
4.5
800
8.5
900
14.00
1000
21.1
1100
30.00
t 1200
40.75
This fan is driven by a 4-pole, 230 Vd.c. shunt motor having an armature winding with two
parallel paths and 600 conductors. The flux p er pole is 0.01 Wb and the armature circuit resis
tance is 0.25 £1 The no load rotational losses are 500 watts. Find the shaft pow er output, operat
ing speed, armature current and motor efficiency.
Solution. The e.m.f. generated in the armature of d.c. motor is
is in r.p.m.
' • - i f ' -
Counter e.m.f.
Now Vt = Ea + I a ra
r
a r
(ArU 4.12
438 Electrical Machinery
kW
Molor
50 charoct.
40
30
Operating
point
20
10
w.E 2 3 0 - 0.2 n
Fig. 4.60. Pertaining to Example 4.28.
0.25
.*. Shaft power output in watts, asy
= (920 - 0.8 n) Amp.
p .k = Ea Ia - Rotational losses
En
= (0.2 n) (920 - 0.8 n) - 500
= 184n - 0.16 n - 500
gin
or ' ~~Psh = (0.184 n - 1.6 x 10" 4 n - 0.5) kW.
eer
For different speeds, the shaft power output Psh of the motor is calculated in tabular form
as follows :
ing
n, r.p.m.
P »k W
700
49.1
800
44.3
900
33.5
1000
8.3
The shaft power output versus speed of the motor are plotted on the graph in Fig. 4.60. On
the same graph is plotted the power input versus speed characteristic of the fan. The intersec
t
tion of these two curves gives the required operating point, from which it is found that the
operating speed is 1012 r.p.m. and power output of the motor or power input to the fan is 22
kW.
Armature current is Ia = (920 - 0.8 n) = (920 - 0.8 x 1012)
= 110.4 A.
Armature l\ ra loss = (110.4)2 x 0.25 = 3050 watts.
.% Power input = Power output loss + Rotational losses + i l r,
= 22000 + 500 + 3050 = 25,550 watts.
Motor efficiency
= t i i x l 0 0 = 86-2%-
Example 4.32. A 230-V d.c. series motor has an armature circuit resistance o f 0.2 O. and
field resistance o f 0.1 Q. A t rated voltage, the m otor draws a line current o f 40 amps and runs at
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a speed o f 1000 r.p.m. Find the speed o f the motor for a line current o f 20 A at 230 V. Assume
that the flux at 20 A line current is 60% o f the flux at 40 A line current.
Solution. For 40 A line current,
Ea\ = V t - I a (ra + r„)
= 2 3 0 - 4 0 (0.2+ 0.1) = 218 V.
For a line current of 20 A, Ea2 = 230 - 20 (0.3) = 224 volts.
Now flux at 20 A, i.e. = 0.6 times the flux at 40 A
i.e. 02 = 0.6
or
ww n2~ 2
1000 x 224
Oi1q
8xw0n.6C = 1713 r.p.m.
Exam ple 4.33. A 15 kW, 230 V, 80 A, 1000 r.p.m. d.c. series motor has the following full
w.E
load losses expressed in percentage o f motor in pu t:
Armature circuit ohmic loss (including brush loss) = 2.8%
Field ohmic loss = 2.6%.
Rotational loss = 2.2%. asy
En
Neglect the armature reaction and magnetic saturation and assume the rotational loss to
remain constant.
gin
I f the motor draws h alf the rated current at rated voltage, determine
(a) speed in r.p.m. and
(b) shaft power output.
Solution. Full load input eer
= 230 x 80 = 18400 watts.
or
>—
' ■■■■Vyv-* K_/ J ill >—
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ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
Fig. 4.61. Pertaining to Example 4.34.
At rated load,
250
= 160 A
.% K = 222
(160)2
Also,
Ea = K 2<bn=K2Ian
K ~ 218
2 '(i6 0 H 1 5 0 0 )= 0 0 0 0 9 °8-
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D .C . M achines 4 41
Art. * -12l
Note that the values of constants K x and K2 are obtained from rated conditions.
The armature current at any speed is
~ Eg _ 250 - K2lan
r„ ~ 0.2
= 1250 - 5 (0.000908) Ian
= 1250 - 0.00454 Ian
1250
or
/q 1 + 0.00454n
222 (1250)
. . 13530
Te = K xl 2
a=
(160)2 (1 + 0.00454n)2 (1 + 0.00454n)2
The above expression gives the speed-torque characteristic of the series motor.
The various points in the series-motor characteristic are tabulated below and then plotted
ww
in Fig. 4.61.
T,. Nm
w.E
250 234 221 209 197.8 186.8 177.8
asy
Speed-torque characteristic of the load, obtained from expression TL = 5>//T, is tabulated
below and then plotted in Fig. 4.61.
gin
196.5 200
The intersection of the series motor and load characteristics, gives the operating point, from
203 206
eer
which it is seen that the operating speed of the motor and load is 1591 r.p.m. and the torque is
ing
199.5 Nm.
(6) Current drawn from the source
r _________ 1250_______ _ iei o *
a 1 + 0.00454x 1591 ' '
.ne
Exam ple 4.35. A 15 kW, 230 V, d.c. shunt motor has the following data for its m agnetiza
tion curve at 1500 r.p.m.
1/. amp 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.02 1.15 1.32 1.56
t
1.92 2.40
The armature circuit resistance is 0.2 fl and the shunt field has 1000 turns per pole. A t rated
voltage and no load, the armature current is 4 A and the speed is 1500 r.p.m. For an armature
current o f 70 A, the speed is reduced to 1200 r.p.m. by providing series field turns. For long-shunt
connection, compute the number o f these series field turns. Neglect armature reaction and a s
sume the resistance o f the series field winding to be 0.1 fl.
Solution. At no load,
Ea = Vt - Iara = 230 - 4 x 0.2 = 229.2 V.
The field current required for 229.2 V, from O.C.C., Fig. 4.62, is 1.23 A.
At load, Ea = V ,~ l a (ra + rt) = 230 - 70 x 0.3
= 209 V at 1200 r.p.m.
[Art. 4.12
442 Electrical Machinery
ww
w.E 0*30 0*60 0*90 1*50 1-80 2-40
asy If in Amp.
Fig. 4.62. Pertaining to Example 4.32 and 4.33.
.ne
70
Exam ple 4.36. D C . shunt machine o f this example, has the same m agnetization curve ai
1500 r.p.m. as that given in Example 4.32.
The armature circuit resistance (including brushes) is 0.2 Q and shunt field has 2000 turm
per pole. The shunt motor speed, both at no load and rated load is 1500 r.p.m. The motor arma
ture current at rated load is 36 A.
t
<0,/ i r , a o ° i n v d SpMd °J, r p m -d etermme the »*“ >»« current o f the m otor when
connected to 230 V mams. Neglect armature circuit resistance drop and armature reaction at
no-load.
ib) Determine the effective armature reaction at full load in am pere turns p er pole
(<O A t rated voltage and at rated armature current o f 36 A the speed is to be reduced to 1350
r.p.m. by providing the shunt m otorwUh series field winding. Calculate the required number of
Z m ^ n d ld .™ sen es field resistance to be 0.05 H a n d the m
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A fl 4^ 2] D .C . M achines 443
Solution, (a) At no load, Ea = V ,= 230 V, as it is given that armature circuit resistance drop
is neglected.
Therefore, constant shunt field current lf , from O.C.C. of Fig. 4.62 is 1.23 A corresponding
to Ea = 230 V.
(6) At full load, Ia = 36 A.
Ea = 230 - 3G x 0.2 = 222.8 volts.
In Fig. 4.62, point A is plotted with Ea = 222.8 V and If = 1.23 amp. The horizontal distance
between point A and the magnetization curve, gives the effective armature reaction in terms of
shunt field current. Its value is 0.06 A.
Armature reaction in ampere-turns per pole
= 0.06 x 2000 = 120
(c) At rated load, with series field winding in circuit,
ww
Ea = 230 - 36 (0.2 + 0.05) = 221 V at 1350 rpm
w.E
From Fig. 4.62, Ea = 245.5 V requires If = 1.365 A. From Eq. (4.27),
1.365 x 2000 = 1.23 x 2000 + N s (36) - 120
asy
65
Series field turns, N s = — = 11 turns per pole.
b
En
(d ) If series field winding has 20 turns, then net field m.m.f. from Eq. (4.27) is
(1.23 x 2000 + 20 x 36 - 120) ATs.
gin
The net field m.m.f. in terms of the equivalent shunt field amperes is
lf ~
1.23 x 2000 -h 20 x 36 - 120
2000 eer
= 1.23 + 0 .3 6 - 0 .0 6 = 1.53 A.
ing
From Fig. 4.62, the value of Ea corresponding to If = 1.53 A is 258 V at 1500 r.p.m. But
counter e.m.f. Ea corresponding to rated voltage and rated current is 230 - 36 (0.2 + 0.05) = 221
.ne
volts. Therefore, the motor speed n corresponding to Ea = 221 V is
221
258
_ n
1500
t
or n = | | | x 1500 = 1285 r.p.m.
But Ea = Ka ^ o)m
264 x 60 _ 264
a ^ ~ 2n x-4500 50n
264
Starting torque, Test = K a $ I a = n x 50 = 89 Nm.
Exam ple 4.37. A 230 V, 250 rpm, 100 A separately-excited dc m otor has an armature resis
tance o f 0.5 £1 The motor is connected to 230 V d c supply and rated dc voltage applied to the field
winding. It is driving a load whose torque-speed characteristic is given by TL = 500 - 10 ^
where co is the rotational speed expressed in rad/sec and T f is the load torque in Nm. Find the
steady state speed at which the motor will drive the load and the arm ature current drawn by it
from the source. Neglect the rotational losses o f the machine. [GATE, 2002 j
Solution. At rated load, motor counter e.m.f., Ea = V ,~ Iara
or K m cor = 230 - 100 x 0.5 = 180 V
where <or = rated motor speed in rad/sec
ww 0.5
w.E
.•. Motor torque, T' = K n l a = f ± [ 2 3 0 - K m ml
or
Km
asy
— [230 - Km co] = 500 - 10 co
or 230 180 x 60
En
f 180 x 60 1
•co = 500 - 10 co
or
0.5 " 2ti x 250 “ 0.5 2ti x 250
3162.73 - 94.545 co = 500 - 10 co
gin
or
84.545
eer
co = 3162.73 - 500 = 31.495 rad/sec
.'. Speed 3 1 .4 9 5 x 6 0
2 tt
= 300.75 rpm
ing
From Eq. (i), armature current is
/ =— oon 1 8 0 x 6 0 .ne
4.13. D.C. Motor Starting
° 0.5
2 o 0 ——
2 t i x 250
x 31 = 26.913 A.
At the time of starting, the motor speed is zero, therefore counter Pmf j? v
t
>. • ,
zero. Consequently, for the armature circuit the voltagp f • • tz ° ° (°m^1S 3 0
motor and Vt = 0 + / (r + r ) for both ls V ‘ = 0 + ^ for shunt
i . ( « + r.) tor both series and compound motors. With rated applied voltage
the starting armature current is, therefore, ^ for shunt motor and J * for both 3eries and
<«•> damage to the armature winding and deterioration of the insulation due to overheating.
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Art- 4.131
D.C. M achines 445
th0 motOT and the\oad°and° nnd qUiCk accclcratio" - whi<* may damage the rotating parts of
(iv) large dips in the supply voltage.
In view of this, the armature current must be limited to a value that can be commutated
safe y, y mser ing a suitable external resistance in the armature circuit. As the motor ac
celerates, coun er e.m. . Eu is generated in the armature and this decreases the armature cur
rent to a sma 1 value. Thus the external resistance inserted in the armature circuit should be
gradually decreased, as the armature accelerates. If this additional resistance inserted is left
in the armature circuit, it would result in
(i) reduced operating speed of the motor and
(it) additional energy loss and, therefore, reduced efficiency.
A precaution should be observed while starting shunt and compound motors. In these
motors, at the time of starting the field excitation should be maximum, because of the two
reasons given below :
ww
(i) A large field current would result in low operating speed. Consequently the time re
quired from standstill to this low speed is less and, therefore, there is less heating of the arma
ture during starting.
w.E
(ii) Motor torque required to overcome the friction and load torque is proportional to the
asy
product of If and Ia. Since lf is kept at its maximum permissible value, the armature current
during starting would be minimum for a given load torque. This minimum starting current
En
would further result in improved commutation during motor and load acceleration. Thus the
rheostat, in series with the shunt field winding, should be at zero resistance position at the time
gin
of starting the d.c. shunt and compound motors. In case of small d.c. motors, no starting resis
tance in the armature circuit may be required.
4.13.1.
eer
Shunt and compound motor starters. The primary function of a starter is to
limit the starting current in the armature circuit during starting
and accelerating time of the motor. The simplest type of starter con
ing
sists of a rheostat inserted in series with the armature circuit as
shown in'Fig. 4.63. The simple starter is however modified to in
clude a few protective devices, such as overcurrent release, no-volt
release etc. There are two standard types of starters for shunt and .ne
compound motors. These are, three-point starter and four-point
starter. The four-point starter is used when wide range of speed by
shunt field control is required. When no (or a little) speed control
t
Fig. 4.63. Starting rheostat in
is required, either type of starter may be employed. the armature circuit of a d.c.
shunt motor.
Three-point starter. A three point starter, with its electrical
connections and protective features is illustrated in Fig. 4.64, within the dotted lines. The
starter is shown connected to the supply mains and d.c. shunt motor. Since only three terminals
(L, A, F) are available from the starter, it is called a three-point starter. The starter terminals
L (line), A (armature) and F (field) must be connected respectively to the supply terminal (posi
tive or negative), motor armature terminal (any of the two armature terminals) and shunt field
terminal (any of the two field terminals).
When the motor is at rest, starter handle H is kept in the off position by a strong spiral
spring. One stud marked “OFF” in Fig. 4.64 indicates that motor is disconnected from the sup
ply. The starting resistance is connected between contact studs 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . 6 . For starting the
motor, the handle is rotated to come in contact with stud 1. As soon as handle H touches stud
1, the’shunt field and holding coil HC get connected in series across the supply, whereas the
armature gets connected in scries with the entire starting resistance. Since the current begins
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[Art. 4.13
4 46 Electrical Machinery
ww
HC is also called no-volt release or low-voltage
release and has the following functions.
w.E
(i) In case of power failure, electromagnet
HC gets demagnetized and the spiral spring
brings the handle back to its OFF position. If, Fig. 4.64. Three-point starter connected
asy
to a shunt motor.
during the power failure, the handle fails to
return to OFF position, the motor might be damaged in case the power is restored— because
En
then there would be no starting resistance in the armature circuit.
(ii) If the shunt field becomes open circuited accidently, H C gets demagnetized and the
gin
starter handle is returned by spring pull to the OFF position. In case the starter handle is not
released, the speed starts increasing with the decaying of the field flux. The small residual flux
eer
will result in dangerously high speeds. At the same time for providing a given load torque, the
armature current, starts increasing and in case the fuse or circuit breaker does not disconnect
ing
the motor from d.c. supply mains, the armature may get damaged.
(iii) With this arrangement, the starting resistance in the armature circuit can either be
.ne
zero or full. The handle can’t be left on any intermediate stud willingly or unwillingly.
An examination of Fig. 4 . 6 4 reveals that under running conditions, the field winding hold
H
C
ing coil
t
and the starting resistance are in series. Since the starting resistance is’mu
smaller in comparison with shunt field resistance, its effect on the shunt field current is negli-
gib e. But the starting resistance does influence field circuit, at the time of switching off the
w h h ih T m mT V S ^ c o n n e c te d from‘ he suPP*y the field circuit comes in series
with the holding coil, starting resistance and armature circuit. The field energy stored in the
shunt field thus gets discharged in this local series circuit, as the handle returns to the OFF
position. During the time the starter handle travels from ON position to stud 1, most of the field
energy stored ,s dissipated. Consequently, when the starter handle leaves stud 1 there is no
danger of high voltage induced in the field winding and of excessive sparking at stud 1
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.1
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operate, can be adjusted merely by varying the distance between the electromagnet and mov
able soft iron M.
D isadvantages. In case of a three-point starter, the field circuit and the hold coil are in
series. If speeds above the normal are to be obtained, the field current must be reduced. At a
certain value of reduced field current (therefore, increased motor speed), the electromagnetic
pull of the holding coil may become less than the spring force. In such a case, the starter handle
returns to the OFF position and the motor stops. Thus a three-point starter can’t be used where
wide range of speed control, by shunt field control (or field weakening method) is required. This
undesirable feature can be overcome in four-point starters.
F our-point starter. As the name suggests, four terminals (L, L, F, A ) are available from
this starter. In Fig. 4.65, a four-point starter is
shown connected to d.c. supply mains and a d.c.
shunt motor. Under normal running conditions
with starter handle in the ON position, the hold
ing coil HC is in series with the starting resis
ww
tance and an additional resistance R as shown in
Fig. 4.65. The function of resistance R is to
prevent short circuit of the supply mains, in case
w.E
the overload release OR operates. When HC gets
short circuited by OR, the current through R is
asy
limited by its own resistance and the starting
resistance.
En
The other components of the four-point
starter are the same as in a three-point starter.
The shunt field winding in series with the start
gin
ing resistance, now permits wide speed control Supply
by field rheostats inserted in the field circuit.
Note that four-point starter permits the change
of field current by field rheostat, without effect eer
Fig. 4.65. Four-point starter connected to
ing the holding coil current. Therefore, the pull of
the holding magnet is unaffected and remains ing a shunt motor.
.ne
more than the spring pull for any value of speed. In view of this, four-point starters are more
popular with speed controlled motors. When little or no speed control is desired, either three-
or four-point starter may be used.
t
‘ 4.13.2. Series m otor starters. In series motors also, a starting resistance is inserted in
series with the armature, for limiting the starting current to a safe value. As usual, thi£ start
ing resistance is cut out gradually as the motor accelerates. Fig. 4.66 (a) illustrates k series
motor starter used in applications, where the removal of load is remote. Holding coil in series
with protective resistance R, acts as no-volt release, like the no-volt release of three-point or
four-point starter. In view of this, starter of Fig. 4.66 (a) is referred to as the no-volt release
type o f starter.
In case there is a possibility of removal of or reduction in load, starter illustrated in Fig.
4.66 (b) may be used. In this, the load current passes through the series field, armature and
holding coil. The holding coil consists of a few turns which are capable of carrying the load
current In case of removal of load or reduction in load below a safe value, the line current
flowing through the holding coil is reduced. This* reduced value of current decreases the
strength of the holding magnet and the spring pull \brings the starter handle to OFF position.
This type of starter is, therefore, referred to as the rio-load release type o f starter.
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448 Electrical M achinery (Art. 4.13
ww
w.E . , - . W .w cu . o c a s c
Note. A d.c. motor should not be stopped by forcing the starter handle to the OFF position
asy
If it is done, then dangerous sparking is caused at stud 1, because here the field circuit is broken
and the entire stored magnetic field energy is dissipated in the form of heavy spark.
En
Autom atic Starters. Push-button type of automatic starters are used quite often in in-
ustry. Even an inexperienced operator, with the help of auto-starters, can start and stop the
gin
motor without any difficulty. y
The operation of these automatic starters depends upon, either the time delay or the
eer
counter e.m.f. developed across the armature terminals. Here only the basic principles of the
counter e.m.f., automatic starter are presented.
ing
C ounter e.m .f. starter. When the motor is_ switched on, the counter e.m.f. developed
across the armature terminals is zero. Contactors 1 and 1 are normally open and there
fore, resistances and R2 are in series with the armature at the time of starting. As the motor
.ne
v X e t A ^ V o C - s en” uivn eCreaSeS- ^
relay A, it operates and closes the
normally open contact 1 A, thus
cutting out the starting resis
t
*» the operating
* A contactor is a heavy duty relay designed to open or close nn electrical power circuit.
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The disadvantage of counter e.m.f. automatic starter is that if the motor fails to start, the
counter e.m.f. remains zero, the voltage-sensitive relays can’t operate and as a result of it, the —
starting resistance may burn. Such occurrences can be avoided by employing definite time-limit
starters but this will not be described here.
D.C. Sh un t m otor starter design. Starting resistances between the various studs of a
shunt motor starter, should be graded and not made equal. This grading of starting resistances
is essential in order to avoid the abnormal rush of armature current on the last few steps,
particularly on the last stud.
During the starting process, as the starting resistance elements are cut out manually or
automatically, the maximum armature current 70j should be such that it can be commutated
satisfactorily by the brushes and commutator. At the same time, the minimum armature cur
rent Ia2 should be able to develop electromagnetic torque Te sufficient to accelerate the load
torque TL. In other words, the armature current during starting process is taken to fluctuate
between fixed limits / ol and Ia2. The armature reaction and the armature inductance are
ww
neglected during the motor starter design.
Fig. 4.68 illustrates a d.c. shunt motor with n resistance elements or (n + 1) studs. There
w.E
fore, this starter is called n-section, n-element, n-step or (n + 1) stud starter. The “off” stud has
not been included in n + 1 studs. Note that resistance R 1 = + r2 + r3 + ... ■+ rn + ra ;
R2 = r2 + r3 + ... + rn + ra and so on and Rn + i = ra, armature circuit resistance (including brushes).
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Fig. 4.68. Pertaining to d.c. shunt motor starter. Studs are
numbered 1, 2, 3 n + 1 for n resistance elements.
t
At the instant the motor is switched on, the total armature circuit resistance R x should be
equal to
____________ Terminal voltage______________ Vj_
1 ~ Maximum permissible armature current " Ial
= rl + r 2 + r3 + ... + rn + ra ...(4.46)
With the handle on stud 1, the motor accelerates, counter e.m.f. develops and as a result of
the armature current starts decreasing from Ial. When the current has dropped to minimum
current Ia2, then the counter e.m.f., with the handle on stud 1, is given by,
Eai = Vt - Ia2R\
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[Art 4.13
450 Electrical Machinery
At stud 1, as soon as the current drops to I a2, the resistance r x is cut out by moving the
handle to stud 2. During the notch in g-u p p rocess (process of cutting out Resistance) from stud
1 to stud 2, the speed and, therefore EaX («= (om<t>) do not change. a ,J i is cu
out, the current shoots up again to IaX. Therefore,
V, - EaX
R 2 - — j
1a\
= r2 + r3+ ... + rn + ra ...(4.48)
w.E
It is seen froih Eq. (4.49) that the ratio of minimum and maximum armature currents is
equal to the ratio of total resistances on two adjacent studs.
If ^
R i'R o R,
asy
are multiplied with each other, then from Eq. (4.49)
R n -f
En
Rn R 3 R a 1
“ =T
riiT x T or x K'
T rk x R n- 1 R r
R 71+1
Ri Rl gin
a=
-.1/71
eer ...(4.50)
hi Rl
ing
If rQ, R x and the ratio a are known, then the number of resistance elements n can be ob
tained.
The magnitude of various resistance elements rlf r2, r3 .ne
rn_ lf rn ; can be obtained as fol
lows :
From Eq. (4.49); i?2 = i?i a ;
R3 = R 2 a = R x a2 ;
rl ~ R\~ R 2 = i?i (1 —Ot)
r2 = R 2 —R 3 = R 2 (1 —a)
t ...(4.51)
= a R x (1 - a) = a r x ...(4.52)
= R 3 a = R 2 a 2 = R xa 3
r3 = R z~ R i = R$ (1 - a)
= R\ (1 - a) a 2 = a V j = ar2 ...(4.53)
Similarly,
rn - l = a rl = a ’ rn-2
rn = a " " 1 r x = a •rn - 1 ...(4.54)
Usually the maximum armature current Ial on each stud is limited by commutation considera
tions. I f /ol is known, as is usually the case, then it can be included in Eq. (4.50) ns follows :
\l/n vl/n \l/n
(I.ai ‘ ra hl^a
a =
h iR i V,
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l/n
Max. permissible armature current x ra
Vt
l/n
a = Voltage across armature at starting (4 5 5 )
or
Applied voltage V,
If minimum armature current Ia2 is specified, then Ia2 can be included in Eq. (4.50) as
follows :
l/n l/n
a= ( V k l (ra Ial)
V,
v y V
a2
ww
a=
Vt a
w.E
or Ct= ^ / a2
l/n + 1
rc/a2
asy
a= ...(4.56)
v.
If upper (/al) and lower (I a2) limits of armature current are known during starting, then the
design of shunt motor starter can be carried out as under :
(i) Compute from Eq. (4.46). En
gin
(ii) From Eq. (4.50), compute the number of steps n choosing the nearest whole number.
(iii) Now use Eq. (4.54) for computing the magnitude of various resistance elements r1( r2,
etc.
eer
The design of d.c. series-motor starter, being somewhat more involved, is not dealt with in
this book.
ing
Exam ple 4.38. In a 230 V, 10 kW d.c. shunt motor, it is required that the starting armature
current should not exceed twice its rated armature current. During the starting o f the motor, the
starting resistance is cut out in steps, as soon as the armature current drops to its rated value. .ne
The field resistance is 115 ft and the total armature circuit resistance is 0.348 ft. Neglect arm a
ture inductance.
(a) Find the external resistance required at the time o f starting the motor.
t
(h) Determine the value o f the first resistance element that must be cut out, when the arma
ture current drops to rated value.
(c) Find the external resistance to be cut out in the second step.
(d) Find the total number o f steps required and their resistance values.
230
Solution. Constant shunt field current = = 2 A.
110
230
- 0.348 = 2.432 fi.
2 x 4 1 .4
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[A rt 4.13
452 Electrical M a c h i n e r y --------------------------------------------- ------ ------------------------------------------
, A i. j at Rtud 1. then the counter e.m.f. is
(b) When the armature current drops to rated current, >
Eal = Vt - 41.4 (external resistance at stud 1 + ra)
= 230 - 41.4 (2.432 + 0.348) = 114 9 V.
At the instant the handle is moved to stud 2. armature current shoots up to 2 (41.4) A, but
the counter e.m.f. remains at 114.9 volts.
Therefore, at the second stud,
Vi Z E2 i _ 2 3 0 ^ U 4 19 = 1 3 9 n
r2 + r3+ . . . + rf, + ra - 2 x 4 1 4 - g2 g
is
ww E a2 = vt- 41.4 (r2 + r3 + ... + r„ + ra)
gin
r2 = 1 .3 9 -0 .6 9 5 = 0.695 fl.
id) At third stud, when armature current falls to 41.4 A, then
eer
Ea3= V ,- 4 1 .4 (r3 + ... + r n + ra)
ing
= 230 - 41.4 (0.695) = 201.15 V.
When the handle is moved to 4th stud, then
r4 + ... + rn + r„
Vt - EaZ
2 x 41 4
28.85
g2 g
n
0.348 fl ra. .ne
Therefore, when the handle is moved to fourth stud, the armature resistance ra = 0.348 O,
is sufficient to limit the current to 82.8 A.
Since there are four studs, three resistance elements are required. The resistance of the
t
third elements is
= 0.695 - rfl = 0.347 fl.
Thus the resistance of the three steps or elements r l t r2, r 3 are respectively 1.39 fl,
0.695 fl, 0.347 fl.
Exam ple 4.39. A 240 V, 50 A, 1500 r.p.m. d.c. shunt motor has an armature resistance of
0.2 fl. For this example, shunt field current is neglected.
(а) For a four step starter (four resistance elements and five studs), calculate the values of
the various steps, with armature current not exceeding 1.40 p.u.
(б) I f counter e.m.f. starter is employed, find the voltages at which the contactors should
close.
(c) Sketch the approximate variations o f armature current and speed, during the a c c e le r a t
ing process o f the motor.
.J
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ww
From Eq. (4.51) ; r1 = R 1 ( 1 - a)
= 0.714 (0.508) = 0.363 p.u. or 1.742 £1.
w.E
From Eq. (4 .5 2 ); r2 = a r l
= 0.492 (0.363) = 0.1788 p.u. or 0.858 £1.
asy
Similarly r3 = ar2
= 0.492 (0.1788) = 0.089 p.u. or 0.427 £1.
and r4 = a r3
En
= 0.492 (0.089) = 0.0438 p.u. or 0.210 £1.
(6) a _ 12*2. = ^
i/ n a x ia l gin
= 0.492
or
Ia2 = 0.492 x 1.4 = 0.689 p.u.
l a2 = 34.45 A. eer
ing
Let the time be reckoned from the instant the motor is switched on. At stud 1, suppose the
armature current drops to l a2 = 0.689 p.u. after time £j. Then the counter e.m.f. at is
E al = Vt - I a2R l = l - 0.689 x 0.714 = 0.508 p.u.
.ne
Voltage across the armature terminals at instant t l is
V * ! = E al + Ia2 ra = 0.508 + 0.689 x 0.0417
t
= 0.537 p.u. or 129.00 volts.
Ea2= V , ~
= 1 00 - 0.689 (0.714 - 0.363) = 0.758 p.u.
,. V ^ E ^ l ^ a = 0*758 + 0.02870
= 0.787 p.u. or 187.2 volts.
At stud 3, when the current reduces to I a2 after time £3, the counter e.m.f. is
E a3 = V t - / a2# 3 = v t ~ 4 2 ( ^ 2 “ r 2)
= 1.00 - 0.689 (0.351 - 0.179) = 0.881
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[A rt. 4.14
454 Electrical Machinery
.-. =
= = 0.531 p.u. = 796 r.p.m.
'a 0.958
ww
Similarly n2 =
0.758
0.958
= 0.792 p.u. = 1189 r.p.m.
w.En, =
0.881
0.958
0.9428
- 0.92 p.u. = 1380 r.p.m.
and «4 =
0.958
asy
= 0.984 p.u. = 1477 r.p.m.
En
Te oc Ia for constant flux motor) and speed, with respect to time are shown in Fig. 4.69.
gin 1477
' J500
^ _
eer
1380
1189
1
1
1
ing /
/ 1
*
1
1
l
1
796 1
1 .ne
l
1
L
/
/
/ 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
t
t
J -----1---------
0 *1 \ *3 *4 TIME
(6)
Fig. 4.69. Variation of (a) armature current and (6) speed ;
with respect to the starting time o f a d.c. shunt motor o f Example 4.36.
4.14. Speed Control of D.C. Motors
The term ‘speed control’ stands for intentional speed variation, carried out manually or
automatically. Natural speed change due to load, is not included in the term ‘speed control’.
D.C. motors are most suitable for wide range speed control and are, therefore, indispen
sable for many adjustable speed drives.
The speed of a d.c. motor is given by Eq. (4.34) and it is re-written here for convenience, i.e.
V t-Ija
- < 4 -34>
PZ
where armature constant K a = 7^ - and 0 is the field flux per pole.
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It follows from Eq. (4.34) that for a d.c. motor, there are basically three methods of speed
control and these are :
(i) Variation of resistance in the armature circuit,
Hi) Variation of the field flux, and
(iii) Variation of the armature terminal voltage.
Before describing these methods, it is preferable to define the terms base speed, speed
regulation, speed range, constant power drive and constant torque drive.
Base Speed . It is defined as the speed at which a motor runs at rated armature voltage
and rated field current. Base speed is equal to the rated speed or nameplate speed of the motor.
Speed regulation. If the speed-change from no load to full load is Aa)m then speed regula
tion is defined as the ratio of Aiom to rated speed (or base speed) (om.
ww
Speed range. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum allowable speed to minimum al
lowable speed of the motor. When the speed range of a motor is specified, it must be mentioned
w.E
whether this speed range is at no-load, full load or a fraction of full load.
Constant power drive. If the motor shaft power (shaft torque x speed) remains constant
over a given speed range, the system is called a constant power drive. Note that in constant
asy
power drive, higher torques are available at lower speeds and lower torques at higher speeds.
The motor size is always decided by the highest torque requirement at the lowest speed.
En
Constant torque drive. If the motor shaft torque remains constant over a given speed
range, the system is called a constant torque drive. Note that in constant torque drive, shaft
power varies as the speed varies.
4.14.1. gin
Speed control by varying the armature-circuit resistance. This method is
eer
also called armature-circuit-resistance control method. In this method, an external resistance
is inserted in series with the armature circuit to obtain speeds below the base speed only.
ing
Shunt motor. The scheme of connections of a shunt motor is illustrated in Fig. 4.70 (a),
where resistor Rg, called a controller, is put in series with the armature circuit. Note the dif
.ne
ference between a starter and a controller, the former is designed to carry current only for a
short time, whereas a controller can carry current for an indefinite time, without getting exces
sively hot.
When R is not present, then the armature current Zol, from Eq. (4.34) is
Vj —Ka if) o)mi
t
lal = ~
ra
When R is inserted in the armature circuit and if it is assumed that there is no change in
speed for the time being, then
/ Vf ~ Zfa<(xomi __ T ra
al ra + Rg ol ro + Rg
T k fipld flux <t>remains unchanged, therefore, with the reduction of armature
c u ^ n L t , toraue T, ,= * * / . ) decreases from t o * ^ ,.S i n c e
T. has become less than constant load torque, the ^ e ^ d ^ r e a s ^ c o u n t e r (or back) e.m.f. also
increases till it becomes
decreases. As a result of it, armature current Ia -■ -nerc
again. ww
equal to its initial value Ial, so that the initial electromagnetic torque Ka Ial is developed
asy
When new steady state condition is reached, with Rg in the armature circuit, then
m2
_ V
KA En
I ~ I q l (ro + _ Ea2
Ka§
Eal
gin
“ m2 _ n 2 _ ^ a 2 _ ^ t ~ I a l ( r a + R g )
...(4.58)
eer
“ ml ^1 £ ol Vt ~ I a l ra
Eq. (4.58) shows that tom2 is less than coml.
ing
fo lio ™ ? ’ f0r thiS type 0f Speed C0ntr01 and With 3 Constant load tor<lue’ it can be concluded as
.ne
P, =
(6) Power delivered to load is P 2 = Ea2
doesPly I T * ”
whether f l , is in the armature circuit or not *
= [V, _ / , (r , p u T
t
A ' S° tha
remai" S C° nStant 3‘
» / ,
torque,X <o„2. It is thus seen that the powe P 2 de ivered t l bad f c =
decrease in speed. 2 aellVered to load decreases in proportion to the
1 _ r i ± RK
Vflal al
Vt
Rg i® increased to obtain lower operating snnnrla • .
results in higher operational costs. efficiency is lowered and this
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Art. 4.14]
' D.C. Machines 457
®mi at a certain load torque and for the same 7? fv, au i , ,
shown in Fig. 4.70 (6) g3> the speed becomes almost Gimo at no load as
m ‘the W T U eU
^dependent °fSpeed in « reciprocating pump),
(.b) the load torque is proportional to speed,
M th e load torque varies as the square ofihe speed (as in a fan-type load),
(d) the load torque increases as the cube o f the speed.
ww
Solution. Constant field current I. =
4 i = 22 - 2 = 20 A
^ A.
asy
the speeds^.e°ad t0rQUe 1S lndePendent of speed, the electromagnetic torque is constant at both
OT En
= E a ^1 Ial ~ Ea $1 Ia2
Ial ~ Ia2 = 20 A.
gin
At 1000 rpm,the counter emf, Eal = Vt - I al ra = 200 - 20 (0.1) = 198 V.
At 800 rpm, the counter e.m.f. Ea2 = Vt - 2 0 (0.1 + Rg)
where Rg is the additional resistance inserted in the armature circuit. eer
N° W m
ing
. ^o2 _
E al
K a <t>l “
K a 4>1 “
m2 _
ml ” ^1
n2 ■
.ne
or
Its solutiongives
200 - 20 (0.1 + Re) ^ 800
198 _ 1000
Rg = 1.98 Q
t
Loss in Rg = (20)2 (1.98) = 792 watts.
(b ) Here load torque TL « speed n.
i.e.
K <l>i h\ ~ n \
and K a 4>1 Ia2 * n 2
or Ia 2 _ * h
1
>-•
M
or
O
= 16 A
II
<N
1000
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Now £ o2 = 2 0 0 - 16 (0.1 + R g)
and Eal = 198 V.
Ea2 200 - 16 (0.1 + Re) 800
Ea 1 198 1000
Its solution gives Rg = 2.5 ft.
Loss in R„ = (16)2 •(2.5) = 640 watts.
(c) Here load torque TL « (speed)2
( 800
ww
Now
/«2 = ( 20)
1000
Ea2 = 2 0 0 - 12.8 (0.1+J ty
= 12.8 A.
n o o X/r7 iPi e, 4 ,4 1 * ^ 24°i 800f P m dc shunt motor has arm ature circuit resistance of
0.2 i t I f load torque is reduced to 60% o f its full-load value and a resistance o f 2 ft is inserted in
series with arm ature circuit, find the motor speed. Armature reaction weakens the field flux by
4% at fu ll load and by 2% at 60% o f full load.
S olu tio n . At rated load, Eal = Vt - Ial ra = 240 - 50 x 0.2 = 230 V
Also Eal « JVj <|>j
Rated torque TLt = Ka ^ I al = K a ^ x 5 0
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Art. 4.14]
D.C. Machines 459
New torque ^ -0 .6 ^ ,-^ * ,^
It is given that <t>! - 0.96 <t>and = 0.98 q where <>is the main field flux at no load.
-i ll = _ J _ = Ka X 0.96 <t>x 50
t L2 0.6 TLl 0.6 K0 x 0.98 0 x Ia2
nr_ _ 2 3 0 _ _ 8 0 0 x 0 .9 6 0
Ea2 N 2 02 175.342 N 2 x 0.98 0
.-. Motor speed, M - 800 x 175.342 x 0 96
2 2 3 0 x 0 .9 8 =597.44 rpm.
ww
^ *^us^ra^es schematic diagram of a d.c. series motor for its speed control by
varying the armature circuit resistance.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
.
ing (fc)
Fig. 4.71. Series motor speed control by varying the armature circuit resistance
(a) Schematic circuit diagram and (6) speed-torque characteristics.
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[Art. 4.14
460 Electrical Machinery
. ^2 ^2 _ V t - I a i i ^ + r. + Rg)
" ®ml n j” Ff —/ ai (ra + rs)
^o2 ...(4.59)
■®al
Eq. (4.59) shows that tom2 is less than coml.
Poor speed regulation is not of much importance in case of series motors. This method of
speed control is employed chiefly for series motors driving cranes, hoists, trains etc. The resis
tors employed for limiting the armature starting current, may be used for speed control pur
poses also.
ww
In order to fully utilise the motor capacity at all speeds, the armature current is kept equal
to the allowable armature current, i.e. the rated armature current. For shunt motor, the field
flux is obviously constant. For series motor, the field flux is also constant, because it is produced
w.E
by armature current which is maintained equal to its rated value. Since field flux remains
constant in both types of motors, arm ature-circuit-resistance control method is usually referred
to as a constant torque [(constant field flux) (rated armature current)] drive method.
asy
Example 4.42. A dc series motor, running a fan at 1000 r.p.m., takes 50 A from 250 V
mains. The armature plus field resistance is 0.6 Q. I f an additional resistance o f 4.4 Q. is inserted
En
in series with the armature circuit, find the motor speed in case the field flux is proportional to
the armature current.
Solution. For a fan, load torque, TL « n 2.
Electromagnetic torque, Te = Ka t f a.
gin
Since field flux
eer
r■e oc 1ra -
or
Under study state, Te = TL
ing
and
.ne
Now counter e.m.f.
^ 2 = Ial
E a l= 250
Un
= 50
1000
nr,
t
and counter e.m.f. n2
E*2 = 250 - 7 ^ (4.4 + 0.6)
/ n2>'
2 5 0 - — volts.
4
Now Eq2 _ n$ 2
Ea1 nx<J>!
fh
n2 ■
20
220 ( 1 0 0 0 ) (50)
or n 2 + H 3 7 n 2 - 11.37 x l 0 5 = 0
Its solution gives n 2 = 641 r.p.m.
Series f ield
----
rs
X c
>Rn field
>
> (f AArm j
ww
w.E (a)
Fig. 4.72. Shunted armature method o f speed control (a) for shunt motor and (6) for series motor.
asy
For a d.c. shunt motor, shunt field current is unaffected by R x and R2. Applying Thevenin’s
theorem at the armature terminals, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for Fig. 4.72 (a) is as
En
—illustrated in Fig. 4.73 (a), where the shunt field winding is not shown. From this equivalent
circuit,
E a —K a§ “ m —
R2
R x+ R2 gin
-I, r> , D
XV 1 T XL2
_ T
*ara
(U =
1
^a<l>
[AVt - A R xl a - l ara]
eer
[AVt - Ia (ARj + r„)] ing ...(4.60)
where A = .ne
Electromagnetic torque
+ R2
Te = K a § Ia
t
... Te (ARi + ra)
Wm~ K a $ A V ‘ - ~ Ka r ~
...(4.61)
or = _ L [ V r5 - / a ((^ + /? i ) 5 + r“11
01,ni
K a*>
Ia
fyVWA — w w s-
k R1 R? (rs t Ri) Rj
R i+ R
rs +Ri"rR2
v .-? i y ' RZ
'R , 4 R j fj+R^+R2
=-E «
—o—
(a) (6)
Fig. 4.73. Thevenin’s equivalent circuits (a) for Fig. 4.72 (a) and (b) for Fig. 4.72 (6).
P.
where B =
rs + R 1 + ^2
ww
By varying both
from Eq. (4.61).
and R 2 and therefore B, the speed control can be carried out as is evident
w.E
By shunted-armature method, no-load sp.eed of a dc series motor is not dangerously high ;
it can be adjusted to any desired value by an appropriate choice of resistors and R 2. Further
this method of speed control gives better speed regulation than that obtained by the convention
asy
al method of adding external resistance in series with the armature circuit. This fact is il
lustrated by Example 4.43.
En
E xam ple 4.43. A 230 V d.c. shunt motor runs at 900 r.p.m. at no load, while taking an
armature current o f 2 A. The armature resistance including brushes is 0.5 Cl. A t rated load and
rated voltage, the armature current is 20 A. Find the speed regulation if
(a) 2 Cl is placed in series with armature and 3 Cl in parallel with it. gin
(b) only 3 II is inserted in series with the armature.
Neglect rotational losses and armature reaction. eer
Solution. At no load, Ea = Vt - Iara = 230 - 2 x 0.5 = 229 volts.
27t x 900 ing
Ea = K J 0)m = Ka*
229
60
= 229 V
.ne
or
(a )
K jf =
A =
30 n
R2
Ri + R2
= 2.43 V-s/rad.
2+3
= 0.6
t
No-load speed from Eq. (4.60) is
wm0 = g ^ \A V t — I a ( A R i + ra)l
= 55.4 rad/sec.
COmo —
Per cent speed regulation = --------------- x 100
5 5 .4 -4 2 .8 0
x 100 = 29.44%.
42.80
Shunt motor. The arrangement of connections is shown in Fig. 4.74 (a). The field flux and
hence the speed of a shunt motor, can be controlled easily by varying the field regulating resis
tance. This is one of the simplest and economical methods and is, therefore, used extensively in
ww
modem electric drives.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
(a) Schem atic connection diagram and
ing
(b) Speed-torque characteristics.
Under steady running conditions, if field circuit resistance is increased, the field current
.ne
If and the field flux * are reduced. Since the rotor speed can’t change suddenly due to its inertia,
t
a decrease in field flux causes a reduction of counter emf. As a result of it, more current flows
through the armature [70 = (Vt - counter e.m .f.)/rj. The percentage increase in Ia is much more
than the percentage decrease in the field flux. In view of this, the electromagnetic torque is
increased and this being more than the load torque, the motor gets accelerated. With this, the
counter e.m.f. rises and /„ starts decreasing till electromagnetic torque becomes equal to the
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(A rt. 4.14
464 Electrical M achinery
The above phenomenon describing the changes in speed and armature current as the field
flux is varied, can be better illustrated with an example.
Exam ple 4.44. A 200-V d.c. shunt motor, with an armature resistance ofO. 1 p , is running
at 1000 r.p.m. and takes an armature current o f 50 A. I f the field flux is suddenly reduced by
10%, obtain (a) the maximum value o f current at this instant and the corresponding torque and
(b) ultimate speed and armature current after the transients are over. Assum e constant load
torque and negligible armature inductance.
Solution, (a) Initial counter e.m.f.,
Ea = V, - 1ara = 200 - 50 (0.1) = 195 V.
With a sudden reduction in field flux by 10%, the speed remains at 1000 r.p.m., due to motor
inertia, therefore, the new counter e.m.f. becomes 195 x 0.90 = 175.5 V.
/. The maximum value of armature current
. 2 0 0 - 1 7 5 .8 . 24SA
ww 245
0.1
(initial current of 50 A)
w.E 50
= 4.9 (initial current of 50 A)
Maximum current New flux
and the corresponding torque =
asy
--------------------------x ------------------
Initial current Initial flux
x (Initial torque)
( 2451
X
50
X En
(0.9) (Initial torque) = 4.41 (initial torque).
gin
Thus with a sudden reduction of 10% in the field flux, the armature current and torque at
once shoot up to 4.90 times and 4.41 times of their respective initial values. For a constant load
eer
torque, the increased electromagnetic torque accelerates the motor, till the armature current
decreases to Ia2 given by
al
fo r
O2
= 50
(
0.9 ing
= 55.6 A
This example shows that m order to avoid objectionable armature current surges the field
resistance should be increased gradually, i.e. in small steps.
For a co" stant load torQue, power input to motor V, (/„ + /,) [approximately 200 x 50 watts
before and 200 x 55^6 watts after the change in field flux] increases almost in proportion to the
z s x z z r s t s r , r . * ? - - “ ■ < • « »>■ s i
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ww
tent that the electromagnetic torque becomes less than the load torque, inspite of increased
■ f P E l N
w.E
^ —consequently the motor slows down. Constant torque ^ 0Wer “ “ requires less l a at
asy
decrease in the demagnetizing armature reaction, causes the field flux to rise from its
weakened value. As a result of it, the electromagnetic torque (<* <j)/a) starts growing, even
En
though Ia has become less. If motor torque becomes greater than the load torque, the motor
accelerates and its speed may again become very high ; due to this, the above happening may
gin
re-occur resulting in periodic speed fluctuations, i.e. hunting of the motor. A weak series-field
winding, (called stabilizing winding ) assisting the shunt field may avoid this unstable opera
eer
tion at high speeds. A stabilizing winding allows wider speed range and is added in all the dc
motors intended for adjustable speed operation. Use of compensating winding further increases
this speed range.
ing
Exam ple 4.45. In Example 4.44, after the transients are over, the reduced field flux is sud
.ne
denly increased to its initial value (Jjj. Calculate the armature current before the speed starts
changing.
Solution. With a sudden increase in field flux from 0.9 <ha to
194.44 x
0.9 9!
= 216 V. t
the counter e.m.f. rises to
, , 2 0 0 -2 1 6 .
The current taken from the supply = q ^ — toU A.
Since the armature current is now negative, the machine acts momentarily as a generator
and feeds the power to the supply, at the expense of its kinetic energy. The speed reduces
rapidly till counter e.m.f. becomes less than the supply voltage, so that motor action takes place
and torque balance is obtained.
Examples 4.44 and 4.45 conclude that the field regulator resistance must be varied in very
small steps.
Series m otor. The field flux and, therefore, the speed of a series motor can be varied (a) by
Placing a resistor, called a diverter, in parallel with the series field winding as shown in Fig.
4.75 (a ); (6) by tapping the series field winding as shown in Fig. 4.75 (6), and (c) by changing
toe field coil connections from series to parallel, Fig. 4.75 (c).
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[A rt. 4.14
466 Electrical Machinery
(a) D iverter field control. When the diverter resistance is varied, the current in the serie
field winding is changed, Fig. 4.75 (a) and there is, therefore, a corresponding ge in field
flux and the speed.
M o v a b le
D iv e rte r con tact i
'l (r * )
Topped W
-field J
(6)
Fig. 4.75.aSehes motor speed control (a) by a diverter and (6) by tapped field.
r— ^s/2
■a/2 X.
ww vt Nj Ns I Ia/2
Ns/2
( t^p
w.E
2 2
(,)
asy («)
Fig. 4.75. (c) Series-parallel field control for a d.c. series motor.
(b)
En
T apped-field control. When the field winding is tapped, Fig. 4.75 (b ), the number o
gin
series field turns is changed and, therefore, the series field m.m.f. and the speed are changed.
If the series motor is to work under violently varying loads, then the diverter resistance
eer
should be highly inductive. For example, when the series motor is used for traction purposes,
the current collector may lose contact with the overhead wire. After this, the motor continues
ing
running due to inertia, but the current and, therefore, the series field flux may collapse. After
a short while, when the contact with overhead wire is re-established, the entire current may
.ne
pass through the resistive diverter due to the large inductance of the series field winding. Since
the current in series field is almost zero due to its high inductance, the counter e.m.f. developed
by the motor would be zero and this would result in heavy in-rush of armature current when
the contact is re-established. In view of this, the diverter resistance should also be highly induc
tive, as stated before. This difficulty is, however, not present in tapped field control which is,
therefore, preferable for series traction motors.
t
(c) S eries-p ara llel field con tro l. In this method, the series field winding is divided into
two equal halves. When these two halves are in series, Fig. 4.75 (ci), then for an armature
current o f Iat total field m.m.f. Fs is,
1F s = Il a
2 2
Counter e.m.f. Eas = Vt - Ia (rs + ra)
When the two halves of field winding are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 4.75 (c »)»
then for the s a m e /0, each parallel path shares 7a/ 2 and total field m .m .f. Fp is
LN.
Fp = ( 4 / 2 ) (Ns/2) 2 = —
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or n2 = 2n1
as ... _
This shows that parallel connection of field coils results in higher operating speed of the
series motor.
For a constant load torque, a decrease in field flux, gives increased Ia and increased speed.
Thus power input VJa and power output (= constant load torque x speed) increase and, there
fore, efficiency remains almost unchanged.
For both shunt and series motor control, the counter e.m.f. Ea remains substantially con
stant, because a decrease in field flux is compensated by a corresponding increase in speed. If
ww
the armature current Ia is kept equal to the motor rated (or nameplate) current for its full
utility, the power output IaEa remains approximately constant and for this reason, field-flux
w.E
speed-control method may be called a constant power drive method.
Since EaIa remains approximately constant, the maximum torque is obtained when the d.c.
asy
motor runs at the lowest speed. In view of this, field-flux control method is suitable to drives
requiring large torques at low speeds. In case the field-flux control method is used to drive a
load requiring constant torque over the entire speed range, then motor rating and size are
En
decided by the product of constant torque and the highest possible speed. Obviously, such a
motor at low operating speeds will be underutilized.
gin
Example 4.46. A 4-pole d.c. series fan motor takes an armature current o f 60 amperes, when
running steadily at 2000 r.p.m. on a 220 V supply. The four field coils are now connected in two
eer
parallel groups o f two in series. Assuming that the flux produced is directly proportional to the
exciting current and the load torque increases as the square o f the speed, find the new speed and
the armature current. Neglect losses and assume constant supply voltage.
Solution. Electromagnetic torque, Te <* 4>Ia ing
and load torque, TL « n 2 (given)
.ne
or
Under steady state conditions,
TL = Te
n2 « (J) Ia
t
I f /al is the armature current with four field coils in series, then
P i « <t»i I a l
a1
I f/a2 is the armature current when four field coils are connected in two parallel groups, then
or 2 o c ^ I a2 as <|>2 «
n2 2
/ \2 t2
ni la\
IW 2
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f2000^
or =2 f60)
^2 L 2
V \ J
30V2 n2
or 1 0~
a2 1000
Counter e.m.f. with all the four coils in series,
Eat = Vt - I a l{ra + r , ) « n 1$1
and with the four coils in two parallel groups,
r ,'
Eap ~ Vt ~ Ia2
.r“ * ,
Since ra and rs are not given,
220 M ai
220 n2 (fa2/2 )
30V2 n2
ww
or = 2000x60
n<l' 2 x 1000
or n2 = 2378.4 r.p.m.
w.E .
02
_ 30V2 x 2378.4
1000
= 100.9 A.
Example 4.47. A shunt motor connected to a constant d.c. voltage source, drives a load
asy
requiring constant electromagnetic torque. Prove that, i f counter e.m.f. E u > I Vt, the speed
decreases with an increase in flux (or vice versa) and i f Ea < I V„ the speed increases with an
En
increase in flux. Here Vt is the armature terminal voltage.
Solution. From Eq. (4.34),
Vt - I ara gin
K a iD
eer ..,(4.34)
ing
If an external resistan ce^ is inserted in series with armature circuit, Eq. (4.34) becomes
_ V , - I a(ra + Rg)
m Ka<\>
.ne
Now electromagnetic torque Te = KaWa. Substituting the value of Ia in Eq (4 62) •
...(4.62)
doifm
di
With an increase in flux, if the speed decreases as is usually case, then the term ^ mu:
or
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or Vt - 2 ( r a + R g) I a > Q
or Vt ~ I° ( ra + Rg) > I a {ra + Rg)
i.e. Counter e.m .f. Ea > (total arm ature circuit resistance drop)
Also Ea + E a > [Ia (ra + Rg) + Ea]
or 2Ea > Vt, because Vt = [Ea + Ia (ra + R g)J
or V,.
Thus the speed decreases with an increase in flux (or vice versa ) for a d.c. shunt motor only
if the counter e.m.f. Ea > total armature circuit resistance drop or Ea > | Vt.
With an increase in flux, if the speed increases then — must be positive, i.e. —, m~> 0.
a<(> a0
Therefore, from Eq. (4.64),
ww Ka If. O3
or
or
or
w.E - Vt + 2 (r„ + Rg) Ia > 0
V, - Ia (ra + Rg) < Ia (ra + Rg)
Ea < Ia (ra + Rg)
or
or asy
2Ea < I a (ra + Rg) + E a
2Ea < Vt
or E . < ± V,. En
gin
Thus the speed increases with an increase in field flux for a d.c. shunt motor, if the counter
e.m.f. Ea < total armature circuit resistance drop or Ea < ^ Vt.
eer
ing
Example 4.48. A 230-V dc shunt motor has an armature-circuit resistance o f 0.4 £1 and field
resistance o f 115 £2. This motor drives a constant torque load and takes an armature current o f
.ne
20 A at 800 rpm. I f motor speed is to be raised from 800 to 1000 rpm, find the resistance that
must be inserted in the shunt-field circuit. Assume magnetization curve to be a straight line.
Solution. At 800 rpm,
At
.
1000 rpm,
Tel °c (Jq 7al
Te2 « 02 Ia2
'£e\ _ ^ _ <t>i x 20
t
Te2 4*2 ^a2
Ia2 = 20 P1 = 20 k
02
where k=—
02
At 800 rpm, Eal = 230 - 20 x 0.4 = 222 V.
At 1000 rpm, Ea2 = 230 - 20 k x 0.4 = 230 - 8 k
Now
Ea2 AT2 02
222 800 x fa
= 0.8 k
230 - 8k 1000 x 4>2
0r 222 = 230 x 0.8 k - 6.4 k2
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(A rt. 4.14
470 Electrical Machinery __________________ _________________ -— -
* = ; r = 1 -26
02
Since magnetization curve is linear,
t u k = i.2 6
02 V2
T _ 230 _ 9 *
But A “ 115 _
^ = l i e = 1587 A
ww
New shunt-field circuit resistance
w.E In
230 = 144.93 £2
1.587
External resistance that must be inserted in shunt-field circuit
En
resistance o f 250 £2. When driving a constant torque load at 600 rpm, the motor draws 21 A.
What will be the new speed o f the motor if an additional 250 £2 resistance is inserted in the field
circuit.
250 gin <GATE> 198®
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Exam ple 4.50. A d.c. shunt motor takes 50 A o n full load from 250 V mains. Its speed is to
be raised by 40% by weakening o f the field flux. I f the torque at the increased speed is 20% more
than that at the initial speed, find the percentage change in field flux. The armature resistance
(including brushes) is 0.5 Cl.
Solution. Electromagnetic torque at the initial speed is Tel « ^ / ol and at the increased
. J .T .
speed, Te2 ~x At
Ma2-
I jl 41 01
Te2 h i 02
1 50 <}>!
or
1.2 4 2 02
4 2 = (50) (1.2) ~ = 60 7 1 = 60 a
02 02
01
where a=
ww 02
At the initial speed, Eal = 250 - 50 x 0.5 = 225 V and at the increased speed,
Now
w.E Ea2 = 250 - 60 a(0.5) = (250 - 30 o) V.
E a2 n2 02
asy
K i
2 5 0 - 30 a
n i 0i
1.4 n x 02 1.4
225
En
n x (<|>2 •a) a
gin
or 250 o - 3 0 o 2 = 315.0
or a 2 - 8 . 3 3 a + 10.5 = 0
The shunt field winding has 1000 turns per pole, m no loaa, me mum, , un>
rnth J m L arm ature current. Find the number o f serves turns p er pole required to reduce the
weed to 900 r a m when the fu ll load armature current vs 100 A. The series field will have a
esistance of 0 f l and the arm ature resistance ^ lu d i^ brushes is OJ a Assum e that the
.2
. . • j • oniiiiinlpnt to 4% reduction m m am field m.m.f.
irmature reaction a t fu ll load is equivalent i
A* ™ the armature resistance drop is zero. Therefore, the counter e.m.f. at
>oload speed o f 1200 r.p.m. is 250 V, which requires a shunt field current of 1.1 A, Fig. 4.76, or
'hunt field ATs of 1100.
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[Art. 4.14
4 72 Electrical Machinery
netization curve is given for 1200 r.p.m.. the counter e.m.f. of 220 V should be — x 1200
the total field m.m.f. required is 1.62 x 1000 x ^ = 1690 ATs. Shunt field is already furnish-
96
ing 1100 ATs.
Series field ATs = 1 6 9 0 - 1100 = 590
590
/. Series field turns = 6.
100
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
Fig. 4.76. Magnetization curve pertaining to Example 4.51.
E xam ple 4.52. A d.c. series motor, running a friction load at 1000 r.p.m., takes 40 A from
240 V supply mains. Its field resistance is 0.2 ft and that o f the arm ature is 0.25 ft. I f a diverter
o f 0.3 ft resistance, is put in parallel with the series field winding, find the m otor speed. Assume
the field flux to be proportional to field current.
Solu tion. Note that the torque required by a friction load (e.g., a reciprocating pump) sd
different speeds remains constant.
Now electromagnetic torque Te oc <j>/a.
Since 0 has been assumed proportional to Ia,
r2
5X1L -
Te l x (40)-
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With a diverter in parallel with the field winding, the field current is reduced. Therefore, if
new armature current is Ia2, then only a part of it passes through the series field. Thus the new
field current is given by
J “ dm . 0.3
° 2 Rd,v + r, = 02 0.3 + 0.2 = a2-
New value of field flux <j>2 « (0.6/q2)
Thus rc2 “ (02) 7a2
86 ( 0.6 I a2) I a2
0 .6 f o2
l
1 e2 0 6 4
- 1=
T' , (40)2
1600
I
ww
or = 51.6 A.
0.6
Now Eal = V , - l a l(ra + rs)
asy
Ea2 = Vt - Ia2
r s ' R dw
r° + r. + i?
En
= 2 4 0 - 51.6 0.25 + M = 220.9 V
T = = 0 0 864 nI« J o x 60 = 0 .8 2 5 12
a ...(ii)
c a) 2;w
But Ea = Vf - / a (ra + r,) = 2 3 0 - / o ..(iii)
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47 4 Electrical M achinery —
( 230
T.€ = 0.825
1 + 0.0864 n
It is given that TL « n2 or TL = Kn2
or 20 = K (800)2
K = 20/(8 00 )2 = 3.125 x 1 0 "5 Nm/r.p.m.
Under steady state conditions, TL = Te
From (iv)
from (iv), iI a = -----------
x + 0.0864 — -----------=
x 652 4.01166 = 4.012 A.
ww
Exam ple 4.54. A 2 3 0 V, 1000 r.p.m. dc shunt motor has field resistance o f 115 Q and arma
ture circuit resistance o f 0.5 £2. At no load, the motor runs at 1000 r.p.m. with arm ature current
M
w.E
o f 4 A and with full field flux.
(a) For a load requiring 80 Nm, compute armature current and speed o f the m otor.
(b) I f it is desired that motor develops 8 kW at 1250 r.p.m., determ ine the value o f external
En
Solution. At no load, Ea = 230 - 4 x 0.5 = Ka <(>com
or
„ , 228x60
a = 2n x 1 0 0 0 =
gin , j
v -sec/rad
(a) Now Te = Ka <$>Ia
eer
; " = 2 § 7 = 3 6 '7 5 A
For this armature current, Ea = 230 - 36.75 x 0.5 = K a§ com ing
. 211.625
m = " 2 177 =
2rm
.ne
t
•• rad/sec = —
or n = 928.3 r.p.m.
(b) Motor developed power = Eal Ial = 8000 watts
Its solution gives = 422.1 A or 37.9 A. The higher value of 1 . is redundant, so take
= 37.9 A.
230
For a field current of — = 2 A, K J = 2.177 V-s/rad.
For I f= 1 A ,X ,0 = ^ V - s / r a d
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ww 7 > —
e w
or
w.E Te w = E J a = [V, - Ia (ra + r,)l la
Substituting the values, we get
asy
80 x 271 * *2— = (250 - I a x 0.4] Ia
60
or
Its solution gives
7* - 625 7a + 25132.74 = 0
70 = 43.2 A En
(б ) For this part, let 43.2 A be denoted by Ial.
gin
New value of current, 7a2 = - 21-6 A
eer
ing
Counter emf, Eal = 250 - 43.2 x 0.4 = 232.72 V
Counter emf, Eat = 250 - 21.6 x 0.4 = 241.36 V
Now
E a\ _
' N 2(02 .ne
or
$2 _ 1200
0, " 1800
241.36 _ 0 6914
232.76
at 1000 rpm.
Solu tion . Motor torque, Te = Katyla
. • (hoc I and therefore l t = i u a.
As magnetic saturation isneglected, * ■
Rated armature current, /„ 1 - 20 A
(a) At starting, E a = 0 andV, = Ia\(ra + r* ex] circuit
. in the motor armature circuit,
.-. External resistance to be added in the mo
„ _ 230 _ (0 5 ) = 11 tl.
A e r l' go
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(6) For developing rated torque at 1000 rpm, current remains the same, i.e. at 1000 rpm,
armature current l a2 = Ial = 20 A.
Ea2 _ <j>2 _ N?Ia2 _ N 2
Eal -Nl<t>i A^l
Eal = 230 - 2 0 x 0 . 5 = 220 V
. Eq2 1000 r, 2 -\ar* rrj T7
" 2 2 0 = 1500 0r = 3 =
Also
E q2 ~ ^ t ~ ^a2 (ra + rs Eex2)
146.67 = 2 3 0 - 2 0 (0.5 + R ex2)
or Ra2 = 4.167 - 0 . 5 = 3.667 Cl.
Exam ple 4.57. A dc series motor drives a fan at 800 rpm and takes 20 A when fed from
rated voltage o f 230 V. The motor resistance is 0.4 Q. The motor speed is to be raised to 1000 rpm
by voltage control. Find the voltage and current in case magnetic circuit is (a) saturated and fb)
unsaturated.
ww
Solution. At 800 rpm, Eal = 230 - 20 x 0.4 = 222 V
For a fan, TL « N 2 or T2 = K XN 2
For the motor,
w.E Te = Ka <j>/a
asy
(a) When magnetic circuit is saturated, 0 = constant and Te = K la. Under steady state, Te = TL
or KIa = K X - '
or K .N 2
En
E lui K,N\
ing
^ 2 = ^ 2 - 3 1 .2 5 x 0 . 5
Now ^ o 2 _ W2<t>2 N2
.ne
E a i ' N ^ - N ; as C o n s t a n t
From (i),
£o2 = 222 X W = 2775 V
Vt2 = 277.5 + 31.25 x 0.5 = 293.125 V
(6) When magnetic circuit is not saturated, 4>~ 7a and T = K I 2
t
^ 2 a
As
E 2 I ^ = K 1N 2
2
or (4>'|
W JVi
V /
or
'.3 = 4 . $ = 2 0 x M 0 = 2 5 A
N\ 800 A
Ea3 = Vt3 - 25 x 0.5
...(ii)
Also _ ^ 3 03 _ A^3 / a3
or F - 000 v 1000 25
“3 ' 222 X l o o " x 20 = 346 87 V
From (ii),
Vt3 = 346.87 + 25 x 0.5 = 359.375 V.
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4.14.3. Speed. control by varying the arm ature term inal voltage. Reference to Eq.
(4.34) shows that if the armature terminal voltage Vt is varied, counter e.m.f. (Vt - Iara) chan
ges almost proportionally and for a constant-flux motor (e.g., a d.c. shunt motor), the speed
changes approximately in the same proportion as V,. At present, the bulk power is usually
a v a ila b le as alternating voltage. So, for driving a dc motor, ac must be converted to dc and
then only fed to dc motor armature for its speed control. DC motor speed control by varying
the arma ure ermina vo tage is obtained by (a) Ward-Leonard system (6) controlled rectifiers
a n d (c) series-parallel armature control.
An examination of Eq. (4.34) reveals that addition of external resistance in the armature
circuit is equivalent to the variation of armature terminal voltage. But the behaviour of motor
with added resistance in the armature circuit is quite different from its behaviour with arma
ture terminal voltage control method. Consequently this method of speed control is considered
separately.
(a) W ard-L eon ard system . The schematic diagram of this system is illustrated in Fig.
4.77. In this figure, M is the separately excited d.c. motor whose speed is to be controlled and
ww
G is the separately excited generator driven by a three-phase driving motor (usually an induc
tion motor). The combination of a.c. driving motor and the d.c. generator is called motor-gene-
w.E
rator set and it converts a.c. into d.c., which
is fed to the main motor Af. If no supply is t Motor SgneArntor SC1
available, the three phase motor can be
M a in m o to r
En
first energised and then the generator output \
voltage is adjusted to a low value by decreas- A.C.
J
gin
ing its field excitation. This is done in order Driving motor
to limit the starting current to a safe value
but it should be ensured at the same time
that enough starting torque is produced to
eer
accelerate the motor and the load. In view of
this, no starting rheostats are necessary and,
ing
To e x c ito r
t
rator field current varies the voltage applied
to the motor armature and, therefore, the motor speed is changed. Thus the motor speed control
is obtained merely by changing the generator field current.
In order to achieve wider speed control range, speeds below base speed are obtained by
voltage control and above base speed, by field flux control. For better utility of motor Af, its
current Ia is maintained equal to its rated current during its speed control.
Speeds, from the lowest possible speed up to base speed, are obtained by increasing the
generator output voltage, with constant motor field flux. Since the speed control is carried out
with rated current Ia and with constant motor field flux 0, a constant torque (« <|>/ j up to base
speed is obtained. Power (= torque x speed) increases in proportion to speed. Thus constant
torque and variable pow er drive is obtained up to base speed, with armature-terminal voltage
control method as shown in Fig 4.78.
Speeds above base speed are obtained by decreasing the motor field flux with constant
generator voltage. As before, the armature current Ia is kept equal to its rated value. Under
these conditions, Vt Ia or Ea Ia remains constant and the electromagnetic torque propdrtional to
'ww\ m n m m '
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478 Electrical M achinery [Art. 4.14
armatur E .M O TO R F I E L D
<{)/a decreases as the field flux is decreased. Thus, (V O L T A G E CONTROL
(C O NTRO L
weakening of the motor field flux results in con
stant power and variable torque drive above base
speed, Fig. 4.78.
POW ER
The speed range with armature voltage control ex /
ww
decreasing the generator excitation so that its emf
is less than the counter emf of motor M. Under
Fig. 4.78. Torque-speed and power-speed
characteristics for Ward-Leonard system
of speed control.
w.E
these conditions, M begins to work momentarily as
a generator, G as a motor and a.c. driving machine as a generator. Consequently the kinetic
energy of M and its load is returned to the supply mains and braking action on main motor M
takes place.
asy
The advantages of Ward-Leonard system of speed control are as follows :
En
(i) Thejnain advantage of this system is its simplicity, wide range and smooth speed con
eer
(ii) With armature reaction ignored, the decrease in speed from no load to rated load, is
mainly due to the resistance drops in both the generator armature and motor armature. The
speed regulation is, therefore, quite good.
ing
(Hi) The direction of main motor rotation can be changed merely by reversing the generator
field current.
(iv) Speed control is carried out through the field circuits of generator and motor. Since .ne
these field circuits are low-power circuits, the control apparatus is not costly.
(v) The efficiency at low speeds, is higher than that obtained by other methods of speed
control.
t
The only disadvantage of this method is its higher initial cost, because three machines
having rating equal to the full load output, are required.
E xam p le 4.58. An adjustable speed d.c. shunt motor has speed range 4 : 1. I f motor takes
an armature current o f 60 A at speed n; then calculate the armature current at speed 4 n when
speed control is obtained by (a) field flux control and (b) armature-voltage control. The motor is
driving a load requiring
(i) constant pow er and
(ii) constant torque.
Ignore all losses and armature reaction.
Solution, (a) Field-flux control, (i) When load requires constant power, then Ea Ia or
torque x speed must remain constant.
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(b) Arm ature-voltage control, (t) For load requiring constant power, Vt Ia = Ea Ia is con
stant.
ww
If the armature voltage is V, at speed n, then at speed 4n, the armature voltage must be
4V, (field flux is constant), since speed is approximately proportional to V„ Eq. (4.34).
w.E
.*. For constant power drive, the armature current is — =
60
(ii) For constant load torque, Te« $ Ia must remain constant. At speed 4n, the armature
= 15 A.
asy
voltage is 4Vt i.e. the counter emf now becomes 4 Ea. But 4Ea « (4n)(4>) i.e. the field flux remains
unchanged at both the speeds n and 4n. Consequently for constant torque, the armature cur
rent is 60 A.
En
gin
Part (b, ii) can alternatively be explained as follows :
For constant torque, <j)Ia is constant. In armature-voltage control method, <j> is left un
eer
touched, i.e. <{>remains constant. In view of this, Ia must remain constant at 60 A in order to
furnish constant torque (OC
ing
Example 4.59. f o r a Ward-Leonard system, two identical 220 V, 15 A d.c. machines are
used. Total armature resistance o f each machine is 0.4 fl and the magnetization curve for each
machine at 1500 r.p.m. is as given below :
.ne
Ea m V
If in A
120
0.3
160
0.4
197
0.5
210
0 .6
220
0.7
228
0 .8
232
0.9
236
1 .0 0
243
t
1 .2 0
248
1.45
The generator o f the Ward-Leonard system is driven at a constant speed o f 1500 r.p.m.
(a) The generator field current is varied from 0.15 A to 1.4 A, while the motor field current
is maintained constant at 0.6 A. Find the speed range (i) for full load armature current o f 15 A
and (ii) for no load. Assume the armature current to be negligible at no load.
(b) The maximum speed obtained in part (a) at full load armature current, is to be doubled
wdh the help o f field flux control. I f the generator field current is not allowed to exceed 1 A, find
he minimum motor field current required.
Solution, (a) (i ) For generator, If = 0.15 A, Ea = 60 V from magnetization curve. Full load
v°ltage drop in two armature resistances in series = 15 (0.4 + 0.4) = 12 V.
•• Actual counter em f o f the motor, when the generator field current is 0.15 A
=£o ~ /0 (2ra) = 6 0 - 12 = 48 V.
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But the motor counter e.m.f. for a field current of 0.6 A at 1500 r.p.m., from the magnetiza.
tion curve of Fig. 4.79 is 210 V.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
48 eer
For I f = 1.4 A, the generator e.m.f. E a is 247 V. ing
Minimum motor speed = — x 1500 = 343 r.p.m. = 345 r.p.m.
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It is seen from above that speed regulation is poor under the condition of minimum speed
setting of motor. But under the setting of maximum speed, the speed regulation is better.
(6) For generator field current of 1 A, the e.m.f. generated in the generator armature is
E„ = 236 V.
Motor counter e.m.f. at full load = 236 - 12 = 224 V.
ww
This motor counter e.m.f. of 224 V must correspond to 2 x 1680 = 3360 r.p.m. Therefore,
motor counter e.m.f. at 1500 r.p.m. is
w.E 224
3360
x 1500 = 100 V
asy
From the magnetization curve of Fig. 4.79, the motor field current for Ea = 100 V is 0.25 A.
Thus minimum motor field current required is 0.25 A. Note that the overall speed range with
En
both armature voltage control and field flux control becomes 3360 : 345 or 9.74 : 1.
(6) Speed control with controlled rectifiers. Controlled rectifier d.c. supply can be used in
gin
place of motor-generator set of the Ward-Leonard system. Now-a-days the silicon controlled rec
tifiers (or thyristors) have made the SCR—d.c. motor scheme much more economical and its other
eer
advantages are less floor space, higher efficiency and quicker control of the output voltage.
Single-phase controlled rectifiers using thyristors are used for the speed control of dc
motors below base speed. These are suitable up to about 15 kW rating.
For a single-phase full converter, the speed is given by ing
2Vm
cos a .ne
where
“ m
Vm = maximum value of 1-phase source voltage
t - <4-65>
2 V,m
cos a - vr
'n
J 77^-2 Te ...(4.66)
m Ka •0 (Ktt 0)
por dc motor ratings above 15 kW, 3-phase controlled rectifiers using thyristors are used.
The speed in case of 3-phase full converter is given by
3 Vml
—TT— cos a - vr _
*ia
C0„, = i? i ----------- ■Te ...(4.67)
Ka •0 (Ktt V*
(Art. 4.14
482 Electrical M achinery
* n
-'rnpJ
ww vt
w.E lL
i Ea
(a)
asy
Fig. 4.80. Series-parallel speed control o f twoefe series motors
(a) armature in series and (b) armatures in parallel.
(6)
En
In Fig. 4.80, the connections for series-parallel control of two identical dc motors are shown.
gin
When the armatures are in series as in Fig. 4.80 (a), the voltage across each armature is Eas = —
p -Y2l =k j eer
and the field flux «> is established by current / M = / L. This gives motor counter emf (= Ka $ wm) as
w where w is the motor speed when motors are connected in series and flux <t>
nc S* ^
because magnetic saturation is neglected. Subscript s stands for series connection.ing
When the armatures are in parallel as shown in Fig. 4.80 (6 ), voltage across each armature
- y t ~ K .Ik . up where o)p is the motor speed when motors are in parallel. Subscript p t
stands for parallel.
IT h
'ap _ V, K -2 *p _ I0p
or
” Eas V /2 K Il los 2 o)s
h
When in parallel, Tep = K = K •— because l aD= —
2 4 ap 2
l\
T k -4
• L ee. _ 4 1
K ir 4
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This shows that for the conditions specified in Fig. 4.80, the ratio of speeds with motors in
parallel to tha wi h motor in series is 4, i.e. speed range is 4 . The ratio of torques with motors
in parallel to that when in series is — •For constant power input Vt IL from dc source, Fig. 4.80
offers constant power drive.
^ jk.ove that series-parallel armature control method offers only two discrete
speeds. This method is commonly employed for the speed control of dc series traction motors.
Example 4.60. A 4 kW, 230 V, 1000 r.p.m. separately excited d.c. motor is fed from 260 V
a.c. source through a single-phase full converter. At no load and with zero firing angle delay, the
motor draws 2 A and runs at 1100 r.p.m. The armature circuit resistance is 0.5 Cl. Voltage drop
in conducting thyristors is 2 V. For a firing angle delay o f 30° and rated armature current o f 20
A, compute
(a) the motor torque and
(b) motor speed.
ww
Solution. With zero firing angle delay, a = 0°
or
w.E _
= Ea + Iara+ 2
2>/2 x 260
Ka<$>u>m= ------ 1 -------
„ _ _ _
2 x 0.5 - 2 = 231.08
Ka * =
asy 71
231.08 x 60
= 2.006 V-sec/rad
eer 0.5
(2.006)
x 40.12
= 95.072 rad/sec =
60
2 nn
ing
n = 907.87 r.p.m. = 908 r.p.m.
Example 4.61. The magnetization curve o f a 4-pole d.c. series motor was obtained by run .ne
ning the machine as a separately excited generator, field and armature currents being adjusted
to the same value. The following test data were recorded at a constant speed o f 800 r.p.m. : t
Terminal voltage, V 200 375 443 485 510 518
Field current, A 15 30 45 60 75 90
vu; rioi tne speed torque and current-torque curves for mis series motor when connected to
b00 V d.c. source. The resistance o f the armature circuit is 0.3 Cl and that o f the field winding is
0.25 Cl. Find also the speed and current for a torque o f 300 Nm.
(b) In case a diverter o f resistance 0.25 fl is connected across series field winding, calculate
e sPeed and torque for armature currents o f 30 and 60 amperes.
(e) With no diverter, i f the field winding is tapped at 80% o f full series turns, compute the
sPeed and torque for an armature current o f 75 A.
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ww
w.E Fig. 4.81. Pertaining to Example 4.61.
asy
Solution, (a) The solution of this example is given in tabular form below. The given data
is for the terminal voltage V, and the generated e.m .f. EaX, which would be given by
En
°i ~ Vt + Ia ra as the field and armature currents are equal. With applied voltage as 600 V
Ea2 = 600 - Ia (ra + rs). Now EaXocUl ^ and Ea2 ~ n2 $x.
. Eai
E'o 2
800
n 2 gin
or n2 = 800 ~ 2
E.. eer
Also. rp
1»
Jul
Ea2 Ia Ea2 Ia
ing
---------= ----------x 60
.ne
co.m2 2 Tt Hr
_ E a2Ia x 6 0 Etal
W « 15 30
2n 800 £ o2
45
80 n Eal la
60
t
75 90. A
V, !' 200 375 443 485 510 518, V
* 0 , = Vt + fa ra . 204.5 384 456.5 503 532.5 545, V
Ea2 = 6 0 0 -Ia 591.75 583.5 575.25 567 558.75 550.5, V
('•o+'V)
arm currenworque curves are plotted in Fig. 4.81. For a toroue of 300
M e speed and current are found to be 940 r.p.m and 52.5 A respectively from the ^ a p h of
Art. 4.14]
D .C. M achines 485
\
(6 ) For Ia = 30 A, If = l Diverter resistance, Rn r0.25>
= 30 = 15 A
Rd + r„ 0.50
For If= 15 A, / ^ y
Eai = 204.5 V (given)
Now Ea2 = 600 - 1 R ,r '
r + — d'8
° Rn + r.
asy
r ' = H l T 5 i x 60 = 2 7 5 0 2 Nm.
For Ia = 75 A,
gin
Ea2 = 600 - 75 (0.3 + 0.8 x 0.25) = 562.5 V
rn 503 x 60 ^
eer
e ~ 2n x 800 X 0 3 Nm‘
ing
Example 4.62. A dc shunt motor, with an armature circuit resistance o f 0.3 Q, operates an
w ld o f° 3 m U e c enCy * ?° %' Calculate size ° f the dc motor for raising a load o f 800 kgs at a
.ne
speed °aSe tke SUPPly
t
voltage f alls f rom its initial value o f 230 V to190 V, calculate thehoist
Solution. Here 800 kgs is the weight to be lifted up, therefore, the resisting force due to
gravitational pull = 800 x 9.81 = 7848 kgm /sec 2 = 7848 Newtons.
Power required for lifting the load = 7848 x 3 Nm/s or W
Ea = (250 - /0 x 0.3)
Ea Ia = Developed power in dc motor = 33634
or
l a [250 - 0.3 7J = 33634
or
0 .3 1\ - 250 L + 33634 = 0
V
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(A rt. 4.14
486 Electrical Machinery
ww Let A" be the load in kgs to be lifted up. Under steady state,
motor electromagnetic power = power required for lifting up the load
Ea la = A 'x 9.81 x 6
or
w.E 5 7 0 x 6 0 = A 'x 9.81 x 6
At lower hoisting speed, let Rtx be the external resistance to be added in the motor circuit.
—C«)
Then
asy
60 1600 - 60 (/?„ + 0.5)1 = A' x 9.81 x 4 .Mi)
From (i) and (ii),
En
'
60 1600 - 60 (Rrt + 0.5)1 _ A'x 4 x9.81
’ 60x570 "
gin
~ A 'x 6 x 9 .8 1
or
or
600 - 60 (R „ + 0.5) = 380
Afl = 3.167 f2. eer
ing
Exam ple 4.64. A 4-polc dc motor runs at 600 rpm on full load and takes 25 A at 450 V. The
2
armature is lap wound with 500 conductors and flux per pole is given by <t>= {1.7 x 10' )-T
i0 ^
Weber, where 1 is the motor current. I f the supply voltage and torque both are halved, calculate
the speed at which the motor will run. Neglect stray losses. (I.A.S,, 1984) .ne
Solution. Here 0 = 0.017 \7
For / = 25 A,
r,
6 = 0.017^25 = 0 .0 8 5 Wb
bZnP 0 .0 8 5 x 5 0 0 x 6 0 0 x 4 ___ ___ _
t
=~ = ------------ 6 0 7 3 ------------- = 4 2 5 V
For dc motor, V, = Ea + IarQ
450 = 425 + 25 x ra
.-. Armature circuit resistance,
rG= in.
Motor torque, Te = Ka 6la
or Te = Ka x 0.017 < T -I = K a x 0 .0 1 7 115
^ = Ka x 0.017 7|-5
Te Ka x 0.017 (25)15 (2 5 xl 5
1.5 = 2
Te/2 Ka x 0.017 (J2)
j 25
or h = ^273 = 15.75 A
T h e re fo re , n e w a r m a tu r e c u r r e n t, Ia2 = I2 = 15.75 A
Ea2 = 225 - 15.75 x 1 = 209.25 V
Eal = 425 V, = 600 rpm, = 0.085 Wb
$2 = 0.017 (15.75)1'5 = 0.0675 Wb
K 2 _ 4>iAT2
Eal §]Nl
209.25 0.0675 x N2
or
425 " 0.085 x 600
xr 209.25 x 0.085
Of 2 “ ~425 x 0.0675 * 600 = 372 rpm.
Exam ple 4.65. A d.c. shunt motor is required to drive (i) constant power load (ii) constant
ww
torque load and (Hi) the load whose torque requirement varies with the speed.
Under rated conditions, the d.c. shunt motor takes rated armature current and runs at rated
w.E
speed. Find the speed and current, if the following changes are made.
(a) Armature terminal voltage Vt halved, field current If unchanged
(b) Vt unchanged, If halved and
'
V , A2 a2
•• / o2 = 27al = 2 P-U-
(ii) C onstant torque drive m eans constant tyla or constant I fla, because saturation is
neglected.
As in part (/), the speeds for parts to), (6) and to) are respectively i p.u., 2 p.u. and 1 p.u.
(a) With V,halved and I , unchanged, current /„ remains unchanged because torque « /,/ „
^ust remain constant.
T h e re fo re , Ia = 1 P u -
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(b) With unchanged and //-halved, constant torque drive requires Ia to be doubled, i.e.
Ia = 2 p.u.
(c) With both V, and If halved, constant torque requires Ia to be equal to 2 p.u.
(iii) Load torque <*= n and electromagnetic torque Te « $ Ia ° r ^ 4 4 - Therefore l{ l a « n.
As in part (i), the speeds for parts (a), (6 ) and (c) are respectively j p.u., 2 p.u. and 1 p.u.
(a) With Vt halved and //-unchanged, speed is halved.
Ifi Iai “=n
and t i a
VI *a2 06 2
la 1
4 2 - 2 2 p U’
4i 4 i “ n
ww
and
2 *02
2n
w.E 4 2 = 4 4 i = 4 p-u-
(e) With both Vt and //-halved, speed remains unchanged.
asy 4 i4
S ir
n
En
and
2 a20cn
4 2 = 2 4 i = 2 p.u.
gin
Exam ple 4.66. A 4-po/e dc series motor has flux per pole d>= 4 x 10~3 Ia Wb where l a is the
eer
armature current. The motor drives a fan requiring 40 Nm at 1000 rpm. The wave-connected
armature has 480 conductors and its resistance is 1 Q.
ing
Find the motor speed and armature current i f it is fed from 230 V dc mains.
Solution. For a fan, load torque TL « N 2
For a speed of 1000 rpm, load torque requires 30 Nm
.ne
For a speed of N rpm, load torque required = 30
N
1000
Nm t
Motor torque T —^ AT 4 * 480 . 32
- 2m a ~ "2jT)T2" x 4 x 1 ° 3 4
Under steady state, T . ‘ Tl
4x480 N
or x 4 x 10" 3 /;? = 30
27t x 2 1000
1 /2
30 2 ti x 2
or L =N = 0.007 N Ui)
1000" 4 x 4 8 0 x 4 x 1 0 "3
Counter e.m.f., Ea = V , - I a ra = ^
4 x 10 " 3 x 480 x N x 4
or 230-4x1 = J ii)
60x2
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D .C. M achines 489
230 - 0 . 0 0 7 N = - 6 x 4 8 0 ^ 10 * N = 0.064 N
1ZU
230
... M o t o r s p e e d , N = = 3239.44 r p m
1 No-load R otation al loss. This loss is made up of two losses, namely (a) the iron loss at
orking flux and speed and (b) the mechanical loss, i.e. friction and windage losses at e
operating speed. Let the no-load rotational loss be represented by W0.
2 I2R loss, (a) Armature circuit loss 12 r0, where ra includes the resistances of brush con
(6)
ww
tacts, armature winding, interpole winding and compensating winding, if present.
Field ohmic loss Vfly. Note that this loss includes the field-rheostat loss also. In series
w.E
machines, field ohmic loss forms a part of the armature circuit loss.
3 Stray load losses. These are produced by (a) the distortion of the air-gap flux due to the
asy
armature Reaction and (6 ) the currents in the commutated coil It is “ n“
stray load losses. In small machines, the losses are neglected, but for machines of abou
l 5 0 kW
.ne
Vnl Vt »a = Vt IL
m
F&W
lo s s e s
N o -lo a d Stray
core loss (load loss
-'v'- '
N o -lo a d ro ta tio n a l loss
J
Arm.
o h m ic
.lo ss
Brush
contact
loss
Series
tield
Shunt
ficld
1ZR loss. IJR loss
No-load
Shunt S eries Brushi Arm. core loss
field held contact R
]2r loss |*R loss loss loss N o -lo a d ro to tio nal
Arm. c irc u it ohmic loss
toss
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• . . [A rt. 4.15
490 E le c t r ic a l M a c h in e r y ________________________
• Dv,„nt field is absent in a dc machine, it is
should be interchanged in Fig. 4.82. In case senes or shunt held
accordingly omitted in Fig. 4.82. generated emf Eu in the armature of a
The electromagnetic power is associated with m e g ^ ^ gometimes ca]led rota
dc machine. The sum of no-load rotational loss a” d fronij electromagnetic power gives
tional loss. The rotational loss when added to, or shaft-power output from dc motors.
respectively the shaft-power input to dc genera“ from> electromagnetic power give
Also, the total ohmic losses when added to or s lectrjcal power output from thedc
respectively the total electrical power input to dc motor or
ww 1
ra + v / 4 + Wo
+ V f + H ,.>
...(4 .6 8 )
w.E
where V, and IL are the output voltage and output current respectively and W„ is the no-load
rotational loss.
For a motor,
asy _
- 1”
I2
a ra + Vflf+W 0
y t jL
(4 69)
gin
remain approximately constant. The maximum efficiency, as before, occurs when variable los
ses ll ra are equal to the constant losses V ,l,+ W„. This can, however, be proved as follows .
V ,h eer
G e n e r a t o r e ffic ie n c y , ns =
ing
In shunt or compound machines, assume that the field current 1, is negligible as compared
T T v fr T w ,
with the line current 4 . With this assumption,/L = 4 and generator efficiency becomes
.ne
VJl
V,lL + llra + V/f + Wc
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D.C. Machines
Art- 4.15]
/ _ 10»000 _ 40 a
1 250
... G e n e r a t o r a r m a t u r e c u r r e n t Ia = IL + lf = 40 + 1 = 41 A.
ww
Maximum efficiency occurs when '
Variable losses = Constant losses = 650 W.
11490
asy
/. Armature current at maximum efficiency is
Enf650
0.5
= 36 A
ing
Maximum n = 1 -
10050 /
Example 4.68. A 250 V, 15 kW, shunt motor has a maximum efficiency of 88% and a speed
of 700 r p m , when delivering 80% o f its rated output. The resistance of its shunt field is 100
a Determine the efficiency and speed when the motor draws a current o f 78 A from the mains. .ne
Solution. Rated output = 15 kW
Output
Efficiency n = 0utput + Losses
t
/ 1 "i
or Total losses = — - 1 Output
n
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ww
Total losses = 1718 + 818 = 2536 W
.'. Motor efficiency for a line current of 78 A is
w.E '
V
1 -
2536 ^
19,500
✓
x 100 = 87%.
But
Ea2 227.28 n2 <J>2En
= 234 32 = O il1 = 700 x h
n2 x <f>2
For constant field current,^ = <J>2
gin .
.
•’
_ 700 x 227.28 ___
234.32 eer
= 6 7 8 r -P-m-
ing
E xam ple 4.69. A 10 kW, 900 r.p.m., 400 V d.c. shunt motor has armature circuit resistance
(including brushes) o f 1 Cl and shunt field resistance o f 400 Cl. I f efficiency at rated load is 85%
then calculate:
(a) the no-load armature current,
.ne '
(b ) the speed when the motor draws 20 A from the mains and
tc) the armature current, when the total (or internal) torque developed is 98.5 Nm
Assume the flux to remain constant.
t
Solution. Total losses = f — _ 1 x rated output
0
' 1
0 .8 5 ' 1Jx l 0 '0 0 0 = 1765 w -
(a) Total input = io,000 + 1765 = 11,765 W.
s
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A rt- 4.15]____________________
D.C. Machines 493
N o -lo a d r o t a t io n a l lo s s
= Total losses - r _ jy _ _
ww
The speed at rated load is 900 r.p.m.
A fo i = 371.59 _ M i _ 900 x
i’
i
asy
(c) At rated load, Eal = K j^ (om= 371.59 V
^ A 371.59 x 60
=
En 2kx900 = 3'94'
Now electromagnetic torque Te = Ka^ Ia = 98.5 Nm
Armature current
98 5
/_ =— — = 25 A. gin
3.94
eer
Example 4.70. A 10 kW, 240 Vdc shunt motor draws a line current of 5.2 A while running
ing
at no-load speed o f 1200 rpm from a 240 V dc supply. It has an armature resistance of 0.25 f2
and a field resistance o f 160 fl. Estimate the efficiency of the motor when it delivers rated load.
'
. M , c~ . 10,000— , QQ _ 84.64%.
■• Motor efficiency = ^ygTTT4
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(A rt 4.1S
494 Electrical Machinery
Exam ple 4.71. A 440 V dc shunt motor has a no-load (la = 0) speed o f 2000 rpm. It is run-
ning at 1000 rpm at full load torque, reduced armature voltage and ful fie . 00 *s
reduced to 50% o f rated value with armature voltage and field vo taSe e 0
values, the speed increases to 1050 rpm. Find the armature voltage drop at full loadNeglect
rr a c a j* \\jA1 £j, 1994)
effect o f armature reaction.
Solution. Let lal be the armature current at full-load torque.
Now
ww /
la2~
u1
-JLL
~
w.E
Counter emf Eo2 at half rated torque is
E„2 ~ (440 -
1
•ra) N 2 02 ...(ii)
&a2
440 - /„ , ra
N j02
En
1000 x 0, 20
440 - \ l a\ra 1050x0,
440 x 21 - 21 !alra = 440 x 20 - 10 Ialra gin
21
eer
or
440
or Ial ra = ^ = 40 V.
D .C . M achines 495
4.15)
20297 x 60
Shaff torque, = 121.14 Nm
2 n x 1600
ww
For a d.c. generator, the rated output power is wasted in resistors.
For a d c motor, a brake lest is carried out as illustrated in Fig. 4.83. A
w.E
belt a r o u n d the air- or water-cooled pulley has its ends attached to spring
balances Sj and S 2 The belt tightening hand wheels / / , and H2, help in
adjusting the load on the pulley and. therefore, on the motor. If spring Pulley
asy
balances are calibrated in kilograms, the motor output is given by,
Motor output = to (Sj - S 2) r x 9 81 watts.
pjg 4 83. Brake test on
a ^ c' motor
En
where S , and S 2 are the tensions on the tight and slack sides of the belt, r is theeffective radius
gin
of the brake-pulley in metres (= ^ outside pulley diameter + j belt thickness) and to (= 2Tin) is
the motor speed in rad/sec
eer
If V, is the motor terminal voltage and 1L is the line current, then power input to motor
= V,/; watts, and percentage motor efficiency,
ia(Sj - S 2)r x 9.81
ing
x 10 0 ...(4.70)
v) l
For a series motor, the brake should be sufficiently tight before the motor is switched on to.ne
the supply.
The size of the motor that can be tested by this method, is limited from the consideration of
the heat that can be dissipated at the brake drum or pulley.
t
The disadvantages of this method are that <i> the spring balance readings are not steady
and Ui) the friction torque, at a particular setting of the handwheels H j and H 2, does not remain
constant.
Example 4.73. A full-load brake test on a small d.c. shunt motor, gave the following data :
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ww
The simplest method of measuring the no-load machine losses is by
Swinburne’s method.
Sw inburne’s method. As this is a no-load test, it cannot be per
w.E
formed on a d.c. series motor. In this method, the machine, whether it
is a motor or a generator, is run as a no load shunt motor at rated speed
asy
and with rated terminal voltage Vt. If Iao and If are the no-load arma
ture and field currents respectively (Fig. 4.84), then the -power ab-
Fig. 4.84. Swinburne’s
method of measuring
sorbed by the armature (=
En
is equal to the no-load rotational loss no-load losses of a d.c. motor.
W0 plus a small amount of armature circuit loss /£ , ra.
„ wo + l ‘ r„ + Ir V,
^ W l---------
V, + voltage ^drop in r f ’o t rated ^ n t u r e ’ c u m n U f m M h ™ 11’ 11!? ShoU’ d be equal l ° ra lcd ,c r " ’ ilu>l vol“ Kt
under test is n m otor thp T Under tcst is a gen erator. In case the machine
a n n a t u r e current ‘ “ ‘ hC a™ “lUro ah»“ 'd ■ » - * , - voltage drop in a. rated
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^ ^ j i r n e s method are (a) low power required for testing even large
m*° m/,u:,T,p rnn *1° osses are to be supplied from the mains and (6) the efficiency of
the machine can be calculated at any desired load.
Since the dx. machine in Swinburne’s method is running at no load, the disadvantages of
this me • a s ray °ad losses can’t be accounted for and (6) the actual performance of
the mac me on ra e oa can t be checked. For example, Swinburne’s test gives no indication
3 °U f l a ■ ? £°m™utatl°n ° n rated load is satisfactory or whether the temperature rise
on rated load is within the specified limits.
Exam ple 4.74. A 400-Vd.c. shunt motor takes 5 A at no-load. Its armature resistance (includ-
'fhe motor takes 50 A o n f u l l v d ^ res^stance ^ Estimate the kW output and efficiency when
Find also the percentage change in speed from no load to full load.
Solution. Constant shunt field current
400
/ r ^ = 2A
200
ww
.*. No load armature current, Iao = 5 - 2 = 3 A.
Constant no-load rotational loss,
w.E Wo = V T - I‘ ■ao
v t *a o
2 rra
asy
At full load, the armature current
= 400 x 3 - (3)2 x 0.5 = 1194.5 W
.ne
For a shunt motor, field flux <f>is constant, therefore, the motor counter e.m.f. Ea is propor
= 4 0 0 - 3 x 0.5 = 398.5 V
Full load e.m.f. Ea = 400 - 48 x 0.5 = 376 V
Percentage change in speed from no load to full load
3 9 8 .5 -3 7 6
x 100 = 5.65%.
398.5
Exam ple 4.75. A 400 V, 20 kW dc shunt motor takes 2.5 A when running light. For an
armature resistance o f 0.5 Q, field resistance o f 800 ft and brush drop o f 2 V, find the full-load
efficiency.
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ww
Brush-drop loss
.-. Total losses
= 56.22 x 2 = 112.44 W
= 994 + 1580.34 + 112.44 = 2686.78 W
Power input
w.E
Full-load efficiency of shunt motor =
= 20,000 + 2686.78 = 22686.78 W
x 100 = 88.157%.
asy 2 2 b o b . /o
Exam ple 4.76. Find an expression for the maximum steady state power output of a dc shunt
En
motor with an armature resistance ra, if the applied voltage V, and the shunt-field current fa r e
kept constant. Neglect rotational losses and assume that the theoretical maximum power output
will not overload the motor.
Solution. Power output P of a dc shunt motor is given by gin
P = Power input - total losses
eer
= VJl - fr a ~
But Ia = f - f and it is given that rotational losses are neglected. ing ~ rotational losses
Substituting this value of armature current in (/), we get the maximum output power.
_ V?-V|Vt - VVb + Vt
2r0 4ra
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Art. 4.15]
D.C. Machines 499
= 2^ - 4 V ,V b +2 2V,V„
4ra
' p
" " 4r0
t.nfu a^ Vu OI- ^^P ^in son 's Method. In this method, two identical d.c. machines are
coupe , o mec anica y and electrically and are tested simultaneously. One of the machines
is ma e o run as a mo or and it drives the other machine as a generator. In this section, the
regenerative test on two identical d.c. shunt machines is described.
For performing Hopkinsons test, Fig. 4.85, machine I is started as a d.c. shunt motor by a
starter (not shown) and brought up to rated speed with switch S open. Both the machines I and
ww
II run at the same speed, because these are mechanically coupled. The field current I „ of the
second machine is now adjusted and when the voltmeter across switch S reads zero, switch S
w.E
is closed. The magnitude of the armature currents I x and 72 can be adjusted to any value by
varying the field currents In and 7^. The machine with a lower value of field current runs as a
motor, because its counter e.m.f. would be less than the e.m.f. generated in the armature of the
asy
other machine. In Fig. 4.85, if 1^ is greater than In , then machine I acts as a motor and machine
II as a generator. Thus machine I running as a motor drives machine II as a generator. Since
En
both the machines are coupled electrically, the power output of generator II is fed to the motor
I and it is for this reason that Hopkinson’s method is called a regenerative method. Consequent
gin
ly the power drawn from the supply should only be sufficient to overcome the losses in both the
machines. The speed of the set should be equal to the rated speed. If the speed falls, it can be
creasing/2 =
^ o2 —Ea 1
— eer
corrected by decreasing motor field current ln — this has the effect of decreasing EaX and in-
• j
and, therefore, I x (= I + / 2) also increases. Increase in I x more than com
ing
pensates the decrease in 7^, therefore, motor torque « 7,7^ increases and speed of the set
.ne
becomes more. I f £ al is made greater than Ea2 by increasing In and decreasing 7^, the functions
of the two machines can be interchanged, i.e. machine I can be made to work as a generator and
machine II as a motor.
In Fig. 4.85, 7, and 72 are the armature currents of motor and generator respectively and
V, is the terminal voltage of both the machines, i.e., Vt = dc supply voltage.
t
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Since the generator is driven by motor, Fig. 4.85 reveals that motor output,
* input,
Vt /i •Tl„, = generator • .
h
If the efficiencies of the two machines are assumed equal, i.e. T|m = fig = then
Generator armature current
reasons :
w.E
(а) The motor armature current I x ( = l + / 2) is greater than the generator armature current
/ 2 and thus the armature circuit loss in motor is more than the armature circuit loss in gener
ator.
* asy S
En
(б) The generator field current is greater than the motor field current. Since both machines
are running at the same speed, the generator iron losses (« speed and flux) are more than the
motor iron losses.
gin
For calculating the efficiencies, the above two reasons can be taken into consideration as
-.
follows :
eer
If ra is the hot resistance of each armature circuit, then
Wo = V , I - i \ r am- t l r ag \
where ram = resistance of motor armature circuit
and rag = resistance of generator armature circuit
Assume that the no-load rotational losses for each machine are the same.
. W
No-load rotational loss for each machine = — -
2
Generator output = Vt I2
Wo
Generator loss, Wg = + Vt 1^ + l\ra
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D.C. Machines 501
ww
The advantages of this method are : (a) the method can be used for large size machines
because the power drawn from the d.c. source has to furnish only the losses in the two
w.E
machines, (b ) the machines can be tested under rated load conditions and thus the temperature
rise and commutation process can be checked and (c) the efficiency is being determined under
rated load conditions, therefore, the stray load losses are included.
asy
The main disadvantage lies in the requirements of two identical d.c. machines.
Example 4.77. Two identical d.c. shunt machines when tested by Hopkinson’s method, gave
the following data :
En
Line voltage 230 V ; line current excluding both the field currents 30 A ; motor armature
current 230 A, field currents 5 A and 4 A.
gin
If the armature resistance o f each machine (including brushes) is 0.025 Q, calculate efficient
cy of both the machines.
eer
ing
Solution. For this example, refer to Fig. 4.85.
Since the motor armature current I x is 230 A, the generator armature current is
/ 2 = /j _ I = 230 - 30 = 200 A.
Armature circuit loss in generator .ne
= (200)2 (0.025) = 1000 W
Armature circuit loss in motor = (230)2 (0.025) = 1322 W.
t
Power drawn from the supply (excluding the field loss in two machines)
= VtI = 230 x 30 = 6900 W.
No-load rotational loss in both the machines
W0 = V )
= 6900 - (1322 + 1000) = 4578 W
No-load rotational loss for each machine
W„
= — = 2289 W.
2
For generator, output = VJ2 ~ 2^ ° x 20^ 46>°°0 W
»V0 TTY t2
Total losses, Wg = - s2 " + + 72 r«
= 2289 + 230 x 5 + 1000 = 4439 W
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ww
connections is illustrated in Fig. 4.86.
Machine M acting as a motor drives
Motor s e rie s fie ld
w.E
machine G as a generator. The series
fields of both M and G are connected in
series with the motor armature. In order
asy
that the load is not thrown off accident
ly, the generator armature is connected
to load directly without any switch.
The motor M is started in the usual En
manner and the generator output is
gin Fig. 4.86. Field’s test on two dc series machines.
wasted in the variable resistive load. The voltage V2 across the motor terminals, should be
eer
equal to its rated value. Consequently the supply voltage Vt should be equal to V2 plus voltage
drop across the generator field.
ing
Since the motor and generator fields are in series, the iron losses in both machines are the
same. The resistance of the various windings can be measured easily.
Let Vt = supply voltage
.ne
an^
. I = motor input current
Vl = generator terminal voltage
h - generator output current.
t
Power input to the whole set = V, /
Power output of the generator = VlI 1
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Art. 4.15)______________
D.C. Machines 503
M o to r p o w e r in p u t = V J .
W0
+ (r 4 •r \
Motor efficiency, n - 1 _2
' m~ V
Generator input - u 7 ± r2 *
~2" r* + *?'Vr
W
_ _ £ + T2 j2
Generator efficiency, r) = 1 _ 2 '* 1 r°*
Vt/ t + ^ r + / % + i f r w
Note that the Field's test (known after Mr. M.B. Field) is not a regenerative one because
the generator output is wasted in load resistance and not fed to to e S
w.E
si g possi e, ecause senes motors have the tendency of attaining dangerous speeds
a no- oa . n view o is, the Field s test is quite suitable for d.c. series machines. At the same
time, there is no difficulty in obtaining two similar d.c. series machines, because these motors
asy
used for traction purposes, are usually available in pairs.
Exam ple 4.78. A Field’s test on two similar series machines gave the following data :
Motor : armature current
voltage across armature En = 60 A
= 500 V
Generator:
voltage across field
terminal voltage gin
= 40 V
= 450 V
output current
voltage across field
= 46 A
= 40 V eer
ing
Armature resistance (including brushes) of each machine is 0.25 Q. Calculate efficiency o f
both the machines.
Solution. Power input to the whole set = (500 + 40 + 40) (60) = 34,800 W
Generator output = 450 x 46 = 20,700 W. .ne
.*. Total losses in the whole set = 34,800 - 20,700 = 14,100 W
Total ohmic losses = (60)2 x 0.25 + 60 (40 + 40) + (46) x 0.25 = 6230 W
t
.*. No-load rotational loss of each machine
_ 14,100 - 6230 ^ 3935 w
_ 2
Motor power input = (500 + 40) (60) = 32,400 watts.
Total motor losses = Armature circuit loss + Field circuit loss + No-load rotational loss
= (60)2 x 0.25 + 60 x 40 + 3935 = 7235 W.
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6865
•*. Generator efficiency, r|# = 1 - x 100 = 74.49%.
27,005
4.16. Rotating Amplifiers
Electronic amplifiers can give outputs economically up to a certain power level and for large
amplified power outputs, rotating amplifiers are used. These amplifiers are in common use in
modern automatic electric drives, because they possess high power gain and can work
favourably under transient conditions.
There are three types of rotating amplifiers, namely, (a) machines with self-excited tuned
fields, (6) machines with a highly saturated magnetic circuit and (c) cross field machines. Since
the rotating amplifiers of the cross-field type are more common, only these are described in this
article.
Ordinarily, a separately excited d.c. generator, driven at constant speed, is a single-stage
rotating amplifier, the power gain being ^>° W.e,r 0U*'PU^ but the term rotating amplifier is not
field power
ww
applied to it. The power amplification of 20 : 1 to 100 : 1 is obtained in one d.Q. generator
according to its size. For larger power gain, two stages as shown in Fig. 4.87 are used, the
overall power gain being the product of the power gain of each machine. Only a small power is
w.E
required by the field of the first generator
(called exciter) and the power output of the
second generator is sufficiently large to give a
4>n
asy
high overall power gain. In such a scheme, if
ordinary d.c. machines are used as shown in
_Fi«M of second
m achine
Field of
.ne
generators are called rotating amplifiers and in these the armature reaction m m f of the first
t
stage is made to act as field flux for the second stage. It should be noted that one armature
winding can behave as two separate armatures only if there are two fluxes electrically in quad
rature and two sets of brushes per pole-pair. The armature reaction m.m.f. is sometimes called
the cross-reaction of the armature and it is for this reason that the two-stage generators are
also called cross field machines.
4.16.1. Cross-field or metadyne generators. The brush axes of the exciter and d.c.
generator of Fig. 4.87, are purposely shown in quadrature, so that the superposition of the two
armatures results in the cross-field generator or metadyne generator of Fig 4 88 (a) The field
winding F produces a flux <fy along the d-axis. When the armature rotates in the flux <Jy, an
e.m.f. appears across brushes AB and this e.m.f. circulates current in the q-axis field winding,
called an ampliator winding. The flux <J>V set up by the ampliator winding, generates a second
e.m.f. across the output brushes C and D which are connected to the load.
Note that the q-axis flux is produced due to both the ampliator winding m.m.f. and the
armature reaction m.m.f. If the armature m.m.f. alone is sufficient to produce the desired flux
t q, the brushes A, B may be joined together to give the schematic representation of cross-field
________ a aa t . __ ______± _______ _ , . . . . . _
generator of Fig. 4.88 (6). In ordinary jd.c. generator, the armature reaction is a troublesome
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i Quadrature
f* axis
(a)
Fig. 4.88. Cross-Held or metadyne geiieiatuis tu; wiui mnpuawi
and (6) its schematic representation.
feature but in cross field generator it is put to advantage as the field flux of the second stage.
ww
Note also that the generation of e.m.f. across brushes A, B due to flux <|y, is the first stage of
generation and the generation of e.m.f. across brushes C, D due to the flux <j>,, forms the second
stage of generation.
w.E
Construction. The pole structure of a cross-field generator is different from that of the d.c.
machine, the pole configuration for the latter, for a 2-pole machine being shown in Fig. 4.89 (a).
asy
If the same pole structure is used for the metadyne, Fig. 4.89 (6), then the coil (undergoing
commutation) short-circuited by the output brushes C, D would be cutting the maximum d-axis
En
flux ((y and would have, therefore, maximum rotational e.m.f. generated in it. As a result of it,
a large circulating current may flow in this short-circuited coil, giving rise to poor commutation.
gin
The flux density at the position of the output brushes C, D can be reduced (and, therefore,
rotational e.m.f. reduced) by making a cut in the middle of the pole face as shown m Fig. 4.89
eer
(c) Interpoles are normally required along the output brushes and even after this cut, Fig. 4.89
IC) there is no space to fit the interpoles. Thus, in order to provide space for interpoles, one pole
ing
is split into two separate parts, giving the appearance of 4 poles for a two-pole cross-field
machine as shown in Fig. 4.89 id). For deciding the polarity of interpoles near the brushes C
and1 , attentn^Thou,d be given to d-axis mmf produced by armature.
indicated by inner crosses and dots on the armature, produce N pole near D and S pote near
C. In order to make the flux density zero under the brush at A the mterpole near brush must .ne
have N polarity. Similarly, the interpole near brush C must have S polarity
(c)
o fm .ta d y n . g .n e r ...r from ordinary d.c. machine.
Fig. 4.89. Development
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5U6 Klpiitlml Miuliliu<rv lAri. 4.|4
In Fig, *1.89 (d), the rotor Ini* ono cominutntor Fi«ld winding
mid ono nrmnturo winding (hmigiuul for two polos. F
Tho Hold or control winding F 1m wound on two*
polar prqjodionn, belonging to ono polo. Tho main
flux fcv loaves tho polar projection* 1 and 2 and
enters tho polar projection* 4 nnd 3. F lu *
K.m.f. Kquntlona. Tho Hold winding flux fc in <t>a
directed along tho horizontal nxi* or direct nxi*
and tho lino* of force enter tho armature radially
from pole segment* 1 nnd 2 and leave radially into
the polo segment* 3 and 4. The rotntion of tho nr-
mnturc in the main flux fc generate* an e.m.f.
Eq, between the rj-axis brusho* AB, nnd ita mag
nitude ia given by
fc ZPn
E. Ka (o fc- F ig 4.89. Developm ent o f m otadyne generator
ww
or =
a
If, provided anturation ia ignored.
from ordinary d.c. machine,
Hero
w.E Ktf= voltage gonerated across g-axis brushea/fiold ampero at speed u)m.
fc = total (/-axis field flux por pole, which is proportional to field (or control)
current fc.
asy
Since brushes AB are short-circuited, a large armature current, shown by outer crosses and
dots in Fig. 4.89 (</), starts flowing and this establishes a stationary magnetic flux fc centred
En
along the brushes A, B. This flux fc is directed upward and it is seen that fc and fcare in the
gin
same direction in polar projections 2 and 4, and are in the opposite direction in the polar projec
tions 1 and 3. If saturation is ignored, fc remains unaltered.
eer
Rotation of the armature in fc generates emf Ed across brushes C, D and it is given by
fc ZnP
ing
.ne
Here Kd(f is the e.m.f. generated across the d-axis brushes/^-axis armature current at speed
a),,,. When load is connected across the output brushes C, D, the load current starts flowing in
understood that e.m.fs. and currents exist simultaneously in the same armature conductors
and the position of two pairs of brushes only separate them out. Note that the armature cur
t
the armature and it is indicated by the inner crosses and dots in Fig. 4.89 (d.). It must be clearly
rents are additive between brushes B, C and A, D and they are subtractive between brushes
B ,D and A , C.
When the d-axis armature current l d flows, the inner crosses and dots establish a flux fc
due to d-axis armature mmf, opposite to the d-axis field flux fc. It is due to this reason that
metadyne is called a two-stage power amplifier, with negative current feedback with respect to
the main flux.
With the first stage of generation, ^-axis armature flux fc is established 90° away (and in
the direction o f rotation) from the field flux fc Second stage of generation establishes fc. 90°
away (and in the direction of rotation) from <f»9, i.e. 180° away, in the direction of rotation from
fc. In other words, the direct axis armature flux fc opposes the main field flux fc. If the direction
o f rotation is reversed, in the first stage fc is directed downward 90° away from fc and in the
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ww
As already explained, the voltage
across q-axis brushes A, B (in t h e first stage) is,
g e n e r a te d
generator.
asy
ture in this flux generates an emf E q2 across brushes A, B . Its magnitude is given by
Eq2 ~ Eqd
where Kqd is the q-axis armature voltage/d-axis armature current at speed o)m.
En
Since the two emfs E ql and E q2 across brushes A,
4.90, the resultant q-axis generated voltage is, ginB are in opposite sense as shown in Fig.
eer
E q = E ql - E q2 = (KqfIf - K qd Id) volts.
KdqKqfVf ...(4.72)
Edo -
rqrf
EdO _ Kdq Kqf _ ^
Voltage amplification, ~y~ -
...(4.73)
Let - dq Kqd be K h then Ed = AVf - K tId
q v 1 ic Hue t o the negativecurrent feedback.
In Eq. (4.73), the presence o f term K x Id « due to me g
When load is connected, the output voltage is
Vd ~ E d ~ ldrd
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0T rd + R i + Ki
Example 4.79. A mctadyne generator (uncompensated cross-field generator) has the follow
ing constants at speed (0,„.
Kfiom (= Kqf - q-axis armature voltage/field amp.
Kd(Om {=Kqd) = q-axis armature voltage /d-axis armature current.
/CQco„, (= Kdq) = d-axis armature voltage I q-axis armature current.
rd and rq are the d-axis and q-axis armature resistances respectively.
(a) Derive expressions for the output voltage and current and show that these are inde
ww
pendent of the direction o f rotation.
(b) Sketch the output current with speed, for a resistive load RL across the output terminals.
w.E
Solution. Upto Eq. (4.73), follow the treatment that has been adopted for its derivation.
Therefore,
asy
Ed = AVf - K Jd = Z f f * V f—
q f ~q
/„ .
En
For this example, Kq[ = KfWm, Kdq = Kqa>m and Kqd = Kdwnr Substitution of these value in
Ed gives
KdK y ^ j ) •••(4•7,
<7 7~2
(j)„,
III
At - 0, the denominator of Erp (4.77) is cqunl to infinity „ nd. therefore, /„ is rcro. Will
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' q (rd + R L)
speeds, the term wouid tend to a negligiWe
r Kf
KdKq *f ~K~d lf
The sketch showing the variation of Id with o>m is given
in Fig- 4.91. The cross-field-generator, which possesses
these characteristics is the Rosenberg generator and it is
employed extensively for lighting trains and other vehicles
s> Fig. 4.91. Variation o f output current
4.16.2. A m plid yne. An amplidyne is a metadyne gene with speed u>"’’ for a cross field generator
rator provided with a compensating winding, on the stat<* a" d
d-axis. The compensating winding is connected in series su>",l>'me a reslst,ve IMd
with the d-axis armature circuit. Fig. 4.92 gives the
ww
schematic representation,^ an amplidyne. It is essential in
an amplidyne that the compensating winding flux <{>
fc
neutralizes the flux fc produced by the d-axis armature
w.E
current, at all possible load currents. It may be stated here
that amplidyne is one manufacturer’s trade name for a fully
compensated cross-field generator.
asy
Fig. 4.90 is repeated here in Fig. 4.93, but with certain
additions.
En
The flux fc produced by the compensating winding, op Fig. 4.92. Schematic representation
o f an amplidyne.
poses the d-axis armature flux fc and, therefore, assists the
gin
field flux fc as shown in Figs. 4.92 and 4.93. Rotation of the armature in the flux fc generates
eer
an e.m.f. Eq3 = KqcId across the brushes A, B. Thus the rotational e.m.fs. appearing across
brushes A, B are Eql due to fc, Eq2 due to fc and Eq3 due to fc, Fig. 4.93. Here Kqc is the g-axis
armature voltage/compensating winding current equal to Id, at speed oom.
For an amplidyne fc and fc are equal, i.e. ing
or
Kqd I d - K p Id
.ne
t
or
Kqd = Kqc-
Eql fc
Afc «1 +’ Ea, ~
" "E„J
V
/ifc
E»r* fc
Ed 'fc fc '
---
'<>1
Fig. 4.93. Space phasor diagram for an ampHdyne.
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[A r L 4.16
510 Electrical Machinery
If the compensating winding ATs are not equal to d-axis armature ATs then let
Effective compensating winding turns, N c _ N c •Id/ e _
C= Effective d-axis armature turns, N a N J d/Re\.
Compensating winding m.m.f./Rel. _ ^ c _ ^ 3
d-axis armature m.m.f./Rel. $d Etq2
or q 2)
K qc = CK,qd•
i.e.
Fig. 4.93 reveals that the sense of e.m.f. E q2 is opposite to that of e.m.fs. E qi and Eq3. So the
resultant q-axis generated e.m.f. is
Eq = E qi - E q2 + E q3
= KqfIf - KqdId + Kq(Jd = KqfI f - K qd (1 - C) Id
and
q rq rq rf rq
Also
ww Ed = K dJq =
d a<rq rq rf
vf-
' rq
where A is the overall voltage amplification factor and K j is a constant, as before.
(1 - C ) Id = A V f - K , ld (1 - C)
or
w.E
The output voltage Vd ~ E d - Id (rd + rc) = VL
Vd = VL = AVf - l d [Kx (1 - C) + rd + rc] ...(4.78)
asy
Eq. (4.78) isapplicable both to amplidyne and metadyne.
If the compensation is 100%, i.e. C = 1, then the cross-field generator is known as amplidyne
and for this generator Eq. (4.78) becomes,
En -
Vd = VL = A V f - I d ( rd + rc)
gin ...(4.79)
If C = 0, less than or greater than one, the cross-field generator is called a metadyne.
eer
The nature of external characteristics of a cross-field generator, with various degrees of
compensation, are shown in Fig. 4.94. In Fig. 4.94 (a), the terminal voltage and output current
ing
are assumed equal at full load conditions, in all the cases. In Fig. 4.94 (6), the terminal voltage
at no load is assumed same for all the cases. It can be seen from this figure that for low values
.ne
of compensation, the machine gives an approximately constant current characteristic, while for
degree of compensation of the order of unity, the machine gives approximately constant voltage
(°) (b)
Art. 4 J 6 1 _
, . ,. ry,, . D.C. MachinesU.C.M
511
achine.
characteristics. Therefore, un-compensated m + a
source and a fully compensated metadyne U a ' 1S usually called a constant current
Comparison of voltage Eq. (4 79) f0r araPhdyne, a constant voltage source,
that the negative feedback effect K xId 0f the and Ecl- (4.74) for a metadyne, shows
reSultant d-axis flux is equal to the field flux T* °Urrent *s cancelled in amplidyne and the
control o f t h e f i e l d w i n d i n g a n d i s u n a f f e r l- p H 2 J W o r d s >t h e c f - a x i s f l u x i s u n d e r c o m p l e t e
. 1. , v e e r e d by t h e d - a x is a r m a t u r e cu rren t T
It must be understood that larger power ea' k ■ recurrent/d
eal energy of the prime-mover. Power a[ e obtamed at the expense of the mechani-
amplidyne. Since t h e power required by the fi Id 6 ° ° f 20»°00 : 1 are possible with
fie ld winding can be fed directly from an p Ip t ^ ?°ntro1, winding is very small, amplidyne
p r o v id e d , then for the given d-axis output v o l t a ^ r ? ? a.mphfieJ- If an amPliator winding is
r l ™ w.E
^ iC1 - 0nS,fa 7 “ f‘elti generat0r iS fitted With th“ ™ winding.
k Power a m p l.fic a t.o n factor. Power absorbed by the field winding is P ,= V , / , P„wer
handled by the ,-a x .s armature circuit is P, =
IS i j — *d*d'
asy End
a similarl
Pf Vf lf V flf 'E„I.
•q +q
gin
eer
(First stage power amplification) x (Second stage power amplification)
= (PAF) j x (PAF)2
Now E„ = ^f Z n P
ing
and Vf = I fTf
nP .ne
(PAF) 1
Vf !f
-------- _9-------------- -o—
a (If
L IZ
If and ~l is the field time constant xf. The term - £- represents the total ampere conductors in
rf i a
the 9-axis and, therefore Iq— = AT ' is the ATs per pole in the q-axis.
’ a ■2P 1
AT P i
■■■ (TAT),-* r j r / ^
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[A rt 4.1(
512 Electrical Machinery
ww
same time T^-and xq should be minimum
for quicker transient response. It has
been found that when both these
^ n^ Fn ld/2
w.E
requirements are achieved.
Armature ohmic loss. For a 2-pole
machine, there are two parallel paths.
asy
Fig. 4.95 shows the distribution of arma
ture currents ld and Iq in the armature
circuit of a 2-pole cross-field generator. If
En
ra is the armature resistance, then the
resistance of each parallel path will be gin
2ra. If Ia is the effective armature cur
rent, then the armature ohmic loss, as eer
Fig. 4.95. Simplified diagram showing the distribution
of armature current, in the armature of a
seen from Fig. 4.95, is
or /„ = t/HT7T
.ne
/. Armature ohmic loss = (I2 + l 2
q) x ra.
Applications of the amplidyne. An amplidyne is widely used for various purposes, par
ticularly in feedback control systems where the regulated power requirement is in the range of
t
1 to 50 kW. It may sometimes be found economical to feed the field winding of an alternator
directly from the amplidyne. It can also serve as a generator in a Ward-Leonard system of speed
control provided the controlled d.c. motor rating is not high. In these feedback systems, the
controlled quantity is compared with a fixed quantity and the difference between the two (i.e.
the error signal) is made to actuate the controlled mechanism in such a manner as to tend to
eliminate the error.
In general, when the controlled power requirements are within the power range of cross
field machines, amplidynes compete favourably with other types of controlled configurations.
Here only elementary closed loop schemes involving the amplidyne are described qualitatively-
(a) Voltage control schem es. W h e i i t h e a m p l i d y n e c i r c u i t i s d r a w n i n t h e following
s c h e m e s , its c o m p e n s a tin g w in d in g is n o t s h o w n fo r th e s a k e o f c o n v e n ie n c e .
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16
Art. 4.16]
1
(j) D.C. gen erator v o l t a g e ^ ^ ~ 7 T - - _ _ D C. M,chines 513
amplidyne exciting the field of a d.c. generator "l g' 4'.96 are 8hm™ tw° schemes, with the
In Fig. 4.96 (a), the reference voltage V !T age is to be regulated,
required value. Feedback voltage V- is tapped ff th ^ ^ potentiometer p i and fixed at a
tional to the generator output voltage The f Hh ^ ^eGdba°k P°teiitiometer P 2 and ispropor-
referen ce voltage Vref) so that the voltapp voltage Vfb is made to oppose the fixed
in
y _ ,v applled t0 the amplidyne field winding is
Vamf-{Vref- V fb). 6
ih.
is
re
le
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
Fig. 4.96. Circuit diagram for d.c. generator voltage-regulation
(a) with one-field amplidyne and (b) with two-field amplidyne.
ir-
field current. Consequently the generator output voltage decreases until it is brought to its
initial value. If the generator output voltage decreases, its effect can be explained accordingly.
If the amplidyne has two field windings, then one of them is made to serve as a reference field
t
of and the other as control field, in such a manner that their m.m.fs. oppose each other. In Fig. 4.96
;or
(b), m.m.fs, Fj and F 2 oppose each other
ed A lte rn a to r
and their resultant is responsible for A m p lid y n a field
he E xc ite r
the generation of voltage across the fie ld
.e.
output terminals of the amplidyne. Its
to
operation can be described on the same 4 rW
/
'%
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[Aft. 4.16
514 Electrical Machinery
verts alternating voltage to d.c. voltage Vn, which is compared with a fixed reference voltage
VrEf so that their difference V„f - V* = V „„,is applied to the amphdync field wmdmg.
Any increase or decrease in the alternator voltage, actuates the entire control scheme in the
fashion described for Fig. 4.96 (a).
(b) Speed control schemes. In Fig. 4.98, an amplidyne made to regulate the motor speed
of the Wprd-Leonard scheme is illustrated.
Motor To ch o -
A m p lid y n e field g e n e ra to r
ww Fig. 4.98. Circuit diagram for the motor speed regulation of Ward-Leonard scheme.
w.E
For motor speed regulation, a tachogenerator is mounted on the motor shaft whose speed
is to be regulated. The tachogenerator output voltage Vtm, proportional to the motor speed, is
compared with a fixed reference voltage Vref, Fig. 4.98. Their difference Vref-~ Vtm = Vamf, ap
asy
pears across the amplidyne field winding. If the motor speed decreases, Vtm decreases,
Vamf ~ Vref ~ Vtmincreases, the amplidyne output voltage increases and the field current of generator
En
G increases. This has the effect of increasing the voltage applied to the armature of motor M,
gin
raising the speed thereby until initial speed is attained.
The effect of increase in motor speed can be explained accordingly.
.
(c)
eer
Constant current schem e. Motor used with dredgers (or excavators), ship’s windlas
ses etc. are likely to be stalled— in view of this it is advantageous to operate such drives from
ing
constant current systems. One of the methods for obtaining constant current system, with the
help of an amplidyne, is illustrated in Fig. 4.99. In this figure, mmfs F 1 and F2 oppose each
other. The m.m.f. Fj is proportional to the voltage Vref and m.m.f. F2 is proportional to the
generator armature current Ia which is to be maintained constant. If the current Ia decreases, .ne
F2 decreases and as a result of it, the net d-axis field flux of the amplidyne goes up. This has
the effect of increasing the generator field current and, therefore, the generator output voltage,
until current Ia attains its initial value.
t
A m p lid yn e
J
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Art. 4.16]
____________________________________________
Voltage amplification A = 5 0 ; rd =5 C
l;rc = 1a ; r
Obtain an expression for the output voltage for a field current o f 60 mA.
Solution. From Eq. (4.78), Vd = A V , - l d (K ,( 1 - C ) + ri + r j
Under short-circuit, Vd = 0
•• AV/ = ^ [ * i ( l - C ) + rd + rc]
or - Id [^1 (1 - C) + rd + rc]
{ d _ ________rfi
or
If Ky (1 - C) + rd + r~c
ww
W h en C = 0,
= short-circuit current amplification.
= 2 = - ^ ° ° > <5 0 >
’
w.E If K 1 + rd + 0
K-y = 2500 - 5 = 2495
The output voltage is given by
asy
Vd =AVf - I d [Ky (1 - C) + rd + rc)
/MS f 100 x 60^
= (50) 1000 En
- ld [2495 (1 - C) + 6]
or
\
Vd = 300 - Id [2495 (1 - C) + 6].
gin i
eer
For various values of compensation C, the external characteristics (output voltage versus
load current) can be obtained from the above equation.
ing
Exam ple 4.81. A 3-kW, 300 V, 200 rad,/sec, amplidyne has the following constants:
Voltage constants,
rf = 50 ra = 5 Q, rc = 1 Q
Kqf = 250 VIfield amp. .ne
K-dq ~ 100 VI amp.
K qd = 80 VI amp.
t
Calculate the field current and power gain at rated output. Also obtain these values when
the compensation is zero. \
Solution. Voltage amplification
= £100112501^00
r ,r f (5) (50)
3000 = io A.
300
300 = 100 Vf - 10 (5 + 1)
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(Arl- 4.16
516 Electrical Machinery
or V f- 3.6 V
3,6
and k = 50 = 72 mA.
Vd Id 3000
Power gain = ~Vf^ 9 2 “ H '58° '
ww Power gain =
v did
Vflf
3000 watts
535 watts
= 5.61.
w.E
Example 4.82. A cross-field generator gave the following data for its open-circuit charac
teristic :
Eda in V
Control or field ATs
0
0 asy 40
11.5
80
23
120
36.5
160
59.5
180
79
200
no
220
160
The field winding has 800 turns and total d-axis
En
armature circuit resistance is 0.5 Q. The metadyne is
under compensated such that the mmfs o f d-axis ar
mature circuit and compensating winding differ by 10 gin 240
Load c u r r e n t
ing
200 X
A ■iagnetisati on
Solution. For a field current of 200 mA, the field
.ne
winding ATs are N 1/
160
200 x 800 Edo / \ 1
1000
= 160.
80 /
/
/
Ou t p u
t \
\
vo t ag A
turns are opposing the field winding ATs, because the locid c u r r ent
machine is under-compensated. \
40 /
Net ATs along d-axis, which are responsible for^ 1 \
the generation of emf, for a field current of 200 mA are
T 1
= (160 - 10/L)
— *-F 1 e ld (A ts )
Maximum load current can be Fig. 4.100. Curves pertaining to Example 4.79.
= 16A
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For obtaining the magnitude of output voltage for other load currents, the calculations are
done in tabular form given below :
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
l . / t i» A
2. Net d-axis ATs = (160 - 10/L) 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
3. Open-circuit em f in V for (2), from Fig. 4.100 220 213 204.7 194 180.5 161.4 128 70 0
5, Output voltage = (3) - (4) 220 212 202.7 191 176.5 156.4 122 63 -8
The magnetization curve and the external characteristics for a field winding current of 200
mA are shown in Fig. 4.100.
Example 4.83. For this example, the metadyne saturation curve given in Example 4.79, is
assumed to be a straight line. Under this assumption, the metadyne gives an output voltage of
206 V, for a load current o f 8 A and a field current o f200 mA. For an open-circuit voltage o f 280
V, find the field winding current.
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Solution. With saturation ignored, the output voltage Vd is given by
Vd = (800 If - 10 IL) K - ILr
w.E
where K = slope of the straight line magnetization curve in volts/AT.
For Vd = 206 V, IL = 8 A and If= 200 mA, the output voltage equation is
206 =
asy 800 x 200
1000
- 8 0 K - 8 0 (0.5)
or K = ^ volts/AT. '
En
gin
O
On open-circuit, Ed0 = [d-axis ATsl (K)
or 280 = (800 7 , - 0 )
21
8
eer
or Field current l t = 133.3 mA. V
ing
Example 4.84 .Fig. 4.96 (a) shows a circuit for dc generator voltage-regulation. The various
constants for this scheme are given below :
Amplidyne voltage amplification 100 .ne
DC generator output voltage
Field winding resistance o f G
200 V per field ampere
125 Cl
(a) Feedback potentiometer P2 tapped to give -0 .1 Vt and P^is set to give
t 50 V.
Find the output voltage o f generator G.
(b) Now Vfh is reduced to zero ; find the value o f V n f to obtain the generator output voltage
found in part (a).
Solution, (a) Voltage applied to the amplidyne field winding,
W ^ -V ^ f S O -O .lV ,)
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(Art. 4.H
518 K lc c tr lw il M m ld n o r y —
asy
Solution. Generator output voltage = 250 V.
For generated voltage of 80 V, the field current = 1 Amp.
En 250
For the generator voltage of 250 V, its field current is given by — A.
gin
Now for current output of 1.5 A, the amplifier input voltage - 1 volt.
eer
25
.-. For current output of -r- A, the amplifier input voltage
25 2 25 _ _Q
-gT X 3 = 12 = 2 08 VOltS-
ing
Feedback voltage,
•\ Reference voltage
= 0.2 x 250 = 50 V.
ER = (Feedback voltage) + (Amplifier input voltage) .ne
If feedbnck voltage V/lt is zero then
= 50 + 2.08 = 52.08 V.
t
En = 0 + 2.08 = 2.08 V.
Example 4.86. A 4 k\V, 250 V d.c. generator has armature and field resistances of 0.25 0
and 100L1 respectively. When this generator is used as shown in Fig. 4.101, the full load voltage-
regulation is improved 20 times. Calculate the amplifier gain required. Assume the generator
gain factor to be 120 volts per field ampere and feedback potentiometer setting at (a) 0.1 and (b)
unity.
Solution. If Vt is the generator terminal voltage, then the voltage across the amplify
input terminals is (EK - k Vt), where k is the feedback potentiometer setting.
where Ap is the amplifier gain factor in volts per volt input and ry is the generator field resis
tance.
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The generator no-load emf is -— £—£ volts, where A„ is the generator gain factor.
ry- «
y — -h ra
or y ...(4.80)
rf + k A frAe
The reference voltage ER remains constant and therefore ERAfrAg can’t change. In view of
this, for small changes in Vt and lL, the term ERAfrAg} becomes zero and, therefore, Eq. (4.80)
is reduced to
. Tr 0 - A l i r a rf
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• Vt 20 250 X 20 “ 5000 pU'
asy
A' ' , = ~ 5 T O 0 * 250 = - 5 Volt'
. 1 En
For Eq. (4.81), ML = 16 A, k = 0.1, Ag ^ 120, rf = 1 0 0 Q.
0 - 16 x 0.25 x 100
or
5 100 + 0.1 x A frx 120
Ap. = 158.33 gin
For k = 1,
Af, = 15.83. eer
4.17. Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) Motors ing
In conventional dc (CDC) motors, stationary Field winding is excited by direct current to
produce the magnetic flux needed in the machine. In PMDC motors, the stationary electromag .ne
nets and their associated Field windings are replaced by permanent magnets. In other words,
the Field flux required in the air gap of PMDC motor is produced by a set of permanent magnets
Fixed to the- stator. The rotor of this motor is similar to the rotor of CDC motor, i.e. rotor of
t
PMDC motor consists of armature core, armature windings and commutator. Stationary carb
on brushes are kept pressed on to the commutator surface as in a CDC motor.
PMDC motors are used extensively in automobiles for windshield wipers and washers, for
blowers used in heaters and air-conditioners, to raise and lower windows, in slot cars and
electric tooth brushes, in personal computer disc drives etc. As millions of automobiles are
manufactured each year, PMDC motors are also produced in millions. Permanent-magnet
motors have been developed up to about 150 kW for use in industry.
The major advantage of PMDC motors is that they require no Field current. So the energy
Squired in producing the Field flux is saved. As space for winding is not needed, PMDC motors
are smaller in size and may even cost less than the corresponding rated CDC motors.
The limitation of PMDC motors is that excessive current in the armature winding may
emagnetize the permanent magnets. In addition, the flux density produced in the air gap by
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ww
In a PMDC motor, flux <j>is constant and as a result, above equations can be reduced to
w.E Ea = Km<om
Te = KmIa
...(4.82)
...(4.83)
asy
where Km = K a tyis known as speed-voltage con stan t or to rq u e co n sta n t. Its value depends
upon the number of field poles, armature conductors etc.
En
Equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.102 gives
Vt = Ea + Iara = Kmcom + Iara ...(4.84)
“ m= gin ...(4.85)
eer
Kn
Equations governing the performance of PMDC motor are basically the same as for dc
ing
shunt motor with constant field. Consequently, the speed and torque of PMDC motor can be
adjusted by armature-terminal voltage control, armature rheostat control and chopper control.
.ne
E xam ple 4.87. A PMDC motor has armature resistance o f 1 Ct. When fed from 48 V dc
source, it runs at a speed o f 2400 rpm while taking 0.8 A. Determine (a) the no-load rotational
voltage o f 40 V dc and (c) its stall torque when the source voltage is 20 V dc.
Solu tion, (a) From Equation (4.84), the generated emf Ea is given by
t
losses o f the motor (b) the motor output when running at a speed o f 1600 rpm and with source
Ea = 48 - 0.8 x 1 = 47.2 V
At no load, all the electromagnetic power developed is used to supply the no-load rotational
losses.
.*. No-load rotational losses
2w x 1600
For a speed of 1600 rpm, rad/s
60
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4.18. D.C. M achine Applications
D.C. machine applications involve reconsideration of their operating characteristics,
w.E
together with their economic and technical evaluation as compared with other competing ener- ,
gy-conversion devices. The outstanding advantage of d.c. machines is that they offer easily
controllable characteristics. Their main disadvantage is high initial investment. In spite of this,
asy
d.c. machines still hold a strong competitive position for industrial applications because of their
attractive features. In this article, d.c. machine applications are considered briefly.
En
4.18.1. G enerator applications. The advent of various types of controlled rectifiers, has
declined the importance of d.c. generators. Wherever electric energy in dc form is required, it
gin
has been found much cheaper to convert ac to dc by means of transformer-rectifier equipment
rather than with the use of ac to dc motor-generator set. The disadvantages of transformer-
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rectifier equipment are poor power factor, harmonic generation, difficulty in obtaining rever
sing and regenerative braking. Its advantages, namely less cost, less floor-space, less noise
and minimum maintenance ; more than outweigh its disadvantages in this modern age. It does
ing
not mean that d.c. generators are not manufactured in the present times. In some applications,
dc generators are indispensable and some of these applications are dynamometers (for measur
ing torque etc.), dc welding generators, control-type dc generators (cross-field generators) for
closed loop systems, permanent magnet dc generators {i.e. tachogenerators) etc. From among .ne
the dc generators, the commonly used generators are separately-excited generators for wide
output-voltage control and cumulatively compounded self excited generators for maintaining
constant terminal voltage. Now a days, the principal applications of separately-excited dc gene
t
rators are (i) to serve as an excitation source for large alternators in power-generating stations,
(ii) to serve as control generator in Ward-Leonard system of speed control and (Hi) to serve as
auxiliary and emergency power supplies.
The power for electroplating can be obtained from ac supply through rectifiers or from dc
generators. When electroplating is required in expensive equipment like aircrafts, bombers
etc., an uninterrrupted and constant dc voltage is essential. This supply, in practice, is usually
taken from several dc generators running in parallel. It is because of the fact that ac supply
through rectifiers used for electroplating may suffer an inadvertent voltage dip, thereby result
ing in defective electroplating. As a consequence, expensive equipment under treatment would
have to be discarded leading to a huge loss. Therefore, it is essential to employ dc generators in
Parallel for the electroplating of expensive equipment as listed above.
4-18.2. M otor applications. D.C. motors possess excellent torque speed characteristics
offer a wide range of speed control. Though efforts are being made to obtain wide range
/W l I
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[A rt. 4.18
522 Electrical Machinery
s p e e d c o n t r o l w i t h a .c . m o t o r s , y e t t h e v e r s a t i l i t y a n d f l e x i b i l i t y o f d . c . m o t o r s c a n t b e m a t c h e d
by a . c . m o t o r s . In v i e w o f t h i s , t h e d e m a n d f o r d .c . m o t o r s w o u l d c o n t i n u e u n d i m i n i s h e d e v en
i n f u t u r e . A b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e d .c . m o t o r a p p l i c a t i o n s i s g i v e n b e l o w .
Shunt motors, (i) For a given field current in a shunt motor, the speed drop from no-load
to full load is invariably less than 6 to 8%. In view of this, the shunt motor is termed a constant
speed motor. Therefore, for constant speed drives in industry, d.c shunt motors can be
employed. But this motor can’t compete with constant-speed squirre cage in uc ion motor,
because the latter is more cheaper, rugged and requires less maintenance.
(ii) When constant speed service at low speeds is required, the comparison is usually be
tween synchronous motors and dc shunt motors. It is because the construction of high perfor
mance polyphase induction motor with large number of poles is difficult. However, for
adjustable-speed service at low operating speed, dc shunt motor is a preferred choice.
(iii) When the driven load requires a wide range of speed control (both below base speed and
above base speed), a d.c. shunt motor is employed, e.g. in lathes etc.
(iu) In a shunt motor, if field winding is disconnected from armature and connected to an
ww
external voltage source, it becomes a separately-excited, motor. This motor offers independent
armature control and field control. Since separately-excited dc motors are easily adaptable to
wide range speed and torque control, in high-power applications these are used extensively in
w.E
steel and aluminium rolling mills and in Ward-Leonard systems of speed control. In low-power
applications, separately excited dc motor finds wide use as a control motor.
asy
A control motor is a low-power rating (less than a few hundred watts) motor, with field
excitation held fixed and with its torque Te proportional to armature current Ia.
En
Series Motors. The outstanding feature of series motor is the automatic decrease in speed
as soon as increased load torque is required. The decrease in speed with increase in load torque
or vice-versa has only a marginal effect on the power taken by the series motor.
gin
(i) Since a series motor can withstand severe starting duties and can furnish high starting
eer
torques, it is best suited for driving hoists, trains, excavators, cranes etc. Wound-rotor induc
tion motors compete favourably with series motors, but the choiceds governed by the economics
ing
However, for traction purposes, series motor is the only choice. Therefore, series motors are
widely used in all types of electric vehicles, electric trains, streetcars, battery-powered portable
tools, automotive starter motors etc.
.ne
(u) S e r i e s m o t o r s c a n b e u s e d t o d r i v e p e r m a n e n t l y c o n n e c t e d l o a d s , s u c h a s f a n l o a d , b e
c a u s e its to r q u e r e q u ir e m e n t in c r e a s e s w it h th e s q u a r e o f t h e s p e e d .
• * (Ua1) In,order *° avoid P°lluti°n in big cities, now battery-driven automobiles are being t
s s 'i s i 'K - s “* !1
for loads, requiring heavy starting torque which S e likelv l ° f C? mp° Ufnd mot°Trs ar,eUSj
series motor, no-load speed becomes dangerouslv hmV, h \ • reduced to zero. In ordinary
speed is limited by the weak shunt field. U in a comP°und motor* the no-loa
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The type of drives where such compound motors can be employed are rolling mill drive, punch
ing press, planning or milling machine etc.
(iji) When the supply voltage across the motor terminals is likely to vary considerably, such
as in traction motors, compound motors are preferred. The series field helps in reducing the
fluctuations o e armature current drawn from the supply, because of its inductance and
because of senes-field mmf effect on the flux and therefore on the counter e.m.f.
(iv) A differential compound motor is almost never used. In this motor, shunt and series
fields oppose eac o eran it is possible that at some state of operation, there may be zero flux
in the air gap. When this occurs, motor speed (n °= ^ becomes dangerously high and armature
current increases to a very high value. This shows a differential compound motor is associated
with increased armature current at high operating speed ; this motor may also draw increased
armature curren unng its starting. This increased armature current during starting or
during high-speed operation becomes dangerously so high that it may damage the commutator
and armature windings. So, a differential compound motor is rarely used in practice.
ww
I n g e n e r a l , m a j o r c a u s e o f u s i n g dc m a c h i n e s i n e l e c t r o m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m s i s t h a t t h e i r
d y n a m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n b e c o n t r o lle d e a s i l y t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f v a r i a b l e v o l t a g e a c r o s s a r
w.E
m a tu re a n d / o r f ie ld w in d in g s . R e c e n t a d v a n c e s in p o w e r e le c tr o n ic s h a v e , h o w e v e r , m a d e a v a i l
a b le v a n a b l e - v o l t a g e - v a r i a b l e f r e q u e n c y (VW F) c o n v e r t e r s o f s u f f i c i e n t p o w e r l e v e l . T h e d r i v e s
c o n s is tin g o F c o n t r o lle r s a n d a c m a c h in e s a r e n o w b e in g c o n s id e r e d fo r s u c h a p p lic a t io n s
asy
w h ic h w e r e O n c e d o m i n a t e d b y d c m a c h i n e s .
In the end, it must be emphasized that choice of a dc motor for adjustable speed drives
En
should not be based merely on its merits and demerits. In fact, it is necessary to make specific,
analytic, economic and technical comparison of all possible alternatives. Operating charac
gin
teristics of motor and load must be compatible with each other. At the same time, comparative
studies amongst various choices must be based on the combination of motor and its associated
eer
control equipment. As the d.c. machines are easily adaptable to control strategies, d.c.
machines offer versatile energy conversion devices and hence their demand continues un
dwindled.
Permanent-Magtiet DC M otors. As stated before, these motors are used in automobiles ing
as starter motors and for windshield wipers and washers, for blowers used in heaters and air-
conditioners, for raising and lowering windows, for electric tooth brushes etc. Literally, PMDC .ne
motors are manufactured in millions each year to meet the demand of millions of automobiles
produced each year.
At last, it may be said about dc motor applications that the use of power-semiconductor
t
devices in electric drive systems has strengthened the competitive position of dc motors where
Precise control of speed and/or torque is required.
PROBLEM S
4.1. (a) Draw neat diagram o f a 4-pole dc machine. Label all its parts and mention the m aterial used for
each part.
For M i f 10 kW ’ 250 V ’ 6 ' P o I e lap-connected dc -enerator runs at 1200 rpm. Armature has 500 conductors,
load arm ature-ohm ic loss o f 200 W, find the useful flux per pole. Take 2 V as the brush drop at full
[Ans. 0.0257 Wb|
convert’ ^ parts o f a dc machine are laminated i f it is to be operated through a power-electronics
e cr ? Name these parts and give their constructional details.
Calcic A 4 poIe ,aP-connected dc generator has no-load generated e.m.f. o f 500 V when driven at 1200 rpm.
mate the flux per pole i f the armature has 120 slots with 6 conductors per slot.
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In case each conductor has a resistance o f 0.01 ii, find the resistan ce o f the arm atu re winding.
[A ns. (6) 0.03472 Wb, 0.45Q,
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(c) A dc shunt m achine develops an open circuit e.m.f. o f 250 V at 1500 rpm. Find its developed torque for
an arm ature current o f 20 A. [Ans. (c) 31.831 Nm|
w.E
4.6. (a) The rms value o f generated e.m.f.in a distributed w inding is given by VsT n kw ■fr N <> where
^u <fr' N ^ 4 0 are respectively the winding factor,rotational frequency, num ber o f distributed turns and total
flux per pole. From this, derive an expression for the e.m.f. generated in the arm ature o f a dc machine.
asy
(fc) A 6-pole, 12 kW , 240 V dc m achine is w ave-connected. I f this m achine is now lap-connected, all other
things rem aining the sam e, calculate its voltage, current and pow er ratings. [Ans. (fc) 80 V, 150 A, 12 kW]
En
4.7. (a) E.m.f. generated in one N-tum coil, rotating in a constant field flux $, at any tim e t is given by
e( = N co, <(>sin t
where
gin
o)r = armature speed o f dc machine in rad/sec.
Use this expression o f ec to derive the following e.m.f. expression for a dc generator :
E .^ v o lu
eer
ing
(fc) A separately-excited dc generator, operating with fixed excitation, delivers 450 kW to a dc bus at
600 V. Estimate the percentage change in generator speed required so that 180 kW is delivered to dc bus.
15 0 015 a
.ne
Resistance between bus-bar term inals and the arm ature term inals is 0.015 ii and arm ature-circuit resistance
|Ans. (fc) - 2.1687%l
t
4.8. (a) By using Blv concept, derive the following e.m.f. expression for a dc m achine :
Ea = ^ - volts
a
(6) A 10 kW , 6-pole dc generator develops an e .m .f o f 200 V at 1500 rpm. T he arm ature has a lap-connected
n£ g ^ ,enSAty, 8 P° le Pitch is 0 9 Tesla ^ len^ h and diam eter o f the armature are
0.25 m and 0 2 m respectively. Calculate («) the flux per pole (ii) the total num ber o f active conductors in the
arm ature and (w ) the torque developed by the machine when the arm ature supplies a current o f 50 A
[GATE, 19911
lAns. (fc) (i) 0.02356 Wb (it) 340 (iii) 63.745 Nml
4.9. (a) Derive an expression for the electrom agnetic torque developed in a dc m achine by u sin g BIl concept
(fc) A 2-pole lap-wound dc shunt m otor with 360 conductors operates at a constant flux level o f 5 0 mWb.
The m otor arm ature has a resistance o f 0.12 ii and is designed to operate at 240 V taking a current of 60 A
at full load. ’ 6
(i) D eterm ine the value o f external resistance to be inserted in the arm ature circuit so that armature
current does not exceed twice its full-load value at starting.
(ii) The external resistance is com pletely cut out w hen the m otor reaches its final speed with the armature
current at the full-load value. Calculate the m otor speed under these conditions. [GATE, 19921
IAna. (i) 1.88 O (ii) 776 rp»l
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U (ft) A d c s h u n t g e n e r a t o r g i v e s a n o p e n - c ir c u it v o lta ir e o f 9 d n v ^ , . , , , „
n20 V D e te r m in e t h e lo a d c u r r e n t in c a s e a r m a t u r e c ir c u it ? r ' ’ t e r m ,n a l v o l t a e e f a l ls to
resp ectively. N e g le c t th e efT ect o f a r m a t u r e r e a c t io n H e ld - w in d in g r e s i s t a n c e s a r e 0 .1 f l a n d 5 0 f l
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stated in p a r t (a ) a b o v e , f lu x d e n s it y in th e s lo t is 0 nn
average fo rce o n e a c h c o n d u c to r
d ia m e te r is 12 0 cm . B e c a u s e o f t h e fa c t s
a t o t a l flu x P e r P o le o f 80 m W b . C a l c u l a t e th e
(i)
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i f th e c o n d u c to r is h o u s e d in th e s lo t a n d
(4) A 4 - p o l e c o m p o u n d g e n l Z T : T ' ^
asy iron surfa“ -
* '
i n , 0.5 Q a n d 1 Q0 f l r e s p e c t iv e ly . T h is g e n e r a t o r d S v e r e 4 k w ’ i r ’ 1) ' ^ ^
IAns- w “ 216" ,w 25 47 *
°f ' :
s h u il t ' fie lli r e s i s t a n c e s o f
P" ^ iH h e g e n e r a t e d
En ^ 2° ° V ^ 1 V
gin
(ffl th e ilu * p e r p o le i f t h e a r m a t u r e h a s 200 la p - c o n n e c te d c o n d u c to r s a n d is d r iv e n a t 7 5 0 rp m .
4 .14 . (a) E x p la in w h y t h e e m f e e n e r M H •
W F o u r t e r m in a ls o f a d c s h u n t m a c h “ ^ °
^ ^ ^ ^
eer ^ 235 V W> 93 64 m W b ‘ 94 m W b l
f a d ‘ ^ o r is c a lle d ‘b a c k e.m .f.-.
the field a n d a r m a t u r e t e r m in a ls ?
ing
^ 318 a v a ila b le - b u t th e s e a r e u n m a r k e d . H o w w o u ld y o u id e n t if y
characteristic is g i v e n l ^ t ^
.ne
w h oseex te rn a l
t
‘ e n n in a l^ c m 9 T 2 r n ] S tan C e t e m i n a l s a r e m a t u r e te r m in a ls w h e r e a s h ig h - r e s is t a n c e t e r m in a ls a r e fie ld ‘
W Howwin t u d M n lth be"w eWe n dingS ' T f 0" ‘ he P°'e °f 3 dCCOm'’° u" d ?
K s c u s s t L te rm c fm l Z s H , ° f 3 d c c o m p ° ™ d “ “ c h in e ?
4 lfi i in n . . m m utatlon and commutation period.
(b) cn, *S m e a n tJ )y a r m a t u r e r e a c tio n ?
(c) t h a t th e efT ect ° f a r m a t u r e m .m .f. on th e m a in fie ld , is e n t ir e ly c r o s s - m a m e t i* ’
d e m a 8 n e ti2 e ‘ h e -“ d E x p la i n
4 18 /^ 3 *n b r ie f ly t b e f ° u r b a d e ffe c ts o f a r m a t u r e r e a c tio n .
main field ? ) ll0 W S h ° u ld th e m a in -p o le tip s b e c o n s tr u c te d to m in im iz e th e e ffe c t o f a r m a t u r e r e a c t io n o n t h e
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4.19. (a) Explain how the effect o f arm ature m m f on the main field flux can be described with the he!p0f
magnetization curve o f a dc machine.
(6) How can you detect w hether the brushes in a dc m achine are placed correctly along the interpolar axi$
or not ?
(c) In dc m achines, explain why air-gap length at pole centre is short as com pared to air-gap lengths at
pole tips.
(d) W hat are the various types o f brushes and where these are em ployed?
4.20. (a ) Derive expressions for the back ampere turns per pole and cross-m agnetizing ATs per pole in case
brushes are given a lead o f 9° from GNA in case o f a dc generator.
( b ) A 6-pole, wave-wound dc generator has armature conductors 360, arm ature current 80 A, angle of lead
5° from GNA. Calculate (i) back and cross ampere turns per pole (ii) num ber o f series turns per pole to neutralise
the dem agnetization. Take leakage co-efficient = 1.2.
[ H in t : (6) series field mmf per pole = |Ans> {b) (f) 20Q mQ
back ATs per pole 1
4.21. (a) W hat is m eant by com m utation in dc m achines ? Differentiate betw een good commutation and
bad com mutation. Enum erate the m echanical and electrical conditions leading to poor commutation in dc
machines.
ww
(6) Describe the process or com m utation in dc machines through the reversal o f current in a coil.
2 Ia/a
w.E
Hence show that e.m.f. induced in a coil undergoing com m utation is given b y ——— w here /„ is the armature
asy
4.22. (a) I f coil resistance is neglected as com pared to the copper-carbon resistance, linear commutation is
obtained ; if coil resistance is not neglected, resistance com m utation is obtained. Explain.
(b) On what four factors, does the current in a com m utated coil depend ? Discuss.
En
4.23. (a) Give the concept o f reactance voltage in dc m achines.
Discuss how reactance voltage causes under com m utation in dc m achines.
(b) Discuss resistance com m utation qualitatively.
gin
Explain how good com m utation is achieved by m inim ising the reactance voltage.
eer
D escribe the role played by resistance com m utation in securing good com m utation in dc machines.
ing
4.24. (a) Sketch the general waveform o f arm ature m m f and flux in a dc m achine. W here has the flux zero
value and m axim um value and w hy ?
(b) H ow is the voltage com m utation achieved in dc m achines ?
4.25. (a) W hat are the interpoles ?
.ne
W hy are interpoles designed to provide m m f more than the arm ature m m f in the com m utating zone ?
(6) W ith the dc m achine fitted with interpoles, draw the resultant flux den sity waveform and show
therefrom the im provem ent in the com m utation process o f both the gen erator and m otor.
(c) W hat should be the polarity o f interpoles with respect to the m ain poles in a dc m achine ?
t
4- k ° w flashover betw een positive and negative brush m ay occu r in dc m achines subjected
to rapidly ch an gin g loads. How is this trouble o f flashover overcom e by com pen satin g w indings ?
(6) A com pensated dc m achine h
pole-pitch is 0.7. In terpolar air-gap length and flux density are respectively 1 cm and 0 3 T For rated a r m a t u r e
current o f 100C A, calcu late the com pensating w inding conductors per pole and the n u m ber o f turns on each
,n terp0le' [Ans. (b) 26 conductors, 9 turnsl
4.27 . (a ) E xplain how an arc betw een adjacent com m utator segm ents m ay occu r in dc machines subjected
to h eavy overloads. D iscuss h ow the occu rrence o f such an arc can be avoided.
(b) Show ph ysical arran gem en t o f the connections o f arm ature circu it w ith the com pensating winding
h avin g four con du ctors in its pole-face slots. -
(c) A dc com pou n d m ach in e possesses both interpole and com p en sa tin g w indings. Draw its s c h e m a t i c
d iagram in d icatin g each part clearly. D iscuss the function o f each o f the w in d in gs sh ow n in the diagram'
4 .2 8 . (a) D raw -th e equ iva len t circu it o f a dc com pou n d m ach in e for both g en era tin g and motoring mode-'
for lon g-sh u n t as w ell as sh ort-sh u n t con n ections. W rite voltage equ ation s for th ese circuits defining a11 “
p aram eters used.
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P ro b . 4 J ____
------ D.C. M achines 527
(,b) In a 220-V com pou n d generator • the arm**., • ,
0.25 f2 ,0 .15 and 50 Q respectively. The load rnnaieT r? ^ 8,01168 311(1 shunt w m din e s have resistances o f
e m.f. and arm ature current w hen the m achine 8 ° V , lamps, each rated at 60 W , 220 V. Find the total
connected for (i) long shunt and (ii) short shunt.
. OQ „ (An» - (5) (D 232.67 V, 31.673 A ( « ) 232.03 V. 31.755 A|
4.20. (a) Explain the m ethods o f im proving mm™, * *• . .
, 0, . , , ® com m utation in dc machines
(5) Sketch and com m en t on the resultant flux « ,
winding and interpoles. y waveform for a dc m achine fitted with com pen satin g
ww
the voltage across th eir brushes is not zero ? Tn ra
f r ) A 220 V 1 5 WW okq .
<°r ** r d at rated speed with zero field current, w hy
se i is zero, what you would do with the dc m achine ?
current o f 8 A at rated ioad c m f l t f o ^ T f t h e ** m.0t° r ,h a® armature resistance o f 2.5 fi and it draw s a
w.E
the rated speed at rated load w hat w ilf be the n o I T ' ^
between no-load.and full-load operation.
a™ frxed at the value o f
8Peed o f the motor ? Assume losses rem ain constant
En
a voltage o f 100V.
and terminal voltage. ° ^
gin
h T i S c S ^ a n d t h e ? V T *"!*.?1 ^
*nd the load adJusted
^ deliverin& 5 kW at
8 kW - r>"d the new field current
eer
(H in t : (a , External characteristic - terminal voltage rises with increase in load - in others it falls etc.
(b)Eal = k N l Ifl,im dk = ^ V -A /r p m . New armature or field current = and new Ea2 = Vl2 + ™ ™ etc.)
ing
.ne
t
is 2 v ’ )wv.Separate-y excited dc generator has armature circuit resistance o f 0.1 tl and a total dron at h r„< = w
thp a ’ runnm ^ at 1000 rpm, it delivers a current o f 100 A at 250 V to a ioad o f constant resict*
the generator speed drops to 700 rpm, with field current unaltered, find the current d J t Z T u !Toad
n-
. IAns. (6 ) 69.77 A]
the fol’w 2 gener,a t0r 13 devel°Pm g rated terminal voltage at some speed. For this generator answer
lowing questions and give a brief explanation in support o f your answers : ’
la) If only the direction o f rotation is reversed, will the generator build-up?
generator bujh^up*?^° ^ reV6rSal ° f direction o f rotation- the residual magnetism is also reversed. W ill the
(c) If only the field winding connections o f the original machine are reversed, will the generator build up ?
Id) If only the residual m agnetism o f the original machine is reversed, will the generator build up ?
the ml b° th the direct>on o f rotation and field winding connections o f the original machine are reversed will
inacmne build up ?
g e n jf l y tlle brushes are m oved in the direction o f rotation o f the original machine, what will happen to the
ator operation ?
« imur/*,*’ no (b) no (c) no (d ) yes, brush polarity is reversed (e) yes, brush polarity is reversed (f) com m utation
ed and generator terminal voltage falls.]
4‘88, Explain the voltage build-up process in d.c. shunt-generators.
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(6) It is found that the voltage o f a d.c. shunt generator does not build up. E xplain the various
causes o f this failure. P°ssib|.
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4.37. A d.c. generator with interpoles is running satisfactorily as a cum u latively compounded eenera**
The m achine is stopped and its residual m agnetism is reversed. After this, the connections aremadeaa n,
w.E
were before and the m achine is run in the same direction. they
(а) D n s the m achine build-up voltage ? Explain.
(б) I f answer to part (a) is yes, is the term inal voltage the sam e as before? Explain.
asy
(c) Is the machine now cum ulatively or differentially com pounded ?
(d) Do the com poles have proper polarity for good com m utation ?
[Ans.
En
(a) Yes. (6) Yes, but the polarity is reversed, (c) Cumulatively compounded generator, (d) Yes ]
4.38. (a) Explain w hy the m agnetization curve for a dc generator obtained w ith increasing values nffioU
eer
c h a r a c te r is tic ^ ^ b ta in e d X ^ th i^ g e n e r a to r ^ E x p la in ^ eXte™ al characterist>c- H ow can the level-compounded
.ne
“C
at 1000
39 fa) D r “
’ am W °A ° h"
(6) r.p.m
— ^
A s h.o :r t - s h u n t c u m u la t i v e ly c o m p o u n d e dgenerator
g e n e r a t o rhas
hawthe
t b ofollow
f ii in•g data
j
t“ dS5
F or a sh u n t field resistance o f 45 f i (
(i) determ ine the no-load term inal voltage,
(ii) i f the speed at rated arm ature current is 95fl r « ™ i , . . ,■ the field
current the sam e as found in part (i). P m -. calcu late the term in al voltage taking th
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V, = 228 - 120 x 0.05 - 115.05 x 0.04 = 217.4 V] [Ans. (a) 222 V, (b ) 217.4 V]
4.40. (a) E xplain the nature o f no-load, external and armature characteristics o f a dc shunt generator.
Why d°es t*'e extern a* characteristic o f this generator turn back as the generator is overloaded ?
(b) A belt driven 60 kW shunt-w ound generator running at 500 r.p.m. is supplying full load to a bus bar
at 200 V. At what speed w ill it run if the belt breaks and the machine continues to run taking 5 kW from the
bus bar ? The arm ature and field resistances are 0.1 fl and 100 fi respectively. Brush contact drop m ay be
taken as 2 V. N eglect arm ature reaction. [An*. (*,) 421.404 r.p.m.)
4.41. (a ) Draw the external characteristics o f various types o f dc generators in one figure on the assum ption
of same rated term inal voltage and the sam e rated load current. Discuss the nature o f these characteristics
and compare them.
(b) A 20 kW , 250 V dc series generator is running at 1000 rpm under full-load conditions. It is given that
field flux per pole $ « + j •r* = 0 01 n , ra = 0.015 D and armature de-magnetizing am pere turns per pole
= 6% o f the field am pere-turns per pole. Brush voltage drop is 2 V. Calculate the m otor terminal voltage in case
the motor draws 100 A at 1050 rpm.
ww
[H in t : (6) Eal = 250 + 80 x 0.025 + 2, Net field flux =
[An*. (6 ) 284.45 VI
Eq2 1050
w.E
4.42. (a) D istinguish betw een external and internal characteristics o f a dc generator. Explain, with
appropriate diagram s, how the internal characteristics can be obtained from external characteristics o f the
following dc generators :
(i) separately-excited generator asy
(ii) shunt generator (Hi) series generator.
(b)
En
A 240 V, 36 kW , dc shunt generator has 500 field turns per pole. On no load, the generated voltage of
240 V is obtained w ith a field current o f 2 A. For m aintaining 240 V at full load and at the sam e speed, the
gin
field current required is 3.2 A. Calculate the num ber o f series-field turns per pole required for level com pound
ing [Ans. (6) 4 turns)
4.43. (a) D erive the speed-current characteristics o f dc shunt, series and cumulative compound motors.
eer
Sketch these characteristics in one figure on the assumption o f (i) same speed at no load and (ii) rated speed
at rated current. C om m en t on the nature o f these characteristics.
(b)
ing
A 4-pole dc series m otor has w ave-connected winding with 600 conductors. Total resistance o f m otor is
0.8 fl. When fed from 250 V dc source, the m otor supplies a load o f 10 kW and takes 50 A with a flux per pole
.ne
of 3 mWb. For these operating conditions, calculate the developed torque and the shaft torque.
[An*. (b) 28.65 Nm, 27.284 Nm)
4.44.
these characteristics in one figure on the assum ption off*) same torque at no load and (»«) rated torque at rated
current.
From these torqu e-cu rren t characteristics ; find, giving reasons, the most suitable m otor for traction-type
t
(a) D erive torqu e-cu rren t characteristics o f dc shunt, series and cumulative com pound motors. Sketch
loads.
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At rated voltage and rated speed, the motor takes a full-load current o f 36 A. Find the internal startin*
torque, in case the starting current is limited to 60 A. Assum e the dem agnetizing effect o f armature reacti^
to be proportional to the square o f the current.
(H in t : Plot the magnetization curve at 600 rpm. The dem agnetizing effect for 36 A is 7.6 A according
( 60 ' 2
Ea = 230 - 36 x 0.25 = 221 volts. For 60 A, the dem agnetizing effect is x 7 .6 = 2 1 . 1 A. Therefore, the
36 net
v
d-axis field m m f is equivalent to a field current o f 60 - 21.1 = 38.9 A. Now see part (e) o f Example 4.33)
lAn*- 260.7 Na;
4.47. A dc shunt motor is connected to a 3-point starter. Explain w hat would happen if
(a) the starter handle is moved rapidly from OFF to the ON position,
(fe) the field circuit is open and an attempt is made to start the motor,
(c) the field circuit becomes open-circuited with the m otor running at no load,
ww
(cf) the field circuit becomes open-circuited with the m otor running at no load, with the assumption th»;
the starter is not provided with the no-volt release and the spring,
(e)
w.E
the starter handle is pulled back to stop the motor,
if) there is a sudden overload o f 100%,
(g) the field excitation is m inim um at the time o f starting.
asy
[Ans. (a) M otor draws large current, resulting in heavy sparking at the brushes. The motor accelerate
rapidly and large starting current m ay overheat the motor.
En
( i ) M otor would not start and the arm ature would draw heavy current from the source.
(c) to (g) Read Art. 4.13)
gin
4.48 A 220V, 1500 rpm dc m otor has full-load arm ature current o f 30 A. It is proposed to design a starter
which restricts the m axim um arm ature current during starting to 60 A. For design purposes, the minimus
r
l ,:
r z r i " 8 ' S V’ r V
V ‘ he °.
eer
f o ? ? ? 30 A ' lhe SeriCS resistance in >he arm atu re circuit b e i n g s
A sfu m m g that the arm ature resistance o f the dc motor is 0.5 C
ing
t h e f i r s t tw o 't e t i s S' n “ r e S ,s t a n c e u s o d ,n t h e 5 t a r t c r ° " d t h e a m o u n t o r r e s i s t a n c e c u t d u rin g eachd
P ' |I A S ., 1 9 Z
sta rte r* ' ^ E X P ki" ^ W° “ ' d haPPen * the dC m otor is d irecll>’ sw itch ed on to the supply without W
.ne
(6) Explain the function o f no-volt release in a three-point starter
(c) Explain the advantages o f four-point starter over the th ree-poin t starter
Id) W hat is the difference betw een a starter and a controller ?
t
« W hat would happen if the external resistance for starting the dc m otor is left in the nrmatutc circuit?
M T he irnZZJ ' r I thC WOrkinB ° f a th ree-P“ ” ‘ sta rter used for a dc shun. nwW
losses. T he norm al field current is ’ l o m p c r c ^ i n d t h ^ m a m f t ’ Th e fa rm o tu rc oh m ic '» s s c s are hnlf of the tc“_
for this m otor. m agnitude o f resista n ce for each step o f a 6 stud sts
4 5 11.
4.0 ia)P Ev xplain
n l e i r l l thef follow
II • in g term s : |A m ,‘ ^ ’ 0901 0 6915 0 4386 0 2782
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P ro b ^ fl _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ D .C . M a c h in e s 531
(fc) Describe and com pare the various methods o f speed control o f dc m otors,
4.52. (a) For o dc motor, the armaturc-circuit-resistance method of speed control is called a constant torque
drive method, explain. r
(fc) A dc shunt m otor runs at 7o0 rpm from 250 V supply and is taking a full-load line current o f 60 amperes.
Its armature and field resistance are 0.4 n and 125 D respectively.
Assuming 2 V brush drop and negligible armature reaction effect, calculate
(i) the no-load speed for a no-load line current o f 6 amperes,
(ii) the resistance to be added in series with the armature circuit to reduce the full-load speed to 600 rpm,
(in) the percentage reduction in flux per pole needed, in order that the speed may be 900 rpm when the
armature current is 30 am peres, with no-added resistance in the armature circuit.
IAns. (fc) <i) 822 rpm ; (ii) 0.7752 D ; («'//') 12.5%|
4.53. A dc shunt motor takes an armature current o f 50 A at its rated voltage o f 240 V. Its arm ature-circuit
resistance is . . an ex ernal resistance o f 1 Q is inserted in series with the armature and the field fiux
remains unchanged, then calculate :
(a) percentage decrease or increase in speed for the same load torque,
ww
(fc) percentage decrease or increase in speed for half of the load torque.
[Ans. (a) 21.739% decrease (fc) 8.7% decrease)
w.E
4.54. (a) For a d.c. motor, the field-flux-speed control method is called a constant power drive method.
Explain.
(fc) The e.m.f. developed in the armature o f a shunt generator at 1155 r.p.m. is 240 volts for a field current
asy
of 4.5 amperes and 255 volts for a field current o f 5 amperes. The generator is now used as a motor on a 260
V supply and takes an arm ature current o f 75 amperes. Find the motor speed, when the field current is adjusted
to 4.8 A. Armature resistance (including brushes) is 0.12 D. (Ranchi Univ.)
En
(Hint. For a field current o f 4.8 A, the e.m.f. generated in the generator armature is 240 +
0.5
x 0.3, i.e.
gin
£ ol = 249 V. For a motor field current of 4.8 A, the e.m.f. generated in the armature is
Ea2 = 260 - 7 5 x 0.12 = 251 V
and
£ oI 1155 x 4.8
£ u l ~ n 2 x4.8etc.| eer (Ans. 1164.3 r.p.m.)
4.55.
ing
(a) What are the advantages o f field-flux control method over the armature-circuit-resistance control
method employed for the speed adjustment o f d.c. motors ?
(fc) A d.c. series m otor has the following data for its magnetization curve:
The per unit values are expressed in terms o f their respective full-load values.
A diverter is used to raise its speed to 1.2 p.u. from full-load speed o f 1.00 p.u., at constant full-load torque.
Neglecting losses, calculate diverter resistance in terms o f series field resistance.
[Hint: V, = Eai « nl <J>t
Also V/ = £ o2« n2 $ 2
Now n,$i = n2$2
or
10, = 1.2 <>2
O2 = 0-833 Ch
<i2 = 0.833 p.u., because Oi is full load flux.
A flux o f 0.833 p.u. requires a field current Ip (from magnetization-curve) o f 0.65 p.u.
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ww
all losses are negligible and that the magnetization characteristic is linear. (/.^t 5 1989)
4.58. A 460-V series motor has its field coils split into two equal halves and takes 40 A when running at
600 rpm with the field coils in series. Determine the speed when the two halves o f the field w inding are connected
w.E
in parallel, assuming the load torque to remain constant and the m agnetic circuit to be unsaturated. The
resistance o f the armature circuit is 0.5 Q and that o f the field coils in series is 0.2 Q. ( IAS 1980)
[Ans. 842.55 rpm]
asy
4.59. (a) Describe the disadvantages o f field-flux control method for the speed control o f a d.c. shunt motor.
(б ) A d.c. series motor gave the following open circuit curve at a speed o f 600 r.p.m. :
Field current, A 10 20
En 30 40 60 80
Open circuit
voltage, V 103.5 158
gin
206 230 259 282
t
arm ature current o f 125 A f r o m 'a lu o v T u p r ly ' N th fe x c ita r i ° ' 2- ° <!)nVCj a load at 1245 r P m -. drawing at
total torque developed by the arm ature rem ains unaltered. J c u i a t e n e w s p e e r T " ° f ' a"' ‘
(GATE, 1981)
[Ans. 1626.68 r.p.m.l
------ t
If, A 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1 50 2.00
EU.V 71 133 170 195 220 232
field has 1000 turns and rated arm ature c u r fe n H s 50 A a ? ^ t ^ S^ Unt flGld resistance is 110 a 1116 shUn[
by field-flux control, then, neglecting arm ature reaction, calculate g e ’ i f the sPeed contro1 is carried°
(o ) the range o f external field circuit rp*?iQfnnm r__ . .a
r.p.m. on rated lo a d -a s s u m e negligible arm ature cu rren ra ^ n o-load " 81’ 011 ° f 100° r ‘P m ° n n° ‘ l0ad t0 ^
(h\ f j _______ a .
(b) the series field am peres-turns reauired tn
_
j
at rated load. e sPeed from 1000 r.p.m . at no-load to 913 r.pi.m
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Prob. 4]
D.C. Machines 533
(c) The speed at rated load with the series winHi™ ■ • .
rp.nv at no-load. £ ln circuit and with the shunt field set to give 2000
[Hint. Plot the O.C.C.
ww
(c) At no-load speed o f 2000 r.p.m., Eu = 220 V
Therefore, at 1000 r.p.m ., Ea = 110 V
and field current is 0.3875 A.
w.E
At rated load, total field ATs are 0.3875 x 1000 + 375
g“ iJnM s r r 1“ ,hecube°fspMd
00 " 1350 r-P-m [Ans. (a) 36.67 fl to 468.95 fl)
* .i2 £ 2 2 2 : z 2 &
operating from a 200 V supply.
eer
*°r tak“ 10 A and runs a l WOO T>m when
ing
« « ■ “ >e armature to reduce the operating speed
(/.A.S., 1988) [Ans. 11.751 fl)
.ne
r 220 V d° cHunt m ° t0r has *** armature resistance o f 0.5 f2 and field circuit resistance o f 290 o It
“ h t h e t a V . ™ 1 ° f 41 A w he" d« K™™>* «• »*»• I f it is desired raise^.h^pee“ by 60 percen!
Ttc c
m a g n e tis X n T a 'a c T e r is 0"
i
constant c l l l ^ t
V S
'■ “ reSiS' a" “ 10 b '
t "
U -A*., 1994)
t m otor’ w hen fed from 200 V dc source, delivers full-load torque to a load at lOfin
reduCed t0 10? V > tbe motor sPeed becomes 800 rpm with the load torque rem aining
Calculate the arm ature voltage drop at rated torque. Assume no magnetic saturation. [Ans 12.5 V]
T ”* As5U m e
[Ans. 159.5 fl]
of a dr* k Mf ke aPProxim ate estim ates, giving b rief reasons, o f the changes in the armature current and speed
c snunt m otor w hen operating conditions are changed as described below :
(a) With the load torque and field current held constant, the armature voltage is halved.
ofthespeed1 CUITent held constant- the terminal voltage is halved ; load torque is proportional to square
k) With the arm ature voltage and load torque held constant, the field flux is halved.
d) With the torque held constant, both the armature voltage and field flux are halved. (I.A S 1987)
IA ns. With n, and / ol as the initial values : (a) y , /„ , (6) ^ (c) 2/i,. 2/ a, (d) 2/a,|
load t 67 A 250*V, dc shunt m otor has an arm ature current o f 20 A when running at 1000 rpm against some
•The arm ature resistance is 0.5 fl and brush contact drop is one volt per brush. By how m uch must
the m a T S
armat. m x be reduced to raise the speed by 50% if the developed torque is constant ? Ignore effects o f
re reaction and m agnetic saturation. (GATE, 1990) |An». 34.81%)
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534 Electrical Machinery l p rob.4
4.68. Two adjustable-speed dc shunt motors have speed-control range o f 1500 to 500 rpm. In both th
motors, speed adjustm ent is obtained by field-flux control. M otor A drives a load requ iring constant power over
the entire speed range ; m otor D drive a load requiring constant torque over the entire speed range. Ignore all
losses and arm ature reaction in both the motors.
(a) If power outputs are equal at 1500 rpm and arm ature currents are each 90 A , find their armature
currents at 500 rpm.
( b ) If pow er outputs are equal at 500 rpm and arm ature currents are each 90 A, find their armature
currents at 1500 rpm.
IH int. Read Example 4.55 carefully before solving this problem.] [An9. (a) 90 A, 30 A (6) 90 A, 270 A|
4.69. Repeat parts (a) and (b ) o f Problem 4.68 in case speed adjustm ent is obtained by armature-voltage
control, other conditions rem aining unchanged. (Ans. (a) 270 A, 90 A (6) 30 A, 90 A|
4.70. (a) Describe in detail the methods o f speed control o f d.c. shunt m otors. W hile w orking with a very
weak field, a shunt m otor shows tendency (i) to flashover between brushes and (u ) to hunt. Explain clearly the
reasons for these and the methods o f avoiding them.
(6) For the speed control o f a d.c. shunt motor by varying the field flux, show that the field resistanc
should be changed in small steps in order to avoid objectional arm ature current surges.
4.71. (a) W hat is meant by constant power drive and constant torque drive ? E xplain how a d.c. motor can
ww
be adopted for these types o f drives.
(6) How is the rating o f a d.c. motor affected by a decrease in speed ?
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(c) W hat is the effect o f brush lead in a d.c. m otor ?
(d) W hich losses o f a d.c. shunt m otor are constant ?
4.72. A d.c. shunt motor is running at 1500 r.p.m. at rated load torque. D iscuss w hat would happen to the
asy
motor operation, i f the following changes are made :
(а) Field terminal are reversed.
(б) Supply wires are reversed.
En
(c) Brushes are shifted against the direction o f rotation.
gin
(d) Brushes are shifted in the direction o f rotation.
(e ) The arm ature is rewound with a fewer number o f turns o f thick wire.
(f) Some o f the field-tum s are short-circuited.
eer
(Ans. (a) Direction o f rotation is reversed, com m utation unaffected.
ing
(6) Direction o f rotation is unchanged, com m utation unaffected.
(c) M otor speed increases and com m utation is improved.
(d) M otor speed decreases and com m utation is worsened.
.ne
t
or output. maCh' ne in part is ™ k i” f as a generator, determ ine the sh a ft pow er input and the e le c t*
fc) I f the m achine in part to ) is w orktop as a m otor, determ ine electric pow er input and the shaft power
J
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p r o b j^ j_____________________________
" D .C . M a c h in e s 535
[Hint,
IH ini. (d) Vt -= V(l
ya, Vt E(l 1- +2
I(lru +
+ Iuru = ^50
^= 250 +
+ :30 x 0.2 + 2 = 95R v n
to remain at 30 A. Constant torque and constant flux require current
• F V' o.
•• a2 °-2 - 2 = 121 volts.
. _ 1500 x 121
2~ 250 rpm -
(e) K Ia = constant = 7500 W
But Ea = 258 - 2 - 0 .2 1 '
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frnmtt’ero to ^O O ^r^m ^ar^oTtai'npH [JSed for adJustable-speed drive over the range o f 0 to 2000 r.p.m. Speed
r m a * *. o btained by adjusting the armature terminal voltage from zero to 230 V with the
w.E
field current kept constant. Speeds from 1000 to 2000 r.p.m. are obtained by d e cre a s in g S I field JSh
the armature term m al voltage held constant at 230 V. Armature reaction effects aidTosses may^te & o r e d
S m ! r p ed by t f C l0j d remains constant over the entire speed range. Show the general form
of the curve for arm ature current and power versus speed, over the entire speed range.
(b)
asy
Instead o f keeping the load torque constant, suppose that the armature current is not to exceed a
specified value. Show the general form o f the curve for allowable load torque and power versus speed over the
entire speed range.
[Ans. (a) En r
From 0 to 1000 rpm : armature current remains constant at 7 (say) but power rises linearly from
t
.1
O to V I .
t a
gin
From 1000 to 2000 rpm : armature current and power, both increase linearly from 7 to 21 and
from V 1 to 2 V I respectively.
t a t a r J
eer a a
V 7 at 1000 rpm.
t a r ing
(b) From 0 to 1000 rpm : allowable torque remains constant say T but power rises linearly from 0 to
From 1000 to 2000 rpm : allowable torque decreases inversely with speed from
.ne T1
to —
('
.e. allow able torque , and power remains constant a tV I .
speedJ <o t
4.75. A d.c. shunt m otor is required to supply a load requiring a constant torque of 120 N-m, over a speed
of 500 to 2000 r.p.m.
(а) Explain the three methods o f obtaining the required speed range.
(б) For each o f the methods o f part (a), specify the base speed and the kW rating of the motor.
(c) Compare the merits and demerits associated with each method of speed control.
(Ans. (6) For armature-circuit-resistance control and armature-terminal voltage control methods, the base
speed is 2000 r.p.m. For field-flux control method, the base speed is 500 r.p.m. For each method,
the power rating is 25.133 kW.]
4.76. (a) Enumerate the various losses in a dc machine. Which of these losses are constant ? Derive
expressions for the efficiency o f a dc generator and a dc motor.
:r
„ <tt A 6 kW, 230 V, 4-pole wave-connected dc motor hat 400 armature: conductors. At fullI load[theruseful
» w per pole is 0.02 Wb and rotational losses are 100 W. F,nd the full-load speed. |Ane. (fc) 876.86 rpml
4„ , . „ a a, , .AurriniT in a dc shunt motor and state how each loss varies as the load
on tK ’ t ■^ numera^e tbe l° s®®s 0 , j p»erminjn(r the efficiency of a shunt motor at various loads
he machine is altered. Describe a method o f d eterm ining ^ e euici y
d wiU»outactu^ly p ^ ttta ^ ,M d on the rnoWr. Critically examine the assumptions made ia the method described.
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(b) The speed o f a 500 V dc series motor coupled to a fan is reduced to one h a lf o f full speed by a
resistance. At full speed, the current is 100 A and the load torque is proportional to the square of the
how that the power input is proportional to the cube o f the speed and calculate the resistance re
assum ing that the field is unsaturated and motor losses do not vary. (Ans fAi
,7-50O]
4.78. Discuss how power input and motor torque get adjusted autom atically as load on the shaft of rnii ^
dc m otor types is varied :
(a) shunt m otor (6) series motor (c) cumulative compound motor.
(H inM a) Shaft load increases, speed falls, counter e.m.f. falls, arm ature current rises etc. (fc) Speed fa||
= "rr ' rises etc.
K “ * + (ra + r,)
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Neglect armature reaction and all losses. Answer the three parts listed above under the assumrninn r
m agnetic saturation (a) neglected (fc) included. assumption of
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(iii) s '£ ”ed rises] N ° Chanee SP“ d<“ >‘ Peed h“ 1VCd W ) Speed d°” blcd (W (i)Speed l e a s e s ® ) speed hahrtd
4.80. (a) What is meant by torque ?
(fc) W hat is the difference between speed regulation and speed control ?
asy
(c) Distinguish between constant-speed, variable-speed and adjustable-speed motors.
(d) Discuss the significance o f back e.m.f. in a dc motor.
[H in t: (a) Tendency o f m otor to produce shaft rotation.
En
just a s s g j i K o t s andm limilsthearraature» *-to*-
4.81. A dc shunt m achine gave the following data for its OCC at 1500 rpm :gin
0.6 0.9 1.2
eer 1.5 1.8 2.10 2.4 2.7
120 180 229
ing
260 282 298 306 310
.ne
lS O O ^ m . ^ T h e ^ o - lo a d ^ u r r e n t ^ n e g l^ b u '^ e ^ s h 'u n t ^ f ie ld 'w in d 'in ^ lf a s '^ O O ^ t u r n s ^ e r ^ p o le ^ m 0 t°r ' ru n sa l
C alculate the num ber o f series-field turns per Dole rem.irpH
an arm ature current o f 90 A from the m ains Thi«s arm afi
series-field w in din g loss o f 450 W.
(6 ) F o r a 4 0 0 V lo n g - s h u n t c o m p o u n d g e n e r a t o r • t h e c o n s t a n t l r . e e ^ • r • • j in-id
r o t a t i o n a l l o s s , i s l O k W . T h e r e s i s t a n c e s o f t h e 'armature a V r f a s o n T T " ® . ° [ e ” ,lo l ,u n 0n d
0 .1 Cl, 0.05 Cl a n d 5 0 Cl. F i n d t h e m a x i m u m e f f i c ie n c y a n d t h e o u t p u t n l w h i c h i t o c c u r s 'L S r ' SP l
IH i n t : (b) l l (ra + r,) = 1 0 k W e tc .]
IA n s. (6 ) 83.34%, 100.08 kWI
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< » In a,t h T cr t h e ht o t o T l o « « nw ed,d/ , ; “ rr“ t |M5CS at 1000 rpm are 200 W and 100 W respectively. Find
the speed at which the total losses would bo reduced to half on the assumption of constant field flux.
|Ans. (b) 581.015 rpml
4-85- (A mnS ai n°ul0ad 3t 600 r p m- ^ resistance of the field coils is 25 C2. Find
what resistance must be placed in series with the field coils to increase the speed to 700 r.p.m. at no load. Neglect
armature reaction an rmature resistance drop. The magnetization curve for the machine is as under :
If.A -* 1 2 3 4 5 6
0. Wb —» 0.0044 0.008 0.0102 0.0115 0.0121 0.0124
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(b) With the motor running at no-load and at rated speed, the line current was 36 A, the field current 12
amperes and the supply voltage 250 V.
[Hint. w.E
Obtain the generator efficiency at full load and half full load.
8
= 400 = 0 02
!■
Hi !
Total losses
l2
a ra = (812)2 (0.02) = 13200 W.
= 8988.48 + 13,200 = 22,188.48 W eer r
22,188.48
Tw= (1- 200,000+ 22,188.48 x 100 etc.]
ing |Ans. 90.019% ; 88.981%]
,
4.87. (a) W hat is the effect o f excitation, speed and load on the losses of a d.c. machine ?
(b) A 230-V d.c., shunt m otor is taking 5 A when running light (i.e. at no load). The armature resistance .ne
(including brushes) is 0.2 Q and field circuit resistance is 115 D. For an input current o f 72 A, calculate the
shaft output and efficiency. Also calculate the armature current at which the efficiency is maximum. t
[Ans. 14.432 kW, 87.15%, 75.77 A]
4.88. A 600 V dc shunt m otor drives a 60 kW load at 1000 rpm. The field resistance is 100 D and armature
resistance is 0.15 Q. Stray-load loss is negligible. In case motor efficiency is 85%, determine
(a) the rotational losses
(b) the speed at no load and the speed regulation. [Ans. (a) 5118.3 W (b) 1026.52 rpm, 2.652%1
4.89. Hopkinson’s test on two sim ilar dc shunt machines gave the following data :
Line voltage 230 V • Line current, excluding both the field currents, 40 A ; motor armature current 350 A ;
ne]d currents 5 A and 4.2 A.
Calculate the efficiency o f each machine. Armature resistance of each machine is 0.02 fi.
[Ans. Generator efficiency = 92.855% ; Motor efficiency = 92.844%!
lh» -4'90, (o) Justify correctness or otherwise o f the statem ent: “For increasing the speed of dc series motor,
Ie armature diverter’ connection is preferred to the ‘field diverter’ connection.” ( /A S ., 19S9)
n. In electric drive schem es ‘field forcing1 is recommended for reducing starting time o f driving motors.
,Sci« s . ’ (l.A.S., 1988)
c i i 11 j o a i ii i c i
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^ ^'xP^a*n what happens when the field current o f a shunt wound m otor is reduced suddenly by ab0
( / A .S „ jg 8Q)
IH int : (o) Arm ature diverter or shunted arm ature method is used only for decreasing the snpori /> ,
sen es m otor below the base speed.] speedo fdc
f,A
4.91. (a) “The m agnetom otive force due to armature reaction in a dc generator can be effectively utili j
0 result in an equivalent two generators in cascade in one frame and yieldin g larger power amplificati «
Justify this statement. 0 on'
„ 1982)
(o) A cross-field m achine may behave as a constant voltage or a constant current generator depend
upon the degree o f com pensation.” Justify on the correctness or otherwise o f this statem ent. (I.A.S 199^
Cc) W ard-Leonard method o f speed control o f a dc m otor provides a sm ooth control in both the direction ■
Justify on the correctness or otherwise o f this statement. ( /^ 5
[H in t : (a) The two generators in cascade in one frame yield a cross-field generator.]
4.92. (a) In cross-field machines, one pole consists o f two polar projections. Explain the reason.
(b) In cross-field generators, the polarity o f the output brushes rem ains unaltered even with revered
direction o f rotation. Explain. reversed
(c) A 4-kW , 250 V, 3000 rpm amplidyne has the following constants :
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Voltage constants,
rf = 60 fi, ra = 5 f2, rc = 1 fl
Kqf = 3 0 0 V /fie ld amp
is zerCoalCU,ate the fieM CUITent 3nd P° Wer g3in 3t rat6d ° UtpUt MS° ° btain these vaIues when the compensation
(Ans. (c) 48.056 mA, 28868.39, 27.125 A, 9.061]
tW p
asy
fh Derr e “ } e" preSSIOn for the outPut volta&e o f a partially compensated cross-field machine Obtain
therefrom the external characteristics o f this machine for different degrees o f compensation.
...
" f J i is
s s5 fi
T including
ta r c r r tors- En
am plidyne J as an input field w inding o f 100 O resistance and 500 turns. It has a two-pole armature
external c h a r a c t e r is t i^ o f a L p h ^ e " ^ V° Uage am phflcation factor (ft) po ver am plification factor and (in)
t
upon w h eth er*th l’fp e e d is r a is e d ^ flo w e r e d " *6Xtenial characten stic gets bodily shifted up or down depending
G i v e a n y tw o a p p lic a t io n s o f a m p lid y n e .
D e r iv e e .m .f . e n d to r q u e e x p r e s s io n s fo r n P M D C m o to r fr o m th o c o r r e s p o n d in g e x p r e s s io n s used in
c o n v e n t io n a l d c m o to r s . * r
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Prob- 4]______________________________________
, ' ' D.C. Machines 539
4.97. A small perm anent-m agnet dc motor runs at i ---------------------------
fed from 6 V dc source. Its armature circuit resistanceis ° f 10’600 rpm and takes 1° mA when
(fl) no-load rotational losses its
(fc) stall torque
(c) speed to achieve a shaft power 1W
(d) efficiency under the conditions o f part (c).
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
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its working as a generator, synchronous machine delivers or exports ac power. However, the
field winding of a synchronous machine always absorbs or takes in power from a dc source.
w.E
Since a synchronous generator delivers ac output, it is also known as an alternator.
Under steady-state conditions, operating speed of a synchronous machine depends on the fre
quency of armature currents and the number of field poles and is given by Eq. (3.68) as under:
asy , P n s P ■N s
f = - 2 - = - 5 6 ~ Hz
where P = number of field poles
En
gin
ns = rotor speed in rps (called synchronous speed)
Ns = rotor speed in rpm (called synchronous speed)
and f = frequency of armature currents.
eer
A synchronous generator is universally employed for the generation of three-phase power
ing
at all generating stations. The largest-sized electrical machines are polyphase synchronous
generators. The highest rating so far for 3-phase alternators, as reported in the literature ri
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1700 MW.
The constructional features, of the two types of synchronous m achines, are already
t
described in Art. 3.2. The cylindrical-rotor construction of Fig. 3.7 is used for two or four pol'e
steam-turbine generators. That is why cylindrical-rotor synchronous g e n e ra to r are called
turbo-generators or turbo-alternators. A cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine is characterised
by long core length and small diameter so as to limit the centrifugal forces developed in the
high-speed rotor. The salient-pole construction shown in Fig. 3.6 is the most suitable for multi
polar slow-speed water-turbine generators. That is why salient-pole synchronous generators
are called hydro-generators. Most of the synchronous motors are of the salient-pole type. A
salient-pole synchronous machine has small core length and large diam eter so that large num
ber of field poles can be accommodated on the rotor periphery.
The expression h r the generated emf in a synchronous machine is derived in Art. 3.4.3. It has also
>een concluded in Art. 3.8 that for the production of electromagnetic torque the relative vekvity
between the interacting stator and rotor fields must be zero. The object of this chapter is to develop
the techniques for the steady-state analysis of polyphase synchronous machines.
5.1. E x c ita tio n S y stem s fo r S y n ch ro n o u s M ach in es
In large synchronous machines, the field winding is always provided on the rotor, because
ol certain advantages described in Art. 3.2. In the present article is given a brief account of the
13
Polyphase S yn ch ron ous M achines 541
rjous schemes employed for supplying dc excitation to the field winding of large synchronous
va
machines- Some of the more important excitation systems are given below :
(a) D-C- E x c ite rs . This is an old conventional method of exciting the field windings of
synchronous generators, in this method ; three machines, namely pilot exciter, main exciter
and the main 3-phase alternator are mechanically coupled and are therefore driven by the same
shaft- The pilot exciter is a dc shunt generator feeding the field winding of a main exciter. The
main exciter is a separately-excited dc generator. The dc output from the main exciter is given
to the field winding ot the main alternator through brushes and slip rings as shown in Fig. 5.1.
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asy
The conventional method of excitation suffers from cooling and maintenance problems as
sociated with slip rings, brushes and commutators as the alternator ratings rise. The trend
toward modern excitation systems has been to decrease these problems by minimising the
En
number of sliding contacts and brushes. This trend has led to the development of static-excita-
gin
tion and brushless-excitation systems.
(6 ) S ta tic E x c ita tio n . In this method, the excitation power for the main alternator field is
eer
drawn from output term inals of the main 3-phase alternator. For this purpose, a 3-phase tran s
former TR steps down the alternator voltage to the desired value. This 3-phase voltage is fed to
ing
the 3-phase full-converter bridge using thyristors. The firing angle of these thyristors is con
trolled by means of a regulator which picks up the signal from alternator terminals through
potential transform er PT and current transformer CT as shown in Fig. 5.2. The controlled
power output from thyristor unit is delivered to the field winding of main alternator through
brushes and slip rings as shown. .ne
t
For initiating the process of static excitation, first of all, field winding is switched on to the
station inttery bank to establish the field current in alternator The alternator speed is a,J
justed to rated speed. After the output voltage from alternator has built up sufficiently, ^
alternator field winding is disconnected from battery bank and is switched on to the thyristor
bridge output. , , J. .... ,
A good number of protection devices are installed in the static excitation scheme f0r any
possible fault in the excitation system.
The advantages of static excitation are as under :
( 1) The excitation system, with the use of reliable and high-power SCRs, is simple in design
and provides fast response characteristics as needed in modern power systems.
(2) Since there is no separate rotating-type exciter, the system is free from friction, windage
and commutator loss occurring in the exciter. This makes the system more efficient and in
addition, maintenance is reduced.
(3) As excitation energy is taken directly from the alternator terminals, the excitation volt
age is proportional to alternator speed. This improves the overall system performance consi
derably.
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(c) Brushless excitation. This method of excitation is illustrated in Fig. 5.3. In this
scheme, main shaft of prime-mover drives pilot exciter, main exciter and the main alternate.
Silicon diode rectifiers are also mounted on the main shaft.
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asy
En
gin
eer
ing terminal
icrmi
Fig. 5.3. Brushless-excitation for a synchronous generator. .ne
Pilot exciter is a permanent-magnet alternator with perm anent-m agnct poles on the rotor
thvr ^ o ^ r o h T h / e W1,ndln/ ° ni he f at0r' Three'P^ase power from pilot exciter is fed to
t
sunnlied to station "r T lP °n r After rectification, the controlled dc output is
supplied to stationary field winding of main exciter. The three-phase power developed in the
n ^ a T s h a f t The d t *** the r ° tati" B silicon-diode’rectifiermounted
shaft to the t i f 2 ero tPo T u fr0n: dl° t reCiiflCr bride e is delivered, along the main hollow
shaft, to the main alternator field without brushes and slip rings.
A signal, picked from alternator terminals throuph PT anri pt* * i i.u r • rrionf
thyristor bridge. This enables the control of field current I f th P T '.C° n tr°’S th? fir' nB '
governs the alternator output voltage. Since the « r W I m“ “ 2,xclter whlch «ventuall>
any sliding contacts and brushes this arrangement r ° Z J S 5 3 d°eS n0t rcq“
come to be called as brushless excitation system mg synchronous machmc 1,85
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e ope
“i,erati0ntodrtCIfe ^ b rbrushless
^ M e w excitation
« d ta IH«*in® St° 'Uti0" °f foedinB the ficld windin8 »f larSO tur
bogene system. In view of its many advantages the brushless
Xtition system is employed in almost all large tnrhmro™ \many advantages, tne orusniest
d these days turbogenerators being designed and manufac-
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damenta componen s o ie -mmf and armature-mmf waves are considered in this article and
their space-harmonics are neglected.
For a better understanding of the internal happenings in a synchronous machine, the alternator
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operation is considered under different operating power factors and loads as follows:
(i) No-load operation (ii) unity-pf load (Hi) zero-pf lagging load (iv) zero-pf leading load and
mined.
asy
(v) lagging-pf load. Alter this, operation of cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor is also exa
In the presentation that follows, the magnetic saturation is neglected. This allows the re
En
presentation of mmf wave or phasor by their corresponding flux wave or phasor.
Case I : N o-load o p eratio n . The synchronous generator is brought up to synchronous
gin
speed by adjusting the speed of its prime-mover. The alternator is now separately-excited from
a dc source. The alternator terminal voltage at no load is made equal to its rated value by
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544 E lectrical M ach in ery
The field current indicated by crosses and dots in the field winding on rotor, creates fi 1
mmf Ff and field flux <Jywhich are sinusoidally distributed along the air-gap periphery. As such
both Ff and <Jyare represented by space phasors Ff and <{y as shown in Fig. 5.5 (a), (6 ) ancj ’
Note that (Jyis in phase with Ff as saturation is neglected. The field flux <tycreates N and Sp0]e
on the rotor. Recall that the emf induced (= Blv) in a coil is maximum when its coil-sides **
lying in the maximum flux density position. As the instant shown in Fig. 5.5 (a), let phase1^
have its coil-side a, a' in the maximum flux density position, facing N, S poles of the rotor. Th
e.m.f. induced in coil-sides a, a will, therefore, be maximum. For anticlockwise rotation of
rotor, emf generated in coil-side a is indicated by dot and in a' by cross. As the coil-sides 6' -
are under the influence of field pole N, emf generated in these two coil-sides must be indicated
by dot. The magnitude of this e.m.f. would, however, be less than the maximum value The
e.m.f. generated by <|yalone is called the excitation voltage and this is indicated in Fig. 5 .5(G)
dots and crosses in the armature winding on the stator as discussed above. The magnitude of
this emf is given by Eq. (5.2).
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asy
En
gin
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ing
■A x is of
A x is o f
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phase a
w CO
.5 (o),
. S t f^r inpTTT uTTu rrent Iaandexcitationvoltageare maximumat thasame
E ,is maximum in phase ‘o' as indicated. At the same instant,
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1
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ature current Ia is also maximum in phase coil-sides a, a ' ; this is shown in Fig. 5.5 (b ).
^mature current in coil-sides b, b and c, c' as indicated in Fig. 5.5 (6) is less than maximum.
Irlp mrnf sef UP ky ff16 armature current is called the armature-reaction mmf. Recall that for
lanced polyphase currents flowing in a polyphase winding, the peak value of the resultant
k3 f wav®'s a^on£ that phase-axis which carries the maximum current, see Art. 3.7. In view
^this, the resultant armature reaction mmf Fa (due to the combined action of 3-phase mmfs),
° set up al° n6 °f P^ase a because this phase carries the maximum current. It is seen
from Fig- 5-5 (5) that synchronously rotating armature mmf Fa acts vertically upward
. kt-hand grip rule) at the instant considered. Since the rotor is also being driven at
vnchronous speed, the relative velocity between Ff and Fa is zero. Note that for the reference
direction of rotation chosen, the field mmf Ff is ahead of F a by 90° in space and this is depicted
cordingly m the space-phasor diagram of Fig. 5.5 (c). In order to draw the space phasor
diagram, the reader should imagine oneself seated on the stator tooth or standing in the air
L-now one would first see rotating mmf Ff passing by oneself and after rotor travel of 90°
in space, the reader would see rotating mmf Fa. Accordingly, Fa is-shown lagging Ff by a space
angle of 90° in Fig. 5.5 (c). The phasor sum of Ff and Fa gives the resultant air-gap mmf F r.
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The two poles N, S created on the stator by F a tend to produce an electromagnetic torque by
ttracting rotor N, S poles. For generator operation, the prime-mover torque must be opposite
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to this electromagnetic torque and this is indicated in Fig. 5.5 (ft) by prime-mover torque
rotating the rotor anticlockwise.
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Armature rotating mmf F a, given by Eq. (3.71), is proportional to armature current l a and
is therefore in phase with‘7 a. In Fig. 5.5 (c), F a is shown vertical and along the axis of phase
En
‘a’ Therefore, in Fig. 5.5 (d), Ia must be drawn parallel to Fa, i.e. ', along the axis of phase ‘a ’. But
I is in phase’ with E f, therefore Ef must also be drawn along the axis of phase ‘a ’ in the time-
gin
ohasor diagram of Fig. 5.5 (d). Space-phasor diagram 5.5 (c) and time-phasor diagram can be
superimposed to give the combined space and time phasor diagram of Fig. 5.5 (e). Note from
eer
$ 5 5(c) that arm ature mmf F a is perpendicular to field flux <ty, therefore armature reaction
.ne
i n s t a n t
>g
,
reaches its maximum value with the same
h&ve travelled forward in the direc-
The currents jn
t
tion of rotation by 90° electrical, or-half a i n d i c a t e d by dots in 6 ', c' and
phases b and c are, however, less than rr-ultant mmf produced by 3-phase balanced
crosses in 6 , c. As stated before, peak value * hage which carries the maximum cur-
currents in a 3 -phase winding is along the axis rmTent at the instant considered, the resul-
rent. Since phase-a carries the maximum arm . „f Dhase-a in Fig. 5.6 (a). A careful study
tent mmf F a is seen to be vertically up a ong ^ ^ direc^ y 0pp0ses the field mmf Ff.
°f Fig- 5.6 (a) reveals th a t flux created by arma a load where Fa is shown to oppose
% 5.6 (6 ) illustrates the phasor diagram for zer p J ^ ^ ^ 9Q0 Therefore
Ff- In this figure, axis of field is taken horizon f therefore be stated that for zero pf
f« lags tyor F fb y 180", i.e., K °PPoses armature mmf is entirely demagnetizing
jagging load on the 3 -phase alternator, the nature o
te nature.
Ef
u
Max. orm .
current
^ _o
N on stator-^
Axis__ % Ff I90 ^a
o? field Fa * *Fr Fa *a
(6)
Fig. 5.6. For zero pf lagging load (a) Space-phasors Ff, Fa and F r ^|Jh ar^ aturC CUrrent
I lagging E f by 90° and (b ) space and tim e-phasor diagram .
ww
Case IV : Zero pf leading load. The three-phase alternator is developing balanced 3-
phase emfs and is connected to a load whose power factor is zero lead.ng with respect to E,. As
before phase-a is considered here as well.
w.E
In Fig 5 5 (a) is shown that emf generated in phase-a is maximum because field poles
N S face coil-sides a and a' respectively. For zero pf leading load, the current m phase-a coil-
asy
sides a a' would be maximum when the field poles are 90° electrical before the maximum emf
position of Fig 5.5 (a). This is indicated in Fig. 5.7 (a) where rotor poles N, S are shown 90 prior
En
to the maximum emf position of Fig. 5.5 (a). Since phase coil-sides a, a' carry maximum current,
the resultant of rotating armature mmf F a is directed vertically up along the axis of phase-a.
gin
Phasor diagram 5.7 (b) illustrates the happenings in Fig. 5.7 (a) where E f is shown lagging
by 90°, I a leads Ef by 90° and F a is in phase with F f so that resultant mmf F = algebraic sum of
eer
Ff andF°a. An examination of Fig. 5.7 reveals that flux created by arm ature mmf F a directly aids
the field'mmf.Fyor the field flux (Jy. It can, therefore, be stated th at for zero pf leading load on a
ing
3 -phase alternator, the armature mmf is entirely m agnetizing in nature.
.ne
a) t
/
90
Axis o< Fr Ff JJ
field <Pf, h % Fa
• . <b)
fig. Z.7. For zero pf lending lond (n) spneo-phnsors Ff, F„ and Fr with nnnaturc current
!„ lending /i/by 90° and (/;) space and time-phasor diagram.
r e V : Lagging p f load. Lagging power-factor loads, having pf other than zero pf lag-
re more common. So let us consider a general case of armature current Ia lagging the
ili
ging’ ton voltage by a time-phase angle vy° electrical. This means that load p f with respect to
ejccitatlg jagging. For a two-pole machine, \y° electrical = \y° mechanical. In Fig. 5.5 (a), emf,
£flS C d ^ phase-a coil-sides a, a' is maximum because of the maximum flux-cutting action.
Sen^ra 2ingp/’l°a^ having p f angle \|/° electrical, the current in coil a, a’ would attain maximum
p0r *a^ er geid poles have moved to a new position \j/° electrical ahead of the maximum emf
value a .p j 5 5 Xn other words, by the time armature current in coil a, a' attains maxi
position tg e same polarity (dot in coil-side a), the rotor poles N, S would have moved
fhulT1 v, ^ eiectrical as shown in Fig. 5.8 (a). As before, the resultant of rotating armature
fopvar ^ directed vertically upward along the axis of phase-a, because this phase carries the
^ armature current at the instant considered. A careful study of Fig. 5.8 (a) indicates
maXinJmature reaction mmf Fa lags behind the field mmf Ff by a space angle of (90 + v 0). Resul-
thatar m^s ^ gives mmf F rt this is shown in the space-phasor diagram of Fig. 5.8 (a)
^Afh) In Fig 5 8 (c), Ia is drawn parallel to Fa and Ef is shown leading Ia by an angle \\i°. This
r S
ww
t, in time-phasor diagram of Fig. 5.8 (c). As stated before, excitation emf lags the field mmf
flu * V by a time-phase angle of 90”. Also I „ lags E , by v “ because load p f . s cos y,
f f’ ng Recognition of these facts leads to the combined space and time phasor diagram of t ig.
w.E
iTid) for a lagging p f - cos y°.
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
L— A*'S ol .ne
t
[Art s>2
548 E lectrical M ach in ery _______________________________________________ .. . . . „
A xis of
field
ww
w.E Fie. 5.9. With clockwise rotor rotation (a) a t no load an ^
asy
(5) orientation of space-phasors Ff, Fa and Fr for a lagging p f
The resultant, or air-gap, mmf F r is seen to be made up of the phasor sum of field mmf F,
■
En
and the armature reaction mmf F 0. Mathematically, it can be written as
...(5.3)
F r = F f+ F a
gin
For a uniform air-gap machine, the reluctance is constant at all angular position of the
Fr
Reluctance “ Reluctance ing
Reluctance
...(5.4)
$,• = <{>/•+0a
Thus, the waveforms of the various fluxes per pole, i.e. <>f, <}yand <{>a are also sine waves an .ne
can, therefore, be represented by phasors as illustrated in Figs. 5.5 (e), 5.6 (6 ), 5.7 (b ), 5.
and 5.9 (6 ).
The above treatment does not hold good for a salient-pole synchronous machine, becaus
t
air gap is not uniform.
Space-phasor and time-phasor quantities, as usual, are taken to rotate counter'C,°r g(&),
and this is indicated by an arrow marked co in Figs. 5.5 (c), (d), ( c ) ; 5.6 ( 6 ), 5.7 (6 ) an l • •
(c), (d ). The field mmf wave or field poles have always a tendency to align themselves a
resultant air-gap flux <J>r or along the armature-reaction flux <j>n ; this is shown by an ^
marked Tc in Figs. 5.5 (e) and 5.8 (d ). Since the electromagnetic torque Te opposes the vrc ^^
of rotation co, the machine must act as a generator. It can also be stated by referring to
(6 ), 5.8 (a) and 5.9 (6 ) that the field poles must be driven (by the prime-mover), ahea
resultant air-gap flux, for generator operation. *ure
For zero p f lnnd, alternator output = 3 (per-phase excitation emf, Ef) (per-phase a
— ----- , -Iu)
current, u. (pf).— ro. —
is---------
zero. So —
no gprime-mover
---------— -- torque
— g— — is ------------
needed to run the alternat
^ .01 (neg g (5(b,
friction, windage and no-load core losses). This can be ascertained by referring to b--
7 (b) where field mmf or the field poles are seen to be in line with resultant mmf Fr. As
- tjj poles are already aligned with the resultant mmf F r, no electromagnetic torque is
the fiel
^ p vijndrical-rotor sy n ch ro n o u s m otor. The combined space and time phasor diagram
W vlindrical-rotor
, . rn tn r m n t.n r w
motor n r k in c r aatt a
working lo irm n rr p f can
q lagging
ww
suW_ “e the field poles lag behind the resultant /
. ~fi.iv and the electromagnetic torque Te acts in i r
t 1 :
direction of rotation co, i.e. the machine now must e /
w.E
ate as a cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor. In
°?her words it may be stated that for motor operation,
Z field poles must be dragged behind the resultant air-
/
t/ ____
asy
Dflux by the retarding shaft-load torque,
* Vo,
if ^mature current Ia lags Ef by 90° in a three-phase Fig. 5.10. Combined space and time phasor
rh
, 1 i-
synchronous motor, the phasor diagram of g. .
lined It is seen from this figure that armature mmfEnm n f F icr S 1 1 is ob- diagram for a cylindrical-rotor synchronous
motor /o lagging Ef.
gin
“ eer
ayThus be concluded from the foregoing that if armature current f„ lags the excitation
emfEj-by 90°, the nature of arm ature mmf, or armature-reac 10
ing „
(а) demagnetizing in an alternator and
(б) magnetizing in case of s y n ^ o t i s rnotor.
.ne
In case arm ature current Ia leads E f y
nature of armature mmf, or armature-reaction mm
F«is
.
t
(a) magnetizing in case of alternator an
(b) demagnetizing in a s y n c h r o n o u s mo or.
In this article, the c o m b i n e d :s pac®,^|ne^ for
Phasor diagram of Fig. 5.8 id) has been Dh ase
° 3-phase altern ato r and F ig . 5 .1 0 f o r . 3 -phase
synchronous motor. These diagram s, 1^ ^ g ,
^ time-phase angle between E f and l a d for cylmdncal rotor.
diagram
^ s p j p o s i t i o n of F a and therefore air-gap mmf ^ onousinotorwith/0 laggmg^by 90 .
(Art. 53
550 E le ctrica l M ach in ery
ww
bv dashed-dot sine wave. When the armature current l a leads Ef by 90 , the armature m t a
is aga n along the field-pole axis but it is now directly aiding the field flux ^ n o t shown ,n an,
w.E
figure,. In other words, the armature reaction
J Ef
flux an.
asy
En
Axis of
e
gin
eer
■€
°o
03
u
d-axis> . ,Q ,
ing
Field flux.<fy Resultont
air gap flux <Pr Armofure
.ne
A rm a ju re s u rfa c e
t
q -a x rs
q-axis
d -o x is
d -a x is
Fig. 5 .1 2 . Salient-pole synchronous g en erato r air-g ap fluxes
along d irect axis. The flux <|>0 opposes for y = 9 0 ° lagging.
In case the arm ature current is in phase with Ef , the arm ature mmf F a would act on an^ ^
90° away from field, or direct, axis, i.e. along the interpolar axis, Fig. 5.13 (a). In Fig. ■ 0
are illustrated the fundamental sine component of field flux and sine wave ol t a i ^
The actual arm ature flux wave <{>„' is obtained by dividing F a by the air-gap reluctanCmature-
the reluctance along the interpolar axis is quite large than at the pole tips, the actua a
ww Field flux
4>r A rm ature
mmf ,F q
Fundamental
a rm a tu re flu x ,0 Q
w.E A ctual a rm a tu re
flu x ,£ a Arm ature
asy •
SSI'S
surface
En
gin
eer
q-axis
( 6)
ing .
Fig 5 13
‘
Salient-pole synchronous machine air-gap fluxes along
‘ q u ad ratu re axis. The flux is cross-magnetizing.
.ne
is magnetizing or demagnetizing in nature in case time-phase angle between E , and /„ i s 9 0 .
But when F fs along quadrature axis, it distorts the main field in case t.me-phase ngie be_
h, V “a T ■ Tn artnfll nractice I lags Ef because of the nature of industrial and
hveen Ef and / . is zero. In actual p « f ^ both on the direct axis and
t
domestic loads, consequently arm ature mm aP
quadrature axis. . arrn..nt bv reSorting to two-reaction theory.
The effect of salient poles can be taken into account by resorti g
This is discussed in Art. 5.11.
5.3. Phasor D iag ram o f a C y lin d rica l to the resultant m.m.f. of all
The flux actually e x is tin g in t h e air-gap o armature reacti0n m.m.f. F a have been com
, ladings. In Art. 5.2, the field m.m. - f lindrical-rotorsynchronous machine.The
[aed together to give the r e s u l t a n t m.m. . r, iblc because of the fact t h a t:
Phasor addition of the two m.m.fs. F f and „ V ., gap periphery and
fa) these two m.m.fs. are distributed sinusoidal,ly alo,i(5 f t specdi, , lhc stat0r
the relative velocity between the two i otber<
^ rotor m.m.fs. are stationary with resp
[A rt S j
552 E lectrical M achinery
ww
the resultant m.m.f. F r is equal to the field m.m.f. F f and
air-gap flux 0,. is aligned along F{, Fig. 5.15 (c). The emf
w.E
generated under no-load conditions must lag Ff by 90
and this is indicated by no-load voltage Ef. This no load
voltage or open-circuit voltage E f is called the excitation
asy
e.m.f. or the excitation voltage. In Fig. 5.14, excitation
voltage Ef is drawn lagging Ff by 90°. The angle y be
En
tw e e n ^ and Ia is known as the inner displacement angle
gin
or the internal power-factor angle. The angle 5 between
E f and Vt is called the load angle or the pow er angle. As
.ne
These characteristics are useful for finding out the parameters (or constants) of the synchronous
machines and for determining their performance.
rated speed and the open circuit terminal voltage is noted as the field current is gradually
t
For obtaining the open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.), the alternator is driven at constant
increased from zero. Thus the OCC is a graph between the field current If or field m.m.f. Ff and
the generated emf E f. For OCC, the final value of /^should be about 125% of the rated voltage.
Fig. 5.15 (a) illustrates the circuit diagram for obtaining O.C.C. and Fig. 5.15 (6 ) shows the
O.C.C. of the alternator with field current along the abscissa and E f along the ordinate. The
O.C.C. (also called the no-load, saturation, or magnetization ch aracteristic) will not be a
straight line, because of saturation in the iron part of the m agnetic circuit. At small values of
field current or Ff, the air gap requires almost the whole of F f and m.m.f. required by the iron
*Some students do ask in the class as to why V, is not taken vertical or horizontal. Here V, is drawn behind
excitation voltage so that (V, + synchronous impedance) = Ef turns out to be vertical. This makes field fiuxfy*
or axis of field, horizontal. When drawing complete phasor diagram involving both e.m.fs and m.m.fs at different
operatingpfs, it seems to be convienient to take field-winding axis horizontal.
Now the question arises, why not take field-axis vertical ? I must say, it all depends upon the vim a
whims of the reader.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig. 5.15. (a) C ircuit diagram for obtaining O.C.C. (fc) O.C.C. and S.C.C. of an altern ator and
(c) phasor diagram of an altern ator on open circuit.
eer
is almost negligible. But when the m.m.f. has exceeded a certain value, the iron parts require a
good amount of m.m.f. and the saturation sets in. In Fig. 5.15 (6 ), for E f equal to oa, the m.m.f.
ing
for the air-gap is ab and that for the iron part is be. If it is assumed that the iron part of the
magnetic circuit requires zero m.m.f., the relation between E f and If is called the air-gap line.
.ne
Zero m.m.f. for the iron part means that the reluctance is offered by the air-gap alone and that
offered by the iron part is zero. The air-gap line is obtained, if the initial straight line portion
of O.C.C. is extended as shown in Fig. 5.15 (6 ). The O.C.C. may be plotted in per unit values,
where unit voltage refers to rated voltage and unit field current is the excitation corresponding
to unit voltage on the air-gap line.
t
For obtaining the short-circuit characteristic, the machine is driven at rated synchronous
speed and the arm ature terminals are short-circuited through an ammeter, as shown in Fig.
5-16 (a). Now the field current If is gradually increased from zero, until the short-circuit arm a
ture current has reached its maximum safe value, equal to about 125 to 150% of the rated
‘torrent. Latter readings may be taken in a short time, in order to avoid armature overheating.
Under short-circuit conditions, the terminal voltage Vt is zero and phasor diagram of Fig.
5-H reduces to th at shown in Fig. 5.16 (6 ). The air-gap e.m.f. E r generated by the resultant
to-m.f. Fr or air-gap flux <}),. is sufficient to overcome the leakage impedance drop /„ (r 0 + jxai),
^ 6- 5.16 (6 ). It can, therefore, be expressed as
Fig. 5.16. (a) Circuit diagram for obtaining S.C .C. and
(fe) phasor diagram of the altern ator for short-circuit conditions.
Generally xai is much greater than ru and, therefore, the armature current Ia lags Er by an
angle of nearly 90°. Phasor diagram of Fig. 5.16 (6 ) reveals that F a is almost opposite to
therefore, F a is almost entirely demagnetizing in nature. The resultant m.m.f. F n almost equal
ww
to F f —F a, is reduced and consequently the resultant air-gap flux is decreased, showing thereby
that the saturation under short-circuit conditions does not occur. Therefore, short-circuit char
w.E
acteristic is a straight line through the origin.
Another way of explaining why see is a straight line is as under:
In a synchronous machine, the value oixai is in between 0.1 to 0.2 per unit and ra is usually
asy
negligible. Taking an average value ofx^ as 0.15 pu andra = 0.0, the magnitude of air-gap e.m.f.
E r at rated armature current, from Eq. (5.5), is 0.15 pu, i.e. E r = 0.15 pu. Flux <)),. that generates
En
E r must also be 0.15 pu. In other words, the resultant air-gap flux <$>r during sc test is only about
gin
0.15 of its value under normal-voltage conditions. Such a low value of <J)r does not saturate the
synchronous machine. Thus, alternator during sc test operates under unsaturated conditions
and as a result see is a straight line.
5.3.2. eer
Zero p o w er-facto r c h a ra c te ris tic and P o tie r tria n g le . Zero power factor char
ing
acteristic (z.p.f.c.) of an alternator is a plot between armature terminal voltage and its field
current for constant values of armature current and speed. Zero-power-factor characteristic
(z.p.f.c.), in conjunction with O.C.C., is useful in obtaining the armature leakage reactance
x^ and armature reaction m.m.f. Fa. For an alternator, z.p.f.c. is obtained as follows :
.ne
(i) The synchronous machine is run at rated synchronous speed by the prime-mover.
(«) A purely inductive load is connected across the arm ature terminals and field current is
increased till full load armature current is flowing.
t
(Hi) The load is varied in steps and the field current at each step is adjusted to maintain
full-load armature current. The plot of armature terminal voltage and field current recorded at
each step, gives the zero-power-factor characteristic at full-load arm ature current.
The phasor diagram of Fig. 5.14, under zero-power-factor over excited conditions (described
above), takes the form of Fig. 5.17 (a). From this figure, it can be seen th at the terminal voltage
Vt and the air-gap voltage E n are very nearly in phase and are, therefore, related by the simple
algebraic equation
v ‘ = E ' ~ I° x°‘ ed
The resultant m.m.f. F r and the field m.m.f. F f are also very nearly in phase and are rt-la
by the simple algebraic equation
Ff = F r + F a
ww
w.E
at^ero^poww-f^tor over-excited*^I)^<^c^fz.pXcC^nrd PoUer^angie
- resultant
asy
The O.C.C. and z.p.f.c. are shown in Fie 5 17 I’M
equal to OP, the open-circuit voltage is P K With the field e ^ & °a
-x. a.-
CUrrent Jf’
En
°F ^
' changed, the arm ature terminals are connected to a purelv ind^F* ®peed. re" lainin&un*
resultant
resultant m m f OF,
O p the f a ^ ^ voltage
T h air-gap ^ E r is FC“ and
gin
armature current flows. An examination of Fig. 5.17 (a) and (6 ) rev ells t h t t ^
'***ifthan
CB =°Ia
P r( =. ^
is }subtracted
^ l0ad
by * - ^ , from
^ T Ft h
= Fer
m.m.f.
eer
the terminal voltage F B = PA=,V, is obtained. Since z.p.f.c is a plot between the terminal volt
ing
age and field current l f or F f, which has not changed from its no load value of OP the point A
lies on the z.p.f.c. The triangle ABC so obtained is called the Potier triangle, where
80 , A ~ F °’ Thus>from the Potier triangle, the armature leakage reactance xul and armature
reaction m.m.f. F a can be determined. rmacure .ne
If the arm ature resistance is assumed zero and the armature current is kept constant then
e size of Potier triangle A BC remains constant and can be shifted parallel to itself with its
ornerC remaining on the O.C.C. and its corner A, tracing the z.p.f.c. Th\is the z.p.f.c. has the
t
ame shape as the O.C.C. and is shifted vertically downward by an amount equal to Ia xal (i.e.
^akage reactance voltage drop) and horizontally to the right by an amount equal to the arma-
re reaction m.m.f. F a or the field current equivalent to armature reaction m.m.f.
The z.p.f.c. can also be obtained experimentally by connecting an under-excited synchronous
, °r ovar-excited alternator terminals. The excitation of the alternator and motor are
^ged in steps so as to keep the alternator armature current constant at its rated value. The
P giving the variation of alternator terminal voltage with its field current, gives the z.p.f.c.
For determining xal and F a experimentally, it is not necessary to plot the entire z.p.f.c. Only
0ut° Points A and F shown in Fig. 5.17 (b) are sufficient. The point A (PA = rated voltage) is
tamed by actually loading the over-excited alternator by an under-excited synchronous
r* so that the rated arm ature current flows in the alternator. The other point F on the
ww
the field leakage flux at no-load and under z.p.f. load, is the same, then O.C.C. represents
exactly the relation between Er and Fr — this however, is not the case. At z.p.f. over-excited, the
field current is larger for a given air-gap voltage than for the same voltage on open circuit —
w.E
e.g., in Fig. 5.17 (6 ), for voltage equal to FC, the field current or excitation is OP at z.p.f. load
and OF on open circuit. More lf or more Ff causes more leakage flux on load than on no-load
asy
This increment in leakage flux on load from its value at no-load, passes through the field poles
thus field m.m.f. F f must produce this component of leakage flux. Consequently, for a given
voltage on O.C.C. and for the same voltage on voltage
z.p.f. load, the air-gap m.m.f. F r under load
En a-g line
r- Loaa
Load --
gin
(= Fr + component of field m.m.f. required to v . magnetisation
curve
produce the increment in field leakage flux —
F a) must be more. In view of the above, a point
on the O.C.C. is shifted to the right, by an
eer zpfc, Ia--const
The O.C.C. and load-magnetization curve at z.p.f. over-excited may come closer or may even
overlap for larger values of field excitations. In view of this, can be determined with fair
accuracy experimentally, by drawing the Potier triangle at higher values of excitations.
In cylindrical-rotor machine, xp and xal are approxim ately equal; but in salient-pole
machines, particularly those having long and thin poles, the difference between x„ and xd may
be substantial. ;
scan n ed Dy u a m b c a n n e r www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
^ ^ T ^ g u l a t i o n of an A ltern ator
5.4. ® , g t^e change in terminal voltage, expressed as a percentage (or p.u.) of the
It is de 1 joad at a given power factor is removed, with speed and field curren
^ i ^ u n c b a n g e d . Therefore,
lining uncnai»ecu.................
remaininb Ef - V t .
V oltage regulation = m p.u.
- f y — x 100 in percentage.
V, ‘ “
s* the no-load excitation voltage and Vt is the full-load terminal voltage at the same
Here£'/,lsulc .
a nd field excitation. ,
spee 3 logging power-factor load, Ef always increases and for a leading power-factor oa ,
d consequently the voltage regulation may be positive or negative.
e c r e a s e —
ww
“ “^V C entheToad "th ro w n off, the voltage rise must be known, since the winding insula-
w.E
i. ,iri he able to withstand this increased voltage.
“""(if) Voltage regulation determines the type of automatic voltage-control eqmpment to be
asy
U8et -1 qteadv state short-circuit conditions and stability are affected by the voltage regulation.
% p t r l C e r a t i o n of one aiternator, with other alternators, is affected considerably by
ing
.ne
method, though gives inconsistent r
introduces the concept of ^ ch™n0" S
rotor synchronous machines only,
angular position of the rotor. The iroi»
t
This procedure can be applied to cyhndncal-
resultant air-gap flux * r is not affected by the
magnetic circuit is assumed to have constant
the replacement of mmfs by their cor-
permeability, i.e. saturation is neg^ec ondjng emfs. In short the mmfs can e rep
responding fluxes and, therefore, th e c j r e s p o n t o g ^ e ^ ^ ^ ^ of determining
by their corresponding emfs and it 1
voltage regulation is called the em me ■ resultant mmf F r generates air-gap voltage
Field mmf F f generates E f lagging it by , generate armature-reaction em
lagging it by 90°, similarly arm ature reaction m . ^ ^ ^ o fF f and Fa gives
^ar lagging F a by 9 0 ° - t h i s is illustrated in ig. • ath6matically it can be written as
K similarly the phasor sum o f E f and £ „ must be Er (5 6
f r = F f Jr P a .,.(5.6 6 )
and E r = E f+ E a r
ww
(6 )
Fig. 5.19. (a) and (6) Phasor diagram of component mmfs and the
corresponding emfs for Em f or synchronous-impedance method.
It is seen from Fig. 5.15 (b ) that slope of the air-gap line may be expressed as Ef/Ff or
asy
Ef/If. If E f/F f is taken as K, then Ef = KFf. As E( lags Ff (or <|y) by 90°, it is possible to express
the relation between £^and Ff in phasor form as
-E ^ -jK T fEn
and
Similarly. Vt — j K F ,
* „ — JK T . gin ...(5.7)
Eor = - j C K la
Further substitution of Ear in Eq. (5.6) gives,
t ...(5,8)
E, = E f- jC K la
or Ef = E r + j CK 7a.
Fig. 5.19 (a) reveals that phasor sum of Vt, l a ra and Ia xal gives air-gap emf E r. As an equa
tion, this can be expressed as
E r = V ,+ Ia (ra + j x al)
Ef =V t + l a ra + j 7a (Xai + CK) ...(5.9)
The term C K in Eq. (5.9) has the dimension of a reactance, because it appears in bracket
with xd . Writing
C K = X ,or-
ww E f= E r + jIa Xar
w.E
~ ^ar a + j l a (x al ^ar)
or Ef =V t + 7a (ra +jXs) ...(5.12 b)
Eqs. 5.12 (a) and (6 ) give the equivalent circuit of a cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator
*ar x al asy
as shown in Fig. 5.20 (a). Finally, the equivalent circuit reduces to that shown in Fig. 5.20 (fa).
*S
-^DTinr-
En la
-\w -
+
($ )Ef gin e
eer
(a)
ing (*)
Fig . 5 .2 0 . E q u iv alen t circu it for a cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator.
An examination of Fig. 5.19 (6 ) reveals that 7a xai accounts for armature leakage flux,
laXar accounts for the arm ature reaction mmf F a (or armature reaction flux) and Ef accounts .ne
for the field mmf Ff (or field flux). In short, the synchronous reactance X s takes into account the
entire flux set up by the balanced polyphase armature currents.
For an alternator, the power and, therefore, I a flows out of the machine. For a synchronous
t
■»otor, the power and, therefore, /„ flows into the machine. Thus the voltage equation for a
synchronous motor can be obtained from alternator voltage equation (5 12) simply by writing
M.) in place of Therefore, the synchronous motor voltage equat
Vt = E f + l a (ra + j X s)
...(5.13)
or Vt = E f + l a Zs
. , . , „„ofnr the cylindrical rotor synchronous motor.
As before Z is the synchronous impedanc
.nrf short-circuit characteristics are required foi
Measurement o f Z g a n d X g. Open-circuit
the determination of Z. and X ,. R 5 15.
r t iq zero and vt - 1
h open-circuit test, the arm atu re current l a
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In the short-circuit test, entire emf E f is consumed in circulating the short-circuit current
Isc, through the synchronous impedance Zs, Fig. 5.21 (a) and (6 ). Therefore,
E f Open-circuit terminal voltage for a certain field current
s~ L ~ Short-circuit current for the same field current
fa *s
-W W r -'fflfiRT'—tv
Lsc
*r
v+=o
© E f
ww (a)
_v
. . .
w.E
Fig. 5.21. (a) Eq uivalent circuit under sh ort-circu it te st and
(6) the phasor diagram under sh ort-circu it test, for a cylindrical rotor a ltern ator.
An open circuit characteristic OCC and short-circuit characteristic see are shown in Fig.
asy
5.22 (a). It is seen from this figure that for a field current of OC amperes,
Zs in ohms = CD =
5
En in volts
BC in amperes
gin
If there were no saturation, Zs would be constant. Actually Zs is variable and it decreases
with the onset of saturation in the O.C.C., see Fig. 5.22 (a).
Zs J
\ __-— - eer
ing
ro* ri
££■-£C
> a o
E
.ne
.£ .£ £
uj —* VI
rvi
& /
V
B
t
If °r Ff —*~
(a) (6)
Fig. 5.22. (a) Determination of synchronous impedance of an alternator and
(b) its voltage-phnsor diagram for a lagging power factor load.
For calculating the voltage regulation, only one value of Z , can be used and since it is vari
able with the excitation, considerable care should be used in computing Zs. Generally the lowest
value ofZ s, obtained from the largest possible short-circuit current, is used for determining thf
voltage regulation. Now
Z, = W + X ' f
____
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w.E E f = V t + Ia Z s
= Vt (1 + j 0.00) + Ia (cos e - j sin 6) (ra + j X s)
_
asy
= (Vt + L rn cos G + Ia X s sin 0) +J (/„ X s cos 0 - Ia ra sin 0)
. E{ =
E
If Ia is taken as the reference phasor, then
ngi
Ef = Vt (cos 0 + j sin 0) + l a (1 +./ 0 00) (ro X s)
.
nee
Ef = V(Vf cos~Q + Ia raf + (Vt sin 0 + IaX tj .
The above voltage eouation can also be obtained by referring to Fig. 5.23 (a), which is self-
rin
I t is seen from this figure that OBD is a right-angled triangle. Therefore
e x p la n a to r y
o d 2= o b 2+ b d 2
or
= (OA + A B f 4- (BC + CD)2
E 2 = Cv t c o s 0 + /a raf + g
(V, sin 0 + Ia X sf
.ne
t
(c)
(a) (b)
Fie 5 23. Voltage phasor diagram for an alternator at
(o) lagging p f load (b) unity p f load and (c) leading p f load.
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For a leading pf load, the phasor diagram for alternator is shown in Fig. 5.23 (c). It i8' Se^
from this diagram that
OD2 = OB2 + BD 2
or E 2 = (Vt cos 0 + Ia raf + (V, sin 0 - I a Xsf
For upf load, it is seen from the phasor diagram of Fig. 5.23 ( b ) th at
E 2 = (Vt + Ia ra)2 + {Ia X f
Now the voltage regulation in percentage can be obtained from the relation
E f-V .
f y - - x 100
Fig. 5.22 (a) shows that for low values of field current or for low values of flux density, the
synchronous impedance is large and as the saturation sets in, Zs sta rts decreasing. During the
ww
short-circuit test, F a is almost opposite to F f— consequently the resu ltan t m.m.f. F r, responsible
for the resultant air-gap flux density, is very small, Fig. 5.21 ( 6 ). This results in low value of
flux density which is much less than the flux density under actual working conditions—conse
w.E
quently an unsaturated value of Zs is obtained. As unsaturated value of Zs is more than the
saturated value, voltage regulation computed by emf method is much higher than the actual
asy
value. It is because of this reason that the emf method is called a p essim istic method. This
procedure, however, tells us th at the voltage regulation would always be less than that com
puted by this method.
En
Under actual operating conditions, the air-gap flux density is quite large, iron is consider
gin
ably saturated and Zs should, therefore, be small. In order to compute the voltage regulation
under the operating conditions, Zs should be calculated at largest possible short-circuit current
as stated before.
eer
ing
R a n g e o f S y n ch ro n o u s Im p e d a n ce . It may be worth-while at this stage to know the
normal range of the values of synchronous impedance and its components. It is only in the per
unit system that values of these param eters lie in the narrow range. The value of armature
resistance ra is usually around 0.01 pu. It means th at voltage drop in the arm ature resistance
at rated arm ature current is about 1% of the rated voltage. Arm ature leakage reactance is in .ne
the range of 0.1 to 0.2 pu and synchronous reactance is of the order of 1.0 pu. The value of ra is
so low th at it can be neglected for all practical purposes for machine ratings above a few
hundredkVA. It should, however, be included for the computation of losses, temperature inse
t
and efficiency. It has been found that as the machine size decreases, arm ature resistance in-
creases whereas synchronous reactance decreases.
The magnitude of synchronous reactance is influenced by air-gap length as under:
Magnetizing reactance, Xar = oiL ar
where L ar = magnetizing inductance
_ -J« -jK
or = \ *ar
0 ~ JK ~ jK K k ~ ...(5.15)
As stated before, K is the slope of air-gap line
ww Ef
~ JK
_
From Eq. (5.7), — — - F f and similarlv let -
-jK
u_
-
, , -=
eclual to F rl. The field m.m.f. Ff induces,
w.E
in the armature winding, an e.m.f. fla g g in g
it by 90°, similarly the m.m.f. F rl must in
duce an e.m.f. E' lagging F rl by 90° as shown
in Fig. 5.24.
asy
En
From Eqs. (5.8) and (5.10), it is seen that
w . Ia CK _
- Ia C - F a = armature reaction
K K
m.m.f. in phase with Ia. Here armature reaction gin
. Fq + FqI
reactance drop I0 Xar has been transformed into
m.m.f. Fa. Similarly, armature leakage reac eer
tance drop Ia xal can be transform ed into
ing
Fig. 5.24. Phasor diagram for m.m.f. method.
^ = ^ rl-(^ o i+ ^ c )
t -(5 .1 6 )
Note that the m.m.f. (F al + F a) is in phase with the armature current 7a, as illustrated in Fig.
5-24. It is seen from Fig. 5.24 that a is the angle (i) by which Ia lags E ’ and (ii) between the
aormal line to F rl and (Fa + F d ).
Eq* (5.16) can be interpreted by saying that the actual armature reaction m.m.f. F a, has
taen increased by an amount F d . This increase in m.m.f. i.e. F^, takes into account the effect
°f armature leakage reactance xa!.
For a purely reactive load, the phasor diagram of Fig. 5.24 gets modified to that shown in
5.25 (a). From this figure, F rl is seen to be nearly equal to the numerical difference between
f and (Fa + F ai)t i.e. they can be related by simple algebraic equation,
g| F rl = Ff - ( F a + F al) .-(5.17)
, % -
k.-, . ■
Terminal voltage V, is nearly the same as E' in Fig. 5.25 (a). The O.C.C. is again assume
to represent the relation between E' (voltage behind resistance r„) and m.m.f. Frl. In Fig. 5 2g
(6), OP (= Ff) is any field excitation, from which PF = Fa + Fal has been deducted to give the
resultant m.m.f. Frl = OF. This m.m.f. F rl induces 90° lagging e.m.f. E' equal to Vt = FM = pA
The point A, therefore, lies on zpfc, because it corresponds to the terminal voltage V, and field
m.m.f. Ff or field current If. Here zpfc is seen to be shifted horizontally to the right of O.C.C. by
an amount equal to (Fa + Fa/). Thus (F 0 + Fai) can be obtained by measuring the horizontal dis
placement between O.C.C. and zpfc, such as MA = O F . At point F , V t = E = 0, consequently
Frl is zero and Ff = Fa + Fal = OF. Therefore, (Fa + F a/) is the m.m.f. or field current, required to
circulate full-load armature current under short circuit test.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
m.m.f. method (6) Determination of (F0 + Fal) by m.m.f. method.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.26, Pertaining to the calculation of field m m f Fr for (a) mmf method and (6) zpf method.
>s u9cdl For the zpf mcthod. the e.m.fs, are £ haS°r diagram involviug
fold ampcre-turns or field amperes. as v°hages and the m.m.fs. as
The procedure for z.p.f. method requires thp nno ^ ^ ^
F irst of all, determinethe air-gap voltage E r by the relation 801 diagram o fF iS- 5 1 4 -
® r - V , + 7„(>■<,+j*'i) . „
According to the magnitude of E o
nbtain F r fr„m O.C.C. and draw it leading E by 90" The
armature react,™ and‘ armature leakage reactance can be determined from the
Pohcr triangle, ns explamed before. Now F„ ,s drawn in phase with as shown in Fig 5 14
Then
ww P rK -F .
Field mmf can also be obtained by referring to Fig. 5.26 (6 ), where mmf components in
En
Z.p.f. method requires O.C.C. and z.p.f.c., and gives quite accurate results. Actually only
two points on z.p.f.c. are sufficient, as explained in Art. 5.3.2.
gin ’
5>4*4* New A.SJV. (Aanerican S tan d ard s Association) method. This method is essen
eer
tially a modification of the m.m.f. method and gives satisfactory results both for cylindrical-
rotor and sahent-pole synchronous machines.
ing
New A.S.A. method requires O.C.C. and z.p.f.c., though the latter may not be known com
pletely. Only two points A and F , are sufficient to be known on the z.p.f.c., Fig. 5.27. The point
Ais obtained by loading the over-excited alternator by an underexcited synchronous motor till
°ad armature current at rated voltage is flowing. The point F is obtained by noting field .ne
k i^ a l A ir-g a p
^ v o lta g e , Er
Ef
Air
t
7 '
Rated
voMage
- ~0 Field
-0F=Ff *0M- excitation
Fig. 5.27. Determination of voltage regulation by new A.S.A. method.
. ■■■■■■i■■ ..
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\r
566 E lectrical M achinery
ww
tion effects. A horizontal line is drawn through K, so that OK - E Tins line intersects the
air-gap line at H and the O.C.C. at M. The distance HM, on the field excitation scale, gives the f
w.E
nHditional excitation that must be added to the unsaturated excitation 0 H, to determine the
total excitation 0'M = Ff. Now corresponding to O'M = Ff =O F, excitation voltage F P -E f is
r
asy
read from O.C.C. and the voltage regulation obtained. x
5.4.5. S atu rated sy n ch ron ou s-reactan ce m ethod. In e.m.f. and m.m.f. methods of cal c
culating the voltage regulation, the saturation
En
is neglected. However, under actual operating L IN E A R MAG.
1
i
conditions, the magnetic circuit is always in a
gin
CURVE
‘T ° « * » *■ associated
^ r e s p o n d i n g to the rcu ita n t ' ~ d* ^
f r a r magnetization curve OAa. Under this assum r he ™achme operation now follows the
cro, armature m.m.f. F u would be zero and as per E o ’ ^ ^ ature c^ re n t is reduced to
ns’cquence, operating point would move from A to a n In « ! f m' F f~ F r ~ ° K ^ &
nAu The point a is located by the intersection nfii g ar curve
£ £ » i t point K. With linear ?S ? ^ ^
^ ,oad e.m.f. fin - Since it does not really hannen p u the,fiel.d m m f- 0 K would generate a
J -(,nt OK is a real mmntif u- u • ’ A^asnophysical significance. However, the
field current UK is a real quantity which is to be calculatpH in fa,.+ t-w *.
L 5.29 is introduced only for the determination « f r u fac*’rthe construction given in
QAB ®nd OaK, current OK. From similar triangles
OK OB
aK AB
or field current, OK = ^ ( <OB) (5 20)
ww
The required field current is thus calculated from Fn « om
field current of magnitude OK, the excitation e.m.f. Er Kb is found from OCC and
j- *
voltage
regulation obtained.
w.E '
The synchronous reactance X . has two components, see Eq. (5.11). The leakage reactance
asy
* romams constant, because the leakage flux path is mainlyin air and is almost unaffected by
saturation. But the armature reaction reactance X „ is affected by the magnetic saturation
En
because the path of the armature reaction flux is mainly through iron. In view of this, the
saturation factor k, should be applied to the magnetizing reactance X „ only. The unsaturated
synchronous reactance Xsag is calculated as follows :
2 _
gin
e.m.f. from air-gap line
sa£
eer
armature current from S.C.C.
t
X$ag ~ ^ Z ’sag ~ r a
Armature reaction reactance
Xar ~ Xsug —Xd .
Since saturation factor should be applied to Xar only, the saturated synchronous reactance
is given by
w:-
[Art. 5 4
568 E lectrical M achinery
ww
Field current, A 0.20 0 .40 0.60 0 .8 0 1.00 1.20 3.40
Short-circuit current,
h e ln A
w.E 6 .6 13.2 20.0 2 6 .5 32.4 4 0 .0 4 6 .3 5 9 .0 —
— —
Z.p.f.
terminal voltage in V
— —
asy - — — 0 29 88 140 177 208 230
En
Find the percentage voltage regulation at fu ll-load current o f 40 am p s at power-factorof0.8
gin
lag by (a) e.m.f. m ethod (b) m .m .f m ethod (c) z.p.f. m ethod (d) new A.S.A. m ethod and (e)
saturated-synchronous reactance method.
C om pare the results so obtained.
220 eer
ing
Solution. Rated per phase voltage Vt = = 127 V.
Per phase values for O.C.C. and z.p.f.c. are tabulated below and O.C.C., S.C.C. and z.p.f.c.
are plotted in Fig. 5.30.
.ne
If in A
Ef in V
0.2
16.73
0.4
33.5 50.2
0.6 0.8
67.0
1.0
84.3
'
1.20
99.3
1.40
112
'
1.80
134
2.20
151
t
2.60 1 3.00
(a) E.m .f. m eth o d . The values of the synchronous impedance Zs and synchronous reac
tance Xs) are tabulated below for different values of excitations (taking E^from O.C.C. and I*
from S.C.C. for the same field c u rre n t):
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig. 5.30. Determination of alternator voltage regulation. Example 5.1.
eer
For full load and power factor of 0.8 lagging, the phasor diagram is similar to that given in
Fig. 5.22 (6 ). With Vt as the reference phasor,
Vt = 127 + >0.00
ing
•••
l a = 40 (0.8 ->0.6) = (32 ->24).
Ef = V t + I a (ra +jXs) .ne
or
= 127 + (32 - >24) (0.06 + >2.27) = 182.92 +>70.16
Ef = V(182.92)z + (70.16)* = 195.5 volts.
t
Percentage voltage regulation
1 9 5 .5 -1 2 7
x 100 = 53.9%.
“ 127
Excitation voltage E,-can also be calculated by referring to Fig. 5.23 (a).
Note that minimum value of Zs, corresponding to maximum short-circuit current, has been
used here.
to) M.m.f. m eth o d . Voltage behind armature resistance ra,
E' = Vt + l ara.
For convenience, take I a as the reference phasor.
= 104 -k>76.2
or E' = V(104)* + (7G.2)2 = 129.0 V.
For E' = 129.0 V, the field excitation F rI from O.C.C. is equal to 1.69 A.
From S.C.C., Fa + Fal = The field current required to circulate full-load short circuit current
= 1.20 A.
From Eq. (5.22), the angle a in Fig. 5.24, is given by
' 7 6 .2^
a = tan - 1 = 36.2°.
104
In phasor form, F f - 1.69 icos (90 + a) + j sin (90 + a)l
= 1.69 I- sin a + j cos al
= 1.69 (- 0.591 +j 0.807] = - 1 + j 1.365.
A P . + F->
= - 1 + j 1.365 - 1.20 = - 2.20 + j 1.365
Ff = 2.59 A.
ww
Field mmf Ff can also be computed by referring to Fig. 5.26 (a) where AB = F rl = 1.69 A •
BC = (Fa+Fal) = 1.20 A and a = 36.2C
.-. w.E Ff = V( 1.69+1.20 sin 36.2)2+<1.20 cos 36.2)r = 2.5868 = 2.59 A
En 127
(c) Zero pow er-fnctor m ethod. First of all, the Potier triangle ABC is drawn as described
gin
before Point A corresponds to the rated voltage of 127 V on the z.p.f.c. The line AD is drawn
parallel and equal to F ( ) = 1.2 A. Then DC is drawn parallel to the air-gap line, meeting the
O.C.C. at point C. Perpendicular Cli on AD, gives
Armature leakage reactance eer
drop equal to 30 volts.
30
*•/ = 40 = 0.75 n ing
The air-gap voltage E,, from Eq. (5.18), is
.ne
= V, + 7a (r .+ > x al)
With Ia as the reference phasor, t
E r = 127 (0.8 +7 0.6) + 40 (0.06 + j 0.75)
= 104 +j 106.2 ...(5.23)
••• Er = \'(104)2 + (106.2)2 = 148.6 volts.
Correspondmg to E r = 14S.6 V. the field current F r from O.C.C. is 2.134 A. The a rm a tu re
m.m.f. F a, from Potier triangle is AB = 0.84 A.
Now the angle between E r and I , is, say f, then from Eq. (5.23),
- l ( 1 0 6.2^
(3 = tan = 45.6°.
104.0
F r = 2.134 [cos (90 + 45.6) + j sin (90 + 45.6)]
= ( - 1.524 + j 1.494) Amp.
Fa = 0.84 Amp.
j
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(id ) New A.S.A. M ethod. The armature leakage reactance xal and the air-gap voltage E r
ww
needed for this method, have already been calculated in part (c).
Corresponding to E r = 148.6 volts, the difference in the field current between the O.C.C. and
w.E
the air-gap line, in Fig. 5.30, is HM = 0.366 A.
The field current, corresponding to the rated per phase voltage of 127 volts on the air-gap
line, is O'G = 1.507 A = F / in Fig. 5.30.
For Fig. 5.28, asy
9 = cos" 1 (0.8) = 36.9°
and
Now by referring to Fig. 5.28, En
GH = (Fa + F^) = 1.2 A.
gin
0 H = 0'G + (Fa + Fal) sin 9 + j (Fa + F^) cos 9
= 1.507 + (1.2) (0.6) + j (1.2) (0.8)
or
= 2.227 + j 0.96
O'H = 2.425 Amp. eer
Adding the saturation effect HM = 0.366 A to O'H, we get
O'M = O'H + HM = 2.791 Amp. ing
.ne
The excitation voltage ^ f ro m O.C.C., corresponding to O'M = Ff = 2.791 A, is 169 V.
169 —127
/. Percentage voltage regulation = — —rz— x 100 = 33.1%.
1Z I
t
(e) S a tu r a te d s y n c h r o n o u s -r e a c ta n c e m ethod. From p a rt (c), air-gap voltage
Er = 148.6 volts. In Fig. 5.30, E r is marked as KM and corresponding value of E lxtg from air-gap
line is
K L = 179.5 V.
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572 E le c tric a l M a ch in e ry
I , = ^ - O | 4 x 2 . 1 5 = 2.78 A
1 Er 148.6
In Fig. 5.30, OB is shown as OK.
For If = 2.78 A, from O.C.C. is found to be about 169 V.
ww
As already stated, z.p.f. method gives quite accurate results and here the voltage regulation
with this method is 33.1%. The voltage regulation by new A.S.A. and saturated synchronous-
w.E
reactance methods is also 33.1% i.e., equal to the accurate figure. Therefore, these two methods
can also be termed as accurate methods.
asy
The voltage regulation by e.m.f. method is 53.9%. This value is much higher than the ac
curate value of 33.1% and in view of this, this method may be called pessimistic method. The
voltage regulation by m.m.f. method is 28.75%, less than the accurate value of 33.1%, therefore,
this method can be termed as an optimistic method.
En
gin
5.5. P h y sica l C o n cep ts of S y n ch ro n o u s M ach in e O p eratio n
In well-designed synchronous machines, the arm ature resistance ra is quite small. The ar
eer
mature leakage flux is also small as compared with the resultant air-gap flux <(»,.. In view of this,
the armature leakage impedance (ra +jxal) may be neglected, under normal operating condi
tions.
ing
Reference to Fig. 5.19 (6 ) reveals that with the neglect of ra and xal, air-gap voltage E,
becomes equal to the terminal voltage Vt. If the synchronous machine is connected to an infinite
.ne
bus , then the air-gap voltage E,. remains equal to the constant bus bar voltage Vt. Under the
conditions stated above, the air-gap flux is given by Eq. (5.2), i.e.
A_ Vt
t
' = 'V 2n A „A r- ...(5.24)
In the above expression, V „ f,k a Npk, are all constant, therefore, air-gap flux A remains
constant and ,s unaffected by the nature of synchronous machine loatL
M
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w.E
When the machine shaft is given power from the prime-mover, the field poles are driven
ahead of the resultant air-gap flux <|>,. or resultant m.m.f. Fr. As the field poles are pushed ahead
asy
of Fr by the prime-mover torque, the field m.m.f. Ff also occupies a space position ahead of F,
by an angle 8,y as shown in Fig. 5.31 (6 ). As F^-lags Ff by 90°, E f occupies a position ahead of
En
Vt by angle 5,.f. It is seen from Fig. 5.8 (d ) that with field poles ahead of F r, the machine works
as an alternator. The appearance of load angle 8,.^between Fr and Ff, gives rise to the develop
ment of electromagnetic torque, Eq. (3.82),
gin
T' = 8 ^ F f ^ sin V
eer
When torque Te becomes equal to the applied prime-mover torque, the generator works
(5.24 a)
ing
under steady state conditions. It is seen from Fig. 5.31 ( b ) thatF^equal toF,. under the assump
ture reaction m.m.f. F a comes into existence. For developing Fa, a current .ne
tion) is no longer in phase with F,.. Since the m.m.f. relation Fr = Ff + F a must hold good, arm a
in phase with F a,
must flow in the armature winding as shown in Fig. 5.31 (6 ). Excitation emf E{ lags Ff by 90°'
t
Also, E,. = Vt lags F r by 90°. As F r lags F^rby torque angle 8(/, E, (or Vt) lags Ef by the same angle
y ^ince 4 has a component in phase with Ef or Vt, the machine is acting as a generator deliver
ing electrical power to the bus bars. In the manner explained above, the mechanical power
lnPut to the synchronous m achine is delivered as electrical powers ouyout equal to
m 14 cos 0 . Here 0 is the pf angle of Ia with respect to Vt or E r Also, E f= V t + j l a Xar.
s^ow^ng that the mechanical power input is equal to the electrical power output
i a cos 0; the torque expression including the load angle 8ra, i.e., the load angle between <{)
and4,,m ust be used.
•• T
...(3.72 a)
j
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. of the values
Substitution i ofca<t>r f,nm Eq. (H 24) and
from Fn a F„a from ^Eq. (3.72 a), gives
V
V, 2 V2 , N ph 4 sin 8ra •w, chr0r
ft d 2
r<0)* 8 P M 2 nfNph k U) m ~1T w p Ff £e
/
= ■Vf/a sin 8ro ^ltuC
s 4n f m ad<
. 2 A 4ii£
i.e. cos = -p (271/) = -p'-
w.E
When external load is gradually put on the machine shaft, the field poles slip back in space,
with respect to the air-gap flux <J>r which is fixed in space by V*. When field poles are behind
sta
If-
^
asy
F r, the machine works as a motor, see Fig. 5.10. Note that the relative velocity between field
poles and resultant flux (})r is always zero. The effect of field poles lagging behind the space- in
En
phase position of 0r, causes the appearance of load angle 8r/-between and F f as shown in Fig,
gin
5.31 (c). Since the m.m.f. relation Fr = F f+ F a must hold good again, the armature reaction
m.m.f. Fa comes into existence as before. Consequently the armature current I0 must flow in
Vt
eer
the armature winding, in order to establish F a. As before, Ey-andEr lag by 90° the mmf
F f and Fr respectively. The machine now acts as a motor, because Ia has a component in phase ri
or
ab = Ff sin 8r/-= F a cos 0 = CIa cos 0
Vt ■F.
Power P = VJa cos 0 = — sin brf
t ...(5 .2 5 )
f
1
In Eq. (5.25), left hand side Vt Ia cos 0 gives the active power present in both generating and
VE
motoring modes of a synchronous machine. The right hand side of this equation, - 7^ sin
as per Eq. 5.24 (a), is proportional to torque. Thus, Eq. (5.25) demonstrates that active power
existing in both generating and motoring modes is proportional to the mechanical torque as
expected.
In Eq. (5.25), C and Vt are constant. Therefore, for constant Fr, the electrical power varia
tion with load angle 8r/-is as shown in Fig. 5.32.
or
V fFf
— K .4. V T a
V F
Vt r
C cos 6’f + V „ s i n e = - L x ...(5.26 6 )
SI
|jK
Since Ia sin 0 has a time-phase angle of 90° with respect to Vf, the product V, Ia sin 0 repre fl!
Shi
ww
sents the reactive power flow in the armature of a synchronous machine.
Eq. (5.25) shows that for constant electrical power V, la cos 0, Ff sin 8(/ must remain con
,'K
1i'I
l<- . . w.E
stant as Vi and C are constant. Let us discuss the effect of varying field mmf Ff or field current
IfF/ris increased, 8;/ decreases, sin 8^ decreases so that F/rsin hrf remainsconstant. With
liL
,„P;
iSBi
asy
increases in Ff,h,.f decreases, cos 6,.^ rises,
V •F
* ^cos 5rf rises and therefore
is
11«fa
1!'$!
la sin 0 -
V t •F r
^
Vt „
En
F f cos 5,.f - reactive power falls with increase in Ff or If. '
gin
IfFyis decreased, Senses, sin 8,yrises so that Ff sin 8,f is constant. So, with increase m F f, 8,f
Vt F f
rises, cos 8,y decreases, —
eer V ■F V ■F
cos 8( /falls. Therefore, Vt Ia sin 0 = ~ c ~ - ~ c f cos 8(/ = reactive
power rises with decrease in Ff or If.
ing
It is seen from above that reactive power flow in a synchronous machine can be controlled
byvarying the field excitation F f or the field current If.
A careful examination of Fig. 5.31 (b ) and (c) reveals that as synchronous machine is loaded .ne |[ j
from floating conditions, alternator begins operating at a leading pf whereas the synchronous
motor at a lagging pf. t
5.6. Synchronous M otor P h a so r D iagram
For gaining physical insight into the operation of a synchronous machine, the m.m.f. and
flux phasors are very useful. Since these m.m.fs. or fluxes manifest themselves as generated
v°ltages in the armature winding, the voltage phasor diagram of a synchronous-machine may
0Ifly be considered for simplicity. The analysis of the synchronous machine can thus be carried
°utwith the help of its voltage phasor diagram.
to order to draw the synchronous motor phasor diagram, refer to Fig. 5.31. Alternator volt-
aSe Phasor diagram of Fig. 5.31 (b), is redrawn in Fig. 5.33 (a), but for the lagging power factor
anAby including the arm ature leakage impedance (ra + j x j . Note that Fig. 5.33 (a) agrees with
Pis- 5.22 (6 ). Here /„ has a component in phase with and the machine is, therefore, operating
asa generator. If this machine is made to work as a synchronous motor at the same terminal
^ aSe V„ the current / gets reversed and Fig. 5.33 (o) gets mod.fied to that shown m Frg. 5.33
(6)' Note that Fig. 5,33 (6 ) corresponds to the conventions adopted in Fig. 5.10 or in Fig. 5.31
(c). Here Ia has a component in phase opposition to Ef, the machine is, therefore, acting as a
ww
synchronous motor. Voltage equation,
Ef =V t + l a (ra + jX s)
w.E
is applicable to both the Figs. 5.33 (a) and (b ). Although synchronous motor phasor diagram of
Fig. 5.33 (6 ) is exact, it is usually customary and simpler, to omit the negative sign with Ia and
asy
draw its phasor diagram as shown in Fig. 5.33 (c). This figure reveals th at the voltage equation
for a synchronous motor is
En
Vt = Ef + l a (ra +jX s)
which agrees with Eq. (5.13) already obtained for a synchronous motor.
gin
It should, however, be remembered that for an alternator, p h a so r E f is always ahead of
eer
phasor Vt, just as field poles are ahead of <f>r. For a synchronous motor, p h asor Ef is always
behind phasor Vt, just as the field poles are behind <[),..
ing
nno !tfWl11 f6 £ t lpful 3t lhlS Stag® t0 draw synchronous motor phasor diagrams at different
operating pfs. These are shown in F.gs. 5.34 (a) to (c) for the same V, and /„ cos 0. It is seen from
these figures that for lagging pf, Fig. 5.34 (a ),
E j = (Vt cos 0 - I a r a)2 + (V, sin 0 - I a X f .ne
t
ww
5.35 (a). In this figure, Vt represents terminal
voltage of the alternator or of the synchronous
alternator. w.E
motor and Ef is the excitation voltage of the
En
Fig. 5.35. Phasor diagram for cylindrical rotor (a)
creased, Ef increases but Vt remains constant. over-excited alternator, operating at near z.p.f. and (b)
So, now increase the field current, till the over-excited synchronous motor operating at near z.p.f.
II
synchronous motor draws rated armature cur-
gin
rent—under this condition the phasor diagram of Fig. 5.35 (6) is obtained. It is seen from Fig.
.
eer
5.35 {b) that the time-phase angle between Ia and Vt is nearly 90°, as it is in Fig. 5.35 (a).
It is seen from above that if an over-excited alternator working at near z.p.f. lagging gives
synchronous motor at near z.p.f. leading would give the same operating point. ing
A as the operating point in Fig. 5.17 ( 6), then the same machine working as an over excited i.
This is because the small amount of synchronous machine losses have almost negligible
effect on the operating point A. Once the point A in Fig. 5.17 (fc) is plotted, the leakage reactance .ne
*ai can be obtained as explained in Art. 5.3.2.
5.7. Operating C h a ra c te ris tics of A lternators and their Ratings
t 1
The steady-state operating characteristics of a cylindrical rotor alternator can be obtained
fromits equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 5.20. Only the main characteristics of practical impor
tance are presented here.
5.7.1. E x te rn a l load ch a ra c te ris tics. The external load characteristics or the alter
nator volt-ampere characteristics, represent the variation of armature terminal voltage Vt with
armature current / a', for a constant field current.
Consider the alternator to be running at constant speed and with constant excitation, i.e.
e ^temator has constant E f. At no load, Ia = 0, therefore, Ef =Vt = 1.0, Fig. 5.36(a). The nr-
m«ure resistance drop, as usual, is neglected for convenience. For a lagging p.f. load the
pl,as°r diagram is shown in Fig. 5.36 ( 6 ) and V, is less than Bf. For unity power-factor load, V,
18W n less than E .b u t it is more than its value at a lagging power factor load For a leading
^ ■ f a c t o r load V is more than Ef. Thus it is seen that the terminal voltage V, falls on lagging
vt >vo
v.=10 VH
. Ef-1-0 Ia*s
E ^ io r ■ Vf<10 \
^ a X s E,=1 \ E.-VO f||£
>vt < io \ iIQXS
>,<10
la \
>1. *a\ \
/ \
V l
\ 'o >o
/ \
... (c) (d) («) if)
'-F ig . 5 .3 6 . A lternator p h aa.r diagram s for constant a , at no load , 6 , for lagging power facto,
(c) at unity p.f. (d) for leading p f (e) zpf lag and (/) zpt leaa.
ww
power factor loads and may rise on
leading power factor loads—this in
ference follows from Fig. 5.36. The
to
// • 1
1
1
1
w.E
variation of V, with Ia for constant g,
Ef, is illustrated in Fig. 5.37 (a) for
1■0-8 i
1 i\
different power-factor loads.
The operation of alternator at j
zero power factor lagging and zpf £
asy _
/0> f
\° 9 ' 1
L\\
X\
\\1
\M
1 IJ
\t1 //
/
leading is shown in Fig. 5.36 (c) and
(f ) respectively. For zpf loads, it is seen En 1
1
Armature Currcnt(p.u) Armature current ( p.u.) —
rciau u n V, = Ef ± I a X,
th a t sca la r relation (Q)
gin
load in kVA(p.uJ
°r , . ----
(6)
holds good. As V. = Ef ± l a Xs is the Fig. 5.37. A ltern ato r ex tern a l c h a ra cte ristic s w ith If held constant
. . . . . . . . rn
equation of a straight line, the varia- w Ul 1
eer
(a) a t its no-load value and (fr) a t its rated V, and rated l„.
t
lead, for the same short-circuit current
hat Ef 'xs more ^ an however for leading pf load, Ef is less than V, at rated load. The
(l>) ences drawn from Fig. 5.38 are shown in Fig. 5.37 (b ) in the form of V, - Ia characteristics
'nldifferent load pfs under the condition that alternator delivers rated Vt at rated Ia.
IqXs
5 7.2- Alternator compounding characteristics. These characteristics show the varia-
'f =io . nf field current required to maintain rated terminal voltage, as its load at a specified power
is increased. In practice, the alternator terminal voltage is held constant by controlling its
Id current manually or by automatic voltage
Lmlators.
. order to illustrate the variation of Ef or Ift for
taining constant voltage Vt, refer to Fig. 5.38. At
ma,n p.f., Ef is more than 1.00 if Vt = 1.00. For
a lagging
Ef is a little more than 1.00, but for leading
f in Fig- 5.38 (c), Ef < 1.00. In other words, for main
taining constant terminal voltage Vt< the excitation
ww
voltage Ef or the field current If should be increased for
laggingpower-factor loads and should be decreased for
leading power-factor loads. For unity power-factor
w.E
loads, the increase in l{ with the increase in Ia is small
as compared with 0.8 p.f. lagging loads. Fig. 5.39 il
Armature current in p.u
or kVA in p u *■ .
asy
lustrates these compounding curves for alternators at Fig. 5.39. Alternator compounding curves for
0.8 p.f- lag. unity P-f- and at 0.8 p.f. lead. maintaining rated terminal voltage Vt.
En
For zero power-factor lag or lead, the phasor diagrams are already drawn in Figs. 5.36 (e)
and if) respectively. As Ef= Vt ± IaXs is an algebraic equation for zpf loads, the graph between
gin
EfM&la is a straight line for maintaining Vt constant. For zpf lag, the algebraic equation is
Ef= Vt + IJC, fcnd for zpf lead, the algebraic equation is Ef =Vt - IJCS.
eer
Also, for zpf lag, the armature mmf is direct demagnetizing ; therefore the field excitation
or Ef must be increased in order to maintain armature terminal voltage V, constant. For zero
ing
pf lead, the armature mmf is direct magnetizing, the field current and therefore Ef must be
reduced for maintaining Vt constant. This is shown in Fig. 5.39 for zpf loads also. For zpf lead,
whenEf = 0, / . = Vt/X s. For zpf lag, for the same short-circuit current
1 I
y
.ne
as during zpf lead, the
y
excitation voltage is Ef = Vt + t t •Xs = 2Vt = 2.00 pu. t
5.7.3. R ating of a lte rn a to rs. The rating of a.c. machinery, such as alternators, trans
formers (and cables) is determined by their heating and hence by losses in them. These losses
are made up of I 2R losses, core losses and a small amount of friction and windage losses. The
I2R losses depend on current and the core losses on voltage, therefore, these losses are almost
unaffected by the load power factor. In view of this, rating of a.c. machinery to supply a given
Ioad, is determined by the volt-amperes of that load and not by the load power alone. Thus,
the alternators are rated in terms of kVA or MVA. However, the boiler and turbine sizes and
fuel requirements in a thermal station or the turbine size and water requirements in a
hydroelectric station, are dependent on the power output and are independent of the load volt
amperes. For example, for 100 MW load at 0.8 p.f., the alternator (transformer and transmis
sion line also) rating is 125 MVA, while the size of the boiler, turbine and fuel (or water) re
tirement are dfecided by 100 MW alone.
While stating the kVA or MVA rating of alternators, the power-factor (usually from 0.8 1
0.9 lagging) for which they are designed to operate under steady state conditions, must U
stated. In modern alternators, the terminal voltage of the alternator is kept almost constant
(within ± 5% of rated voltage) by automatic voltage regulators. The need for mentioning the
power factor arises, because an alternator designed to operate at 0.9 p.f. at rated load, would
require more field current, more Ef, when operated at 0.80 p.f. and at rated load, see Fig. 5 39
More field current would result in over-heating of the field system, which is not desirable. If the
alternator power factor given on the name-plate, is not mentioned whether it is leading or
lagging one, then it should be taken as a lagging one. This is because, for constant terminal
voltage, lagging power factors require more field current than the leading power factors, see
Fig. 5.39. Thus a lagging power factor places a limitation on exciter output and current in the
field coils.
Under rated power and voltage conditions, reactive power flow handled by an alternator is
limited by its armature heating, for operating power factors near the rated value. When the
) operating power factor is away (usually lower) from its designed value, the reactive power flow
ww
is limited both by the field heating as well as armature heating.
5.8. P o w e r Flow T h rou gh an In d u ctive Im p ed an ce
w.E
A more general problem of power flow through an inductive impedance is considered here
since the problems associated with the steady-state power flow in many systems, can be studied
with its help. Fig. 5.40 (a) shows two a.c. voitage-sources E x and E 2 interconnected through an
asy
impedance Z ZQz. With the current I flowing from E x to E 2, the phasor diagram is as shown in
Fig. 5.40 (6 ), from which
e x= e 2+iz
■j _ E \ - E 2 En
or
z gin
E,
eer ...(5.27)
Eq. (5.27) shows that current / is the difference of two currents ying and lagging behind their
respective voltages by angle 0, as shown in Fig. 5.40 (6 ). Here impedance angle 9Zis given by
.ne
0,, = tan - 1
R
t
Z /9 z
-AW/ TTWtf'- *
R —p - X
t-
Source Load
(a) (b)
F ;g . 5 .4 0 . (a ) C ircu it for inductive im pedance betw een two v o ltag es and (6) its phnsor diagram
J
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(
Polyphase Synchronous M achines 581
! j ,ij j»:ii
and if 0, = (90 - “*)is substituted in Eq. (5.28), we get
If
ww E\ R E ,E 2
P, =' “ ~ ~ Y ~ icos “ a *) + 90°M
li
ill
w.E Ei E 2
sin (6 - az) +
E\R
...(5.29)
$
ill
asy
The power P 2 at the load end E 2 and flowing through the impedance Z, is given by
P 2 = E 2 (component of I in phase with E 2).
En
From Eq. (5.27) and Fig. 5.40 (6 ), the component of I in phase with E 2 is
'E i Eo '
— cos (0Z- 5) - y cos 0Z
gin
E 2Ei
R2= —
E o
cos (0Z- 8) - — cos 0Z
eer 1
E 2Ei
= —^— C0S
r Eo
“ (“ r + &)1 “ Y C0S ing
E2E 1 E]
sin (6 + oq) - —| J? ...(5.30) .ne ipH
II
Z2
The power flow in a cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine is a special case of the above
ore general problem of power flow through an inductive impedance—this is because the
Va«nt circuit of this machine is identical with the circuit of Fig. 5.40 (a).
t
and 5 orf’ Undying the power flow in a cylindrical-rotor alternator, compare Figs. 5.40 (a)
•20 (8). It is seen from these figures that
E i = Ef, E 2 = Vt,
Z = Zs = ra +jXs.
’' ovver input to generator, from Eq. (5.29) is
E fV . Ej
p ig " - T 1 sin (8 " <**)+ r* ~ < 5-3D
P
Wer 0u^put of generator, from Eq. (5.30) is
E V V?
Pog = y y sin (&+ a x) - 2 ^ ra ...(5.32)
[Art. 5.8
582 E lectrical M achinery _________________________________________________
Fig. 5.20 (6 ) also gives the equivalent circuit for a cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor,
provided E , and V,are interchanged and the load is removed. In vrew of this, when working as
a motor,
E x = Vt, E 2 = E f
Z = Zs = ra +jXs
.*. Power input to motor, from Eq. (5.29) is
vf
Pim = sin (5 - “OLz)
z) ++ ^ ra .-(5.33)
*
The subscripts i, o ,g and m stand for input, output, generator and motor respectively.
Note that the power at the shaft for a synchronous motor is Pom minus the rotational losses
ww
(friction, windage and core losses). Here Pom is called the mechanical power developed or gross
power developed. Similarly the mechanical power input to generator is Pig plus the rotational
losses.
w.E
The difference between inputs (Pig or Pim) and outputs (Pog or Pom), for either a generator or
asy
a motor, must be equal to ohmic loss 7 ^ . This can be proved from Eqs. (5.31) and (5.32) or from
Eqs. (5.33) and (5.34) as follows. From Eqs. (5.31) and (5.32),
EfVt
En
Pig ~ Pog = - j — [sin 5 cos cq - cos 8 sin cq - sin 8 cos oq - cos 8 sin cq] + (E f + Vf)
r
4
ra p.2 ,
= ~2 (Ef + Vt)
^EjVt .
7?— cos 8 sm oq gin Zs
eer
ing
= JjL ,
o \P*f W) y yF 2 V
* 2! -
COS 0
s s
EfV t . El
Zs ‘ sm (5 + a z )~ ~_ 2 r, ...(5.34)
Similarly, Pjm = —Pog.
5.8.1. Maximum power conditions. In this section nf , .
in both alternators and synchronous motors is studied article, maximum power flow
(a) Maximum power output. With constant E f V and 2 thp ™ w r
ww
^ r e X t o l " g6nerat0r " " m° t0r " ° btained ^ differentiating E q . ^ V o r Eq“
^ _ d P ^ _ E f Vt
or
w.E d b ~ db ~
b + oq = 90°
c°s (6 + oq) = 0
asy
6 = 90 - a z = 0r.
.-. For maximum power output, load angle 8 = impedance angle 0
En
From Eq. (5.32), maximum power output from a generator is *’
P
°g <max) Z r°
gin _ B fV , V f
...(5.36)
F .M S’? eer
and from Eq. (5.34), maximum power out (or maximum power developed) in case of a motor is
P . E fV<
(max) - ~ £ 2 ra
ing ...(5.37)
fro l F i ^ r ^ j h f r ^ T e t r t t V r ^ f f r o m 5T 4 H T “ .ne
“ “ be °btai- d
8=0. = 90° - a.. These are drawn in Fig. ^ 4 H o )T n d (fc). fc>
t
3 m ° t 0 r ' by m a k in «
(e2-e)
D A D A
pjg g _(®) (fc)
■ •rhasor diagrams under maximum power output conditions for (o) generator and (6) motor.
w.E /„ z . Ic z ]
In case 0r is known, the motor pf under maximum power output conditions can be obtained
•'•<5,38)
ing
In case Z, is known, the magnitude of armature current under maximum power output
conditions can be obtained from Eq. (5.40).
(6 ) M axim um pow er input. With constant Ef, Vt and Zs, the condition for maximum
.ne
power input to generator or motor can be obtained by differentiating Eqs. (5.31) or (5.33) with
respect to 8.
d P ^ d P ^ EjfV,
t
" d 6 dbs ~ Zs c o s (5 - a ’) - °
or 5 = 90 + a z = 8Z+ 2a* = 180 - 0Z.
For maximum power input,
load angle, 5 = 90 + a 2 = 180 - impedance angle 0Z.
Maximum power input to generator, from Eq. (5.31), is
p. (5.41) ,
■* ig (max) - y 72 a I
s As
and maximum power input to motor, from Eq. (5.33), is
xP.im(nuu) -~ M
^ + ^ ra
s s
hasor diagrams, under the conditions of maximum power input, can be obtained from
! P . . for
^ oo(b) <•___an alforn atn r or
alternator or from
from Fip.
Fig. 5.3d
5.34 frl
(c) fnr
for qa mntnr
motor, Ktr
by molrmn
making R
6— 90 j.+ n
= QO a,. TThese
h e se are
are
\o. 5-2* yu> _ in n„A (h\
Fig' D‘ n Fie 5.42 (a) and (6 )
gbo 1.6
1q rOs
I
// M\
TI I ‘
/ 1
A s > /J \°*
1 I
i 1
QS 1 J i
i
S '/ i
ww . (b)
pig, 5.42. Phasor diagram s under maximum power input conditions for (a) generator and (b) motor.
.
w.E
In Fig. 5 42 (fl) ^or alternator, with line AB extended,
/C B A = 7t - 02 - 6
/B C A =re—5 —/CBA = T t - 8 - 7 t + e2+ 0 = - 8 + 02+ 8
But
... /B C A asy
5 = 02 + 2 <x2
= - 02 - 2 a 2 + 02 + 0 = 0 - 2a2
F o r m o to r , f r o m F i g . 5 . 4 2 (b ),
En
...
[C B A = 7 t - 0 2 - 8 + 0
gin
/BCA = 7t - 8 - /CBA = 7 t - 8 - 7 t + 8 , + 8 - 6 = 6, - 8.
The
sy n ch ro n o u s machine under maximum power input conditions. eer
A ABC in Fig. 5.42 (a) and (6 ) can be analysed for determining the performance of
ing
From an examination of the phasor diagrams of Fig. 5.23 for an alternator, it is seen that
.ne
when
(j) {Ef cos 8 - Iara cos 0) > V„ pf is lagging'
(ti)
(iii)
(Ef cos 5 - Ia ra) = Vt, pf is unity
(Ef cos 5 - Ia ra cos 0) < pf is leading
Further, phasor diagrams of Fig. 5.34 for a synchronous motor reveal that when
t ...(5.43a)
= V, 'E ■ (~0Z- 5)
—l1- sin - - v ‘ sin 02'
Output terminals for the generator are the same as the input terminals for-the motor.
Qim = - Qog with 8 replaced by ( - 8)
Vt E, Vf
— cos ( 8 + cq) + n Xs
"5 A
= - f ^ X - ^ c o s (8 —cq) -.(5.44 b)
z r s z
For a generator, the condition for maximum reactive power is obtained from Eq. (5.44 a).
ig s = ^ s i n ( 8 + a j) = 0
or ww 8 = - a, or 8 + a, = 0
w.E
a Og (max)
V tE f
Zs
Vf
Z] s
Vt
zs
Ef - \ X ,
Vt
asy
= ± [ Bf - V t ]ifr. « 0
When
En
is maximum, 8 = 0Z= 90 - cq, the reactive power under this condition is given by
Qog - - -~2
Vf v
gin
eer
For a motor, the condition for maximum reactive power is obtained from Eq. (5.44 6).
dQim
- ^
Vt E f
= - - ^ 8 . 1 ( 8 - 0 , 1 = 0
ing
or 8 = cq
=y±x _Y&=Yi
or 5 - oq = 0
.ne
Qim (max)
z]
Vt
s Zs
= - ^ [ V , - E /] i f r a = 0
zs
t
When Pim is maximum, 8 = 90 + a z, the reactive power under this condition is
V2
O - —
„2
Xs
„ VtEf ' Vf
...( 5 .4 ^
= Y (E f cos 5 - Vt)
ww
o u tp u t Qog is negative. This means that alternator absorbs reactive power under this \
I
w.E
COndMo°toring M ode. If r„ = 0, then from Eq. (5.44 b),
V ,E f . V?
o
asy
= ---- ^ cos 5 +
xs xs
=^
X
Vt-{V t - E f cos 8)
En - (5 4 6 )
rt
For am >P .
different excitation
, ,,
gin
tnntnr nositive values of active and reactive powers indicate their flow into the motor.
0f reactive power in a motor is as under :
negative and therefore reactive power flow is
eer
F or I
(i) When Ef cos 8 > V, (overexcited), g ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ motor is
outward, i.e. motor_i£I
motor is acting
act ng as a g ^ fa
—operating
„ a^ g at a leading pf.
ing
pf.
delivering reactive power o neither delivering nor ab-
« , When E f cos 6 = V, (norma l
sorbing reactive power. Un er l •
y
.ne
mot or operates at unity pf.
itiye and reactive power flow is inward,
(iii) When E f cos 8 < V, (under excite ), f U
ie. motor is absorbing reactive power ju st as it is absormng
synchronous motor pf is lagging. „„„
active power. Under this condition,
lA rt- 5.8
588 E lectrical M ach in ery
A ctive power
I
Load a n g le
(ra d .)
G enerator
Stable region J
p f lead fo r motorl . Synch. m/c(overexcited)
and lag for A lt. | R eactive power(p.M)
iD e liv e rs Q
ww -ir
N orm ally
e xcite d
w.E -t “ 7
Unity pf
fo r both
Load angle
(ra d .)
gin
Fig. 5.43. Active and reactive power versu s load angle ch a ra cte ristics.
suming V, = 1.0, Xs = 1.25, ra = 0 and Ef = 2.0, the active power versus load angle curves are
eer
plotted in Fig. 5.43 with the help of Eq. (5.35). For generator, the active, or synchronous, power
P is shown positive and for synchronous motor as negative.
.ne
Qcs = 1 2 5 (2 “ S 8 _ 11 = 0,8 (2 “ S 5 " X)
For 6 = 0°, Qog = 0.8. As this reactive power is positive, the alternator delivers this reactive
power and operates at a lagging pf.
t
For 8 = n, Qog = - 2.4. As this reactive power is negative, the alternator absorbs reactive
power and operates at a leading pf.
For 5 = 60°, Qog = 0. Therefore, alternator neither delivers nor absorbs reactive power and
it operates at unity pf.
S y n ch ro n o u s m o to r. For motor, from Eq. (5.46),
For 5 = 0°, Qim = - 0.8. As reactive power is negative, the motor delivers this reactive po'ver
to infinite bus and operates at a leading pf. As a result, this reactive power is plotted above t e
reference line in Fig. 5.43 indicating th at motor is delivering this reactive power.
“^ E x a m p l e 5
.3A 400V ^sloVhs'ZT^synchronous motor runs at rated voltage
* d; ! ! hJ l ^ T i r o n fir J m ’ S S ia - is 0 5 +j4 n and
U p l a n d efficiency for (a)maximum potueroutput and
S o lu tio n . Here Vt = 400 V ,E f = 510 V
Zs = Vo.52 + 4^= 4.031
0Z= tan (4/0.5) = 82.87°, az = 90 - 02 = 7.13°
(a) For maximum power output in case of motor, refer to Fig, 5.41 (6 ) From Eq (5 37 ) in
maximum power output is s i ; , rrom aq. u>.cw j, :|
ww „ E fVt
Zs
5? _ 510x400
-r2 a —
Zy a ~ 4.031
510
4.031
x 0.5
ll
= P„
.2 . Jnm2
En
From Eq. (5.40), Ia Zs = [5102 + 4002 - 2 x 510 x 400 x cos 82.87 ]1/2
i
or
From Eq. (5.39), gin
Ia = 150.79 A and line current = V3 x 150.79 = 261.17 A
1
cos (9, - 9) =
eer
= ^ - l 4; 1!,!.1 : . 5! 0. ? - 5 = 0.554
(150.79) (4.031)2
1U’:l
or 0Z- 0 = 56.36°
•*a^s
or 6 = 26.51°
ing Hi
I
pf = cos 0 = cos 26.51°= 0.895 lag
Check. Power input to motor is given by .ne II
or
V3 x 400 x 261.17 x cos 0 = 42604.2 x 3 + (150.79)2 x 0.5 x 3 = 161919.03 W
cos 0 = 0.895 lag t llit
Efficiency = * = = 78.38%.
J input 161919.03 |
(b) For maximum power input, refer to Fig. 5.42 (b ).
From Eq. (5.42), maximum power input to motor is
asy
1000,000 1905.3 x 2309.5 . - _ . 1905.3 \2
x 0.4
or
3 =
sin ( 5 - oc*) = 0.314
5.016
En S ( z) V,
5.016
Now
Ia = 184.43 A
3 V Ja cos 0 = 1000,000 W ing
„
cos 0 = o—
1000,000
x VoTTo
3 x 1905.3o—
long 184.43 - 0-9486 .ne
Here Ef cos 8 + Ia ra cos 0 = 2309.5 x cos 22.88° + 184.43 x 0.4 x 0.9486
= 2197.85 > V, (= 1905.3).
Therefore, motor is operating at a pf, cos 0 = 0.9486 leading.
t
E x a m p le 5 .5 . A 2 3 0 V, 4 p o le , 50 H z, s t a r - c o n n e c te d s y n c h r o n o u s m otor has
ra +jXs = 0.6 +j3.0 H p er phase. Its field current is so ad ju sted that m otor draw s 10 A at upf
from rated voltage source. Now with the field current unchanged, the loa d on the motor is in
creased till it draw s 40 A from the supply. F in d the torque developed a n d the new pf.
230
Solution. Here V, = ^ = 132.8 V,
Z = Vo.62 + 3 2 = 3 .0 6 ft
a 2 = tan -1 (0 .6 /3 )= 11.31c
From the synchronous motor phasor diagram at upf, Fig. 5.44 (a),
V W - W 2 + ( « ) 2] ^
= [(132.8 - 6)2 + (10 x 3 )2]1/2 = 130.3 V
-fg jy g h a s e S y n c h ro n o u s M a ch in e s 591
LOCUS OF
=fAS LOAD
, IS
6 = y / INCREASED
(a)
ww
seen from this phasor diagram th a t ? ^ * 3 lagging Pf
- (Ef + Vf — 2Ef Vt cos 8 ) 1 /2
/ a = 40 A. It is also
or
or w.E
Power input from Eq. (5.33) is
asy
p _ 130.3 x 132.8 .
3.06
En
Sln ( 5 5 . 4 4 - 11.3i) + f 132.8
3.06
x 0.6
= 5 067.48 W = V ,/a cos 9
pf = cos 9 = 5067.48
132.8 x 40 = 0.954 lag
gin
Power developed = 3 (P r
-
eer
. [5067.48 - 40* x 0.6) x 3 = 12322.44 W
Now < o . n = />, H e r e = M O = 1500rRm _
ing
.'. Gross torque,
2 ti x 1500
T ,=
......... .........
= 78 45 Nm
.ne
Power is 1000 kW,, the PI
p f is.
is 0
V e n o u s motor
u.a leaning,
t
at constant
8 leadingf i n d the p f when input is increased to
pf = 0.8 leading
j _ 1000,000
0 V3 x 6 6 0 0 x 0.8 " 1 0 9 3 5 A
zs= V l.52 + 122 = 12.09
^ clz = tan (1 .5 /1 2 ) = 7.13°
e Phasor diagram for a leading pf load is shown in Fig. 5.34 (c) from which it is seen that
f y = l(Vt c°s 9 - I araf + (V, sin 0 + Ia JJQ2] 1/2
= [(3810.6 x 0.8 - 109.35 x 1.5 )2 + (3810.6 x 0.6 + 109.35 x 12 )2]1/2
= 4 6 1 1 .9 1 V
= 143.23 A
Now, input power per phase
= 3810.6 x 143.23 x cos 0 = 500,000 W
or cos 0 = 0.9161
As Ef cos 5 + Iara = 4611.91 x cos 21.1° + 143.23 x 1.5 x 0.9161
w.E
Exam ple 5.7. A 3-phase, 6-pole, 2.3 kV, 200 kVA, star-connected synchronous motor has
synchronous reactance o f 12 H per phase and negligible resistance. The m otor is initially operat
ing at a load o f 120 kW with the field current adjusted such that the arm ature current is mini
asy
mum. The field current is now increased such that the arm ature current is increased by 50%.
With this field current, the load is reduced to 60 kW. Calculate the new values o f armature
current and power factor.
2300 En (.GATE, 1988)
Solution. V, = = 1327.95 V
Minimum armature current corresponds to unity p.f. gin
.*. 3V, Ia cos 0 = 120,000 W
eer
or
0 3 x 1327.95 x 1
= 30.122 A
ing
.ne
The phasor diagram under upf is as shown in Fig. 5.45 (a). With the increase in field cur
rent, Ef rises to En and Ia to 7al such that 7ol = 1.5 70 = 1.5 x 30.122 = 45.183 A as shown. Under
this condition, pf cos 0j is given by
or
7al cos 0! = Ia
co sO ^ — = 0.667
t
1.0
The magnitude of En can be obtained from Fig. 5.45 (a) as
En = [(Vt cos 0O2 + ( Vt sin 0! + 7al X f ) l/2
= 1(1327.95 x 0.667)2 + (1327.95 x 0.745 + 45 183 x 12)2]1/2
= 1769.21 V
When load is reduced to 60 kW with E ^ remaining constant, the phasor diagram is as
shown in Fig. 5.45 ( b ). Excitation emf E^ shifts to new orientation OC and load angle reduces
from to 52. The current is seen to become Ia2 and load angle 52.
Now sin 62 = w
a* 3
or 62 = 5.863°
L OCUS OF
„r
From
Also
w.E
AOAC, Ia2 Xs = [1769.212 + 1327 9 5 2 _ 2 x i7 « a o t ™
7a2 = 39.02 A
3Vt I a cos 02 = 60,000
2 x 1769 2 * 1327.95 x cos 5.863]>'2
asy
C0S 02 " 3 x 1327.95 x 39.02 = 0,386 lead-
En
o f t z z ™
gin
kh z i: p arar m th
resistance o f 1%, delivers a pow er output in kW equal to y ^ ncf ronousJ eact™ ce o f 50% an d a
unit equals 1.2 times the term inal voltage fin d out t L r ™
i~
A Ifth e emf ° f t h i s
i ^
operating.
j
^
eer
n n d ° Ut the Power f ^ o r at which the machine is
(I. A. S., 1989)
Solution. It is given that ^ . 1% . and 1 £ . 5Q% = 0 g0 pjg ^
ing (fl) shows ^
E f = (V i c o s 9 + h r f + (V , s i n 9 + / a X f
.ne
Here
-V ?
f
.V
lr
cos 0 + 00
Vt
\2
• a
sin 0 + °
Ia X /
Vt
s t
= 0 .7 I nud.
( 1.2 V,)2 = Vf[(cos 9 + 0.01 x 0.7 )2 + (sin 0 + 0.5 x 0 .7)2]
or 1.44 = 0.014 cos 0 + 0.7 sin 0 + 1.12255
0.014 cos 0 + 0.7 sin 0 = 1.44 - 1.12255 = 0.31745
M )
lt “ known ^ a t (A cos 0 + 5 sin 0) = sin 0 + tan ' 1 —
B
^ can be written as
0r 0.70014 sin (0 + 1.14577°) = 0.31745
or sin (0 + 1 .1 4 5 7 7 °) = 0.4535
pow f 0 = 25.824°
actor = cos 25.824° = 0.900 lagging.
[Art.
594 E le ctrica l M ach in ery
ww
Power developed = 75000 + 4000 = 79000 W
Power input
w.E
O h m ic losses in armature = 3J 2 ra = 3 (144.342) x 0.13 = 8125.5 W
Total losses in motor = 4000 + 8125.5 = 12125.5 W
= 75000 + 12125.5 = 87125.5 W
Also,
asy
ViT Vt Ia cos 8 = Power input
87125.5
Power factor = cos 0 =
100,000
En
= 0.8713
or 0 = 29.39°
Efficiency = 1 -
losses
1 -
12125.5
gin
x 100 = 86.083%
eer
Vt cos 0 = 230.95 x 0.8713 = 201.23 V
/
ing
V, sin 0 = 230.95 x 0.491 = 113.396 V
.ne
Ia ra = 18.764 V and Ia Xs = 144.342 x 1.3 = 187.64 V
As IaXs > Vt sin 0, the phasor diagram for lagging pf is as shown in Fig. 5.46. In this figure,
Ef can be obtained from A ABC.
E f = (V, cos 0 - I a raf + {IJC, - V, sin 0 )2 t
= (201.23 - 18.764)2 + (187.64 - 113.396)2
= (182.466)2 + (74.244)2
or E f = 196.9924 = 197.0 V
B C 74.244
tan (6 - 0) =
AB 182.46
or 6 = 2 2 .1 4 + 29.39° = 51.53°
For leading pf load, it is seen from Fig. 5.34 (c) th at
w.E
synchronous reactance ofO +j20 Cl per phase.
(a) For a load angle o f 10°, the motor takes rated current. Find the excitation emfs both at
lagging and leading pfs.
asy
(b) Find the mechanical power developed and p f in part (a).
En
(c) Find the minimum excitation voltage for delivering 200 kW at rated voltage without
falling out o f step.
Solution. Terminal voltage,
gin
Vt = = 3810.6 V
eer
Rated armature current,
L = J ° -°— = 43.74 A
ing
° v3 x 6.6
(a) Phasor diagram in Fig. 5.47 is drawn with Ia Xs same for .ne
both leading and lagging pfs. It is seen from this figure that
(Ja Xt)2 = E f + V f - 2EfVi cos 8
t
(43.74 x 20 )2 = E f + 3810.62
- 2EfX 3810.6 cos 10P
0r E ) - 7 5 0 5 .4 2 ^ + 13755397 = 0 Fig. 5.47. Pertaining to
Exam ple 5.10.
Its solution gives E f - 3180.5 V and 4324.9 V
Excitation emfs are En = 3180.5 V per phase for lagging pf and Eft = 4324.9 V per phase
R eading pf. Their corresponding line values are En = <3 x 3180.5 = 5508.63 V and En
s W x 4324.9 = 7490.73 V.
(b) For lagging pf, the mechanical power developed is
3810.6 x 3180.5 gin 1Q0 = 315682.3 W
20
I Art.
596 E lectrical M ach in ery
3 1 5 0 8 2 ,3 --------- , 0 .6 3 i 4 l a g
Power factor \f,'l y OGOO x 43.74
For leading pf, the mechanical power developed is
p = 3 3810.6 x 43 2 4 3 sin 10° = 429270.4 W
_ ^29270^4------- = o 8 r) 8 5 |c a ( i
Power factor
\3x6G 00 x 43.74
(c) The synchronous motor will fall out of step when 6 - 90 .
E/X 3810.6 .
200,000 = 3 sin 90’
20
or Ef - 349.90 V per phase or 606 V (line).
Exam ple 5.11. A 3-phase, 415 V, 6-polc, 50 Hz, star-connected synchronous motor has an
em f o f 520 V (L - L). The stotor winding has a synchronous reactance o f 2 ohm s / phase, and the
motor develops a torque of220N m . The motor is operating o ff 415 V, 50 Hz bus.
ww
(a) Calculate the current drawn from the supply and its power factor.
(b) Draw the phasor diagram showing all the relevant quantities. (GATE, 1992)
w.E
Solution. Per phase V, =
415
= 239.6 V
Per phase Ef =
520
asy = 300.2 V
„ , , 4 nf 4 n x 5 0
Synchronous speed, o)4. = -jf- ----
lOOn ,.
= —- — rad/s
En
Torque —
Ef V, .
3
--------
sin 8
. — I c -1 gin
or
™ 3
A's
520x415 . P eer
220 = —~ " •------
ing
From the phasor diagram of Fig. 5.48, it is seen that
.ne
or
( I J C f = E j + V f - 2Ef Vt-cos 8
1 tonA r>2 . non r.2
Ia = - (300.22 + 230.92 - 2 x 300.2 x 239.6 x cos 12.33 °]1/2 = 41.8 A
t
E xam p le 5 11
ww
gible resistance. When connected to bus bars at rated voltage and the excitation adju sted fo r an
e m f of 120%, the m achine draw s an input kVA o f 100%. Find the m echanical pow er delivered by
w.E
the motor, neglecting all losses. I f for the sam e load on the motor, the excitation is reduced to
gen era te an em f o f 100%, what would be the input kVA ? (I.A.S.,1994)
problems.
asy
Solution. Three-phase problems can be solved in per unit by treating them as single-phase
Here Xs = 0.8 pu, ra = 0 , E f = 1.2 pu, Vt = 1.00 pu. For an input kVA of 100% at Vt = 1.00,
V, Ia = 1.00 and therefore Ia = 1.00 p.u.
En
gin
As Ef= 1.2 pu is more that Vt = 1.00, synchronous motor is working at a leading pf. From
Fig. 5.34 (c),
E f = (Vt cos 0 - I a r J 2 + (V, sin 0 - I J C f
1 .22 = cos2 0 + (sin 0 - 0 .8)2 eer
1.44 = cos2 0 + sin2 0 + 0.64 - 1.6 sin 0
ing
0r sin 0 = f f = 0.125
1.6
.ne
Power factor, cos 0 = 0.9922 leading.
Mechanical power developed by the motor
= Vt Ia cos 0 = 1 x 1 x 0.9922 = 0.9922 pu.
t
When excitation emf is reduced to 1.00 pu for the same load, then
ErVt
sin 5 = 0.9922
lx l
~0 g- sin 5 = 0.9922 or 8 = 52.54°
( I J C f = E f + V f - 2Ef Vt cos 8
Qr (0.8 7a)2 = l 2 + l 2 - 2 x 1 x 1 x cos 52.54°
7a = 1.1065 p.u.
hput kVA =VtI a = 1 x 1.1065 = 1.1065 p.u. or 110.65% kVA.
ww 5 = sin
- 1 0.5 x 0.8
1 x 1..3
= 17.92c
w.E
{ I J C f = E f + V] - 2EfV, cos 5
asy
1/2
or 4 = 7TF f1-32 + l 2 - 2 x 1.3 x 1 x cos 17.92°]
0.8
= 0.581 p.u.
Also, Vt Iu cos 0 = P
En
or pf = cos 0 =
0.5
1 x 0 .5 8 1
= 0.8606 lagging.
gin
(b) Another value of excitation E f is possible as shown in
Fig. 5.49. As l a, Vt and power are unchanged, the magnitude eer
of pf remains the same but it is now 0.8606 leading. Fig. 5.49
shows that ing
N\ E fi = (V t cos e)2+ (V t s i n 3~ 4X s) 2
.ne
Fig. 5 .4 9 . Pertaining to
Exam p le 5.14.
w
or
= 0.86062 + (0.5093 - 0.581 x 0.8)2
Efx = 0.86175 p.u.
„
6528.05 x 6351
^ 10.05 sin (8.81 + 5.71°) - '6 3 5 1 '2 x 1 = 634947.65 W.
10.05
(a) New value of excitation emf, E n = 6 5 2 8 .0 5 x 1.15 = 7507.3 V. With this value of En
irmature current lags bus-bar voltage V, by an angle 8 „ Fig. 5.50. As alternator output is
ww
onstant, the power delivered to bus remains unchanged. From Eq. (5.32),
w.E
634947.65 =
7507.3 x 6351
10.05
sin (8 i + 5.71°) - 6351 ^
10.05
xl
asy
Its simplification gives load angle
8 j = 1 2 .5 9 ° - 5 .7 1 ° = 6 .88 °.
Also,
En
(/alZ s)2 = 75 0 7 .3 2 + 63512 - 2 x 7507.3 x 6351 x cos 6 .88 °
or hi =
1
(1422.5611) = 141.55 A
gin
Power output of alternator = Power input to busbar
r a. ry 634947.65 , . eer
or power factor = cos 0 = x ^4 ^ 55 = 0 7063 lagging.
ing
(c) By increasing the steam input to the turbine, the
turbogenerator can be made to work at unity power factor. .ne
Voltage Vt remains fixed as it is an infinite bus voltage. For
more steam input, E ^ traces a locus as shown in Fig. 5.50
until unity pf is reached. It is seen that
t
E^ = (6351 + Iai x l )2 + (107o2)2
or 7507.32 = (6351 + / a2)2 + (l° /« 2)2
or 101 4 + 2 x 6351 I a2 + 63512 " 7507 32 = 0
or 722 + 125.76 Iai ~ 158657 = 0
Its solution gives arm ature current l ai = 3 4 °-3 A
sin 0 - t a n
asy
- i 0.04
1.6
0.6404
7—7-t -^ = 0.400125
Vl~6* + 0.04
or
En
0 = 23.586 + 1.432 = 25.01830 Fig. 5.51. Pertaining to
Example 5.16,
Power factor = cos 25.018° = 0.9062 leading
gin
Zs = V0 .82 + 0.022 = 0.8002, ot, = tan~1 0.02 = 1.432c
1x 1
sin (5 + 1.432°) -
\2
ing
/ 10.8002 x 0.02 = VtIa cos 0
0.8002
= 1 x 1 x cos 0 = 0.9062 p.u. ;
.ne
or 8 = 4 8 .1 7 1 - 1.432 = 46.74°
Load angle = 46.74°.
Solution, (a) The equivalent circuit for the conditions specified is shown in Fig. 5.52 («'
Phasor diagram is drawn in Fig. 5.52 (6) where V„ = per-phase bus bar voltage = V, = per P***
V;» i j •
i;. t: ■
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X f ij
Polyphase Synchronous M achines 601
Xs .2-42fl xe=0.5
— “Tnnnr— —
+
1q >
@ E f vb
(a)
w.E
r 40,000
h = = 2 0 9 9 -52 A
X. in ohms
Voltage drop
=
asy
. X,i n pu Xf f = 0.8„ x
l7n
0 . V3
V3
A C = I a -Xe = 2099.52 x 0.5 = 1049.76 V
40,000
40 non
x11 = 2 42 £1
w
.. r
5472 watts a t ra ted voltage. Its synchronous reactance is 10 Cl per phase and resistance is neg
ligible. I f its excitation voltage is ad ju sted equ al to the rated voltage o f 400 V, compute the load
angle, power fa c to r a n d the arm atu re current.
° c - iQxs
Solution. W ith Vt = E f, the synchronous motor phase diagram
is as shown in Fig. 5.53.
Here 230.95 V
E f Vt
Now sin 6 = P
(A rt. 5.8
602 E lectrical M achinery
w.E
Solution, (a) The equivalent circuit for this example is shown in Fig. 5.54 (a) and its phasor
diagram is drawn in Fig. 5.54 ( b ).
asy .
jiaXSg
XSg = 3fl Xsm =2fl
En
T .
gin „ Vm iiaxtr
eer 9m ^axsm
Ef„\
(a)
ing (6)
= cos- 1
m 1154
= cos 1
E,fm 1170 = cos 1 (0.987) = 9=
Angle 82 between Vm and Efg is
m
52 = cos- 1 = cos- 1 f ^
E,fg 1240 = co s"1 (0.929) = 21.8°.
The power angle between Efg and Efl
Jfm I®
bgm = 21.8° + 9° = 30.8°.
c h r o n o u s motor, the angle between Efg and Efm must be 90°, as ^ y J a xsm
1\
9J L n in Fig' 5,54 (c)‘ From this Phasor diagram. i* w CS. r
Sh0W 4 (Xam + Xtr + Xsg) = JE fm+ EJg 8 Efm
r ... V(1170)^ + (1240)^ Fig. 5.54. (c) Phasor diagram for
6^5-------- ^60 A. maximum power transfer
Example 5.19.
f"1ErA'
ww P
max = A,
—
xr
_ (1170) (1240)
6.5
From phasor diagram w.E - 223.0 kW per phase = 669.0 kW for 3-phases
p = cos"1
E
'El
■fa (Xam+ Xlr + XSg)
asy
= cos,-1
^1170^
1690
= 46.2°.
En
A B - h Xsm sin P = (260) (2) (0.721) = 375 V.
and
gin
B C = 4 Xsm cos P = (260) (2) (0.6925) = 360 V.
Vm = i(O B ? + (A B f = yl(Efm~BC)z + (A B f
eer
= V(810)2 + (375)2 = 892.6 V line to neutral
= 1546 V line to line
ing
Synchronous motor terminal voltage Vm can also be obtained from AOAC as under :
The maximum power transfer of 669 kW represents the maximum load that can be put
the synchronous motor and alternator for the two machine system under consideration. A l0ai
greater than 669 kW would cause the synchronous motor to loose synchronism.
Exam ple 5.20. A 20 MVA, 3 p h a se star-connected altern ator with an im pedance o f 5 Qand
a resistance o f 0.5 Q, is operating in p a ra llel with co n stan t-v otlag e 11 kV bus bars. I f its f ^
current is adju sted to give an excitation voltage o f 12 kV, then calcu late .
(а ) the m axim um pow er output from the altern ator an d
(б) the arm atu re current an d pow er factor under m axim um p ow er conditions.
Solution, (a) Alternator terminal voltage per phase,
Vt = 11^ ° ° = 6350 V.
Maximum power output from the alternator, from Eq. (5.36) is given by
ww P
* og (max)
- M
2
Z L
°
'
asy
= 8 MW per phase = 24 MW for 3 phases. '
fa_ _ (b5
(6)
En
cos02 = 7r = - ^ i = O.l
Z, 5
C°S 9 "
E fZ . - V , r 6930 x 5 - 6350 x -
=~ 1784 (5)2 .ne
= ° '7° 6 leading'
5.9. Circle Diagrams of Synchronous M achines
The steady state behaviour of a synchronous machine can easily be obtained from its circle
t
diagrams. These diagrams offer quick graphical solution to many synchronous m a c h in e
problems, though the results are a little less accurate from those obtained analytically.
In this article, the circle diagrams of cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor have only been
discussed.
5.9.1. Synchronous m otor circle diagram s. H ere th e excitatio n -circle and power
circle diagrams for a cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor are developed. With the help o f these
two circle diagrams, synchronous motor V-curves are obtained.
(a) The excitation circles. The excitation circle diagram gives the locus of armature cur
rent / a, as the excitation voltage Ef and load angle 6 are varied. This circle diagram f°ra
synchronous motor is based on its voltage equation,
Vt = E f+ I a Z„
...(5.47)
Vt _ Ef
rrent phasors = — (= OC) and (= OB) lag behind their corresponding voltage
The cu
angle 9Z and arm atu re cu rrent
by ”2 * , . 1-rr
phas°r htained by taking their difference
I -0A>1S ................• ............ 1- L- L-------
Eq <5 47^' N° te th at the angle betW8en
asPer
h is the power angle 8, as shown in
5 and
I
* c k Phasor CA is parallel to OB and in
figij, o.o° - 1
> g
C A - O B - -£• In F ig . 5 .5 3 , the
magnitude
ww
orientation of phasor V, is deliberate so that
^becomes horizontal.
zs w.E
Alternatively, the same result can also be
asy
Fig. 5.55. Excitation-circle diagram ; illustrating
obtained as follows. W ith V, as reference the locus of arm ature current as E f and 5
phasor, Eq. (5.47) can be re-written as are varied in a synchronous motor.
Vt ZO Ef z ~ 5 _ Yi
1 =
z sze2
7
Zfc tz
'i Ef
Eno
= /2 - e ,- y z - s - 0 ,
ljz
"V E V E
gin
In expanded form, Ia = Y cos ez - y cos (5 + ez) + J - -=r sin 0Z+ -={■ sin (5 + 0Z)
The magnitude of /* is
s s As As
eer
rt2 =
V, Ef
— cos 0Z- y cos (8 + 02) -
v
ing E
sin 0Z+ f f sin (8 + 0Z)
As
vt
s
%
V E
" s S
n .ne
t
cos (8 + 0Z) cos 0Z+ sin (8 + 0Z) sin 0Z j
v y
( v ty (E f \ v t Ef ...(5.48)
ILa2 = • 2 ■ ■f cos 8
vz . y S
t Eq. (5.48) states that I a (= OA) is one side of a triangle (AOCA), whose other two sides,
ndude between them a variable angle 8 (= ZACO), the two sides being of magnitude.
y Ef A
Y (= o c ) and
both
°f which are of the nature of currents.
IfVr, . y
i ls assumed constant, f = OC
ZQ
18Co
For a fixed excitation voltage E , the extremities of phasors Ef/Z , and I„ follow the
« load is changed on the motor. This locus,_known as the “ ^ f t T a d s
he magnitude and power factor o f f and the load angle S, for different shaft loads.
For Ef > Vt, the armature current I a, for the same load angle 5, is equal to OF Fig. 5.55, an<}
it leads Vt. Thus for Ef <Vt>the motor operates at a lagging p.f. and for E f > „ the motor may
° PeNoteaLVuhem ^cifrnuni value of load angle ACO can be equal to 0Z, as proved in Art. 5.8.
(b) The pow er circles. A power circle gives the locus of the arm ature current 4 as
mechanical power developed and power-factor angle 0 are varied.
The power output per phase in case of a synchronous motor is
P - V t I a cos Q - I a ra -(5.49)
where Vt Ia cos 0 is the pei phase power input to asynchronous motor and P is the mechanical
power developed including both the iron and mechanical losses. In other words,
P = Shaft power + Iron and mechanical losses.
Eq. (5.49) can be re-written as
V, • P
4t2 - — cos 0 + — = 0 ...(5.50)
a ra a ra
or
ww J 2 cos2 0 + 72 sin2 0 - — 7a cos 0 + — = 0
ra ” ra
Let x = Ia sin 0 and y = Ia cos 0. With this substitution, Eq. (5.51) becomes,
...(5.51)
w.E x2 + y2- — y + — = 0
ra ra -(5.52)
asy
Eq, (5.52) is the equation of a circle* with its
centre at
f
0,
TT \
2 r„ En
A
r t t \2
Vt gin Zero-power
circle
and radius
2r„
eer
as shown in Fig. 5.56. The co-ordinates of any point
on the circle, such as point A, are {x,y) or
( 4 sin 0 , 4 cos 0). It is seen from Fig. 5.56 that ing ro
X l ')
-2 - •4 cos 0 = (X l
2r. 2 r„ 2 r„
* 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2/y + c = 0,
with its centre a t a n d radius =
2
This equation shows that f v 1] P is one side of a triangle whose other two sides are
w ” ra
JjL with angle 0 in between them, see Fig. 5.56. Note that ^ and V. are in the same
»»i 2t.' 2r°
phase-
,1
When P - °>the radlus °f the power circle = —
2ra
howing thereby that the zero-power circle passes through origin, marked O in Fig. 5.56. As the
S vver developed P , goes on increasing, the radius of the power circle goes on reducing and
^axiroum power would occur when the radius of power circle is zero, i.e. when
P max _ q
*
°r ww Pmax _
ra ~4%
or w.E V2
rp max -= —
a
™a
asy
Corresponding to the maximum power Pmax the power circle of zero radius is the point C
itself and the armature current is
Vt . .
En
ty ■in phase with Vt, i.e. power factor is unity.
v, v2
Maximum power input = V, /_ cos 0 = V, —- •1 = —
gin
V2
2 ra 2ra
eer
and maximum power output, Pmax = —L -
ing
Efficiency at maximum output = 50%.
.ne
An efficiency of 50% is too low a value for a synchronous motor. At this efficiency, losses
would be about half of the input and temperature rise would be far above the permissible
temperature of the motor. As such, maximum power output of V f/4ra can never be obtained in
practice from a synchronous motor.
t
Eq. (5.50) when solved for Ia, for given values of power and power factor gives two currents,
w >ch are also indicated as OA and OB in the power-circle diagram of Fig. 5.56.
^ (c) V*curves. Figs. 5.55 and 5.56 show separately, the locus of armature current Ia as a
10n °f excitation voltage and power. These two circle diagrams may be superimposed as
u®trated in Fig. 5 .57 . Here OC' is taken equal to — and with C as centre, a zero-power circle
°f i*adi ^ *
US 2 *s drawn. Now make angle COD equal to 02 and join the point C with point D. The
^ g*e ODC' must be a right angle, since the point D lies on the circle with O C as its diameter.
[Art. s.9
608 E lectrical M achinery
ww
citation Ef/Z s, these two values
Iao and Ia0' are plotted as shown in the
w.E
lower diagram of Fig. 5.57. in this man
ner, the armature current values are
plotted for various values of excitations
for fixed powers. The various plotted
points so obtained are joined together asy
as illustrated in the lower diagram of
Fig. 5.57. Since the shape of the lower
En Field Ef
excitation Zj
portions of these curves resemble the
letter V, these are called “V-curves” of a
gin
Fig. 5.57. Construction of V- and O-curves from
power and excitation circles.
synchronous motor. When con
sidered as a whole, they are called
“O-curves.” . eer
The maximum theoretical excitation is
ing
.ne
p
DD' = "iax)
Zs
and here the excitation circle is tangent to the zero-power circle.
But DD' = OC'
E,/ (max) Vt
t
or E f(m
t a x) - * z .
nr-n' o-mi-?lnIUnIuan maximum excitations for any power correspond to the points on line
. Similarly, the minimum and maximum values of arm ature currents for any power P,
correspond to the line O C C . Since the terminal voltage Vt is also along OCC’ the minimum and
maximum currents occur at unity power factor.
In Fig. 5.57, the curve A QB , i.e. H 2, joins all the points corresponding to minimum and
maximum excitations for the different powers considered. In Fig 5 58 (a) for any power P. tlJc
minimum and maximum excitations are DH and D H, and the corresponding armature currents
are OH and OHx respectively.
ww
the current line is tangent to the power
circle for that load. and minimum arm ature currents.
w.E
In Fig. 5.58 (8), D F is drawn normal to OC. When the excitation f i . equal to (= in
asy
the lower diagram of Fig. 5JS7), / . = 0 (point A itself in Fig. 5.57) and'when excitation is equal
to its minimum excitat.on D F toss than O'A in Fig. 5.57, current is OF in Fig. 5.58 (6) I d
En
in Fig. 5.57. If the excitation ^ is made greater than DF, current is also more than O'F, Fig.
gin
5.57. This explains for the bend in the unity power-factor curve ff, or AQB which has been
obtained by joining all the points pertaining to unity p.f.
eer
The compounding curve for unity power factor H x i.e. AQB, corresponds to the line OCC’
ing
and it will be observed th a t to the left of curve H lt p.f. is lagging and to the right of it, the p.f.
is leading. An exam ination of Fig. 5.57 also reveals that the compounding curve ff2, i.e. A'Q3'
corresponds to the line DCD'. The point Q in the lower diagram, corresponds to the point C in
the upper diagram of Fig. 5.57. .ne
E
In Fig. 5.57, arm atu re current Ia versus excitation -=f have been plotted to obtain V-curves t
°f a synchronous motor. If l a versus field current If, is to be plotted, then for each value of
A
calculate^. Now from OCC, find I f f o r each value of Ef and plot/a versus If to get synchronous
rootor V-curves— this is illustrated in Example 5.21.
Exam ple 5.21. A 1500 kW , 2 2 0 0 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected cylindrical-rotor
synchronous m otor h a s a rm a tu re resistance o f 0.32 Cl per phase. Its open circuit data are given
mom;
Core loss - 60 kW
Ef = = 1235 V.
V3
_ E f _ 1235 _
Synchronous impedance, Z = - x = ^ 7 f = 1 .6 4 8 a
he 750
wwin A
Ef, in V
5.00
438
1 0 .0 0
866
15.00
1235
2 0 .0 0
1529
2 5 .0 0
1755
30.00
1929
Ef/Zs, in A
w.E 266
Vt 1269
526 750 928 1065 1170
Also
2 r„ " 0.64
asy
= 1982 A.
For half-lull load output of 750 kW, total mechanical power developer per phase is
P=
750 + 60 + 40
En 850
kW
3
Radius of power circle corresponding to 8 5 0 /3 kW power
3
gin
eer
CM ______
i
V / ra
ing
Scale 100 A
•V ?
(1982)2 - -85Q,QQQ = 1748 A.
= 1 cm.
3 x 0.32
.ne
Two circles with CO = 1982 A and CG = 1748 A as radii
are drawn. Cut OD = Vt/Z s = 770 A and with D as centre
t
draw different curves with Ef/Z s as radii (given in table) so
that they intersect the power circle at a h a 2, .., a G, see Fig.
5.59. Now O a , is the armature current for an excitation circle
of radius D a , = Ef/Z , = 266 A. But this excitation D a , cor
responds to a field current of 5 A. Thus one point on the V-
curve representingIa = Oal = 640 A and If = 5.00 A is located.
Similarly other points on the F-curve are obtained, tabulated
and plotted in Fig. 5.60. Further, for I{ =. 5.0 A, the pf is
cos tCoa^ ; for If = 10.0 A, the pf is cos /Coo., and so on.
Fig. 5 .5 9 . Pow er and excitation circle
d iag ram . Exam ple 5.21.
ww
w.E F ie ld c u r r e n t, I f
asy
Fig. 5.60. Variation of arm ature current and p.f. with field current, Exam ple 5.21.
If, »■"A
5.00 1 0 .0 0
En 15.00 2 0 .0 0 2 5 .0 0 3 0 .0 0
*« A
640 345 235
gin 295 400 496
eer
0.507 lag 0 .7 2 3 lag 0 .9 9 9 lag 0 .8 1 9 lead 0 .6 5 lead 0 .5 6 6 lead
p.f.
Example 5.22. Repeat Exam ple 5.21, i f the arm ature resistance ra is neglected.
ing
Solution. Since armature resistance ra is neglected, synchronous reactance,
x ~
s
£_1235
Isc 750
= 1.648 Q
.ne
Radius of power circle corresponding to 850/3 kW of power is equal to infinity.
Also Vt/2 ■ra —> oo (infinity). Thus the power circles become straight lines' with centre at
t
infinity.
Now P = V, Ia cos 0 - 0
or 850^00-Q
-= 1269 Zc cos e
f vt
Take OD = Vt/X s = 770 A, 90° away from OG ( V 0, = 90°) and with D as centre draw dif
ferent curves with E f/X s as radii, (given in Example 5.21 as E f/Z s = E f/X s) intersecting the
power lines at a u a 2, ..., a 6, Fig. 5.61. As before, O a1 is the armature current corresponding to
ww
the excitation D au i.e. 5 A. In this manner, other points of the V-curve are obtained, tabulated
-ind can be plotted as in Example 5.21. Values of power factors are calculated as cos IVfig^
If, in A 5 .00
w.E
cos / V,oa . f'tc. and tabulated as in the previous example.
1 0 .0 0 15.00 2 0 .0 0 2 5 .0 0 30.00
I a, in A 664
asy
365 230 258 350 440
En
p.f. 0 .3 3 4 lag 0.602 lag 0 .9 7 4 lag 0 .8 6 1 lead 0 .6 4 lead 0.515 lead
gin
m otor h as its synchronous im pedance o f 0.7 + j3.2 ft p er phase. It is working at rated voltage,
rated frequency with an input o f 350 kW. The field current is adju sted to give an electromotive
eer
force o f 1650 V. Calculate the arm ature current, pow er factor an d load angle.
Solution. Terminal voltage per phase,
V, =
V3
= 635 V.
ing
E.m.f. per phase,
V3
.ne
Power input
Synchronous impedance,
tinoc Zs = V(0.7)* + (3.2)z = 3.28 ft.
Vt 635
= 193.7 A
t
3.28
—L 952
and = 290 A.
3.28 vt Us
Now Fig. 5 .6 2 . P ertaining to Example 5.23.
V/ / o co s0 = ^ k W .
)n‘S ca le 50 A = 1 cm.
: fak in g OG = 183.6 A and a line through G and parallel to x-axis, represents per phase po'^r
input o f 116.7 kW. Draw a line through O, making an angle 0, = 77.68° with Vt, see Fig. 5.62, an
V E
cut OD ~ 2, s ~ ^ ^ anC^ ~ Zs ~ ^ Then OA = armature current, Ia = 194.5 A and p.f.
5 cos {ZAOG) = cos 19.5 = 0.942 leading. The load angle ZODA = 41.4°.
5. 10 . Power F a c to r Control of Synchronous Machines
ww
netizing current from the a.c. source in order to establish the working flux. This magnetizing
current lags the applied voltage by almost 90°. In other words, the function of the magnetizing
!:!’!
w.E
current or laSS‘n« reactive VA.drawn by a.c. electromagnetic device (or an a.c. motor), ia to set
up the flux in the magnetic circuit of the device.
A synchronous motor is a doubly-excited machine, its armature winding is energised from
asy
an a.c. source and its field winding from a d.c. source. When synchronous motor is working at
constant applied voltage, the resultant air gap flux as demanded by constant V„ remains sub
En
stantially constant as per Eq^ (5.24). This resultant air-gap flux is established by the co-opera
tion of both a.c. in the armature winding and d.c. in the field winding. If the field current is Ill
gin
sufficient enough to set up the air-gap flux, as demanded by constant Vt then magnetizing
current or lagging reactive VA required from the a.c. source is zero and, therefore, the motor
operates at unity power factor. This field current, which causes unity power factor operation of
eer
the synchronous motor, is called norm al excitation or normal field current. If the field current
is made less than the normal excitation, i.e. the motor is unde, excited, then the deficiency in
ing
flux (= Constant air gap flu x -F lu x set up by d.c. in the field winding) must be made up by the
armature winding m.m.f. In order to do the needful, the armature winding draws a magnetizing
current or lagging reactive VA from the a.c. source and as a result of it, the motor operates at
a lagging power factor. r
.ne
In case the field current is made more than its normal excitation, i.e. the motor is over
excited^ then the excess flux (= Flux set up by d.c. in the field winding—resultant air-gap flux)
must be neutralized by the armature winding. The armature can do so only if it draws a demag
t
netizing component of current from the a.c. source. Since in a motor, the magnetizing current
lags the applied voltage by about 90°, the demagnetizing component of current must lead the
applied voltage by about 90°. In view of this, the excess flux can be counterbalanced only if the
armature takes a demagnetizing current or leading reactive VA from the a.c. source conse
quently the synchronous motor operates at a leading power factor. It can, therefore, be inferred
from above that a synchronous motor operates at a lagging power factor when underexcited and
« leading power factor when overexcited. The extent of power factor lead or power factor lag,
ePends upon the degree of over excitation or under-excitation.
The effect of field current on the synchronous-motor power factor can also be explained with
he help of its phasor diagram . For simplicity, arm ature resistance ra is neglected and
synchronous reactance X8 and terminal voltage V, are assumed to remain constant. From Eq.
■35), it is seen th at the per phase power is given by
c u uy o a i iu u a i ii i c i www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Fig. 5.63. Effect of field current on synchronous
motor power factor. Fig. 5.64. Synchronous motor (a) V-curves and
- current curves.
(fc) power factor versus field
t" I
Similarly compounding curves for 0.8 p.f. lag and 0.8 p.f. lead, are shown by dotted curves
clirm 5.64 (a). The C°™P0™ ^ u °u u p fs' Can also be drawn if required. These f
f i n d i n g curves * which the field current should be varied in order to rP
lain13’11 c0flS.fn ^Vhe svnchronmi«! a & s-Note that the synchronous motor compounding
,rves are similar to the synchronous generator compounding curves of Fig. 5.39.
c For c°nstanfit4 ?M arfobta^ne^Nofp r ^ f ^ 8 5 ? ° , ^ 38 3 function of the field current, the
curves of Fig. 5f * (6 )a ” ob 3‘ fold ° the field current for u.p.f. at full load is more than
the field current for U- P ^ * ™ :l° ad; It may also be seen from Fig. 5.64 that if the synchronous
niotor at fullk®?.*® nPr T h e rn ^ P C Kf / ! m0Val °f the shaft load causes the motor to ;i:F
operate at a leacbnS p. • urves obtained by plotting power factor versus field currfent
resemble inverted 7 , these curves are, therefore, sometimes called inverted V-curves of a
synchronous motor.
y The ability of a synchronous motor to operate at leading power factors when overexcited, is
'I
utilised for ^ P ™ ^ , ^ 1 1 1 / °f many supply systems. For example, an industrial
employ a synchronous motor to i!;:
im p r o v e
ww
the power factor of the entire load and thus save the organisation from the low-power
factor penalty clause. *
It should be remembered that an induction motor must take lagging kVAr from the suddIv
¥II I
w.E
system, in order to set up its working air-gap flux. A single line diagram of a 3-phase induction
m o t o r connected to an ac source is given ,n Fig. 5.65 (a). When a synchronous motor is con
nected in parallel with it , then this motor, when overexcited, supplies lagging kVAr to the
asy
induction motor locally .A s a result distribution lines are relieved completely or partially from
supping the lagging kVAr needed by the induction motor. Now the supply lines have to LndT e
kW
gin
kVAr and kW. It is the combined load, consisting of over-excited synchronous motor and induc-
LAGGING kVAr
eer
ing ■'li
.ne
t "III
. I
ww
Fig. 5.66 (c) shows the V-curve of an ideal synchronous motor.
j'a x s
Ef
.
w.E
'o 1
V «‘ Vt
j'c * s
E ( > Vt
6=0 £| E r v,
P=0
asy
(Overexcited)
6*0
P*0
( U n d e r -e x c it e d )
En In d u c to r
(la g g in g pf)'
C a p a c it o r
( le a d i n g p f )
gin
-}90°
"f1
Ia
u n it p f
(a)
lb) W
eer
Fig. 5.66. Synchronous m otor (a) zpf leading (6 ) zpf lagging (c) V -curve.
ing
5 10.2. Pow er-factor co n tro l of A lte rn a to rs. For a single alternator, or an isolated al
ternator, delivering power to a load, the relevant characteristics are already described in Art.
Xihu
fLr
>6e<d
k e<,6
> f
glej
cHor
lctor
ww
w.E (a)
F%. 5.67. Effect . f field cucceet „„ an , l ter„ a . . r e j e c t e d * i n f i l bu,
asy
can notv be summarised as given'below' Fo^conv8™8™101! fr°m that connected to infinite bus
and the one connected to infinite bus as A2
(i) Speed. When speed ofA l is u En
enience, let us call isolated generator as A l
.. ,.
al-
a *
ing
by bus-bar frequency. Further, t e r m t a a l S o f e r i t ? " ? 0r<i' Spe<=d are governed
<«) Field excitation . If field current of Al is S'bar V°ltage‘
Jt.
an
voltage both rise. Its operating power factor dependsupon'the n ^ tT ^ n * ° Y ^ f and termmal
heater load, operating pf of isolated generator is always unhy example, for
.ne
ce.
he
ready operating at a leading pfiTet’ R g . T s T w
- urves can be obtained only for A2 and not for alternator A l t
fading to la^ n g if al
onstant power, alternator
re.
er
JA rt- S.l|
618 E le ctrica l M ach in ery
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
(b) spatial orientation of F„ relative to Ff.
eer
As before, the armature current is assumed to lag excitation emf E f-by a time-phase anglt
\\i° so that internal p f is cos \\i° lagging. Therefore, current in coil a, a' would attain maximum
ing
value after the field poles have moved to a new position \j/° electrical ahead of the maximum emf
position of Fig. 5.68 (a). In other words, by the time arm ature current in coil o, a' reaches
.ne
maximum value, the rotor poles N, S would have moved forward by vy° electrical from its maxi
mum emf position of Fig. 5.68 (a). This is shown in Fig. 5.68 (6), since coil a, a' representing
t
phase ‘a ’ carries maximum current, peak of the resultant rotating arm ature mmf Fa is directed
vertically upward along the axis of phase ‘a ’. Fig. 5.68 Lb) reveals th at arm ature mmf Fa lags
field mmf Ff by a space angle of (90 + y°) as in a cylindrical-rotor alternator of Fig. 5.8, With
changes in internal p f angle /, the reluctance offered to arm ature mmf F varies because of a
change in its spatial orientation relative to the field-pole axis or direct axis. This shows that the
magnitude of armature reaction flux per pole cj)„ (= F a/reluctance) varies with a change in angle
y. This difficulty of encountering different reluctances by arm ature reaction mmf Fa, as the
angle y changes, can be overcome by resorting to two-reaction theory suggested by Blondel.
According to two-reaction theory , the sinusoidal arm ature m m f F is resolved into two
sinusoidal components, one F(l(i along d-axis and the other F m/ along q- axis. It is seen from Fig-
5.68 ( b ) that Fud experiences minimum but constant reluctance along d - axis. Similarly, com
ponent F aq encounters maximum but constant reluctance along q-axis. Thc rf-axis compon^
F„d is seen to be demagnetizing in nature in Fig. 5.68 (6). In general the rf-axis compopent
Flld is magnetizing in nature if y is an angle oflead and is demagnetizing in nature if
angle of lag, i.e. F ad produces only a change in the field strength. The q-axis component hi
ww
In a salient pole synchronous machine the relu n ^ i
less than that along the <7-axis. In view of this the comnn /n
,
field~pole axis i.e. d-axis is
w.E
byreluctance along d-axis) and <bao (equal to F dividr n
thesame ratio as are the component m.m fs , i l
, S *ad (equal to F“d P itie d
by re' UCtance al™B "-“ is) are not in
asy jW
U
F ad
Kq
En
gin
q -axis
eer
ing
.ne
t
This is depicted in Fig. 5.69 by cj>„ (= §ad + 4>„7) and Fa {=Fad + F aq) not being in phase wi^
each other.
In Art. 5.4.1, armature m.m.f. Fa is replaced by time-quadrature lagging induced e.mf
Ean see Fig. 5.19 (a). In a similar way, the armature m.m.f. components in Fig. 5.69, can be
replaced by the induced voltages Bad and E aq, lagging in time by 90°, their respective m.m.f
components Fud and Faq (or ld and Iq). For the sake of clarity in the figure, only Ead is shown
lagging F ad by 90°. By neglecting saturation and by referring to Eq. (5.10); Ead the voltage
induced in the armature winding due to d-axis armature m.m.f. component F ud, can be written
as
F ad ~ ~ jK d Fad = -jC K d l d = - jX ad I d.
Similarly Eaq, the voltage induced in the armature winding due to qr-axis armature reaction
component Faqt is given by
Eaq = - j K q Fuq = - j C Kq l q = - jX aq 7q.
ww
, Here Xad, X^ are proportionality constants similar to the magnetizing reactance Xar of the
cylindrical rotor machine, see Eq. (5.10). Thus here Xad and Xaq are respectively the d-axis and
q-axis magnetizing reactances (or armature-reaction reactances) o f a salient pole synchronous
machine.
w.E
The phasor sum of Ef, Ead and E aq gives the air-gap voltage F,r just as in a cylindrical-rotor
machine, see Eq. (5.6), i.e.
asy
F r ~ F f + Ead Fatj ...(5.53)
En
If voltage drops 7ara and j7a xal are subtracted from En the terminal voltage V, is obtained,
see Fig. 5.69.
gin
The leakage reactance drop in the armature winding may be resolved into two components
as given below.
eer
ing
ce = ~ J xoi = - J Qd + Tq) xai = - j Iq •*ai - j l d Xal = cd + de
Hence the armature leakage reactance drop can be combined with the equivalent arma
ture-reaction emfs Ead = - j XadId and Eaq = - j Xaq 7q. Therefore, from Fig. 5.69,
Vt = oa + ab + be + cd + de + e f .ne
^
=jf
^ a<t ~ jld X(id ~ J IqXal ~ jld ' xal ~ Iara
&aq + Xal) - j l d (Xad + x^) - 7ara
t
= E f - j l q x q - j l d x d - Iara
Here Xad + xal = Xd, is the d-axis synchronous reactance and Xan+ x , = X is the q-axis
Synchronous reactance. q
Note that the arm ature leakage reactance x„, has been assumed to be the same for both d■
and q-axis currents.
The phasor diagram of Fig. 5.69 is redrawn in Fig. 5.70 (a) by introducing Xd and X,. In its
dAd
I i dx
d Ad
•I*
(o I
ww
Salien t-p ole sy n ch ron o u s m otor p h aso r diagram . For a synchronous generator a
VO tages are generated and the currents are output currents. For a synchronous motor’
voltages are applied and the currents are input currents. Thus the motor voltage equation ca6
w.E
be obtained from the generator voltage Eq. (5.54) by writing ~7a in place of 7a. Therefore th"
voltage equation for a salient-pole synchronous motor, from Eq. (5.54) is
asy
~ E f+ raIa t j I dXd +j7q Xq
The voltage phasor diagram as per Eq. (5.57), is given in Fig. 5.71 (6). In order to compute
En
om V„ Iai ra, Xdt Xq and power factor angle 0, draw ab perpendicular to I u. As before, ab is
90° away from 7a and therefore, a b must be a reactance drop, say Ia X. Fig. 5.71 (6) reveals that
Zabc = 90 - (0 - 5)
gin
eer lara
Idia VfsinS
V h
ing
.ne
t
Vf cosS
(6)
Pig. 5 .7 2 . P h asor d iag ram s a t lagging pf for salient-pole (a) altern ator and (b ) motor.
°r x =x„.
Therefore, the angular position of£/-can be ohtainor) k„ a- —
wis permits the calculation of angle ,6 1 8 ) . / , and , Her0 °b ' * / - -jU r
^ re-written as ' e 11 uu d (Ar/ ~ *,,) ^9- <5-57) can
jjqW 1
V<= Ef+ jld (Xd - xq) + J I j c + r J
? ,s beh,nd v - for * —
» * " > f « a t,lindrt*al-n)tor mathin. ^ I T ’^
ww
r,eld-winding slots on <7-axis reluctance-consequentlv /°d tffe
rotor machines.
h t T T * ^ l° **“ effeCt ° f
sequently Xd differs slightly from Xq in cylindrical
w.E
at lagging as well as leading poweffMtors.'rhi’s wufcertainly leTdtor° T t t maChdne W° rk‘ng
/Xq = Vj sin 8 + /j r
n'h
+ V a + ^ d ^
eer
From Aoa'6, a 6 ab +
tan \\i = ^ + aaaa '
oa' a'x + ox
.
whprp
_ IgX,, + Vt sin 6
h ra + V, cos 0
• ing ...(5.59 c)
V = internal pf angle by which Ia lags Ef
= 5 + 0. .ne
For a synchronous motor working at a lagging pf, Fig. 5.72 (6),
W ^ sin 5 ♦/,.
t
: ; 5^ M
From Aoa'6, tan y = ^ 4 = l a ~ ab
oa' ox* - a'x
_ Vt sin 0 - lgXq
where V ,c o s 0 - / o ro ...(5.60 c)
For 1 ■ V = 0 - 5.
nat°r and^oads’ the phasor diagrams are drawn in Fig. 5.73 (a) and (6) for an alter-
yucnronous motor respectively.
ls seen from FiS- 5.73 (a) that
Ef= V, cos 5 + l q ra - Id Xd ...(5.61 a)
IqXu = V, sin 5 - l dra ...(5.61 /,)
tan Q ^ . ViSine-/^
...(5.01 c)
oa' V, cos 0 + l a ru
ww Vt cos S
w.E Vt cosS
asy
En
gin 10)
eer
Fig. 5.73. Phasor diagrams a t leading pf for salient-pole (a) altern ator and ( 6 ) motor.
t
Example 5 2 4 . A salient-pole synchronous generator has the follow ing per-unit parameters :
Xa = 12, Xq = 0.8, ra = 0.025.
k V A ° a ? r Z T o Z ? e ? 7 7 Uage 7 °" ^ ^
ated voltage an d at pow er factor o f (a) 0.8 lagging a n d (b) 0.8 lead in g
Solution. For th,s example, refer to Fig. 5.71 (o). With V, as a reference phasor,
Vt = 1.00 + >0.00
4 = 0.8 -> 0.60 = l.oo / - 36.9°
J 4 x q - j (0.8 -> 0.60) (0.80) = 0.48 + > 0.64
4 ra = 0.020 -> 0.015
Thus
Z / = V ,+ j l a Xq +7ara
= (1 +>0.00) + (0.48 +> 0.64) + (0.020 - ; 0 0151
= 1-50 +j 0.625 = 1.625 /2 2 62- ' ’
8 - 22.62- and / 5 + 0 = 22.62 + 36.9 = 5 9 .52 °.
orr
w.E
y
T = 59.49°.
Id = Ia sin V = 0.862 and Iq = Ia cos y = 0.507
asy
Loadangle, 6 = y - 0 = 59.49° - cos" 10.8 = 22.59°.
From Eq.(5.59 a), ^ = l x cos22.59 + 0.507 x 0.025 + 0.862 x 1.2 = 1.9701.
En
(6) For the salient-pole synchronous generator, the phasor diagram for a leading power-fac
tor is illustrated in Fig. 5.74. Here again Vt is taken as the reference phasor.
,\ Vt = 100 + y'0.00
gin
and l a = 0.8 +y'0.60 = 1.00 Z 36.90
j l a Xq = j (0.8 +j0.6) (0.8) = - 0.48 + j 0.64eer
Thus
l aru = 0 .0 2 0 + j 0.015
ing
.ne
Ef = Vt + j I a Xq + Iara
= 1 + j 0.00 - 0.48 + j 0.64 + 0.020 + j 0.015
••
= 0.54 + j 0.655 = 0.849 Z50.50°
5 = 50.50°.
For a leading power factor, the internal power factor angle between Ia and Ef is given by
t
y = Z5-0
Z5 - 0 = 50.50 - 36.9 = 13.60°
Resolution o f/a into its dq components, gives
Ia = 1.00 sin 13.6° = 0.235
and
*I q
q= 1.00
— l.U cos J.O.U
U CUB 13.6°..
The excitation voltage E f is again the numerical sum of E f and Id (Xd - Xq).
E f = E f + Id (Xd - Xq)
= 0.849 + 0.235 (0.4) = 0.943 p.u.
or
E f - 0 .9 43Z 50.50.
^ternatively, from Eq. (5.59 c) and Fig. 5.74,
0 ab c b - c a cb - y x Ia Xq -V ,s \ n d
a n y - tan ( ^ ~ oa ~ ox + xa ox + yc Vt cos 0 + /„ ru
ww
Solution. Phasor diagram of Fig. 5.70 (6) for a salient-pole
synchronous generator reveals that with ra = 0.
'
w.E Vt s in b = Iq XQ
Under steady state short-circuit conditions, terminal volt
age V, = 0.
asy
Iq Xq = Vt sin 5 = 0. ,idxd
or Iq = 0.
En
Now the short-circuit current
h e - h + h = h-
gin a
90
1,6 ° bt“ ed fr° m Eq' < 554' f0r “ al“ r' V, = 0, = 0 and
E f = j I d Xd
or „ .
aEfr h- Xd - - I _s c Xd
a
The excitation voltage Ef is obtained from o.c.c and -4. r
a given field current. Thus " lrcui^ cu rront l sc from s.s.
flux <f>^-is proportional to field m.m.f. F^-or field current If, excitation voltage can
SinC
itten as
be 1
E f = ^ ( 2 n f ) k tvNph (klf)
Ef = K w If
or X a = O) Lr
and r _ E { K a l f K If
...(5.64)
Isc~ T d ~ i n .7 ‘ T 7
X is a constant and L d is the d-axis synchronous inductance of the synchronous
^ere gq (5.64) shows th at for a given field current If, the armature short-circuit current
,ubstantially constant over a wide range of frequency or alternator speed. In view of
• s substantially
re"“T
remT ring ine the short-circuit test, it is not necessary
n ecessai.,for the alternator
........ speed to be equal
r ------------ . to the
this, u
during Speed. However, at considerably lower speeds, the resistance becomes comparable
this,
ww
reactance an(l change in arm ature current is manifested.
w.E
V1 ff mple 5-26. From the p h a so r diagram o f an over-excited salient-pole synchronous m otor
■ oith armature current leadin g the term inal voltage), prove the follow ing relations :
4 (Xq cos 0 + ra sin 0)
tan 5 =
asy
V, + I a (Xq sin Q - r a cos 0)
Vt sin 5 - Iara sin (5 + 0)
jfqXq
and 4 cos (5 + 0)
En
where 8 and 0 are load an d pow er-factor angles respectively.
Solution. Phasor diagram for an over-excited synchronous gin
motor is drawn in Fig. 5.76.
From the tip of the voltage phasor Vt, i.e. point a, draw ab eer
perpendicular to od. Now bc = d e —Iq Xq. Since the resistance
dropac is parallel to Id, ac = Idra. ing
a b = ac + cb
= Idra + IqXq- .ne
From the phasor diagram, it is seen that
. _ ab ac + cb
sin o = — =
oa oa
t
Fig. 5.76. Phasor diagram of an
overexcited synchronous motor.
+ Iq X Q
Id r a ...(5.65)
Vt
But Id = 4 sin (5 + 0)
and 4 = 4 cos (5 + 0).
•••From Eq. (5.65),
Vt sin 5 = ra 4 sin (5 + 0) +Xq 4 cos (5 + 0)
or
Vt sin 5 = rB4 (sin 5 cos 0 + cos 5 sin 0)
‘ + Xq 4 (cos 5 cos 0 - sin 5 sin 0).
Collecting sin 5 terms on the right hand side and cos 5 terms on the left hand side, we get
sin 5 [V, + Xq 4 sin 0 - ra 4 cos 0] = cos 5 [ra 4 sin 0 + 4 x q cos 0]
sin 5 4 (Xq cos 0 + ra sin 0)
= tan 5 =
cos 5 V, + 4 (* 9sin0" r“ cos 9)
ww
the single line diagram of Fig. 5.77 (a). Its phasor diagram for a lagging power factor and with zero
armature resistance, is illustrated in Fig. 5.77 (b).
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
(a) ing
.ne
Fig. 5.77. Cylindrical-rotor alternator connected to infinite bus, (a) its single line diagram
(b) its phasot diagram for a lagging power factor and (c) its power angle characteristic.
or Ef
Ia cos 0 = ^ s i n 8.
Hi i r ‘
ww
...(5 .6 8 )
jlqXq
w.E FJ
1
asy
R e s u lt a n t
/ pow er
En
I n fin ite
bus
gin 0 9 d O l 8 0 o^ S
I:
O-
* d - Xq
I,
eer r ^ i ls in 26
Vt
(a) ing
MOTOR generator
ik\ u T. *7
0b) (C)
generator to) single line diagram
(Ib) phasor diagram for a lagging p.f. and (c) power-angle characteristic. .ne
From Fig. 5.78 (6), V, sin b = a b = d c = InXn
Vt sin 8
t
hi
and
vt cos b = o a = o d ~ a d = o d - b c = Ef - I dXd
E f - V t cos 8
d --------- v -------
p Ef V, V?(l 1
E = —hr— sin 8 + — — - — sin 28 ...(5.69)
X, Xn X ,
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630 E le c tr ic a l M a ch in e ry
Eq. (5.69) gives the power versus load-angle characteristic of a salient jxile machine
shown in Fig. 5.76 (c). The total power consists of a fundam ental component sin 5 and
. vf sin 25.
second harmonic component —
Xd
The first term in Eq. (5.69) is identical with th at obtained for a cylindrical rotor machini
This component of power is called the e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c p o w e r , b ec a u s e its existence depends 0
the existence of both the arm ature winding (with Vt) and the field winding (with If). The secon
term of Eq. (5.69) exists even when the field current is zero, i.e. E f is zero. This second com
ponent of power is present because the arm ature-reaction flux has a tendency to pass throug)
the field structure along its minimum reluctance path, i.e. along the field-pole axis or direct
V f( i
axis. Since in 26 exists because of the different reluctances along d- and <7-axes
Xd
1 V,
ww
it is called the reluctance pow er and the term
'Xd
sin 26 is called the reluctance
torque. Here to, = 2tw, and ns is the synchronous speed in rps. In view of the above, a salient-
w.E
pole synchronous motor connected to an infinite bus, would continue running as a reluctance
motor and at synchronous speed if its field current is reduced to zero. For a cylindrical rotor
machine, X(i = Xq = Xt and the reluctance power is zero, therefore, it can’t run as a reluctance
motor.
asy
In Eq 5.59 (c), positive values of 6 correspond to generator operation where p lead s V,. For
En
motor operation, the power-angle characteristics are of the same shape when armature resis
gin
tance is neglected, except that now Ef lags V, and 5 is taken as negative.
If the synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus of constant voltage Vh through
eer
a transformer, a transmission line or some other reactance X, then the power for a cylindrical
rotor machine, from Eq. (5.67), is
P=
Ef V,
sin 5,
xk+x ing ...(5.70)
For a reactance X between a salient-pole machine and an infinite bus of voltage V„ the
power, from Eq. (5.69), is given by .ne
P =
Ef v t . . v;
Xd + X S,n , + 2
1
xv+x
1
x .+ x
sin 26! t ...(5.71)
Here the load-angle 6j is the time-phase angle between the bus bar voltage V, and the
excitation voltage Ef.
dp
At constant V, and Ef, the condition for maximum power is obtained by putting = ®-
Therefore, for a cylindrical-rotor machine, from Eq. (5.67),
dP E f V.
= ~lv cos 6 = 0 or 6 = 90°
do Xs
This shows that the maximum power in a cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine occurs at
6 = 90°, as is obvious from Fig. (5.77 c).
For a salient-pole synchronous machine, from Eq. (5.69),
dP VtEf a( 1 i) oK
cos 6 + V? I — - — cos 26 = 0
cos 5 = -
W t ,Xd - X a)
KIN
* Vt(Xd - X a) ...(5.72)
Out of the ± signs, only positive sign should be used b ecan i •
lts The value of load angle 5, from Eq. (5 72) is spph ®e ne* a^vesi8n gives ambiguous
[or a sahent-pole machine, the maximum power occurs at 8 < 90° J 9°°' ThiS Sh°WS th&t a
n In order to calculate the maximum power for a salipnt ^ l ’ aSuCan Seen from Fig‘ 5/78
(5 72) and substitute it in Eq. (5.69). salient-pole machine, find angle 8 from Eq.
Example 5.27. A 3-phase, 400 V, star-connectprl «m„i, .
n infinite bus at rated voltage. The synchronous mnrhi r°n° US machine is synchronized with r
If 9 5 kW. The machine resistance is negligible an d X - 5 0 ^ ^ made t0 delwer a shaft load e
S . * — - - loss tetei fooLn, £ £ & £ :Z * C 2
s
,„) power angle, arm ature current, p fa n d draw the phasor and
(Wthe maximum power output an d the corresponding power annle
ww
Solution, (a) Shaft power = 9500 W
Friction, windage and core loss = 500 W
8
w.E
Power developed in the synchronous motor,
P = 9500 + 500 = 10,000 W
Also
asy
P = 3 EfXt sin 8 + \ Vf f \
Xq
l)
Xd
sin 28
~
4002 . s 1 En v _ a)
o
' l V
gin
10,000 = 3
T^T5S m 5 + 2 I s sin 28
3.2 5
or \ > \
By trial and error, 8 = 11.623°
eer
ing
or
IdX d = Ef - V t cos 8
r _ 230.95 - 230.95 x cos 11 fi9.3°
_ I(l xq
.ne
Also
ld ~
U- Xn
^-------------------- = 0.947 A
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ill;
it ;! 632 Flcctriciil M achinery
J * rt- 5.1
ww
Also, determine the maximum reactive pow er Q, the generator can deliver with fixed excita
tion. Neglect arm ature resistance. *
w.E
Solution. The product of voltage and quadrature lagging component of armature current
gives the reactive power Q. ’
From the phasor diagram of Fig. 5.78 (6), it is seen th at Id lags oa = Vt cos6 by 90°, whereas
asy
Iq leads ab = V, sin 8 by 90°. Therefore, the reactive power per phase is givenby
Q = Vt cos b I d - V , sin 8 I q ...
Also Vt sin b = ab = dc = Iq Xq
En
I* 9 =
Vt sin 8
gin
and Er - V, cos b = a d = be =Xd Id
E f - Vt cos 8 eer
Id - ------- ----------
w
. .
On simplification, this gives
r, Er v t
^
v f
Q = ~ Y ~ cos 8 - — - v f
0
■ 2 c
t
Ad xd ' sin 8
TheJ et ore !afromeEPq° ' 7 * > , we g e f ' W° U‘d be maitimum when *»■» * * °-
E f V, vt
V? V
max = x ^ ~ c o s 0 ~ x ~ .~ 0 = x ' l Ef - V) ...(Hi)
= TT (E f COS b - V , ) „.(iv)
'Trent,
w.E p = 5 lv ‘■sin 5
X. ;i;
!i(
lereas
i.e.
asy
A C 1-4 x 1 .
U.o = ~ - -
1.2
sin 5
11
—(t) or 6 = 25.4°
Y/c increase in torque means 1% increase in real power. En
i.e.
dP = 1% of its previous value
... 1 gin
d p = 100 ( 0 , 5 ) = 0005 p
eer
u -
For cylindrical-rotor machine, reactive power from Eq. (5.45) or Eq. (ii) is,
i
X.
cos 5 -
Vf
ing
dQ
db
Ef Vt
sin 8 .ne
...(H )
But
dP
db
ErVt
X . C0S ’
t
= _ tan 8 = - tan 25.4° = - 0.475.
dP
5 = 0. •• dQ = - 0.475 (1%) = - 0.475%.
This shows that with 1% increase in prime-mover torque, the active power P is increased
y of its previous value, but the reactive power Q is decreased by 0.475% of its previous
...(Hi) value,
lined Example 5.30. A synchronous machine has been synchronised with an infinite bus. Now,
Without changing the field current, the machine is made to deliver real power to the bus. Will it,
e sarne time, generate or consume reactive power ?
Solution. For proper synchronization, Ef = Vt
2 V? Vf y/**
Reactive power, Q = - r r c o s S - y - = 3f (cos 5 - 1).
X. x s
ww q
V. sin 6
X
and
w.E
Vt cos 5 = Id Xd
Vt cos 5
i ,=
asy
Substitution of the values of I d and Iq in P gives
En
Fig. 5 .8 0 . Reluctance motor
Vt cos 8 V( sin 8 Vt sin 8 Vt cos 8 phasor diagram with ru = 0 ,
P=
1 gin
"q XdJ
For maximum reluctance power, sin 28 = 1, i.e. 8 = 45 eer
*P max =
v [(± _ ±
7-2 / ,
l =
, •\
( 400^1 ( I 1)
A
ing
CO
2 X , Xd 4 6
\ *
= 2220 watts per phase
V /
.ne
= 6660 watts for 3-phases.
The component currents I q and Id, corresponding to maximum power and 8 = 45°, are
±__±\
sin 28
Xq Xd
p _ v< * « -* ,
2 ' v y sin 28
or
£ ,= -
xvr' sin
■ 8*
Since P and V, are constan ts, E , shall be minimum when . „ The va|ue
Eq. (0 is d d5 ’
ww V,
TT sin 8
Ad
' Vf x , - x „
2 ^ 2 cos 28
w.E V? X d - X ,
P -~ - sin 28
V, _
asy
T T COS 8
dE f 2 W
db =0
'V '
En t t1 sin
• 8c
or - y - sin 8 cos 28 —
Ad A,,
* ?)- = gin V' x
P ~ 2 • ' ^ x f Sm25 77- cos 8 .
Its simplification gives
eer
V ? * ,-* , . 3
cos 8 = — Sin 8
ing ...(«)
For minimum Ef, Eq. (ii) gives the maximum possible value of 8 for given P and V,. The
value of 8 obtained from Eq. (ii), when substituted in Eq. (i), gives the minimum excitation .ne
voltage Ef min.
Substituting th e valu e of P, Vt, Xd in Eq. (ii) gives,
t
„ (231)2 (2) . 3 K ncQ, • 3 X
C0S 5 = ~700Cr ' 24 Sm 5 = 0 634 Sm 6
its trial and error solution give 8 = 63.2° and this is the maximum stable load-angle. Sub
stitution of this value of 8 (= 63.2°) in Eq. (i), gives the minimum excitation voltage as
7 0 0 0 - (2311 A c sin
i , (126.4°)
24
= 199 V.
Jf, nun
231
sin 63.2°
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636 E lectrical M ach in ery __________________________________________________ —
S o lu tion . It is seen from the phasor diagram of a reluctance motor, Fig. S.80 that
Id = Ia sin (0 - 6) and I q = 4 cos (6 - 5)
4 _ cos (9 - 5) ^
or sin (0 - 5)
Phasor diagram of Fig. 5.80 also gives
V, sin b = Iq Xq
and Vt cos 8 = IdXd
x _ Iq
or tan oc — ■v
id Ad
or ~ tan 5 ...(ii)
id Aq
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
Xd . K cos (9 - 5)
tsn o
ww
y . cv
Xq sin (0 - 5)
Under maximum power conditions in a reluctance motor, 6 = 45c
/
*'• w.E
Xd _ cos 0 x 0.707 + sin 0 x 0.707
Xq ' sin 0 x 0.707 - cos 0 x 0.707
or
asy
Xd _ sin 0 + cos 0
Xq sin 0 - cos 0
or
(sin 0 + cos 0) + (sin 9 - cos
(sin 0 + cos 0) - (sin 0 - cos
En 9)_ Xd +X q
0) Xd - X{q
sin 0 ,
cos 0
A Xd + Xq
■= tan 0 = v
Xd - X q gin
eer
Under maximum power conditions, reluctance motor operates at a lagging power factor.
E xam p le 5.34. A 3-phase synchronous gen erator is deliverin g a pow er o f 0.9 p.u. to an
ing
in fin ite bus at ra ted voltage a n d a t p f 0.8 laggin g. T he g e n e r a to r h a s Xd = 1.0p.u and
Xq = 0 .6 p.u. Determine the load angle an d the excitation voltage.
In case loss o f excitation takes place, w ill the gen erator rem ain in synchronism ?
Solution. In per unit system, .ne
or
Vt I a cos 0 = Power
1 x Ia x 0.8 = 0.9
t
4 = 1.125 p.u.
It is seen from the phasor diagram of Fig. 5.71 (a) with ra = 0 th at
J
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1
sin 90° = 0.333 p.u.
0.6
tx/ th loss of excitation, the maximum power that the reluctance generator can deliver to
ite bus is 0.333 p.u. As this is less than 0.9 p.u., the generator will lose synchronism.
Synchronizing P o w e r and Synchronizing Torque
5 l^The rate at which synchronous power P varies with 5 is called the synchronizing-power
ff rient P s r lt *s a^SO kn°wn as stiffness of coupling, rigidity factor or stability factor. For a
^ical-rotor machine, from Eq. (5.67),
cyl p dP Ef Vt
P™ = ~ 77 =
db
COS 8 ...(5.73)
ww
The coefficient P^ is equal to the slope of the power angle curve and its variation with 8 is
illustrated in Fig. 5.81 for both types of machines.
w.E
The synchronizing-power coefficient is a measure of the stiffness of electromagnetic cou
ntingbetween stator and rotor fields. Too large stiffness of coupling means that the motor tends
to follow closely, the variation of speed caused by the disturbance in electric power supply. In
asy
case there is no power-supply disturbance, then too much stiffness of coupling would cause the
motor speed to remain practically constant, regardless of the mechanical load fluctuations. In
En
view of this, too rigid electromagnetic coupling causes undue mechanical shocks, whenever
there are fluctuations in the mechanical load or the supply. Examination of Eqs. (5.73) and
gin
(5.74) reveals that Psy is inversely proportional to Xs or Xd and is directly proportional to the
excitation voltage Ef. Consequently an overexcited synchronous machine is more rigidly
eer
coupled than the one which is underexcited. Large air-gap decreases the value ofXs or Xd, thus
asynchronous machine with longer air-gap is more stiffer than the one with smaller air-gap.
ing
Note that the units of synchronizing-power coefficient are watts per electrical radian. Now
one electrical radian = 180/rc electrical degrees.
p
1 sy =
K E r Vt
cos 8 watts/electrical degree. .ne
180
sy
t
S ta b le . i Unstable^
Power]
It should be noted that one electrical degree in space is smaller than one mechainical degree
in space, for machines with more than two poles. For examp e, in a p , one electri
cal degree in space is equal to 1 of one mechanical degree in space, n gener ,
p F V
... p , =—- . cos 8 watts/mech. deg. ...(5.75)
360 X8
Synchronizing-pow er coefficient gives rise to synchron izin g torq u e coefficients at
chronous speed. If is the synchronizing torque coefficient, then
l dP .
Tsv = — m “ 77 Nm/elect. rad.
ay o)s db
where
ww ^
m
= ■ 3 M Nm/meCh deB-
= number of phases
■■,5 -76»
and
w.E
cds= 2n ns and ns is the synchronous speed in rps.
Fig. 5.81 shows that Pay is positive for stable operating region and is negative for unstable
asy
region. Thus the criteria of steady-state stability of a synchronous m achine is that the
synchronizing-power coefficient Psy or Tay should remain positive. The magnitude of Psy or Tsy
En
indicates the degree of steady-state stability ; e.g., when 8 is near to zero degree at no-load,
Psy has a large value and, therefore, the degree of stability is high. As the value of 8 increases,
Psy decreases and, therefore, the degree of stability is reduced.
gin
Now consider a synchronous machine in which the load-angle has changed from 8 to
eer
8 + AS due to some transient disturbance. The variation of synchronous power associated with
the change of load angle A8, is called the synchronizing power P s. From Eq. (5.73), the
synchronizing power is given by
_ dP PE fVt ing
P s= db' X ~ cos 5 A5
.ne ...(5.77)
Also
E fVt ( i
„m i \
P. = ^ - c o s 8 + V ? [ — - — cos 28 A8
Eqs. (5.77) and (5.78) give the synchronizing power for a cylindrical-rotor and salient-pole
t ...(5.78)
= v t he A8 watts (5 79 b)
come into play, so as to maintain the synchronism. In case of motor, a sudden disturbance in
shaft-load torque causes the synchronizing power to flow from or to the motor, so that rotor is
brought back to its initial steady position. In short, the synchronizing power comes into play
only when the steady-state operating conditions are disturbed. Once the steady state condition
is reached after the disturbance, the synchronizing power reduces to zero. Thus the synchroniz
ing p°w e r*s t ransient in nature and exists only for the time during which the disturbance
persists. The synchronizing power flows from, or to, the bus, in order to maintain the relative
velocity between interacting stator and rotor fields zero— once this equality is attained, the
synchronizing power vanishes.
The synchronizing power gives rise to synchronizing torque Ts and its magnitude for a
small displacement A8 is given by
rr 1_ p _ 1 dP _
ww
It may be seen from Eqs. (5.73) and (5.77) that synchronizing power coefficient Psv is equal
to the synchronizing power per unit of phase displacement, i.e.,
Ts = Ti7 •Ab.
= P sV Ab. Similarly
w.E
If armature resistance is not neglected for a cylindrical-rotor machine, then from Eqs.
(5 32) and (5.34), the synchronizing power is given by
*P e “.
asy
Mr-m cos (5 + a,) AS ...(5.81)
where a 2 = t a n '1
En
5.13.1. gin
Physical con cep ts of synchronizing power. Consider a synchronous motor
eer
connected to an infinite bus with terminal voltage V,, armature current /„, excitation voltage
Ef and steady-state load angle 8. The angle 8 depends on the load on the motor shaft.
ing
Due to some transient disturbance, let the load angle increase from 8 to 8 + A8. This distur
bance causes the rotor to shift back by an angle A8from its previous position. Since the phasor
depends on the rotor position, this small departure A8 causes the phasor E ,to shift back from
its steady-state position OA to new position OB. The voltage .ne
phasor V, is not affected by transient disturbance, because V,
is the terminal voltage of infinite bus. The small departure A8
from OA to OB, causes the appearance of synchronizing volt
BA=ES
t
age Es = BA, see Fig. 5.82.
E s = BA = 2 Ef sin y
When E^shifts back, 7 ^ drop increases to7a, Xs, i.e. arma
ture current increases from Iu to Ia\ and this gives rise to
synchronizing current 7S, such t hat 7„i = 7„ + 7t. Remember
that it is the synchronizing voltage E s that causes the ap
pearance of synchronizing current 7S.
Es ^ 1 . A8
/. - 3 F - 2* - 5 “ n T
Note th a t /, lags E, by 90° because only X, is considered. Fig. 5 .8 2 . P ertaining to the physical
concept of synchronizing power.
‘ In case th e load an g le ch a n g e s from 5 to 5 A6 very rapidly, X, should be rep laced by X,{ or X,(\ d ep ending
upon how fast A8 c h a n g e s w ith tim e.
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s AS'l
Now the angle between Vt and synchronizing current Is is equal to 6 + t Therefor,^ ^
2E f 8A
or P„ = Vt' sm — •cos
AS^
and cos = cos 5.
Y
E f Vt dP
ww
:. Synchronizing power, Ps = ^ ■cos 8 •A8 = A6 - P sy ■A8.
In case load angle decreases from 8 to 5 - A5 due to some disturbance, then synchronizing
w.E
power would flow from motor to infinite bus.
E x a m p le 5 .3 5 . A 2 0 MVA, 3 -p h ase star-con n ected 11 kV, 12 p o le, 50 Hz sallmt-pok
asy
synchronous m otor, w ith negligible arm atu re resistance, h a s reactan ces o f
O. At fu ll load, unity pow er-factor a n d rated voltage, com pute :
= 5 0 . and Xq = 3
eer
(e) M axim um value o f pow er-angle 8 a n d the correspon din g pow er.
S o lu tio n . Per phase terminal voltage,
ing
V, =
w.E
= (37,110) (n)
180 /KW
T = asy
and the corresponding synchronizing torque,
647 x IQ3 _ 647 x IQ3
cp, 27m,
But ng= Synchronous speed in rps En
_ 2 f _ 100
P 12 gin
"
„ _ 647 x IQ3 x 12
s 2n(100)
XT
- 12,360 Nm. eer
(d) Synchronizing power per mechanical degree ing
P 12
= 647 x - = 647 x y = 3882 kW.
.ne
and the corresponding synchronizing torque
= (3882) (10)3 (12)
2 x (1 0 0 ) ’
t
(e) At constant Vt and Ef, the maximum value of power angle is given by Eq. (5.72), i.e.
cos 8. = E fL—
Xo2-----
4Vt (Xd - X q)
+c 4Vt (Xd - X q)
Exam ple 5 .3 6 . A 3000 kVA, 3-phase, star-connected, 6,600 volt, d-pole, 50 Hz alternator ha
a synchronous reactance o f 20% an d is running in p a r a lle l w ith infin ite bus. Calculate th
synchronizing p ow er a n d the corresponding synchronizing torqu e p e r m ech an ical degree \
p h a se displacem en t (a) a t n o-load a n d (b) a t fu ll load, 0.8 p ow er-factor lagging.
„ . . 20 3810 OQn
- ^ inohms = l 0 0 X '2 6 2 ’ = 2 -90-
(a) At no load, 8 = 0 and Vt = Ef.
Synchronizing power per mechanical degree,
D_ d P 11P „ Vt Ef R nP
rp _ ^0
8 2*AT, asy D _ P&
' “ 2wi,
En
= 2 ^ 0 0 0 ) (1048) (1° 3) “ 13'340 Nm '
gin
° Perati” g ** 3 P° Wer faCtor is “ %
eer
Ef = 3810 + j 262 (0.8 - j 0.6) (2.9) = 4 3 1 0 Z 8 .1 1 °
The synchronizing power per mechanical degree is
p _q kP Er Vt ing
360 X ^ 005 8
.ne
_ Q 7t x 8
" 360
The corresponding synchronizing torque is
(4310) (3810)
29 Z cos 8.11 = 1173 kW .
t
m _ 1 n ______ 8
5 2nns 8 ~ 2 k (100) ^1173 x 10 ) = 14,930 Nm .
Example 5.37. A star-connected 8 pole 50 •*.». u
ice of 11 Q per phase. On no-load both the ■* Qbronous motor has synchronous reac-
>kV. Neglect all losses. ’ ^ 6XCltatwn and th* terminal voltages are equal to
(a) For a sudden disturbance in the shaft-1nnd ,
-hanical degree. Calculate the synchronizer, e rotor fa^s back in space by one
torque tending to restore the rotor to it* nr*gCUrrent\synchronizing power and synchrony
fb) With gradual increase in the shaft .
ee. Calculate the armature current Fnr * * rotor slides back in space by one mechanical
lanical degrees, through which the rotor s l f a b a c k ™ °f 3 ° A ftnd the ^ *
ww 8+T
= 3 (3300) (20.91) cos (0 + 2°) = 206.9 kW.
w.E
Synchronous sp e e d ,
S y n ch ro n izin g torque,
2x50
ws = 27tn8 = 2n x — — = 25 it rad/sec
25n
T = asy
(206,900) = 2634 Nm.
(6)
En
When the rotor slides back by one mechanical degree, then l a X3 drop becomes equal to
gin
230 V and the armature current increases from zero to 20.91 amperes.
For an armature current of 30 A,
4 = 30 =
o2Ef
r sin
■ —A5
eer
2 x 3 3 0 0 . A8
A8 330
•=0.05.
11
ing
Sm 2
.ne
or sin — =
2 2 x 3300
A5 = 5.732 electrical degrees.
The terms stability and stability limit are applicable both to steady
conditions.
Steady state stability limit. It pertains to the maximum power flow possible throupw
particular point without loss of stability, when the power is increased very gradually.
Assume that the load on synchronous motor is increased gradually, until point C o,- ^
mum power is reached. If an additional increment of shaft load is put on the motor, the )0J
angle 5 would increase as demanded by the load. But with an increase in 5 beyond thatgiv*
by point C, the electric power input decreases, as is obvious from the shape of the power-ariei‘
curves in Fig. 5.84. Since, with the increase of shaft load, the electrical power input h3;
decreased, the motor gets retarded more quickly. As a consequence of it, the angle 8 increase
further and the motor pulls out of step or loses synchronism. Thus Pm given by the point C*
the steady-state (or static) stability limit—the region to the left of point C is stable one.
ww
w.E
asy
En
(a)
eer
(ii) Reactance should be decreased, e.g. two transmission lines in parallel would reduce the
line reactance to half.
(m) Series capacitors may be used to reduce the line reactance.
ing
T ransient stability limit. It refers to the maximum power flow possible through a point
without loss of stability, when a sudden disturbance occurs. Sometimes a transient distur .ne
bance, such as a sudden increment of load, may cause the loss of stability because of its sudden
application, but may be carried without loss of synchronism if it were applied gradually. Usual
ly the disturbances for which the transient stability limit is desired to be known, are caused by
a fault, or by switching in or out some circuits in a supply system, or by a sudden increment of
t
shaft load.
Transient stability limit is more important since
(i) it is lower than steady state stability limit and
(ii) the transient disturbances are more common.
The object of studying the transient stability of a synchronous machine is to find whcthj
or not the synchronism is maintained, i.e. whether or not the load angle 5 settles down 0
steady operating value, after the machine has been subjected to a large disturbance.
The method of determining the transient stability of a system is known as the eqmd
criterion and has been dealt with in detail in the companion volume, in the chaPte
synchronous machines.
P o ly p h a se S y n c h ro n o u s M a c h in e s 645
the armature current increases from Ial to 7fll' as the shaft load
is in cre a sed from P x to P 2 (P2 is smaller radius). Now 7al' cos 0,'
jg greater than 7fll cos 0!. Thus, with an increase in shaft load
from?\ p 2>the electrical power input and load angle increase
respectively from Vt 7ol cos Ql to Vt 7al' cos 0 / and from 8, to 5 /
tiiis indicates a stable operation.
ww
On the right-hand side of line DCD', with increase in load
from Pi to P 2, the arm ature current decreases from Ia2 to Ia{ . Fig. 5 .8 5 . S te a d y -s ta te sta b ility
w.E
Since electrical power input has decreased from Vt Ia2 cos 02 to
Vt Ia2 cos
lim it on pow er circle s
and the load angle has also decreased with the increase in shaft load from P x to
P2t the motor oDeration
d motor operation isis unstable.
asy
unstahlo The
Tho lline n r r t ’ thus
i n o DCD' fk.ic. corresponds to *the
region to the left of it is stable and to the right of it, unstable.
i ___stability line— the
En
In Fig. 5.57 for V-curves, the curve A'QB' corresponds to the line DCD’ of Fig. 5.85. In Fig.
5.57 also, the portion of the O-curves above A'QB' represents unstable operation and can’t be
gin
obtained experimentally. In Fig. 5.57, if the load increases from P l to P 2, the arm ature current
increases from LM to L N in the region below A'QB' whereas it decreases from L S to L K in the
eer
region above A'QB', thus verifying the results obtained from power circles.
For a given excitation, the maximum power output of a synchronous motor can also be
obtained from Fig. 5.85,
ing
where CD = C B + B D = CB +
Here CB is the radius corresponding to the maximum power output for a given excitation .ne
6CJU3.1 to
Ef
b d - ±
t
Radius for m axim um power circle
Ef f yt max
= CB = CD w J 2r
—
z.
V
V 2r, max Er fv ,
= CD~ z r
.E i
z.
V " >
f Vt * p max f yt
2r„ ra 2 r0
T V v
simplification gives
Ef Vt
p max = -fir
Z] "*
(Art.
646 E lectrical M achinery 5.14
Thr» result is the same as obtained earlier in Eq. (5.37). . - . , .
lhc result is p Qnd ra, can be obtained, again by ref6,
hi rin g ^ o V T g T srifC B ^ th e'rad iu s for any pow’er P, then the minimum excitation Possib,eis
DB, i.e.
d b =d c - bc
2
v, •> _P
or E f nun ~ •(5.82)
to
^1
ra
I----
Q
K
Example 5.38. A 15 kW, 400 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase, Y-connected synchronous motor, with per pha#
values o f resistance 1 Cl and reactance 5 Cl, is working at rated voltage and at rated load :
(а) Find the load angle, arm ature current a n d power factor o f the motor, when the excitation
voltage is adjusted to 480 V.
(б) With the excitation voltage unchanged, determine the m axim um load the synchronous
motor can carry and the corresponding values o f load angle and the arm ature current.
ww
(c) For a total load o f 12 kW, find the minimum excitation voltage required.
15
Solution, (a) Per phase power, P = — - 5.00 kW.
w.E
Per phase terminal voltage,
3
400
Vt = ZJ j f = 231 V.
En
Radius of 5 kW power circle =V
\ gin
E T F = 9 i.A A.
Scale 10 A = 1 cm.
Zs
277
5.1
= 54.3 A.
t
Draw the zero-power circle with radius CO = 115.5 A and cut OD = — = 45.3 A. This gives
S
ZCOD = 02 automatically. Now draw a circle with CQ = 91.4 A as radius, representing 5 kW.
• E
With D as centre, draw an excitation circle with D F = = 54.3 A as radius, intersecting the 5
8
kW power circle in F . This gives arm ature current Ia = OF = 2.6 x 10 = 26 A, p.f. = cos ZFOC
= cos 17.2° = 0.955 leading, load-angle = ZODF = 28.4°.
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p - M£
Fig. 5.86. Construction of power-circle diagram ,
Example 5.38.
w.E 2 ra
r mas -jl'i '
*»!:'
j
■iili
_ (277) (231) '211)
x 1 = 9580 W per phase.
5.1
12 asy
5.1 Vr,
;V' .
V, \ fv .l
2 gin
P
eer Ii-
ICM
1 U5
1
E f mm = E ,
ra
l 2S !!•
-
ing
i
4vt
r S ta to r j'a Xs-
Ef
Rototing
a ir-g a p flu x
5 -0
(6 )
W Fig. 5 .8 7 . Unloaded synchronous motor operation (a) its physical in te rp re ta tio n and (b ) its phasor diagram.
P l = ?fx Vi sin 8j = Pm sin b, and the operating point is ‘a 5 as indicated in Fig. 5.88 (a), (b) m
(c). This operating point travels from ‘o’ to ‘a ’ as the load is gradually increased to P h Fig. 5 gg
(c).
ww
Now suppose the load P x is applied suddenly to the unloaded motor shaft, instead of
w.E
gradually. Now the motor must slow down momentarily {i.e. the rotor speed must become less
than synchronous speed) in order to supply the load P^ As a result, load angle starts building
up from zero degree. As soon as is first reached during its forward swing, electrical power
asy
developed P,„ sin becomes equal to shaft load P 1( but equilibrium is not established, since the
D i r e c t io n o f
En
ro ta tio n
F irst f o r w a r d
nLn
N 1 gin
.-swing s ’ sw in g
I M
Nr - N
J
/£ 1
eer
/Nr <Ns f 1 D eceleration
ing
.ne
t
0 S, 2 6)
(°) id)
Fig. 5.88. Illustrating the rotor hunting in a synchronous motor.
tfilafc jXs
-^e operation at load angle 2 8t is indicated by point ‘6’ in Fig. 5.88 (a), (6) and (c). Note that for
rotor travel from o to a , the rotor decelerates ('.' Pm sin 8 < P{] and from a to 6 , the rotor ac
celerates (V Pm sin 6 > Pi). At load angle 2 8 b Nr =NSbut Pmsin 8 is still greater than Plt the rotor T.
therefore continues to accelerate even above synchronous speed. The effect of rotor speeding up above
synchronous speed causes the load angle to decrease from 2 5^ After some time, load angle decreases
§j, thoughPmsin §1 = P 1at this angle, the equilibrium is not yet established, because now the rotor
speed is more than synchronous speed, i.e. Nr > Ns. This operating point at angle 8Xduring the first
backward swing is indicated by point ‘a ’ in Fig. 5.88 (a), (b ) and (d). As the rotor speed is above Ns>
ww
the rotor continues its first backward swing below 8V As soon as load angle becomes less than
gif p1> pmsin 8, rotor therefore gets decelerated. Under the assumption of no losses and no damp
ing, the rotor would attain synchronous speed during its first backwardswing only at 8 = 0 as
w.E — V —E
indicated by point ‘o’ in Fig. 5.88 (a), (6) and (d). At zero angle, Ia = —. f as shown in Fig. 5.87
J As
(b) and 5.88 (6).
asy
At zero load-angle, P msin 8 is zero, as a result shaft load Px slows down the rotor, the load
En
angle begins to rise during its second forward swing from zero to 8Xand then from to 2 as
before if there were no damping. In this manner, the rotor swings or oscillates first to one side
gin
and then to the other side of the new equilibrium position or new space-phase position of 8Xas
shown in Fig. 5.88 (a). Note that the new equilibrium position of load angle is given by
eer
= sin" 1 (Pi/Pm). This phenomenon, involving tne oscillations of the rotor about its final equi
librium position, is called hunting. Fig. 5.88 (6) reveals that during the rotor oscillations or
ing
hunting, the orientation of phasor E f changes relative to fixed voltage Vt and because of this
reason, hunting is also called phase-swinging. Fig. 5.88(a) depicts the internal happenings of
howrotor hunting occurs and how load angle 8 varies from zero degree to 2 and back. In Fig.
5.89 (a) is shown the variation of load angle 6 with time in case the motor system has no damp.ne
ing. Fig. 5.89 (6 ) shows the variation of load angle 8 with time when damping is present in the
system. A real physical system does possess inherent damping. As a result, the rotor of
synchronous motor eventually settles down to stable operating point with a load angle 5^ The
t
w°rd “hunting” has been used here, because after sudden application of load, the rotor has to
search for, or hunt for, its new equilibrium space position.
T im e
Time
(a) ^
pig- 5.89. V ariation of load angle 6 , after sudden loading of an unloaded synchronous m otor with
(a) no damping and ( 6 ) damping present.
it 11
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From the phasor diagram of Fig. 5.88 (6), it is seen that hunting is associated with nou,
E V ^
Vt Ia cos 0 or sin 6 and current pulsations, which can be observed in the laboratory with
the help of wattmeter and ammeter. The rotor hunting can also be observed in the laboratorv
by means of a stroboscope light falling on the rotor shaft. At normal synchronous speed th
rotor appears stationary.
In an alternator synchronized with infinite bus, if the gate-opening in case of hydroelectric
power stations (or steam-valve opening in case of thermal power stations) is decreased sudden
ly, the alternator will slow down momentarily thereby decreasing the load angle. Rotor oscilla
tions or hunting will follow before the Final equilibrium space position is reached.
Hunting is objectionable, particularly when the synchronous machine is coupled with a
system whose torque variations contain harmonics, e.g. air-compressor, reciprocating engine
etc. If frequency of the torque component happens to be equal to that of the frequency of free
oscillations of synchronous machine the latter may fall out of step. The other bad effects of
hunting are as follows :
w.E
(tit) It increases machine losses and thus the temperature rise of the machine.
The various causes of hunting may be
(а) a sudden change in load,
(б) a fault in the supply system, asy
(c) a sudden change in field current,
En
(d ) a load or drive containing harmonic torques.
gin
The undesirable phenomenon of hunting, can be guarded against in three ways :
(i) by using a flywheel,
eer
(ii) by designing the synchronous machine with suitable synchronizing power coefficient or
stiffness factor and
ing
(m ) by the employment of damper or amortisseur windings and this is discussed below in
detail.
.ne
5.15.2. D am per windings. Damper windings consist of low-resistance copper, brass or
aluminium bars, embedded in slots in the pole-faces of salient-pole machines. The projecting
ends of the bars are connected to short-circuiting strips of the same m aterial as used for the
bars. Sometimes interpolar connectors are omitted to form incom plete type of damper winding
t
as shown in Fig. 5.90 (a). When strips on both sides of the pole shoes are joined by interpolar
connectors as in Fig. 5.90 (6), com plete type of damper winding is obtained Fie 5 90 (c) shows
.D a m p e r b
bars-?
Damper
bars-
ww
alternators, because the purpose of damper bars in them is merely to damp out rotor oscilla
tions, i.e. hunting. Therefore, low-resistance damper winding can be used in alternators.
w.E
It should be noted that when the rotor is running at synchronous speed, the relative speed
between damper bars and rotating air-gap flux is zero. Because of zero relative speed, no flux-
cutting action takes place and e.m.f. generated in damper bars is zero-consequently no damping
asy
torque is developed. The damper winding comes into play only during rotor hunting, when rotor
speed departs from synchronous speed.
En
In order to understand how the damper bars damp out hunting, assume the rotor speed to
become 10 r.p.m . less than the synchronous speed of 1500 r.p.m. (say), Fig 5.91 (a). Under this
gin
assumption, the relative velocity between rotor and air-gap field is 10 r.p.m.. Fig. 5.91 (6 ). If S
pole is assumed on the stator near the damper bar, an e.m.f. shown by a dot is induced in the
or eer
bar, Fig. 5.91 ( 6 ). This bar current sets up its own flux lines which interact with the S pole to
produce a torque in the direction of rotation as shown in Fig. 5.91 (c).
ing
The effect of this torque is to accelerate the rotor, tending to make the two speeds equal.
This torque in the direction of rotation, is known as induction motor torque and is produced
whenever the rotor speed falls below the synchronous speed.
.ne
1500 rpm
lOrpm STATOR
t t STATOR
surfaced SURFACE
— y
ROTOR DAMPER L ROTOR
SURFACE BAR DIRECTION*) ^ ^ ) SURFACE
nc
OF
E0RCE
(6 ) (c)
(a) Fig. 5.91. Pertaining to the production of torque due to damper bars.
/ „ ti.ni rotating 5 pole becomes stationary) from left (L) to right (R) on both
--------------------------------------------- *
Superimpose a velocity of 10 r.p.m s condition, S pole comes to a standstill but damper bar moves
S pole and damper bar in Fig. 5.91 (H U n to «h«eo determinjnE ^ djrecti„„ f f the daraper bar
from Lot Rta 10 r.p.m. Now apply n f j Ikon fmger (near lhe thumb » in the direction of
According to this rule, thumb is in the dnectic ^ ^ f Kote lhat thumb, first finger are m the same plane but
flux lines and middle finger glve3 tt\ . h finger is normal to the plane of thumb and first finger,
normal (ie. perpendicular) to each other , in
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J
1
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652 E le c tric a l M a ch in e ry
Likewise, when the rotor speed becomes g reater than synchronous speed, induction
rator torque (against the direction of rotation) is produced, which tends to retard the rotor 1*
make the two speeds equal. In other words, when the rotor speed falls below the synchro*. ri‘
speed, the slip becomes temporarily positive, induction m otor action comes into play and ^
is accelerated—when the rotor speed exceeds synchronous speed, the slip becomes temporar,
negative, induction generator action takes place and rotor is retarded.
Thus, when the rotor speed departs from the synchronous speed, the damping torn
(motor or generating torques) are brought into play to m ake the relative speed between rot!'
and stator fields as zero. The magnitude of these damping torques is approxi mately proportio^
al to the slip speed, provided the slip is small.
5.16. M easurem ent of Xd and Xq
The d-axis synchronous reactance is determined from o.c. and s.c. tests, as illustrated h
Ex. 5.25. The q-axis synchronous reactance can be m easured by the following three methods
(a) Slip te st. From this test, the values of Xd and Xq can be determined. The synchronou
ww
machine is driven by a separate prime-mover (or motor) a t a speed slightly different fro
synchronous speed. The field winding is left open and positive sequence balanced voltages "f
w.E
reduced magnitude (around 25% of rated value) and of rated frequency are impressed acro°
the arm ature terminals. Under these conditions, the relative velocity between the field do]S
and the rotating arm ature m.m.f. wave is equal to the difference between synchronous soepd
asy
and the rotor speed, i.e. the slip speed. A small a.c. voltage across the open field winding indi
cates that the field poles and rotating m.m.f. wave, are revolving in the sam e direction-and
En
is is what is required in slip test. If field poles revolve in a direction opposite to the rotating
m.m.f. wave, negative sequence reactance would be m easured
gin
eer
ing
Reduced
d-axis .ne
t
Ja=ld
ita
q-axis
(a) d-axis
Fie- 5.92. Pertaining to the physical (h)
con cep ts of ( a ) X d an d (6 ) A'w.
flux linking the field winding is zero, therefore, the induced field e.m.f. — is maximum. Thus
• i « dt
the q-axis can also be located on the oscillogram. Waveforms of voltage across open field and
'Us the armature current in Fig. 5.93 reveal that armature current varies cyclically at twice the slip
frequency.
of
ss ww
2S
id
i* w.E
d
S asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Fig. 5.93. Typical oscillograms in slip test.
If oscillograms can’t be taken, then an ammeter and a voltmeter are used as shown in the
t
connection diagram of Fig. 5.94. The prime-mover (or d.c. motor) speed is adjusted till ammeter
and voltmeter pointers swing slowly between maximum and minimum positions. Under this
condition, maximum and minimum readings of both ammeter and voltmeter are recorded in
order to determine Xd and Xq. Since the applied voltage is constant, the air-gap flux would be
c°nstant. When crest of the rotating m.m.f. wave is in line with the field-pole axis, Fig. 5.92 (a)
j^mmum air-gap offers minimum reluctance—consequently the armature current, required
the establishment of constant air-gap flux, must be minimum. Constant applied voltage
minus the minimum impedance voltage drop (armature current being minimum) in the leads
and 3-phase variac gives maximum armature-terminal voltage. Thus the d-axis synchronous
rGactance is given by
Maximum armature terminal voltage per phase
A~ Minimum armature current per phase
nr i
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[Art, s,
654 Electrical M achinery
Pr im e -m o v e r
■.!,
■Vi1; i
Field winding
open
jU'l
iff-. Fig. 5.94. Slip-test connection diagram for obtaining Xd and Xq.
ww
whereas the voltmeter has only small swing because of the low impedance voltage drop in the
leads and 3-phase variac. Since low armature terminal voltages are used, values of reactances
obtained are unsaturated values.
w.E
When performing this test, the slip should be made as small as possible, otherwise the
currents induced in the amortisseur circuits would cause large errors in the measurement of
asy
Xd and Xq (lower value of reactances for larger slips). It is however quite difficult to maintain
very small slips, as the reluctance torque due to saliency tends to bring the rotor into
En
synchronism with the rotating armature m.m.f. wave. It is because of this reason that tjhe slip
test must be conducted at low values of armature terminal voltage so that reluctance torque
due to saliency is low.
gin
The advantages of oscillographic method over voltmeter-ammeter method are (i) elimina
.
eer
tion of the inertia effects of voltmeter and ammeter and ( i i ) the possibility of large slip-speed,
which in turn allows higher armature-terminal voltages to be applied.
ing
In practice, there may be error in reading the oscillograms. At the same time voltmeter
ammeter readings are not very reliable because of their inertia effect. In view of these
shortcomings, slip test is conducted only to determine the ratio oiX q/X d so that any error in the
measurement ofX d and A, gets cancelled. Now, using the value o fX d computed from o.c. and .ne
s.c. tests, Xq can be determined as follows :
begins to lose synchronism momentarily, armature terminal voltage and maximum stable ar
mature current are recorded. Then the g-axis synchronous reactance Xq is given by
Vt (armature terminal voltage per phase)
...(5.83)
^ 7a (maximum stable armature current per phase)
The advantage of this method is thatXq is obtained under approximately normal operating
conditions of saturation. However, for synchronous machines having high ratios of Xd/X q or
large armature rated currents, the maximum-lagging current test may be conducted at reduced
armature voltage, otherwise the maximum stable armature current may become dangerously
high- , i
(c) Reluctance-m otor test. For this test, the synchronous machine is run as a reluctance
motor and its load is then gradually increased, till it steps out of synchronism. When the reluc
tance motor is on the verge of losing synchronism, i.e. under maximum reluctance power con
ditions of 5 = 45°, the maximum stable armature current, armature terminal voltage and
maximum stable armature power are recorded.
ww
If damper winding is present, then the reluctance motor, just after losing synchronism, will
continue running as an induction motor at a speed less than synchronous speed and the current
drawn will be quite large. In view of this, care should be taken in noting the instrument read
synchronism. w.E
ings at maximum reluctance power conditions, i.e. just before the rotor beings to lose
.
asy
The reluctance power, for Ef = 0 in Eq. (5.69), is given by
V? ( l
En
P = ~P _ L sin 25
Xn
‘■q ^d
ing
v? v?
.ne ...(5.84 a)
l-J
1
H
n
Pmax - 2 X n K
\ /
t
S'
Vt J 1
...(5.84 6)
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(ArL S.■K
656 Electrical M achinery
ww (a) For a salient-pole motor working at a lagging power factor, refer to Fig. 5.71 (b) for
finding the reactive power.
... w.E
In this figure, when ra = 0, oa becomes equal to Vt.
Q = Vt cos 5 Id + Vt sin 8 Iq ...(5.86)
Also
asy
Vt sin b = Xq Iq,
■
•*•
r Vt sin 8
X„
and E f + Xd Id - Vt cos 8,
En t Vt cos 8 - E f
Ad
=-
V}
cos 8 + — + V)
Ad
E,V,
»
x, xd
sm 2 8
ing ...(5.811
(6) The phasor diagram for a salient-pole synchronous generator with zero E r, is showni
Fig. 5.95. The armature current is seen to be leading Vt, therefore, the generator is operatin .ne
at a leading power factor.
Its reactii 2 power Q is given by
t
Q = - V t c o s 5 I d - Vt sin 8 Iq
Vt sin 8
Now V, sin 8 = X I , I =
X„
Vt cos 8
and Vt cos 5 = X d Id, Id = XA
r2
v?
Q = - Y l cos2 8 - -zj- sin2 8
xd Xn
V: 1 Fig. 5.95. SaU w JJ^
= - — _ v2 sin2 8. synchronous 5 ' “ ™“ / , , . *
Xd diagram with I f -
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Art. 5.16]
n
ZXZ t elt n a L k
Z !t T ! h: q'aXiS $ynChr0nOUS be determined from the
maximum-lagging current test. Armature resistance and the rotational losses are to be ignored.
Solution. For negligible armature resistance in a salient-pole synchronous motor the ac
tive and reactive powers are respectively given bv Eos rn aSw JI *
_ frxr
.here for. convenience.
n i o n r n Therefore, y B n Dy ^qs.(5-69>and (5.87). These are re-wntten
Ef Vt . n fi
P=
sin 25
to
^ Ef v t V?
and Q- - y cos 5 + + v? sin2 5.
Arf Aj Xd Xq
For negative excitation during the maximum-lagging current test, P and Q are given by s
p E,V
f ‘ -• V? r i n
sin 25
2
5
and
ww C OS
^ + X~ + | ^ “Isin2 5
w.E
When the motor is just on the verge of falling out of step,
^ =0
db
dP EEl
asy
r .a d
d T - ^ c o s S + Vf Xq xd
cos 25 = 0.
or Ef =V t — - 1 eer ...(5.88)
*0
Since the rotational losses are ignored, the power input is zero, i.e.
ing cos 0 = 0 or
0 = 90° lag. Thus
Q = Vt Ia sin 6 = Vt Ia. .ne .1
X j_ 1
Vt + v,
V
or
la
This resu lt agrees with Eq. (5.83). . . . .
mltage and c u r Z ^ e A T J lp ^ Z
6.5 A. Armature resistance is negligible. The P w
machine is 20 MVA, 3-phase, star connected, 11 kV, 5U ti /
unitypf and rated voltage, calculate
(а) the excitation voltage and
(б) the reluctance power developed by the machine.
a . 1 2 0 / _ 1 2 0 x 5 0 = 1500
Solution . Synchronous speed - p - 4 r
The synchronous machine is running at 1490 rpm, less than, the
synchronous speed and the rotor winding, U the£eld v™dmg “^ ;
age readings indicate that the stator is energized from 3-phase, 50 Hz source
at reduced voltage. A careful study of the question reveals that this question
pertains to slip test on a salient-pole synchronous machine.
F ig . 5 .9 6 . Pertaining to
Therefore, d-axis synchronous reactance, E x a m p le 5.41.
w.E
* " Maximum ammeter reading per phase 10.0
Taking the machine to be working as a synchronous generator, the phasor diagram at unity
pf is as shown in Fig. 5.96.
, y
(a) Full-load armature current, Ia = asy
20,000 K
= 1049.7b A
„ .. 11000 Env
Per-phase armature voltage, Vt = —^ — = buol v
A rh £ £ ]__________
Polyphase Synchronous M achines 659
, Total reluctance power
= ^261296^2
1000 = 7838.899 kW
Example 5.42. A salient-pole synchro
S S m T mfmite
clrfenr 'bU
SEXPtain Whal ^aZ
n1f' ,S
ctr^ i« ge/s open-circuited ac-
Solution. Under normal operatinn * u
power M l sin 8 and r e l . rp Vf r 1 r° n S generat0r SUPPlieS both electromagnetic
X sm 28, to the infinite bus.
^Xn "d “uo. When open cir-
ttuciiupencir-
cult occurs in the field circuit, Bf and, therefore ^ .• a
does not become zero. In view of this th r Mr° ' tUt reluctance Ptm’er
“glo
winding, operates as a reluctance g e n e r l t o X ^ h r o n o u . ! " ' 1 f t * °pen circuit in the
icWfV, d-u • hronous speed. If pnme-mover power input
, .,ww
is Igss than tho maximum reltirtannn
.
i
mum reluctance power developed = - M - L
rator, then this generator runs stablv at tjvripV.
V ( i
2 I " L
'
-i
^
u ^
by
.
reluctance gene
inity w.E
to the infinite bus. In case the mechanicafpow™ inmu ^ a" d “ ntinues feeding active power
power, the reluctance generator loses synchronism » >S m° r6 v tbe maximum reluctance
asy
generator gets open-circuited. After the generator’h a s n 't ” u fidd C'rCuit of synchronous
En
However, the synchronous generator should nnt h
hon generator for a long time. This is becausp
mechanical power input, both the reluctance and induct
gin / P°WGr the buS'
3S * reluctance generator or induc-
°f eXcitation and for the same
eer
ing
mechanical power input. Since cylindrical rotor margin •
.ne
ync^ronous speed because
Eenp0tt 1 SP8ed has exceeded synchronous speed, the machine
stat ^ ° r at asyncbr°nous speed. Large currents are set un in the
absorhair’8aP nUX t0 Produce the necessary electrical torque The indi ^
general P° Wer from the bus b“‘ d e f e r s active power to W h
t
t0 lnflnite bus and
as an induction
*° interact "dth
genCrat0r
^ ? L ™ dhamaging and sh°uid not be pp™ itted
to be quitl rr0n° j S ° peratlon as induction generator at about 10% of the rated dow o r "a
H bi Pt o S ? „ n d : r , h
„ operation may,be permiued at the™ ai
conies inf
c°rnes in, 1 ?as.
abee few-power
low -P ° we: asynchronous operation is not required, the governor aft on
^ to play which prevents «.,* rotor
vents the 1UW1 speed
OFi;i;U from reaching dangerously high values
Efficiency of Synchronous
h l ’A n m i e Machines
e various losses in synchronous machines are :
odoad rotational losses, (a) friction and windage loss and (b ) open-circuit core loss.
1 Field circuit loss, (c) I 2R loss in the field winding, where R is its resistance
D ^ c t load loss. (d ) I2R loss in armature winding.
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«„) Stray load losses. («) in iron and ( f I ini the t0 as shorl.ci
The combination of direct load loss and stray load losses .s cm, S
ww
ccurrent
u r r e n t is
is aas
s sshown in rFig.
how n m i g . 5.97 (6). Note that
tucac the ------------
intercept of no-load rotational losses withthe
# 1 .* 1 t /* * i? •— d •tunrlnxTA ln c c n n /'ni icr\ unf Vi r» %.
vertical axis in Fig. 5.97 (6), gives the constantconsi friction and windage loss, because with zero field
rent open-circuit core loss is also zero.
current
w.E
The field circuit loss can be determined from Vf Ift where V^is the applied voltage to the field
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
. (a) . . tf>)
Fig. 5.97. Variation of (a) open circuit core loss w ith open circu it voltage
.ne
and ( 6 ) rotational losses with field cu rre n t.
winding and If is the field current. Alternatively field circuit loss = l}rf.
Here /y is the field winding d.c. resistance calculated at 75°C
t
The short-circuit load loss is a combination of ohmic
loss in the armature winding and the stray load loss The
armature dc resistance is measured and corrected for the
working temperature rise, usually 75°C. Then the stray
load loss is obtained by the following relation :
Stray load loss = (Short-circuit load lossWArmQi,
o mil: l o s s , calculated by u s i n g h o t v a l u e o f d.c. r e s i s t a n c e )
the variation of short-circuit lnad ’ nor. j ,
loss, will, the armature current is shown p*. 5 90*3 . f t 1
F ig . 5 .9 8 . Short-circuit load1035
j iriH inds cun’es
ww
co n sid ere d to remain constant under normal operating conditions.
The power flow diagrams for a 3-phase alternator as well as for a 3-phase synchronous
w.E
motor are shown in Fig. 5.99 (a) and (b) respectively. It is seen from this figure that no-load
rotational loss,
asy
Pr = friction and windage loss + open-circuit core loss
Pr + V flf = constant losses
Q
Short-circuit load loss = 3 Ia ■ra + stray-load loss.
En
Mech. power
lacosy
gin Electrical power
In p u t - o -
F &W
, Loss
Open circuit
core loss ^ loss.VfJf
ing
Field circuit Arm.circuit Stray load
loss,3 la ra ,oss
.ne
Elect, power input
3Vt Iacos e
3EflaCosy
- o
Mech. power
output, T.uls t
r
Arm .circuit Stray load Field Open circuit F s,W
lo s s , 3 l i r a loss circuit core loss ^oss
\________L _ L _________ ^ loss, v *
Short-circuit load loss vj ' f No 'ood R o ta tio n at
(6 )
Fig. 5.99. Power flow diagrams for (a) a 3-phase alternator and (b) a 3-phase synchronous motor.
m<> Couple the alternator mechanically ^ t h dc m'rt Run the dc motor again „
synchronous speed, with alternator field unexcited. Record Vv Ia again. Mo ,
Vj a = W1+ l l r a + F.W. loss of alternator, Wf
or
ww Wf - V J a - (Wi + llr a)
In step (.ii), h will be different from its value in step
w.E
m R ^ e a t step (ii) but with alternator excited with normal field current and with am,,
ture circuit open.
or asy
v I = Wj + Iara + Wf + open-circuit core loss of alternator, W2
W2 + Wf = V J a - ( W 1 + I2ara)
nr
En
W2 = V J a - ( W 1 + & a + Wf)
If (W2 + ^ is Plotted as a
curve on the vertical axis gives Wf . It is because wiui i f gin , 2
" n " s s \ i
dc motor. Now,
vj = vr, + l\ra + Wf + short-circuit load loss, VV3
.ne
" Since field cu rre n t is
Wq = VJa - (Wi + Pja + Wf)
t
^
In
(app^ z : s t : : : : the ^ * * * . — « . « — “ d- -
= Wf + W 2 + W 3 + VfIf (5.1
to tal losses
A lte rn a to r efficiency= 1 - input ^ cQre loSS sho'
(Ila\
ww =3
2
(Effective armature resistance per phase)
f 131.22
w.E =3
2
(0.02) = 258.28 watts.
Field-circuit loss
1-
2122.01
x 100 = 97.416%. .ne
V
80,000 + 2122.01
J
Exam ple 5.44. A 40 kVA, 400 V, star-connected synchronous machine has short-circuit load
loss o f 1.5 kW at rated armature current and at 30°C. At this temperature, the dc resistance o f
t
the armature is 0.118 Q per phase. Calculate the effective armature resistance in p er unit and
also in ohms p er p h ase at 30°C. Find also the ratio o f ac to dc resistance.
Solution. Rated armature current,
I = f f l ^ = 57.74A
ar V3 x 400
Short-circuit load loss in per unit
= i | = 0.0375
40
Effective armature resistance, from Eq. (5.90), is
S.C. load loss in p.u. 0.0372 .........
Y ~ 0.0375 p.u.
r“ 'eff (armature current in p.u.)2 (1.0)
ww
Solution. Full-load armature current per phase,
w.E /a = ^ n : = 26-244A
Short-circuit load loss at half-full load
=3
asy
( Ia "
2
x ra + stray-load loss, which is zero here
=3
26.244 ^
En
x 4 = 2066.24 W
Total loss at half-full load = 1500 + 2500 + 2066.24 + 1000 = 7066.24 W gin
Efficiency at half-full load
7066.24 eer
1 -
5000
12 = 20.412 A
‘ am
o 11000
~ * ~ 1 T X 20 412 x 0 8 = 311,111.54 W
Total losses at maximum efficiency = 2 x 5000 = 10,000 W
Maximum efficiency = 1- 10 ,0 0 0
311,111.54 + 10,000 x 100 = 96.886%.
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s ArtJJfl _
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ww
curves of cylindrical-rotor alternator are presented ^ ^ ^ then the capablllty
w.E
devdqm^eiU of iU^operating d ia i^ Hg *5* otfm) show T V “ 7 ™ th° baSi* f° r the
for lagging power factor. In this figure, armature c,rcu,t r J s f a n c e L n e S e X d 0^ " ^ ™ " ^
small m large synchronous generators. Now each side of Fig. 5.100 (o) is & !d ed by X s So we
asy
get GO = ^ , OM = / „ and GM= S in Fig. 5 100 (()). Extend G0 to N and draw Mp
En
Wf WandrP 0 perpendicular t0 G 0' Here ON = PM = / . sin 0, therefore,
V /Wl e 1!° v dr,OW
VI 2 11 v ’
A- “i ,
=2 P° Wer
gin
alternator- A180 NM = OP = 1. «® 0 and therefore,
active power of alternator. It is, therefore, seen that line OP perpen-
ing
For constant Ia, locus of armature current Ia is a circle with radius OM and centre on thP
point 0 . For constant field current, ex
citation circle is drawn with G as the
centre and GM as the radius. Load .ne
i .
angle 5 is in between GO
GM
f V '
Xc
‘ and
t
Power-factor angle 0 is
ww
designed for, say, 0.85 lag, then a
line lagging V, or OP (as in Fig.
Unity pi
w.E
5.100) by an angle of cos” 1 0.85 Leading
is drawn. This power-factor line reactive
meets the power line AB at the power
point M. The line joining M with
O gives the magnitude of arma
ture current. Now a circle with
asy
0 as centre and OM as radius
En
gin
gives the current-limit curve for
power = GA and p f - 0.85 lag. If
alternator is designed for, say
eer
Fig. 5 .1 0 1 . O peratin g c h a r t o f a cy lin d rica l-ro to r altern ator.
Ef = 2.5 V„ then the excitation-
s e t s : .ne
permit some additional loading of the alternator6 In^racticif
usually about 10% less than the theoretical stability luEit
For drawing the practical stability curve consider anv . .
P t Umit which shoul
Umit 18
on the line GK. Cut up = 10% of ra te r ! MW n * ' Say “ or Per' unit excitatioi
excitation circle in / Th i p o i n t ^ D! ! nt T ^ ParaHel t0 GP The ™
points on the practical ^ * ' = V‘ ° * *
the minimum possible excitation for this alternator T to ir? h ar1?'' Here ° N
cylindrical-rotor alternator is JR M S N O I An„o J ’ com plete operating area o
tells the MW, MVA, MVAr, current n f evrit«,« peratl,ng P01nt placed within this area, at one
a operating point T as shown in Fig. 5 lo i « 1/ ° ° ^ ang^e of alternator. For instance, fo
equal to OQ, p f equal to cos /G O T and aroint,?,8 through T and parallel to GO gives powe
by (OT) (operating voltage), W ^T utput is giten bv (TO w eqUa‘ l ° ° The V’A outPut is pVf'
the excitation. The load angle is equal to TGO g r a t i n g voltage) and GT represent
apparent power = = 3 yf
writtenas PhaS8 V° ltage and 7° = phase current of a 3-phase alternator. Eq. (5.92) can be re-
P2 + Q2 ~ (3 Vt Ia)2 = 0
If x = P and y = Q, the above equation becomes
+y - (3 vtia)2= 0 ...(5 .9 3 )
Eq. (5.93) is the equation of a circle, with centre A at
(0, 0) and radius Ab = 3 V, I a as shown in x-y plane or P-
ww
Q plain in Fig. 5.102. Any point on the circle represents
the apparent power, active power, reactive power and pf.
For e x a m p le , for p o in t b .A b * a p p a re n t power
Lagging pf
o p e ra tio n
w.E
= 3 Vt l a,A f = a c tiv e pow er = 3 Vt Ia cos 0, bf= reactiv e
power = 3 V, 7a sin 0 for operating p f - cos £bA f lagging.
asy
Since radius of semicircle = ZVJa = total VA of the alter
nator, the semicircle gives the locus of constant apparent T
x
En
power. Operation of alternator may lie on the semicircle
abede indicating rated VA loading, or within the semicircle
Leading
operation
pt
eer
responds to alternator operation at lagging pf, because lagging
reactive power is taken positive by convention. Therefore, alter
t
ging progressively and at the point a, the p f is zero lagging. Similarly, p f becomes more leading as
the alternator operation moves from c to e and its value is zero leading at point e. Alternator opera
tion at lagging p f needs more field current, whereas for leading p f operation less field current is
required. An increased value of field current would entail more field copper loss and therefore more
heating of rotor. This means that field current cannot be permitted to increase at one’s whims.
There is, therefore, an upper safe limit for the value of field current in the first quadrant operation
°f alternator. For obtaining these boundary points, consider alternator operation with constant
terminal voltage and variable field current (or variable emf Ef). The field current is limited by a
consideration of the rotor-field heating. Three-phase complex power output of a synchronous gene-
fator is given by
S = P + jQ = 3 v j a ...(5.94)
P +j Q = j 3 V,
r Ef- v t' ■3 Ef Vt 3 V?"
-J x, xs J
Xs
or
^ 3 V? • 3 Er Vt
P +JQ + J ~ x~ =J
x*
3V f 3 Er Vt
P+j Q+ =J
Xs
3 Vf 3 Er Vt
P2 + Q +
X X.
ww
<N,
1
V
.J
CO
V2
CO
___
3
or P 2 + Q2 + 2 Q
tl
xs
2 _2
w.E
P 2 + Q2 + 2
3 V2
X,
+
( 3 V,
*
■J L
[V * -E * ] = 0
J
...(5.95 a)
Let x = P and y = Q,
asy
2 „3v?
2
x +y + 2 •y +
( 3 V, "j
En
[V ? -£ ? ]= 0 ...(5.95 b)
2
3 Vt ]
2 M/2
eer 3 Er Vt
radius = 02 +
X
(V ? -E ? )
~
ing X
Eq. (5.95), the equation of a circle, is represented in
. (
PQ plane in Fig. 5.103 with centre at 0 , -
3V ^
1 and .ne
radius =
3 E •V
^ ‘ Here only a segment of this circle is
S
t
3 Er Vt
shown as fgbh. In X , V, and Xs are constant, there-
S
rating at rated pf. In Fig. 5.104, rated p f is Fig. 5.104. Capability curves of a cylindrical rotor
taken 0.85 lagging. synchronous generator.
ww
In Fig. 5.104, the operating region is OABCO. This region can, however, be augmented to
operating region O A B C O provided alternator is better cooled by external means. For
w.E
machine-rating point B , OD = acting power loading, OE = reactive power loading so that
<OD2 + OE2 = 1.00 (rated apparent power).
asy
From Fig. 5.104, the maximum reactive-power loading can be obtained for any value of
power loading of alternator at constant voltage. For example, for half the rated power output
En
= OF, the maximum reactive power loadihg is FG under normal cooling. This reactive-power
capability can, however, be increased to FH with improved cooling of alternator.
gin
An examination of capabilities curves of Fig. 5.104 reveals that (a) for pf above rated value
(more than 0.85), field current required is less, therefore armature heating is the limiting factor
eer
and (6) for p f less than rated value (<0.85), field current will have to be increased, therefore
rotor-field heating is the limiting factor.
5.19. P ow er F a c to r C orrection by Synchronous Motors
ing
For the transmission of a certain amount of a.c. power to a load centre, a low power factor
would mean greater load current. Such a current would result in greater I R loss in the trans
.ne
mission lines, transformers and alternators. As a consequence, the entire energy system would
operate at a reduced efficiency. Further, a greater load current at a low power factor would
mean poor voltage regulation of the transmission lines, transformers etc. and this would result
in an unsatisfactory operation of the utilization devices like induction motors, fluorescent tubes
t
etc. Thus from the viewpoint of efficiency, voltage regulation and better operation of the
utilization devices, load p.f. should be as close to unity as is economically viable.
It has already been discussed in Art. 5.10 that an outstanding advantage of a synchronous
/ L . looHinfy n fs when overexcited. An examination of Fig. 5.64
motor is its ability to °Pera e ' d' tQ operate at unity and leading p fs. merely by
reveals th at a synchronousm otorcanb ^ ofUs field current Tho advantagc „r
increasing
. . . v o u M n g iits
ls
excitation voltage E/W1 „lo.„ („mhvMunteraC
tern by counteractingting aa part
part,or the entire
this fact is taken in improving the pf o . primary function is to improve the pf of
Jagging kVAr KVAr of ui the
Uie load.
iuau. A
XX.s>™ chron0?, •„!
........ . i |]oacj
’oad on0n it is called a ssynchronous
y n e n r o n o u s rcondenser.
o n u tn w . «A
an electrical system and with no mecna ^ 0f a supply line, is used only when static
synchronous condenser, installed at tn
capacitors are found uneconomical. (a) 8hows an elementary energy system net-
5.19.1. S y n c h ro n o u s co n d en ser. Hg- • alternator excitation voltage, I is the
work. If V, is the term inal voltage at pom , f
Ju a in ie u u_y v ^ a i i u c a i ii i c i
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y?:1 i
■? I i
670 E le ctrica l M ach in ery
T r a n s fo r m e r s
- '.j
. ; . ft
■i
w.E
load current at pf cos 0 and X is the total reactance between E f and Vt, then phasor diagram
for this system is as shown in Fig. 5.105 (b ). At the point A, the load is oa kW proportional to
I cos 0, the apparent power is ob kVA proportional to 7 and load kVAr is ab proportional to
asy
/s in 0. With the installation of a synchronous condenser at A, Fig. 5.106 (o), suppose the load
p.f. at A is improved to unity. Then, lagging kVAr required by the load and equal to ab are
En
locally supplied by the synchronous condenser as og = a b as shown in Fig. 5.106. In this man
ner, the energy system network bletween alternator and point A is relieved of lagging kVAr,
gin
the current is reduced from ob to oa ^nd the voltage at point A rises from oc to od for the same
E f as shown in Fig. 5.106. Since the system current has reduced, it would result in decreased
eer
I 2R loss and therefore better system efficiency. Thus, with the help of a synchronous condenser,
ing
©
Al t e r n a t o r
.ne
(a)
t
Vt A
-II-
(b)
Fig. 5 .1 0 6 . (a) Total lagging kVAr of the load a re supplied locally
by synchronous condenser, (6) and (c) P h a so r d ia g ra m s
niorepo^er ^ sin 5jcan be delivered to load because V, has increased ; p.f. of the system
and its efficiency are unproved and consequently the general operation of the load apparatus
becomes b
so n d ethe r is — bot h
‘" T of
area f ccross
L t ^section
n T M d p„Toge
of field field
poles as cu rrT torequires
compared f same
an ordinary synchronous motor of the f i
rating.
ww
w
va) the kVA rating o f the synchronous condenser and
(b) total kVA o f the factory.
thf sol.ution
E
r T T " - T
asy
° f s“ch an eI£ample, it is convenient to draw its phasor diagram
first and then solve it accordingly. For this example, refer to Fig. 5.107. aiagram
Load kVA = ob =
U.b
= 3000
En
la o b = cos"1 0.6 - 53.13°
/qoc = cos"1 0.95 = 18.195° gin
eer
Load kVAr = ab = ob sin 53.13°
= 3000 x 0.8 = 2400 kVAr
Combined kVAr = ac = oa tan 18.95°
= 1800 v 0.329 = 592.2 kVAr ing
(a) Synchronous condenser rating
od = be = ab - ac .ne
= 2400 - 592.2 = 1807.8 kVA.
low. For a fixed factory load in kW, a low p.f. would mean more
kVA demand and as a result the factory has to pay more, in
such factories, it is advantageous to install a synchronous motor
for correcting the p.f. of the factory and at the same time, or
driving a constant-speed load such as a large pump, a -c- gen e
rator etc. #
In Fig. 5.108, ob is the load kVA, oa is the load kW and a b is
the load kVAr. Further, oc = bd is the synchronous motor kVA,
be = og is the motor load in kW, ed = eg is the leading sup
plied locally by the motor to the factory, o f is the combined load
in kW, od is the combined load kVA and fd is the combined load
kVAr. The power factor of the plant or factory is improved trom
cos Zaob to cos Zfod. Fig. 5 .1 0 8 . P ertaining to the use of
E x a m p le 5 .4 7 . A factory has an average load o f 300 kW at a dual-purpose synchronous motor.
o f . o f 0 6 lagging. A synchronous motor, with an efficiency o f
ww
88%, 'is used to raise the com bined p.f. to 0.90 lagging an d at the sam e tim e supply a mechanical
load o f 60 kW. Calculate
w.E
(a) total load kVA,
(b) kVA capacity o f the synchronous m otor an d
asy
(c) synchronous motor operating pow er factor.
Solution. For the solution of this example, refer to Fig. 5.108.
. .
Synchronous motor input = og = af
- 60
0.88En
= 68.18 kW
Combined load,
of_ 368.18 gin
o f —oa + a f= 300 + 68.18 = 368.18 kW.
r
(b )
Load kVAr,
/a o b = cos~ 1 (0.6) = 53.13°
ing
ab = fe = oa tan /a o b = 300 tan 53.13°= 400
/fo d = cos~1 (0.9) = 25.84°
Combined load kVAr, fd = o f tan /fo d = 368.18 tan 25.84° = 178.30 .ne
.-. Leading kVAr supplied by synchronous motor
= cg = d e = f e - f d = 400 - 178.30 = 221.70
Synchronous motor input = og - be = a f = 68.18 kW
t
kVA capacity of synchronous motor,
oc = db = y!(og)2 + ( c g f
= V(68.18)^ + (221.70)2 = 231.95 kVA
(cl Synchronous motor operating p.f.
It is seen from this example that installation of 231.95 kVA synchronous motor reduces t e
overall load kVA from 5 0 0 1= 409.09.
w.E
This means that with the installation of synchronous condenser, total load that can be
su p p lied at p.f. 0.71 lag is 1225.352 kVA. Therefore, permissible additional load at p .f. 0.71 lag
is given by
asy
a e = o e - o a = 1225.352 - 1000 = 225.352 kVA.
New load kVAr,
En
de = yloe2 - o d 2 = V( 1225.352)* - (870)* = 862.895 •
gin
Load kVAr with the use of synchronous condenser,
cd = V(1000)2 - (870)* = 493.052.
.*. Leading kVAr supplied by synchronous condenser,
eer
o f - ce = d e - c d = 862.295 - 493.052 = 369.843
.*. Rating of synchronous condenser = 369.843 kVA.
ing
Exam ple 5.49. An industrial plant takes a load o f 4 MW at p f 0.8 lagging from a power
system network. It h as been decided to replace one 400 kW induction motor by a synchronous
.ne
motor o f the sam e rating in order to raise the plant pf. The induction motor and synchronous
motor both h a v e effic ien cy o f 90%. The induction m otor operates at p f 0.9 lagging but
synchronous m otor is designed to operate at p f0 .8 leading. Find the new p fo ft h e plant. Calcu
t
late also the percentage reduction in line current.
Solution. Term inal voltage is taken as the reference phasor.
A w
0.9
Complex power requirement of induction motor
_400 4 0 0 tan(coa- 1 0.9)
0.9 0.9 •
B = 444.44 - j 215.254 kVA
% j u u i ii i l . u uy w u i i i x j u u i ii i u i
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674 E le c tr ic a l M a ch in e ry
w.E
Percentage reduction in line current
500 0 - 4 6 9 1 .4 2 4 x 100 = 6.172%.
5000
E x a m p le 5 .5 0 .
asy Sketch the p h asor diagram s o f a 3-phase synchr
(а) a t the m om en t o f synchronizing
(б ) when working as a motor an d En
M
gin
mhenworking a s a generator, m arking the reference directions for voltages and
in the associated circuit diagram s. Indicate, on the p h asor the
each case.
eer . - .. .
ing
sumed to remain constant.
(а) At the moment of synchronizing, magnitude
.ne
magnitude o fV , Both E gm iV , m ^
be in phase, because no power flow takes place and load angle 6 is zero, so that
zero Armature current / . is, therefore, also zero. The phasor and circuit diagrams, at the >»
t
ment of synchronizing, are as shown in Fig. 5.110 (a). in Fi? 5 110(»
(б ) When working as a synchronous motor, E ,m u st lag behind V, ^ s*°'™ g f , *ith
Scanne www.EasyEngineering.net
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6- 0 '
* (a )
(6 )
Xs
ww (C)
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Fig. 5.110. Synchronous machine phasor and circuit diagrams (a) at the moment of synchronizing
(o) when working as a motor and (c) when working as a generator.
asy
Exam ple 5.51. An alternator is running at synchronous speed. Its field is now energised
from an ac source at rated frequency. Discuss the nature o f the generated voltage and the alter
nator performance.
En
Solution. When field winding on the rotor is excited with alternating current, an alternat
gin
ing (or pulsating) field is produced. As per Example 3.21, this field can be resolved into two
components, one rotating forward at synchronous speed to with respect to rotor and the other
eer
rotating backward ^t speed cowith respect to rotor. The relative speed between backward rotat
ing field and stationary armature, given by the sum of forward rotor speed to and backward
ing
rotating field speed ( - co) is zero. This component of field, therefore, generates no voltage in the
armature.
The relative speed between forward rotating field component and standstill armature is
.ne
double the synchronous speed, i.e. 2to. Thus, the frequency of the e.m.f. generated in the arma
ture is 2/" and the magnitude of per-phase generated emf is given by
m
676 E lectrical M achinery
iM l. • 1 to a cylindrical-rotorsynchronous machi,
,ad on
When load on theshaft, or mechanical input to a cyi .cm,
! •
■ ::I E, V the load anglebecomes more 4than qn° , -*■—
-u o r, 90 ^ - sin 5 now beginsto decreasee
ovrppH ^ —■— . l i i c iu a u uiJk*v — --a
siiiiif
:! . ! t-t
s k ..jq Sneed It is then said that a cylindrical-rot0r
therefore rotor no-longer runs at s^ chr0" si {]ariy when load on the shaft, or mechaniCa,
synchronous machine has lost synchronysm. itg maximUm stable limit (8 approximate
input to a salient-pole synchronous machi than synchronous speed
ly between 60° to 85°), the rotor begins to run at a sp^ ^ ^
.« « »
con t^ues runningS^syncl?ro^ous>specd as reluctance motor. Now if load on the motor exceed,
ww
0 5 y* f J _ _ _L ] the reluctance motor loses synchronism and begins to run at sub-synchronous
sDeed as"a"7squirrel cage induction motor with increased line current and poorp/'. The operation of
w.E
reluctance motor as a squirrel cage induction motor is possible because of the presence of damper
bars in the pole faces o f salient-pole synchronous machine. In case field current is made zero ma
cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor, it may run at reduced speed with motor torque developed dlu re
asy
.to a combination o f eddy-current and hysteresis torques.
h . The asynchronous operation of a synchronous motor at subsynchronous speed is damaging
En
and therefore the motor must at once be disconnected from the supply mains.
5.20. Starting of Synchronous Motors
gin
When three phase currents are flowing in the 3-phase winding on the stator of a
eer
synchronous motor, a synchronously rotating magnetic field is set up. If the rotor is stationary,
then relative speed between standstill rotor field and rotating stator field is equal to the
ing
synchronous speed. Consequently the torque angle between rotating stator poles and station
ary rotor poles is a function of time. An examination of Eq. (3.78) reveals that the electromag
netic torque varies sinusoidally with time— it reverses during each half cycle and therefore, the
average value of electromagnetic torque over a complete cycle is zero. Hence a synchronous motor,
.ne
on its own, has no net starting torque.
u Pun-m.
. ( *y . /
t ft ?■]•ii1 jn.rr
\A•,r*. t IV*!'i'Vi-V
*0 'h ^
. . . (“) W ■
F ig . 5 .1 1 1 . P e rta in in g to th e developm ent of s ta r tin g to rq u e in a sy n ch ro n o u s m otor.
refer ^
For another way of describing that a synchronous motor has no net startin g torque,
two pole synchronous motor of Fig. 5.111. W ith three phase currents in the three phase ar
ture w in ding , statorN, S poles rotate at synchronous speed. A t the instant shown in Fig-
(a), statorN, S poles attract stationary rotor S, N poles— thus producing a clockwise torqu
. i l l
tor After half a cycle, i.e. after 0.01 sec = — for a 50 Hz supply system, stator poles
tne r° _ \ '
the position shown in Fig. 5.111 (6). Now the stator N, S poles repel stationary rotor
0C°c coles, thus producing a counter-clockwise torque. In Fig. 5.111 (a), the rotor is urged to
te clockwise, but soon after, i.e. after 0.01 sec, the rotor is urged to rotate anti-clockwise.
rf rotor due to its inertia can’t respond to such quick reversals of electromagnetic torque,
equently the rotor remains at standstill showing thereby that in a synchronous motor, the
net starting torque is zero.
Steady state electromagnetic torque is developed in a synchronous motor only when mag-
tic locking between stator and rotor fields takes place. This can happen only when relative
^eed between stator and rotor fields is zero. In Fig. 5.111 (a), if stator and rotor fields rotate
^the same direction as shown and at the same speed, then rotor S pole is magnetically locked
with stator N pole and rotor N pole with stator S pole and in this manner steady state torque
s developed. This means that rotor must be brought up to a speed equal to the rotating stator-
ww
field speed for the production of steady-state electromagnetic torque. This can be accomplished
by two methods, namely
(a) auxiliary motor starting and
w.E
(b) induction motor starting.
These two methods of starting synchronous motors are now described below. ,
(a)
asy
A u xiliary-m otor sta rtin g . The purpose of the auxiliary motor is to bring the
synchronous motor speed, near to its synchronous speed. The auxiliary motor may be an induc
tion motor or a d.c. motor.
En
gin
If 3-phase induction motor is used as an auxiliary motor, then it is mechanically coupled
with synchronous motor. Both the motors have the same number of poles and are energised
eer
from the same 3-phase supply. The auxiliary 3-phase induction motor brings the main motor
speed almost equal to its synchronous speed. At this time, the arm ature winding of
synchronous motor is also energised from 3-phase supply. Now when the field winding of main
ing
motor is connected to d.c. source, the field poles get locked with those produced by armature
winding. As a result of this, main motor starts running as a synchronous motor at synchronous
speed. The auxiliary induction motor can now be disconnected from three-phase supply.
Sometimes an induction motor with two poles, fewer than the synchronous-motor poles, is .ne
used as an auxiliary motor. This induction motor runs the main motor above its synchronous
speed. After this, the induction motor is switched off and the synchronous motor armature is
switched on to 3-phase a.c. supply. When the speed of the set is just above synchronous speed
t
of the main motor, the field winding is energised from d.c. supply. By the time the field current
rises to its constant value, the set attains synchronous speed.
If the synchronous motor is coupled with a d.c. machine, as it is usual in the laboratories,
then dc machine is first run as a d.c. motor. The main motor, now made to operate as a
synchronous generator, is synchronized with the 3-phase supply system in the usual manner.
If the d.c. motor is now switched off, the main motor starts running as a synchronous motor.
The disadvantage of this method of starting is that the motor can’t be started under load ;
in case it is desired to do so, the auxiliary-motor rating will be large, thus increasing the cost of
the set. In view of this, the auxiliary-motor starting is used only for unloaded synchronous
motors. At the same time, the auxiliary motor has to overcome primarily the inertia of the
unloaded synchronous motor, its rating is therefore much lower than the rating of synchronous
motor.
ww
low frequency, equal to the slip frequency. This pulsating torque causes violent disturbances in
the supply current. In case the load torque required is not too great, the positive half cycle of
the synchronous motor torque pulls the rotor into synchronism under favourable conditions.
w.E
Actually pull-in process of a salient-pole synchronous motor is quite complex and will not be
discussed here.
asy
En
gin
eer
Fig. 5 .1 1 2 . P ertain in g to the startin g of synchronous m otors.
ing
Instead of direct-on-line starting, the synchronous motor is sometimes started by star delta
starting, reactor starting or auto-transformer starting, in order to limit the starting current.
The field winding has usually a large number of turns as compared to the stator turns. At
.ne
the time of starting very high voltage may be induced in the field winding. The stator may be
thought of as the primary winding and the field winding as the secondary winding of a trans
former. On starting, rotating magnetic field cuts the field winding at synchronous speed and,
therefore, high values of e.m.fs. are induced in it. This high value of induced e.m.f. may cause
t
breakdown of the field winding insulation. The voltage induced in the field winding can be
limited by short-circuiting the field winding or by connecting it to a resistance whose value is
about 7 to 10 times the field winding resistance itself. As rotor speeds up, the induced e.m.f. in
the field winding decreases, therefore, the external resistance in the field circuit should be
gradually reduced. When the rotor reaches normal speed, external resistance in the field circuit
is reduced to zero and field winding is opened ; after this the field winding is connected to a d.c.
source. Another advantage of short-circuiting the field winding or of connecting it in series with
external resistance during synchronous motor starting is that additional torque is developed
due to interaction between rotating field and field-circuit m.m.fs. This additional torque adds
to the induction motor torque developed by damper bars and in this manner, starting torque is
increased. Star-delta starting, reactor-starting or the auto transform er starting also helps in
reducing the voltage induced in the field winding.
ww
w.E
asy resistance
En
Fig. 5.113. Synchronous-induction motor circuit diagram .
gin
Synchronous induction motor has a larger air gap than that of a slip-ring induction motor,
because the machine must operate as a synchronous motor at normal loads with high stability
limit (proportional to air-gap length).
(b) eer
Super-synchronous motor. The stator of this motor is not bolted to the bed plate, but is
ing
suspended in bearings so that it can rotate. The rotor is mechanically coupled with load requir
ing high-starting torque. When three phase supply is given to the stator through slip rings,
.ne
rotating magnetic field running at synchronous speed with respect to stator is set up. Since the
stator structure has less inertia than the rotor plus load inertia, unloaded stator structure
stationary When the stator speed is near the synchronous speed, the rotor is excited by direct
current, thus converting the induction motor into a synchronous motor Under these conditions,
t
starts speeding up in a direction opposite to the rotating magnetic field while the rotor remains
stator is running at synchronous speed n5 (say anticlockwise), stator field is rotating clockwise
at speed n and rotor is stationary. Now band brake is gradually applied to the stator structure
to decrease its speed. I f the stator speed decreases by nr.p.m . then the rotor must ru n at r
r p m. clockwise m the direction of rotating field so that the r e t o e p p e e d b e ^ e e n stator an.
rotor fields is zero. When the stator structure is brought to rest by band brake, the rotor start
running clockwise at synchronous speed in the direction of rotating field. In this manner, max
mum synchronous motor torque equal to the pull-out torque, isavafiable for starting the heai
torque load on the rotor shaft. In an ordinary synchronous motor, the pull-out torque is ava
able only when the rotor speed is synchronous. Super-synchronous motors are used in pap
and cement m ill drives where starting duty is very severe.
ww
m 1
ilf ■
Calculate the voltage regulation at fu ll load at 0.8 p f lagging.
Solution. Terminal voltage per-phase,
w.E v _ 11000
Vt = ~ T Js ~ = 6 3 5 1 V
9 =f = 12 '
kd = ~ J = ~ T ~ l ^ ^ 0S28 i
q sin £ 12 sin —
4 240 L
F u = - x 0.828 ——1 = 126.51 If ATs/pole.
71 ‘ 2
F u n d a m e n ta l a r m a tu r e re a c tio n m m f F a, f r o m Eqn. (3.72 ( 6 ) ) , is
ww F„ = 0.9 ^ k t ATs/pole
o xr
Here m - 3, Nph w.E 72x4
2x3
..
48, q
72
gx3 »Y
2 x 180
72
eo
* .=
asyqv c m
sin _i_L
"
• -----------
sin —
12 x 5
-—
— = --------------- = 0.9552
q sin ^
7
En
. 5
1 2 s in —
eer
p a = 0.9 3 x 48 x 20&95 x 0.9552 _ 12995 3 A Ts/poie
ing
Since we are working in terms of field current, the armature mmf F a, in term s of equivalent
field current is given by
armature mmf Fa in ATs/pole 12995.3
= 102.72 A .ne
field mmf F lf per pole 126.51
An examination of Fig. 5.14 reveais that the angle between F r and Ia or Fa is 90 + (5, where
angle P = p f angle + angle by which E r leads Vt.
t
... p = cos" 1 0.8 + 2.8° = 36.87 + 2.8 = 39.67°
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
If— *
ing
Fig. 5 .1 1 4 . O pen-circuit ch a ra cte ristic for E x a m p le 5 .5 3 .
E x a m p le 5.54. A 2000 kVA, 11 kV, 3-phase star-connected altern ator h a s synchronous im
p ed a n ce o f Zs - 0.3 + j 5 D. p er phase. It delivers fu ll lo a d current a t a p f o f 0.8 lagging and .ne
norm al rated voltage. Compute the term inal voltage fo r the sam e excitation a n d current at 0.8
P f tending.
or asy
1.4000357 sin (0 + 0.40925) = 0.76
0 = 32.4682°
En
Power factor = cos 32.4682 = 0.8437 lagging
It is also seen from Fig. 5.23 (a) that
gin
£? + V? - 2 £ r V, ■cos 5 = (7„ Z,)2
l A r t 5.2i
684 E lectrical M achinery
.2 0.0062 X 1
V ?- - 1.0872 = 0
or - 1.0872 Vf - 0.0062 = 0
Its solution gives Vf = 1.092873 and Vt = 1.0454 p.u.
ww
(b) Also
Ia Vt 1.0454
E f = V, + j Ia Xq
= 0.9566 p.u.
w.E
With Vt as reference, E f = 1.0454 + j (0.9 - j 0.436) x 0.9566 x 0.8
= 1.3791 + j 0.6888 = 1.5415 /2 6 .5 4 °
asy
.•. Load angle 6 = 26.54°. Power-factor angle 0 = cos 1 0.9 = 25.842
Id = l a sin (8 + 0) = 0.9566 sin (26.54 + 25.842) = 0.7577 pu
.-. Excitation voltage,
En
Ef = E / + Id (Xd - Xq)
= 1.5415 + 0.7577 x 0.4 = 1.8446 pu.
gin
E xam p le 5.57. A salient-pole synchronous motor has Xd = 0.85 pu an d Xq = 0.55 pu. It is
eer
connected to bus bars o f 1.0 pu voltage, while its excitation is adju sted to 1.2 pu. Calculate the
maximum power output that the motor can supply without loss o f synchronism . Compute the
sin o + —
1
<?
sin 2 6
t
0.85 2 0.55 0.85
v
or P = 1.412 sin 6 + 0.321 sin 2 8
dP
Power P is maximum when ~ = 0
do
dP
•; = 1-412 cos 8 + 0.321 x 2 cos 2 8 = 0
The excitation would be minimum when = 0. In Example 5.32, it is shown that the load
ie 5 at which excitation emf is minimum is obtained from
joS1 v2 v v
sin3 5
°-30
1 0.85x0.55
cos 5 = 0.6417 sin3 5.
°r Its trial and error solution gives 8 = 63°
P V? xd- x q .
V V V sm 2 0
E1 _ *^0
•. tofmm -
V' sin
• 8X
Ad
! _1 0.30
sin 2 x 63°
2 0.85 x 0.55
= 0.70635 pu.
ww 0.85
sin 63°
Example 5.58. A given 3 MVA, 50 Hz, 11 kV, 3-phase, Y-connected alternator, when sup
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plying 100 A at zero p f leading has line to line voltage of 12370 V; when load is removed the
term in a l voltage falls down to 11000 V. Predict the regulation o f the alternator when supplying
full-load at 0.8 p fla g . Assume an effective resistance of 0.4 Q per phase.
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Solution. Per-phase terminal voltage, V, =
12370
= 7142 V
Synchronous reactance,
100 A ~ 7'9 1 a
Determine the pow er factor, loa d angle a n d the arm atu re current o f the m achine before the
excitation e m f is increased. ' ' ’• *000]
Solution. For star-connected alternator,
g
V3 V, ■Ia cos 0 = Power E»
V3 x 11000 x Ia x 0.8 = 15 x 106 W =13V„\
xVb - 6 3 5 1 V
Per-phase armature current, 6351V
/ _ 15 x 106 = 984.15 A
° ^3 x 1 1 0 0 0 x 0 .8
Per-phase bus voltage, 90°6a
11000
= = 6351 V
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diagram is shown in Fig. 5 .1 1 7 (a). This
diagram gives (6)
Fig. 5 .1 1 7 . P e rta in in g to E x a m p le 5.59.
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(OA)2 + (AB)2 = OB2
^2
(6351 x 0.8)2 + (6351 x 0.6 + 984.15 Xs)2 = (1.3 x 63 5 1 )J
or
asy
0.82 + (0.6 + 0.15496 •Xs)2 = 1.32 o r X s = 2 .7 4 Q
Under the condition of increased steam input, the phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 5.117
E •V
(6). Here 3 ^ b sin 5 = 15 x 106
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or 3 sin 5 = 15 x 106 or 8 = 19.856°. gin
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2 .7 4
It is seen from the phasor diagram th at pf = cos ^ = cos 856 = 0.985 leading.
s m a K thev a S MOt° rS- These are USUally made in sizcs above about 5 0 kW. because in
sm all sizes they are more expensive as compared to induction motors.
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sors, rolling mills, ball mills, crushers, pulp grinders etc.
The use of synchronous motor for a specific purpose requires the considerations of the fol
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lowing specifications :
(i) Starting torque. It pertains to the ability of the motor to accelerate the load.
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(ii) Pull-in torque. It refers to the ability to pull into synchronism when changing from
induction to synchronous motor operation.
(iii)
rated lo a d conditions.
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Pull-out torque. It pertains to the ability of the motor to remain in synchronism under
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PROBLEMS
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5.1. (a) Give th e co n stru ctio n al d etails of rotor of both salient-pole and cy lin d n ca l-ro to r sy n ch ro n o u s
machines.
(b)
ing
D escribe th e v ario u s sch em es used for exciting large synchronous m achin es. W h ich sch e m e is b ein g
preferred th ese d ays for e x citin g v ery larg e turbo-gen erators and why ?
5.2. (a) D iscuss th e following giving reason s :
(i) C ylin d rical-roto r a lte rn a to rs h av e sm all d iam eter and large core length.
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(ii) Salient-pole a lte rn a to r s h av e larg e d iam eter and sm all core length.
(b) t
A 4 1 5 V, sta r-co n n e cte d , 3 -p h a se , 4-pole synchronous g en erato r h a s 3 6 sta to r slo ts ca r ry in g double layet
3-phase w indings form ed th rou g h uniform ly distributed coils each short-p itch ed by one slot. T h e d ia m e te r at
the air gap is 2 0 cm and th e effective ax ia l length is 6 0 cm. T h e ro to r driven a t 1 5 0 0 rp m is e x cite d to resu l'
in a sinusoidally v ary in g air-g ap flux d en sity distribution in sp ace w ith a p eak v alu e of 0 5 T. C a lc u la te th«
number of series tu r n s p er p h ase to g e n e ra te rated no-load voltage. (I.A.S., 1996
lA n s. tfe) 3 8 tu rn ;
5 .3 . D erive an em f exp ression for an a lte rn a to r from fund am en tals show ing cle a rly th e e x p re ss io n s fc
Pitch and d istrib u tio n fa cto rs. F in d , th erefro m , th e ra tio of induced em fs of n th h a rm o n ic to fu n d a m e n ta l. C a
adopt sh o rt-ch o rd in g for sin g le-lay er w inding ?
5.4. (a) E x p la in th e se v e ra l m ean s by w hich an a tte m p t is m ade to obtain th e w av efo rm of th e g e n e r a l.
enrf in a 3 -p h ase a lte rn a to r sinu soid al.
, (6) The p h ase e m f of a 3 -p h a s e , 5 0 Hz a lte rn a to r consists of a fu n d am en tal, a 2 0 % th ird h a rm o n ic and
10% fifth h arm o n ic. T h e am p litu d e of th e fu n d am en tal voltage is 1 0 0 0 V. C a lcu la te th e rm s line v o lta g e w h
tlle a lte rn a to r w in dings a re in (i) s t a r an d (ii) delta.
If tho is 12 fl calcu late th e circu la tin g c u rr e n t w h en th e m a ch in e is de
to-uiMUd “ per P IAn*-(l” 1,1 1230 85 V 710141 V •3 929
5 .6 . (a) W h at are th e cau ses of harm onics in th e em f w aveform s of sy n ch ro n ou s g e n e ra to rs and what means
are adopted to minimise! th em ? ’
(.b) A 3-phase a lte rn a to r h as 2 slots per pole p er p h ase an d coil sp a n of 5 slo t p itch es. The flux density
wave of a lte rn a to r consists of a fundam ental and a 25% th ird h a rm o n ic. C a lc u la te th e p e rcen tag e increase in
th e phase voltage due to harm onic. s ‘ * ^0-893<J|
5 .7 . (a) W h at do you u n d erstan d by th e te rm sp ace-p h ase an gle ?
(b) In a cylin d rical-rotor alte rn a to r, a rm a tu re c u rre n t is in p h ase w ith th e e x cita tio n voltage. Develop the
sp ace and tim e-p h asor d iag ram s for this a lte rn a to r. D raw th e se tw o d ia g ra m s in one p h a so r d iag ram and show
th a t a rm a tu re reaction m m f a t unity p f is cro ss-m agn etizin g in n a tu re .
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D iscuss w h eth er th e field poles a re ah ead o r behind th e re s u lta n t a ir-g a p field.
5 .8 . Develop and draw' space and tim e-p h aso r d iag ram s for a cy lin d rica l-ro to r m a ch in e in ca se the alternator
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o p erates a t an in tern al pow er facto r of (o) zero lagging (b ) zero lead in g an d (c) cos y lagg in g .
D iscuss th e n a tu re of a rm a tu re reactio n m m f an d th e d evelopm ent of e le ctro m a g n e tic torque in each of
th e th ree cases listed above.
asy
5 .9 . (a) D raw th e combined space and tim e-p h aso r d ia g ra m for a cy lin d rica l-ro to r a lte r n a to r w ith armature
cu rre n t lagging the excitation emf. D iscuss about th e v ario u s p a ra m e te rs involved in it.
(6) E xp lain how th e d iag ram of p a rt (a ) ca n be applied to a sy n ch ro n o u s m oto r.
En
(c) D iscuss th e location of field poles rela tiv e to th e r e s u lta n t a ir-g a p m m f in p a r ts (a) an d (b).
(6) gin
5 .1 0 . (a ) In a salien t-p ole synchronous m ach in e, exp lain how th e a r m a t u r e flu x d ep en d s on the spatial
orien tatio n of th e a rm a tu re m m f w ave relativ e to th e field poles.
■
D iscuss th e n a tu re of a rm a tu re re a ctio n flux in a sa lie n t-p o le sy n ch ro n o u s m a c h in e in case armature
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cu rre n t (i) lags th e excita tio n em f E f by 9 0 ° (ii) lead s E f by 9 0 ° an d (Hi) is in p h a se w ith Ef.
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and d iscu ss th e g en e ra l p h a so r d iag ram for a cy lin d rica l-ro to r a lte r n a to r sh o w in g th e v a rio u s m m fs as well.
(b) E xp lain how o p en -circu it an d sh o rt-c irc u it te s ts a re co n d u cted on a sy n ch ro n o u s m a ch in e .
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(c) W h a t is an air-g a p lin e ? D iscu ss its sig n ifican ce w ith re s p e c t to th e m a g n e tiz a tio n ch a ra cte ristic of an
a lte rn a to r.
IA n s. (q) leads by (9 0 + y ) (b) leads by (9 0 + 0) (c) lags by (9 0 - 8) Id) lags by (90 + 0)1
Now if its field current is increased, explain what happens to the following ; *
(a) The magnitude of resultant flux wave.
(b) The magnitude of armature current and its pf.
(c) The magnitude of armature current in phase with V,.
‘ id) Rotor movement away from resultant mmf wave or towards it.
[/ fi'.-U I 'f : * . 1
(e) The space-phase angle between armaturo mmf wave E„ and the resultant air-gap mmf wave Fr
|Ans. ( o ) R e m a in s c o n s t a n t . ( b ) I(I i n c r e a s e s a n d p f h i
up re s u lta n t m m f w a v e , i.e. in th e d ir e c tio n o f ro to ti e ad in g (c) R e m a in s u n ch an g ed . Id) T o w ard s
JJJ ‘ e f w h e re 0 = p f a n g le ) ° i a i ,0 n (e) b etw een F „ an d F r in cre a s e s from 9 0 ° to
" 5 .1 4 . A r o u n d - r o to r s y n c h r o n o u s m o to r on load A
inlpedance is assum ed negligible. Find out the angle bywhfch CUrFent * a lead in g p f an g le 0. Its lea k a g e
itKX laes by ,9° + v ’ (<” lags by (90” t e ’ lcl ,aes by ,90" +si >d) ieads b>' ,9° - si <ei ,aes by
^ *\ h e*effect o f l a c t r i n ^ c u r r o n t ^ 0 *. CUJrren t b a s tb e e B ®c t o f w eakening th e m ain field ; but in a sy n ch ro n ou s
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motor, th e e tle c t ol la g g in g c u r r e n t is to s tre n g th e n th e m ain field. E x p la in .
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e r e s u a n t a ir-g a p m m f o r a w ay from it ? W h a t h ap p en s to th e m ag n itu d e o f a rm a tu re
current an d p o w e r f a c to r ? N e g le c t le a k a g e im p ed an ce.
[H in t, (o ) In F ig . 5 .1 4 , a r m a t u r e m m f F u for laggin g c u rre n t, h a s a com ponent in p h ase opposition to Ff.
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For a s y n c h ro n o u s m o to r. F ig . 5 .1 0 show's t h a t a r m a tu r e m m f Fu for a laggin g cu rre n t, h as a com ponent in
phase w ith F^-etc.)
IH in t. (6 ) R e fe r to F ig . 5 .3 1 (6)|
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|Ans. (b ) L o a d a n g le d e c r e a s e s a n d th e ro to r m oves to w ard s the re s u lta n t air-g ap mmf. A rm a tu re cu rre n t
increases a n d p o w e r f a c to r b eco m es m o re laggin g.)
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5 .1 6 . ( a ) D ra w p h a s o r d ia g ra m o f a ro u n d -ro to r a lte rn a to r on (;) open -circuit and (ii) sh o rt-circu it. D iscuss
why s h o r t-c ir c u it c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is a s t r a i g h t line w h e re a s o p en -circu it c h a ra c te ris tic is a curve.
(b)
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A 3 0 0 k V A , 4 0 0 V a l te r n a t o r co n n e cte d in d e lta is now recon n ected in s ta r. C a lcu la te tbe new voltage,
cu rrent an d kV A r a tin g s .
when feed ing its ow n load . deliverin g 2 0 MW and 8 MVAr to an infinite bus at 11 kV The
(6) A 3 -p h a s e s ta r -c o n n e c te d a lte r n a to r D eterm in e the load an gle and the e x cita tio n e m f of the
a lte rn ato r h a s s y n c h ro n o u s im p ed an ce ot u m. |Ans (/>) 22 4g<, 14265 3 V(
altern ato r.
5 .2 0 . (a ) D efin e th e v o lta g e re g u la tio n o f an OTeatcr than the no-load term in al voltage ? E xp lain
b p o ssib le to h a v e th e full-load a lte rn a to r i . load ed -
(6 ) W hy d oes th e a r m a t u r e te rm in a l 0 f a lte rn a to rs ?
(c) W h a t is th e n e c e s s ity o f co m p u tin g vnu a c e regulation and hence show th a t synchronous
«f> D evelop th e e m f m eth o d of d ^ j n . n g ^ e voltag ,
reactan ce c o n s is ts o f tw o co m p o n en ts of
synchronous-reactance m ethods.
(b) A 3 -phase, 17.32 kVA, 4 0 0 V, star-co n n ected a lte rn a to r is d e liv e rin g r a te d load a t 4 0 0 V and at pf o e
lag. Its synchronous im pedance is 0 .2 + J2 Q p er p h ase. Fin d th e load an g le a t w h ich it is operatin g.
Now, with th e m agnitude of excitation v oltage held co n sta n t, th e n a tu r e o f r a te d load p f is altered to pf
0 .8 leading. D eterm ine the new value of term in a l voltag e an d load an gle.
[H in t. (b ) F irs t calcu late E f ( = 2 6 7 .5 7 V) a t 0 .8 p f lag an d th e n find o u t Vt a t p f 0 .8 leading.)
[A n s. (b ) 7 .9 5 ° ; 5 0 2 .4 4 V, 9 .2 5 =]
5 .2 3 . ia) E xp lain why synchronous im pedance m eth od o f co m p u tin g th e v o lta g e re g u la tio n , leads to
pessim istic value a t lagging p.f. loads.
(b) A three-p h ase, 5 0 Hz, 2 0 0 0 kVA, 1 1 kV, sta r-co n n e cte d a lte r n a to r h a s a fu ll-lo ad v oltag e regulation f
1 0 % a t 0 .8 p.f. lag. Now the speed of th e a lte rn a to r p rim e-m o v er d e cre a s e s to giv e a freq u en cy of 48 H
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D eterm ine its effect on a lte rn a to r ra tin g and also on th e v oltag e re g u la tio n a t 0 .8 p.f. lag, T h e field and armatu
cu rren ts a re assum ed unchanged. N eglect a rm a tu re re s is ta n c e . e
w.E
[(b) H in t. E xcitatio n voltage S in ce I f is co n sta n t, n ew e x c ita tio n v o lta g e E ^ = 0 ,9 6 E and
X si = 0.9 6 X s l. F o r negligible a rm a tu re re sista n ce , F ig . 5 .2 2 (b ) show s t h a t V l2 = 0 .9 6 , Vn = 1 0 .5 6 kV etc]
[A n s. 1 0 .5 6 kV, 1920 kVA, 10%)
(
asy
A , 6; i6 . kV; 3 Ph a s e > 5 0 H z > star-co n n ected a lte rn a to r g a v e th e follow ing d a ta fo r open circuit
circu it and full-load zero-pow er facto r tests : circuit, short
If in A 3.2
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Ef in k V 3.10 4 .9 0 6 .60 7 .5 0 8.24
\J.£* t.
1.85
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. J...W IU V w * » iim u u j.v * V h JJu Jl/L U iV t iO Jk U d i l
www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
5 ,2 6 . A 11 kV, 5 0 Hz, star-con nected cylindrical rotor altern ator gave the following d ata on open c i r c u it :
0 10 15 20 31 55
IAn A 39 50 '
-
0 5.00 7.60 9.00 11.00 12.80 13.40
Efin hV 12.00
Drop CB perpendicular to DA. Th en CB = 1.25 x 160 (*„,) and full-load arm atu re m.m.f. = In this problem ,
Xal = 3.90 £1 and full load a rm a tu re m .m .f. is equivalent to 1 8 .0 0 A.] [Ans. 15.45%)
5.27. A 3-ph ase star-co n n ected a ltern ato r is rated 1600 kVA, 1 3 ,5 0 0 V. The a rm a tu re effective re sista n ce
and synchronous re a cta n ce a re 1.5 Cl and 3 0 Q respectively per phase. C alculate th e p ercen tage reg u latio n for
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a load of 1280 kW a t pow er factors of (a) 0 .8 leading, (fa) unity and (c) 0 .8 lagging. (I.E.S., 1986)
[Ans. (a) - 11.991% (fa) 3.227% (c) 18.6%)
5.28. (a) E xp lain th e m m f m ethod of determ ining the voltage regulation of an a lte rn a to r.
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(fa) A 3 0 kVA, 4 4 0 V, 5 0 H z, 3-ph ase star-con n ected alte rn a to r gave the following te s t d a ta :
Field current
(A)
Terminal
2 4
asy 6 7 8 10 12 14
En
155 287 395 440 475 530 570 592
voltage (V) I-
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S.C. Current
11 22 34 40 46 57 69 80
(A)
ing
5.29. (a) Describe the procedure for determining the voltage regulation of an alternator by saturated
synchronous-reactance method.
(fa) For an armature leakage reactance of 0.8 £1 in Prob. 5.28 (b), compute the following at rated voltage,
rated load and 0.8 pf lagging :
(i) Unsaturated synchronous reactance .ne
(ii) Saturation factor
(iii) Saturated-synchronous reactance and
(io) the voltage regulation.
t
[Ans. (b) 7.372 £1, 1.246, 6.074 £1, 33.07%)
5.30. (a) Explain the method of determining the voltage regulation of an alternator by zpf and new ASA methods.
(fa) The following data relate to a 14860 kVA, 3-phase, 50 Hz, 40-pole, star-connected hydroelectric generator:
If in Amp 10 15 20.5 25 30 35 1 40 45
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betw een term in als as m easu red w ith dc is 0 .2 fi. W ith no-load a n d r a te d sp e e d , th e s t a t o r line voltage is
1 6 0 V for a field c u rre n t of 4 A. A t ra te d speed, th e sh o rt-c irc u it s t a t o r c u r r e n t p e r te r m in a l is 6 0 A for a field
cu rre n t of 4 A. C om pute (a ) syn ch ron ou s im p ed an ce p e r p h a se (b ) v o lta g e re g u la tio n a t 0 .8 p f laggin g at rated
wL
load.
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T h e a lte rn a to r is star-co n n ected .
. . .
■pr
'J f [H in t. T ak e r„ = 1 .2 5 rt/c)
En
in a syn chron ou s m achin e.
(b) D raw a lte rn a to r p h aso r d ia g ra m s for lagg in g , u n ity an d le a d in g p o w er fa c to r s on th e assumption of
gin
sa m e (i) term in al voltage and (ii) e x cita tio n v oltag e.
5 .3 5 . (a ) E x p la in how one can d istin g u ish w h e th e r a p h a so r d ia g ra m is fo r a n a l t e r n a t o r o r a synchronous
m otor.
(b)
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D raw p h aso r d ia g ra m s for cy lin d rica l-ro to r sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r w h en w o rk in g u n d e r lag g in g , unity and
leadin g pow er facto rs on th e assu m p tio n o f sa m e (i) te rm in a l v o lta g e a n d (ii) e x c ita tio n v o lta g e .
& ing
5 .3 6 . D raw th e v o lta g e p h a so r d ia g ra m o f a n a l te r n a t o r a n d a s y n c h ro n o u s m o to r, so t h a t th e sam e voltage
eq u ation, n am ely E f= Vt + Ia (ra + j X s), is ap p licab le to both th e s e m a c h in e s . H e n c e d ra w th e comm only used
voltag e p h a so r d iag ram for a cy lin d rical ro to r sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r.
How can one d istin g u ish w h e th e r th e v o ltag e p h a s o r d ia g ra m is for a n a l t e r n a t o r o r for a m otor ? .ne
* • f ‘3 7 '
te ris tic s w ith th e help o f p h a so r d ia g ra m s.
p l a t e d ? E X P lam ^
t
T * 6,™ ?1 a n d jin te rn a I c h a r a c te r is tic s o f a n a l te r n a t o r . E x p la i n th e s h a p e of th ese charac
ata ™ „ * » n P,1
th e p ow er o u tp u t, a r m a t u r e c u r r e n t an d Df u n d e r t h o r n
1 7 ^ °f 1+J'100
,1 * ? ,
Wfi
a n e x c i t a ti o n v o lta g e of 6 .4 kV. Find
annature * 66^
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(б) Now th e e x c ita tio n e .m .f. is in c re a s e d to 1 2 .5 kV and th e sh aft load is ad ju sted so t h a t m o to r ag a in
operates a t u .p .f. C a lc u la te th e s h a ft load o u tp u t. (A ns. (a) 1 1 4 9 3 .9 5 V (6) 1 8 5 9 2 .7 6 kW|
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5 .4 5 . A 3 -p h a s e s ta r -c o n n e c te d a lte r n a to r w ith sy n ch ron ou s im pedance of 0 + j 5 Cl p e r p h a se is co n n ected
to an 11-kV s y s te m . T h e a l te r n a t o r p ow er o u tp u t is found to be 10 M W and re a ctiv e pow er o u tp u t a s 3 M VA.
Compute th e m a g n itu d e o f e x c ita tio n v o lta g e , load an gle, line cu rre n t and power facto r.
En
to give an e x c ita tio n v o lta g e o f 2 4 0 0 V. D ete rm in e th e m a xim u m pow er developed, a rm a tu re c u rr e n t an d pow er
factor u n d er th is e x c ita tio n . P e r -p h a s e sy n ch ro n o u s im p edan ce is 1 .5 + j 21 Q.
• [A ns. 2 4 2 .7 kW, 8 7 .8 5 3 A. 0 .7 9 2 7 lag!
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5 .4 7 . F ro m th e e q u iv a le n t c irc u it of a cy lin d rical ro to r synchronous m otor, derive exp re ssio n s for th e pow er
input and p ow er o u tp u t in te r m s of load an g le , syn ch ron ou s im p edan ce, excitatio n v o ltag e etc.
eer •
Show t h a t th e d iffe re n ce in p ow er in p u t an d pow er ou tp u t is equal to ohm ic loss I„r„.
* 2
ing
5 .4 8 . A 1 0 k V A , 3 8 0 V , 4-p o le, 5 0 H z, sta r-co n n e cte d cylindrical ro to r a lte rn a to r h a s a s t a t o r re s is ta n c e
and sy n ch ro n ou s r e a c ta n c e of 1 ohm an d 15 ohm s resp ectiv ely . It supplies a load of 8 kW a t ra te d v o lta g e and
0.8 power fa c to r la g g in g .
(а) D raw a p h a s o r d ia g ra m of o p eratio n .
.ne
(б) E x p re s s th e r e s is ta n c e a n d sy n ch ro n o u s re a c ta n c e in p er u n it v alu es w ith th e m a ch in e r a tin g a s th e
base.
(c) C a lc u la te th e p e r c e n ta g e reg u la tio n .
W) W h at is th e te rm in a l voltage if th e load is suddenly removed (with the speed and excitation unaltered) ?
t
[A ns. (a) See Fig. 5.23 (a), (b) 0 .0 6 9 3 pu, 1 .0 3 9 p.u. (c) 8 5 .5 3 ^ (d ) 7 0 5 V|
5 .4 9 . A 3 -p h a s e , 4 0 0 V, 6 -p o le , 5 0 H
0.5 +, 8 n p e r p h a se . Its m p u l c u r r e n t ,s 1 0 A a t u m ty p o w j* f a ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
cu rrent re m a in in g c o n s t a n t, th e load to rq u e is 1 [Ans n g gg Nm 0 7 7 6 iagging(
the developed to rq u e a n d th e n ew p ow er la cto r.
• r riovolnned in a cv lin d rical-rotor a lte rn a to r in te rm s of p ow er an gle
5 .5 0 . (a ) D e riv e a n e x p re ss io n for p ow er developed in a cym
^ —— ■ ■ ——
~~ + 20333.3 . 0 * 1 ’
I H i n t . (o ) 3 ( V „ ci>»8 - 4 ' ’o) - 102I< °r “ 2 7 1 5 .5 3 V, 1 5 .3 1 3 ° (frl 5 8 .7 2 1 A. 0.9584 leading
4 , h s. , 0 0 0 aw. 3 .3 kV, 5 0 H z, 4 - p o l ,
5 .6 2 . A . . o o u y 8-pole s ia r-c o n n e c te d sy n ^ g q ^ re sp e ctiv e ly . Neglect
from . 3-p h ase, 5 0 0 kVA, W ^ « I» ^ th e g e n e r a to > , ‘Z o u s Z rm
c a n d e liv e r A ssum e
S S S k s M S S a ss—
p f conditions a t th e ir te rm in a ls.
*- a-
1AM. 11621.3 \ m;
5
ww
re sistan ce is con n ected to 11 kV co n sta n t v o lta g e con
to th e system . If th e tu rb in e pow er is k ep t c o n s ta n t an d tn e ex c
w h at would be th e new cu rre n t an d p f !
^ c ita tio n 0 f th e a l t e r n a t o r is in creased by 25%.
(7.A.S., 1994,
, •.
w.E . 1 1 lfV 1 6 0 0 kVA. h a s negligible a rm a tu re resistance and a
[AnS- ig o .6 5 A, 0.5245 lag!
5 .5 5 . A 3-phase
synchronous reactan ce of 3 0 fi per phaw . W h «
the m achine is zero. E stim ate the pf of the load an po asy
delivering full-load cu rre n t a t a ce rta in pf, th e voltage regulation of
g delivered by th e m achin e. (/ A S.. 199V,
(A n a. 0 .9 8 0 1 leading, 1568.2422 kW|
5 .5 6 . F o r a sy n ch ro n o u s m a c h in e , e x c ita tio n e m f
En = 2 .3 p .u ., t e r m in a l v o lta g e = 1 .0 0 p.u., r„ = 0.
gin
X = 1 5 pu P lot th e v ariatio n s of a ctiv e and re a c tiv e p ow ers. F in d th e m a x im u m v a lu e s of a ctiv e and reactive
powers and the corresp on d in g load an gles. In th e re a c tiv e -p o w e r d ia g r a m , in d ic a te th e r e a c tiv e power flow to
eer
or from the syn chron ou s m ach in e. A t w h at load an g le is th e p ow er f a c to r u n ity .
[Ans. P max = 1.533 a t 8 = 9 0° ; (max) = 0 .8 6 6 a t 8 = 0°. Load angle = 64.23°!
ing
5 .5 7 . (a) Develop th e e x cita tio n circles for a cy lin d rica l ro to r s y n ch ro n o u s m o to r. H ow a re these circles
helpful in stu d yin g th e ste a d y s ta le b eh av io u r of sy n ch ro n o u s m o to rs ?
.ne
(fa) E x p la in th e d evelopm ent of pow er circle s for a cy lin d rica l ro to r s y n c h ro n o u s m o to r.
Show th a t :
(**) Pm ax ~ a
V?
- a n d
.
t
a
(iii) efficiency a t m axim u m pow er o u tp u t = 50% .
5 .5 8 . E x p la in how th e excita tio n an d p ow er circle s ca n be su p e rim p o s e d o b ta in V -c u rv e s o f a cylindrical
ro to r sy n ch ro n ou s m otor.
H ence show t h a t :
(i) m in im u m an d m axim u m c u r r e n ts far a n y p ow er o c c u r a t u .p .f.
(ii) m in im u m p.f. for a n y load pow er o ccu rs w h en th e c u r r e n t lin e is t a n g e n t to th e p o w er circle for that
load.
5 .5 9 . W ith re g a rd to sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r V -cu rv e s, e x p la in th e follow ing:
(a) T h e re is a bend in th e com p oun d in g cu rv e o b tain ed by jo in in g the m in im u m a n d m a x im u m excitation
points.
(fa) U n ity p.f. com p oun d in g cu rv e h a s also a bend in it.
5 .6 0 . A 4 3 3 - V, 3 -p h a s e , s ta r-c o n n e c te d sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r h a s a sy n c h ro n o u s r e a c ta n c e o f 5 fJ per phase
F o r a p ow er o u tp u t o f 15 k W , find its m in im u m a r m a t u r e c u r r e n t , e x c ita tio n v o lta g e und ’ he power angle
A rm a tu re re s is ta n c e is negligible.
[H in t First calculate Ia, then Ef and 5 by using its voltage phasor diagram). [Ans. 20 A 4 6 6 4 V, 21 83s!
Polyphase S y n ch ro n o u s M a ch in e s 695
ww
[A n s. (o) an d (c) L a r g e r v a lu e o f field c u rr e n t. (6 ) L ow er v alu e of field c u r r e n t (b e c a u se it g iv e s lo w e r
field-circuit losses.)]
(6) w.E
constant, exp lain w h e th e r its p ow er fa cto r is w o rsen ed or im proved w hen it is m ad e to o p e r a te a t full load .
A sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r is o p e ra tin g a t a c e r ta in load. E x p la in how you w ill find o u t in th e la b o r a to ry
asy
whether it is o p e ra tin g a t a le a d in g o r lag g in g pow er facto r.
(c) Th e field c u r r e n t of a sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r is ad ju sted to o p erate it a t u n ity p.f. a t no load . I f th e load is
increased, k eep in g Ef, V, c o n s ta n t, will th e sy n ch ro n ou s m otor be d eliverin g or ab so rb in g r e a c tiv e p ow er ?
En
|Ans. (a ) p.f. im p ro v e s (b ) D e cre a s e field c u r r e n t ; if l u d e cre a se s p.f. is le a d in g an d if l u in c r e a s e s p.f. is
gin
lagging (c) A b so rb in g la g g in g re a c tiv e kV A o r ab so rb in g re a ctiv e power.]
5 .6 5 . (a ) In a d.c. s h u n t m o to r, c o u n te r e.m .f. (or g e n e ra te d e.m .f. E(l) m u st alw a y s be le ss th a n th e te r m in a l
eer
voltage V,. It is p o ssib le in a sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r to h a v e co u n te r e m f or e x cita tio n e m f E f g r e a te r th a n te r m in a l
voltage V, ? E x p la in .
ing
(b) A sy n ch ro n o u s m a c h in e is ru n n in g u n d e r ste a d y -s ta te conditions a t ra te d v o lta g e a n d r a t e d fre q u e n cy ,
At an e x cita tio n v o lta g e o f 1 .5 p .u ., th e ra te d c u rr e n t flows a t 0 .8 p.f. lead in g. Is th e sy n ch ro n o u s m a c h in e
operating as n m o to r o r a g e n e r a to r ? E x p la in .
.ne
(c) A v a ria b le r a tio th r e e p h a se tra n s fo rm e r is in terp o sed b etw een a sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r a n d th e b u s b a rs .
If the sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r te rm in a l v o ltag e is red u ced w ith th e help of v a ria b le -ra tio tr a n s f o r m e r , th e a r m a t u r e
(A ns. (a) Possible (6) Synchronous m otor (c) L ead in g pow er factor.]
t
current in c re a s e s . B e fo re th is ch a n g e , w as th e sy n ch ro n ou s m otor w ork in g a t a le a d in g o r a la g g in g p.f. ?
Explain.
(b) Show' t h a t in a n a l te r n a t o r ,
(i) if a r m a t u r e c u r r e n t la g s E f by 9 0 e, th e a r m a tu r e re a c tio n m m f is co m p le te ly d e m a g n e tiz in g an d
I V* K_#' www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
_____________________ IProh.S
696 E lectrical M ach inery
— tn sa lie n t-p o le sy n ch ro n o u s m a ch in e s and draw its
5.68. (a) Explain the two-reaction theory as applied to salient p yn
p h a so r d iag ram for a lagg in g p.f. loa . th a n d tw o . r e a ctio n th e o ry .
(b) E x p la in the difference b etw een cy c e n e ra to r v o lta g e eq u atio n for a salient-pole
(c) How can m otor v o ltag e a t la g g in g p.f.
synchronous machine ? Draw the voltage p .- lia b le resistance, has the following per unit
5.69. (a) A salient-pole synchronous generator with negligible resistan f
parameters :
X^O.8
th eo ry is applied to
one re a c ta n c e equal to X ,. C om p u te th e load an gle an d e x c .ta t.o n v o ltag e by u g y
w.E
can be com pu ted by sim ple cy lin d rical-ro to r th e o iy w ith su fficien t .accuracy^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
tan 8 =- asy
5 .7 0 (a) F o r a cy lin d rical-ro to r a lte rn a to r w ork in g a t lag g in g p.f. show t h a t
In (Xs cos G- \ sin 9)
: V, + /„ (Xs sin 9 + r„ cos 0)
(b )
En
F o r a salien t-p ole synch ron ou s m oto r, w orking a t lag g in g p .f., show t h a t
Ia (X0 cos d - r a sin 0)__
gin
ta n S = v ; - / a ( X ; s i n 0 + ra cos 0)
(c)
eer
F in d an exp ression for pow er in te rm s o f load an gle 5, for a sa lie n t-p o le sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r w orking at
a lagg in g p.f. A rm a tu re re s is ta n c e m ay be n eglected .
ing
5 7 1 A 3 -p h a s e , 3 0 k W , 4 3 3 v olts, 5 0 H z, sta r-co n n e cte d sa lie n t-p o le s y n ch ro n o u s m o to r is o peratin g at
0 8 d f. leadin g an d tak in g 4 0 A from th e m ain s. If th e d ire ct an d q u a d ra tu re a x e s r e a c ta n c e s of th e machine
a re 5 Q an d 3 Q re sp ectiv ely , ca lcu la te th e m a x im u m p ow er th e m o to r c a n d evelop i f its e x c ita tio n is m am tain e
co n sta n t.
[H in t. Ef = 4 0 0 .2 8 4 V, hmax = 70.875°].
’ ;
.ne __,
[A*18- 64 4673 W
t
5 7 2 (a ) A salien t-p o le sy n ch ro n ou s m o to r is co n n ected to in fin ite b u s. I f its field c u r r e n t is reduced to
zero, w ill'it sto p o r co n tin u e ru n n in g ? I f th e l a tt e r , w h a t w ill be its sp e e d ? A t w h a t lo a d a n g le w ill it fall out
of ste p w ith zero field c u r r e n t ?
(6) A sa lie n t-p o le sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r w ith d a m p e r b a rs is co n n e cte d to a n in fin ite b u s sy ste m . Its field
c u rr e n t is red u ced to zero an d th e load on th e sy n ch ro n o u s m o to r is g ra d u a lly in c re a s e d . I t h a s been found m
p ra ctice t h a t a f te r th e m o to r h a s fallen o u t of ste p , it co n tin u e s ru n n in g a t s u b -sy n ch ro n o u s speed. Explain
how i t h ap p en s. W h a t w ill h ap p en to th e m a g n itu d e of a r m a tu r e c u r r e n t a n d its p.f. ?
(A n s. (a ) S y n ch ro n o u s sp eed , 8 = 4 5 ° (6 ) A fte r fallin g o u t o f s te p , it w o rk s a s a n in d u ctio n m otor at
su b -sy n ch ro n o u s sp eed . T h e m o to r d ra w s la rg e c u rr e n t a t a poor p.f.]
5 .7 3 . A sa lie n t-p o le sy n ch ro n o u s g e n e r a to r on load d ra w s a n a r m a t u r e c u r r e n t a t a la g g in g pow er-factor
an gle 0. F in d o u t th e an g le by w hich
(a) a ir-g a p e x c ita tio n m m f lag s or le a d s th e a r m a tu r e m m f F (l,
(b ) g -a x is co m p o n en t of a r m a tu r e m m f lag s or le a d s F a ,
(c) d -a x is co m p o n en t o f a r m a t u r e m m f lag s or le a d s F (l an d
. . .,ener a to r is d eliv erin g ra te d kVA a t ra te d voltage and a t 0 .8 pf leading, com p u te th e pow er angle
h excitation em f. D raw th e p h aso r d ia g ra m also. |Ans. <8 ) 36 .8 7 °, 0.821
nl* 5 75 Draw th e follow ing p h a so r d ia g ra m s for salient-pole synchronous m achin es clearly m en tion in g th e
arameters involved .
p ‘ A ltern ato r o p e ra tin g a t lead in g p.f. w ith p ow er-factor angle 0 less th a n pow er angle 6 .
ww
g e n erated v o lta g e p er p h ase is 2 0 0 0 V a t a pow er angle of 2 0 °. C a lcu la te th e developed to rq u e , th e
T c u r r e n t and th e pf (in d ica tin g lag or lead). D raw th e com plete p h asor d ia g ra m , show ing 1,, an d
!hpir m agnitudes. T h e re a r e th r e e su g gestio n s reg ard in g th e valu e of th e power angle a t w hich m a x im u m pow er
w ith
% . A o p e d : (.) 2 0 - <
w.E 8 < 9 0 * (ii) 5 = exacU y 9 0 - (iii. . > lag. <Z
asy
5 7 7 A salien t-p o le sy n ch ro n o u s m otor w ith r„ = 0 . X d = 1 .0 p.u. and X„ = 0 .5 p.u. is o p e ra te d on infin ite
bus-bar of 1 0 0 p.u. v o lta g e . Show t h a t for 1 .0 0 synchronous pow er, th e excitation v oltage is
Ef = cosec - cos
En
8 8
Also d erive th e con d ition for load an gle w hen syn ch ron ou s power is m axim u m .
gin c Ef Xi
lAns. cos 8 = - 4V< {X>{ _ X j ± y 2 ± ^4V( {X(i
£r x « —T
eer
5 .7 8 . F o r a 3 -p h a s e sa lien t-p o le sy n ch ro n ou s m ach in e o p eratin g as re lu cta n ce g e n e ra to r u n d e r m a x im u m
ing
power conditions, d e riv e th e follow ing rela tio n .
X,, + X ,
tan 0 = -r? y-
X = 0 .6 p.u.
. r- J .U
.
t
, 1 in tn rm <5 of ra te d pow er t h a t th e m a ch in e ca n d e liv e r w ith o u t loss
(a) F o r zero e x c ita tio n , find th e o u tp u t in te rm s 0 1 r a te a powei
of synchronism .
(b ) U n d er th e co n d itio n s of ( a ), e s tim a te th e c u rr e n t and pf.
ww
E V
[H in t : U se th e relatio n P = —{rr1 sin 8 an d th e v o lta g e p h a so r d ia g ra m .)
asy
circu it re s is ta n c e is neglected . F o r co n s ta n t field c u r r e n t, co m p u te th e v a lu e o f load a n g le w ith th e following
ch an g es in its o p eratin g conditions.
En
(а ) F req u en cy in creased by 10% , load pow er an d ap p lied v o lta g e c o n s ta n t.
(б) F req u en cy red u ced by 10% , load to rq u e an d ap p lied v o lta g e c o n s ta n t.
(c)
gin
B oth applied v oltag e an d frequ ency red u ced by 10% , load p o w e r c o n s ta n t.
W) B oth applied voltag e an d freq u en cy red u ced by 10%>, load to rq u e c o n s ta n t,
(6)
ing
th erefrom an e x p ress,o n for pow er in te rm s of load an g le 5. N e g le ct a r m a t u r e r e s is ta n c e .
A salien t-p ole sy n ch ro n ou s m o to r h a s th e follow ing p e r u n it c o n s ta n ts :
X d = 1.25, X q = 1.00.
.ne
■ p.u .
[H in t.
'■
V, sin 8 = X q Iq,
m 0 t° r takCS r a t e d C U m m t (le a d i"e > “
t
f * . d eliverin g 0.5
are disturbed. * Chr0mz,nfe |,owtr' Show ,h al “ “ ™ s into piny only when steady-state opernting conditions
5.87. fa) Give the physical concepts of synchronizing power
rotor synchronous t S X Z flg ' lT ' ° 'CClriC" ' r“d“ n ° f >h“ “ >* * « « « for m-phase cylindrical
\/j
(0 m — COS u on no load and /;.■) !h X i E
1,1 > m2 ~ C08 S C09 a i on load.
5 88. A 5 MVA, 11 kV , 5 0 H z, 4 pole, star-con n ected synchronous generator with synchronous re a cta n ce
‘ u con nected to an infinite bus. Find synchronizing power and the corresponding torque per unit of
mechanical angle d isp lacem en t
(а) at no load and
(б) at full load of 0 .8 p.f. lag. [Ans. (a) 249 347 kW, 1587.4 Nm ; (b) 354 073 kW, 2254 1 Nm.
ww
the synchronizing to rq u e for a sh aft displacem ent of 0.4° (m echanical). Neglect losses and s a tu r a l’™ 0 2 _ ^
w.E
5 .9 1 . (a ) W h en will you call any m achine system to be operating under stable conditions 0
(8) Define th e te rm s stab ility and stab ility limit.
(c) Explain stead y-state sta b ility limit. How can it be improved for synchronous m achines ?
asy
5 .9 2 . (a ) E x p la in th e tra n s ie n t stab ility limit. W h at is the object of studying the tra n sie n t stab ility limi ^
of synchronous m ach in es ?
(6)
En
E xp lain how ste a d y -s ta te stab ility lim it can be depicted on the power circle diagrams^
5 .9 3 . (4 ) D escrib e, w ith physical concepts, the hunting phenomenon in synch.ronous m a c h in e .
gin
E xp lain w h y h u n tin g is objectionable. W h at a re the ca n o n s causes of h n n .m g ? How can . t be redu
(8) E x p la in th e action of d am p er bars in dam ping out the ro tor-oscllation s.
(c)
eer
W h at is th e effect of d am p er b a rs, under stead y-state operating conditions
t
m s th e efTect of v aryin g
^
(c) W hy should th e slip be k ep t as sm a < jQad w jt^ term inal voltage V', = 1. Now th e e x cita tio n
(d) A s a lie n t pole syn ch ron ou s m otor is w or Y
; P , mnture c u r r e n t s = 0.5 p.u. Thc ratio y -o b ta in e d from slip
., • - n f i o u . and a rm a tu re c u r r tiu i„ i \
of the m otor ie ad ju sted to give E f - U.b p.u. </
1 r v nnd A' N eglect all losses.
t e s t i s 1.6. D e t e r m i n e th e v alu es of A, / a <i diag ram for 5 = 0 (at no load> and w ith
M i n t , (d ) F i r s , d r . * U » nalient-polo synchronous m otor phn. ^ ^ ^ „ p # . 0 * pu,
* 01 .. „ M i, , nd o u . d r .t u r . a xU synrhrnnous r e .c t .n c e s . How a m th e se
5 .9 0 . E x p la in d o u rly th e te rm s d .ri
determ ined in th e la b o ra to ry ■
\ \ '.
_____________________ JFrolt. s
700 Electrical M achinery -
All are line values. N eglecting re sista n ce , ca lcu la te X (, and X „ in o h m s. |Ans. 8 .2 4 8 n , 5.543 ft|
ww
tu re cu rren t = 0 .9 pu etc. See E xam p le 5.7.1 |Ans- 0 3 8 7 6 leadingl
5 .9 9 . (a ) E n u m e ra te th e various losses in synchronous m ach in es. E x p la in how th e s e lo sse s can be deter
mined.
(b)
w.E
E xp erim en ts conducted on a se t of dc m otor and a 10 kVA 3 -p h a s e a lte r n a to r g a v e th e following data
for the pow er-input to d.c. m otor a rm a tu re :
(i) d.c. m otor ru n n in g alone : 2 4 0 w atts
asy
(ii) d.c. m otor a lte rn a to r coupled to g eth er w ith la te r u n e x cite d : 3 6 0 w a tts
(Hi) S am e as in (ii) but w ith a lte rn a to r excited : 4 6 0 w a tts
En
(to) A ltern ato r s.c. te st a t ra te d c u r r e n t : 6 0 0 w a tts.
C alcu late the a lte rn a to r full-load efficiency a t 0 .8 p.f. lead in g w ith its field c u r r e n t an d field term inal
voltage equal to 0 .7 4 A and 2 2 0 V respectively.
IA n s . (a) An a lte rn a to r o p e ra tin g a t lead in g p.f. re q u ire s le ss field c u r r e n t, th e r e fo re , le ss f.e ld -circu it loss
and g r e a te r efficiency, for th e sa m e kV A load, (b) E fficien cy is g r e a te r a t 0 .8 p f la g (c) A t 0 8 p f. output
d e cre a se s (8 0 p er ce n t of its previou s v alu e), n o-load ro ta tio n a l lo sse s an d s .c . lo ad lo s se s re m a in unchanged
0 f lag req u ires m ore field c u rre n t— th ere a re , th erefore, more field cu rren t losses and thus efficiency
ww
5 .1 0 6 . (a) W h a t is a sy n ch ro n ou s condenser ?
[b) W h at a re th e a d v a n ta g e s of in stallin g a synchronous condenser in an electrical sy stem ? Illu s tra te you r
answer with an exam p le.
w.E
(c) An in d u strial p la n t h a s an a v erag e load dem and of 8 0 0 kW a t a pf of 0 .71 lagging. A synchronous m otor
of 400 kVA is in stalled for driving an additional load and for improving th e p lant power factor. Th e synchronous
En
5 .1 0 7 . (a) Show t h a t th e u se of a synchronous condenser im proves th e efficiency and regu lation of a sy stem .
(b) A co n su m er h a s a to ta l load of 2 0 0 0 kW a t a pf of 0 .8 lagging. If it is required to im prove th e pf to 0 .9 5
gin
lagging d eterm in e th e kVA ra tin g of th e synchronous condenser for the purpose. U -A .i.. jy y si
* lA ns. (b ) 8 4 2 kVAl
5 .1 0 8 . (a ) In F ig . 5 .1 0 5 (A) an d (B ), explain
whether the sy n ch ro n o u s m ach in e is w orking as a
generator or a m o to r, w ith field w inding on th e rotor eer
and with the d irectio n of ro tatio n show n. The phasor
diagram for each figu re sh ou ld also be draw n in d icat ing
ing pf angle, in te rn a l pf an gle, excitatio n voltage, te r
minal voltag e, a r m a tu r e c u rr e n t etc. for lagging as
well as leading pf o p eratio n s. A rm a tu re resistan ce .ne
may be n eglected .
(8) In ca se sy n ch ro n o u s m ach in e of p a rt (a ) is
operating a t no load, show th e o rien tatio n of field poles
in relevan t d ia g ra m s . D raw p h a so r d iag ram un er
(A) (B)
t
Fig. 5.105. Pertaining to Problem 5.108.
these con d ition s also a ss u m in g e x cita tio n voltag e
greater th a n te rm in a l v o ltag e. N eg lect all losses.
lA ns. (a) (A) A lternator (B) Motorl
ww
(b) A rm a tu re cu rre n t is lead in g the term in a l voltage.
(c) F o r m inim um a rm a tu re cu rre n t, p f is unity. F o r an y o th e r field c u r r e n t, Iu cos 0 = Since
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a rm a tu re cu rre n t I„ is know n from th e V -curve, p f for an y v alu e of field c u rr e n t ca n be calcu lated .]
asy
(c) D iscuss th e in d u strial ap p lication s w h ere syn ch ron ou s m o to rs a re p re fe rre d to in d u ctio n motors,
5 .1 1 4 . Th e tra n sfo rm e r an d cable feeding pow er to an in d u stria l p la n t h a v e a r a tin g of 1 0 0 0 kVA and are
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fully loaded by th e p lan t w hich d raw s 1 0 0 0 kVA a t a p f of 0 .7 laggin g. A 1 0 0 k W sy n ch ro n o u s m otor having
an efficiency of 90% is to be added to the p la n t load w ith ou t in cre a sin g th e r a tin g of tra n s fo rm e r and cable. At
w h at p f m u st th e syn chron ou s m otor o p erate ?
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infinite bus of 11 kV. The m ach in e is m ad e to o p erate a t a le a d in g p f of 0 .8 w ith a n a r m a tu r e current of
5 0 A and w ith te rm in a l voltag e a h e a d of th e e x cita tio n emf. C a lc u la te th e m a g n itu d e of e x cita tio n emf.
ing
How can this m achin e be m ad e to o p erate a t u n ity p f w ith o u t a lte rin g its field e x c ita tio n ? U nder this
condition, find th e a rm a tu re c u rr e n t and load angle. [I.A.S., 2000)
[A n s. 6 6 2 4 .9 7 V ; 2 6 0 .7 5 1 A ; 23.176°|
E r V, .ne
5 .1 1 6 . A cy lin d rical ro to r a lte rn a to r is o p e ra tin g a t a la g g in g pf. S how t h a t E f I„ • cos \jI is equal to
t
sin 5, w here vf = in te rn a l p ow er-facto r an gle an d 8 = load an gle. A r m a tu r e -c ir c u it re s is ta n c e is neglected.
5 .1 1 8 . A salien t-p o le sy n ch ro n o u s m ach in e is sy n ch ro n ized w ith a n in fin ite b u s a t r a t e d v o ltag e. Its steam
input is th e n in c re a se d till th e m ach in e d eliv ers r a te d c u r r e n t to th e b u s. T h e m a c h in e h a s X (l = 1.0 pm
X q = 0 .8 pu an d n egligib le re s is ta n c e . F in d th e load an g le , p ow er fa c to r a n d a c tiv e a n d re a c tiv e powers under
the conditions s ta te d h ere.
_________________________________________ S I X
Introduction
A polyphase induction motor is a singly-excited a.c. machine in the sense that it is supplied
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0wer from a single ac source. Its stator winding is directly connected to a.c. source, whereas
its rotor winding receives its energy from stator by means of induction {i.e. transformer action).
Balanced polyphase currents in polyphase windings produce a constant-amplitude rotating
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mmf wave. The stator-produced m.m.f. wave and rotor-produced m.m.f. wave, both rotate in
the air gap in the same direction at synchronous speed. These two m.m.f. waves are thus sta
asy
tionary with respect to each other, consequently the development of steady electromagnetic
torque is possible at all speeds but not at synchronous speed. The stator and rotor m .m .f . waves
com bine to give the resultant air-gap flux density wave of constant amplitude and rotating at
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synchrdhous speed. Since an induction motor can’t run at synchronous speed, it is called
asynchronous m achine.
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The stator of a 3-phase induction motor is essentially similar to that of a synchronous /
/
» M“ e reader fs advised to go
eer
ing
maintenance, it is used where higher start
Similarly per phase value of e.m.f. E 2 induced in the standstill rotor winding js
E 2 = '\2nfykw2N 2 ty
Here N2 = rotor series turns per phase
and k w2 = rotor winding factor.
Line frequency fy appears in the expression for E 2 also, because rotor is at standstill he
4>is the resultant air-gap flux per pole.
The e.m.f. or voltage ratio for the induction machine from Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2) is
Ey N xk wl N x'
E 2 ~N 2 kM N2 ' -(6.3) j
Here N f and N2’ are called the effective number of stator-series turns per phase and roto,.
series turns per phase respectively.
Eq. (6.3) is similar to the voltage ratio of a transformer, see Eq. (1.11). Thus, a wound-rotor
induction motor at standstill is similar to a transformer at no load. Further, the resultant
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mutual flux in a transformer is due to the combined action of primary and secondary m.m.fg.
similarly in induction machines, synchronously rotating air-gap flux (or mutual flux) is due to
the combined action of both stator and rotor m.m.fs. In induction machine, the rotating air-gap
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flux generates counter e.m.f. Ey in the stator winding similar to the counter e.m.f. induced (by
the mutual flux) in the primary winding of a transformer. As the transformer is loaded, the
asy
m.m.f. of the secondary current reacts on the primary in order to draw more power from a.c.
source, similarly with the increase in shaft load, the rotor m.m.f. reacts on the stator winding
in order to extract more power from the a.c. source. A 3-phase induction motor with its rotor
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blocked behaves similar to a transformer under short circuit. In addition, stator and rotorwind-
ings of an induction machine possess resistances and leakage reactances just like the resistan
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ces and leakage reactances of the primary and secondary windings of a transformer. In viewof
these similarities, an induction machine is called a gen eralized transform er and it is for this
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reason that the stator winding of an induction machine is treated as its primary and the rotor
winding as its secondary. Consequently, the phasor diagram and equivalent circuit of a 3-phase
ing
induction motor are almost similar to those in a transformer. The subscripts 1 and 2 are used
to denote the stator and rotor quantities respectively, as in a transformer.
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The voltage ratio of the induction machine includes winding factors &u l and k^, because
the stator and rotor windings are distributed along the air-gap periphery . [The transformer
t
primary and secondary windings, being concentrated windings, require no^induig factors. In
Eqs. (6 .1) and (5TZ)7<Rs the average value of the rotating flux per pole. In tran&former-emfEqs.
(l~?Tan5^(1.7), maximum value of the core flux is used.
Another difference between induction motors and transformers is that the no-load current
in induction motors varies from about 30 to 50% of full-load current, whereas in transformers,
no-load current varies from 2 to 6% of full-load current. This is because of the fact that the
mutual flux in a transformer completes its path through low-reluctance iron core^whereas the
mutual flux in an induction motor has to cross the air-gap between stator anHrotonj^orj
constant applied voltage, the mutual flux remains substantially constant. Since thereluctance
offered to the mutual flux in an induction motor is more due to the presence of air gap, a con-
c nj m f ) a.
stan t mutual flux — . ' — requires more magnetizing m.m.f. and, therefore, more ma0
reluctance #,
netizing current. In induction motors, the magnetizing current (lagging nearly 90° behin
applied voltage) forms a considerable portion of no-load current, th at is why induction m0
operate a t low power factors a t no loads. Usually the no-load power factors of induction m ^
are in the neighbourhood of 0.15 or so. The effect of low value of no-load power fac or -
^R the full-load operating power factor of the induction motor. Thus, for keeping the in-
deCf n rTT^2Lmagnetizing-CUrrea^ PW therefore, a better no-load and full-load power
motors are kept as small as are mechanically possible.
f^ p rin cip le o f operation
^ The stator winding of a 3-phase induction motor is connected to 3-phase balanced supply.
^nn, flow of 3-phase currents in the 3-phase stator winding produces a rotating magnetic field
Tne or
s discussed in Art. 3.7. The speed of rotating field is the synchronous speed, ns = - jf- rps. The
rotating flux wave cuts the stationary rotor conductors P ■na times per sec and therefore emfs
induced in the rotor conductors. As the rotor circuit is short-circuited, these induced emfs
ve rise to current in the rotor conductors. The interaction of these rotor currents with rotating
flux wave produces torque in the rotor of a 3-phase induction motor and as a consequence, rotor
begins to rotate.
According to Lenz’s law, e f f e c t o p p o s e s t h e c a u s e . Here, effect is the developed torque and
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cause is the flux-cutting by the rotor conductors. Therefore, as per Lenz’s law, the developed
torque must oppose (or minimise) the cause, that is flux-cutting action. This is possible only if
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the developed torque forces the rotor to rotate in the direction of rotating field. When this hap
pens, the relative speed between rotating flux and rotor conductors is reduced and therefore
flux-cutting action (times per sec) also gets reduced. For example, if rotor speed is n r rps m the
asy
direction of rotating flux wave, the relative speed between rotating flux wave and rotor conduc
tors becomes (ns - n r) rps and the flux-cutting action reduces from P ■n s times per sec to
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P ■(ns - n r) times per sec as demanded by Lenz’s law. This shows that r o t o r m u s t r o t a t e in t h e
d irection o f r o t a t i n g m a g n e t i c f i e l d when 3-phase supply is given to stator of a 3-phase induction
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motor. If rotor is assumed to run at synchronous speed n s in the direction of rotating field, then
there would be no flux-cutting action, no emf in rotor conductors, no current in rotor bars and
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therefore no developed torque. Thus, the r o t o r o f 3 - p h a s e i n d u c t i o n m o t o r c a n n e v e r a t t a i n
synchronous speed.
6.3. Flux and m m f phasors and w aves in Induction Motors
ing N
As stated before, when stator of a 3-phase induction motor is excited from a balanced 3-
phase source, a constant-amplitude rotating mmf is produce . otormm so
same direction at synchronous speed. Therefore, stator rotating mmf wave and ro taro U tm g
®
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mmf wave are stationery with respect to each other; these can be combined together togetaie
resultant air-gap mmf wave or resultant flux density wave rotating at synchronous s ^ e i
^nce the relahve speed between rotor mntf and the Ksultantfluxdensitywaveiszerm a steady
t
torque is developed by their interaction. Tlie_purp ^ torque is partly depend.
a the direction of rotating magnetic field m d induction motor is considered and
ent upon the rotor circuit parameters. First ot a , P e
(hen the squirrel-cage induction motor.
_, . . „ ,0 o ^ o c e slip-ring induction motor, with its rotor
Fig. 6.2 (a) illustrates a simple 2-pole, P with coil8 a a% b fc', c c' representing
stationary. The rotor is shown to carry 3-p h iE d u ced bv the resultant flux-density wave are
Phases a, 6, c respectively. Two poles N lt i P . direction. These two rotating poles
shown rotating at synchronous speed in the an d phase a has maximum emf
Cut the stationary 3-phase rotor winding a hes under the pole centres of poles
generated in it, because coil aa' represen in£ P ’ emf generated in phase a is indi-
K 8 X; where the resultant flux density is peak. Ma«mum. * ^ ^ ^ ..
cated by larger cross and dot in coll:sl^ ‘ flf tw^coil-sides is less than the maximum
afluence of pole N i, emf generated in t
•frf
706 Electrical Machinery jA rt
: M ax amf
^ and current
R e su ltan t
s flux dens<ty
w a ve
•fi
Resultant
rotor mmf
w ave
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d e n s i t y wav*
w.E P T
90
asy
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(b)
Rotation
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tx '
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Fig. 6.2. Slip-ring induction m otor : F o r zero rotor leakage re a c ta n c e (a) flux d en sity an d ro to r m m f phasors
(6) rotor developed view with flux-density and ro to r m m f w av es and (c) p h a so r d iag ram .
ing
indicated by crosses of lower size. Sim ilarly, dots are shown in coil-sides b, c. I f the rotor circuit
is assumed purely resistive, then current in any coil would be in phase w ith the emf generated
L lt t e T - ‘ ' V I Cated in F ig - 6 2 (0) In other WOTds’ coiI has maximum emf .ne
b b ' T / ' h l V and als0 tbe “ “ “ “ “ current in it at the instant, w hereas other phase cods
c“
™
b , c c has current less than the maximum as shown in Fig. 6.2 (a) R ecall that the neak of
in g m a g n e ti c fie ld . T h i s s h o w s t h a t a ^ h M e i ’ O r b e g *n S t 0 r 0 t a t e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f r o U t
The sp&ce an^ e between F 2 and <{>is called the load an gle , symbol 5. In Fig. 6.2 (a), 6 is seen
ual to 90°. According to Eq. (3.826), the magnitude of electromagnetic torque is
to beeq
T = - P2 4>F2 sin 90 ° = ^ P 2 <pF2 ...(6.4)
e 8
'phis shows that if rotor circuit is purely resistive, load angle has an optimum value of 90°.
ultant flux density wave, sinusoidally distributed along the air-gap periphery, is shown in Fig.
jj^a) and (6). The rotor mmf wave, also sinusoidally distributed in space, lags the flux- density
' ve by S = 9A°> Fig- 6.2 (a) and (6). As in a synchronous machine, rotor mmf wave, in a 3-phase
* ductiou motor, has a tendency to align itself with the resultant flux density wave ; the torque is
therefore directed to the right in Fig. 6.2 (6). In other words, the rotor moves in the direction of
rotating magnetic field. Fig. 6.2 (6) compliments the presentation given in Fig. 6.2 (a).
phasor diagram for the condition illustrated in Fig. 6.2 (a) and (6) is shown in Fig. 6.2 (c).
Here, air-gap flux is taken horizontal for convenience. Rotor generated emf E 2 lags the air-gap
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flux <(>by 90° as in any rotating electrical machine. Rotor current I 2 is in phase with E 2, because
rotor circuit is assumed to be purely resistive. Rotor mmf F 2 must be in phase with and propor
tional to rotor current I 2 th at produces it.
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Actually, the polyphase rotor winding is housed in slots distributed along the rotor
periphery. Therefore, rotor winding possesses considerable amount of leakage reactance x2 at
asy
standstill. Accordingly, rotor current in each phase lags behind the generated emf in that phase
by rotor pf angle 02 = tan" 1 — •For example, coil-sides a, a'under stator AT1( poles have max-
r2
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imum generated emf as shown in Fig. 6 .2 (a). On account of rotor leakage reactance, currents
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in coil-sides a, a' would attain maximum value only when the poles N X, S x have travelled
through an angle 02 from its maximum emf position shown in Fig. 6.2 (a). This is illustrated in
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Figs. 6.3 (a) and (6). As before, the peak of rotor rotating mmf F 2 is along the axis of phase ‘a ’,
ing
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t
J*rt ll
7l\m
08 tiecirn-ai
E I achinery
lectrical M _________ _____ .
— f . Fies 6 3 (a) and (b ). Examtnatjon of p,^
because this phase carries the maximum curren ^ dispia ced from the peak of flux * b>
6.3 (a) and (h) indicates that peak of rotor m 2 flux density wave or air-gap flU|
a load angle of (90 + 9). Poles N x, \, p r o u electromagnetic torque is developed in the
4 , interact with rotor poles N2, S 2 as betore 3 } and {6).
direction of rotating magnetic fiel as s own i ^ ^ pig 6 2 (c). Here flux 4 is taker,
Phasor diagram of Fig. 6.3 (c) is draw n by rotor CUrrent / 2 lags rotor emf £ 2by
horizontal as before. The generated emf A, lags f J 5 = 90 + 0. The electromag.
rotor power-factor angle 8, and rotor m m fF 2 lag s* by a load B
netic torque is now given by
Tt - 5 p 2 4 F 2 sin (90 + 02) ~
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tance at standstill and r2 is the per phase ^
z r Ar sr s uw.E T ^
s Z n g torque. 82 should be as small as possible, so that load angle becomes nearer to optunum value
asy
of 90° this can be achieved by either reducing x2 or by increasing r 2.
For explaining the development of torque in a squirrel cage induction motor, refer to 2-pole
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3-phase induction motor of Fig. 6.4 (a). Two poles W,, S , produced by the rotating air-gap flux cut
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the stationary rotor bars at synchronous speed. The bars a. just under the pole centres haw
maximum emfs generated in them and this is indicated by larger cross and dot m bare a b mlFig
6 4 (o) Bars away from the pole centres have reduced magnitudes of generated emfs and these are
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indicated by varying sizes of crosses and dots. As the bars are embedded in the rotor iron, the rotor
circuit possesses considerable leakage reactance. Consequently, rotor currents in each bar lags
ing
behind the generated emf in that bar by rotor pf angle 02 = tan 1 ^7 - For example, bars a. b under
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the poles have maximum generated emfs as shown in Fig. 6.4 (a). On account of rotor leakage
reactance, currents in bars a, b would attain maximum value only when the poles NX,S Xhau
t
travelled through an angle 0 2 from its position of maximum emf in Fig. 6.4 (a). This is illustrate
in Fig. 6.4 (6 ). Rotor currents establish synchronously rotating m m fF 2 and it is seen from Fi£ 6 4
1 if c
(b ) that F 2 is space-displaced from air-gap flux <J>by a load angle 6 = 90 + 9>. Stator poles ^ m
produced by resultant flux density wave interact with rotor-induced poles N2, S > and thervtore
electromagnetic torque is developed in the direction of rotating magnetic field as shown in Fi£ ^
(6 ). The phasor diagram is again the same as in Fig. 6.3 (c).
Reaction of the rotor on stator of a squirrel cage induction motor is also depicted in Fi.c ^ ,
In Fig. 6.5 (a) are shown instantaneous magnitudes of bar voltages. Flux density at bars 4
11 (or a and b) is maximum, these bars have, therefore, maximum em f generated in them •
the flux density wave has travelled through power-factor angle 0a = tan 1
, c u r r e n t s ia •'
ri ^
4 and II attain maximum values as Hhown in Fig. 6.5 (5). Profile of the instantaneous
currents is sinusoidal. In other words, bar currents are equivalent to a sinusoidal c u r r e n t s * ^
Sinusoidal bai currents produce a sinusoidal mmf wave lagging sinusoidal current s 1* ^
90" as per Fig. 3.30 (/>). It is seen from Fig, 6.5 (b) th at load angle 6 is equal to (90 +
Resultant flu*
density wave
Mo* emf
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Fig. 6.4. Squirrel cage induction motor (a) direction of generated emf in rotor b a r s
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(b) direction of cu rren ts in rotor bars, rotor mmf wave and flux-density wave.
m m f wave has a tendency to align with the resultant flux density wave, the torque is therefore
directed towards the right. In other words, rotor moves in the direction of rotating magnetic
flux density wave.
asy
The above presentation brings out the similarity between cage and wound rotors, in so far
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as their reactions on the stator are concerned. The rotor mmf is also called the armature mmf
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ing
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-6*90 +V R e su lto n t flux
t
density wave
Rotor mmf I
wave
Instantaneous
bar currents
Rotat i o n
’ 7! ■w yp-
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www.EasyEngineering.net
710 E le c tric a l M a ch in e ry [^ U 3
or armature-reaction mmf, because in an induction motor, stator and rotor windings are caUed
the field and arm ature windings respectively. 1
Examination of Figs. 6.4 and 6.5 reveals that number of rotor poles in a squirrel cage indu[.
tion motor is decided by the number of inducing flux-density poles. In Figs. 6.4 and 6.5, the
inducing flux density has two poles, the rotor mduced poles are therefore, two_ In case lluj
density wave has four poles, number of poles induced in rotor would also be four, hi other
words, a squirrel-cage rotor winding can adjust itself to any number of stator poles. But» „
wound-rotor induction motor, both the stator and rotor w in d in g s m ust be wound for the same
number of poles, though the number of stator and rotor phases may be different.
Squirrel-cage winding is short-circuited on itself, therefore, it is not accessible and no ei.
tem al resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit. The wound rotor is however accessible
through its slip rings, therefore, external resistance can Im inserted in the rotor circuit. This
means that load angle 90 + 02 is under control only m case of wound-rotor induction motor. For
example, the starting torque can be controlled in case of wound-rotor induction motor but not
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in a squirrel-cage induction motor.
It may thus be inferred from above that a starting torque is developed in a 3-phase induc
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tion motor in the direction of rotating magnetic field. Eq. (6.5) shows that torque m a 3-phase
induction motor depends upon (i) number of poles squared (it) air-gap flux per pole, <|>(m) rotor
mmf per pole F 2 and (iv) rotor p f angle 02. Rotor of a 3-phase induction motor eventually attains
asy
steady speed nr < ns. Under this condition, relative speed between rotating flux and rotor con
ductors is (n - n ) The development of electromagnetic torque with rotor speed nr can also be
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explained in a manner similar to that in Figs. 6.2 to 6.5. However, the angle of lag 02 would now
gin
be tan- 1 i f 2 where s = slip as defined in Eq. (3.29) and magnitude of rotor mmf would depend on
r2 ’
load on the shaft of induction motor.
eer
It has already been discussed why the rotor of a 3-phase induction can never attain
synchronous speed.
E x a m p l e 6 .1 . A th ree-p h a se, star-con n ected, ing
wound-rotor induction m otor is fed from d.c. sources as
show n in Fig. 6.6. The currents in both stator an d rotor .ne
windings are kept within limits. I f the d.c. supply ter
m in al is ch an g ed from a p h a se winding to b p h a se
w inding o f the stator, fin d the num ber o f m echanical
t
degrees through which the rotor would move, in case o c supply
the m otor h a s (a) two poles (b) fou r poles an d (c) six Fig. 6.6. C ircu it diagram , Example 6.1.
poles.
* o f
S o lu tio n , (a) In Fig. 6.6 (a), coil a, a' represents phase a winding. When the direc on^
direct current in phase a is as shown by cross in a and dot in a', then two stator poles n g ^
produced. The d.c. in the rotor windings also produces two poles N 2, S 2 as shown. In B
it is assumed th at pole S 2 is near N 1 and pole N 2 is near S h because poles of ^ P 051^ hase b
attra ct each other. When the supply terminal is changed from phase a wmdlI^f,own in Fig
winding, the stator produced poles JV, rotate through !20» elect clockw.se^ dbyN.
6 6 ( b ) In this figure, N 2 is attracted by S x but repelled by N lt similarly S 2 is at ^
but repelled by S v As a result of this interaction, rotor structure moves throug
clockwise and occupies the final steady position as illustrated in Fig. 6.6 (c).
/ /* f/ /u\> -
For a 2-pole machine, 9c/ec = 9mec/,, therefore, the rotor revolves 120 mechanical degrees, i.e.
^ough one-third of a revolution.
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For a 4-pole machine, as the supply is changed from phase a winding to phase b winding,
the rotor again revolves through 120° elect.
Thus in a 4-pole machine, the rotor rotates through 60 mechanical degrees (i.e. l/6th of a
gin
revolution) as the d.c. supply is changed from one phase winding to the adjacent phase winding.
6.4. Rotor Frequency
eer
It has been shown th at rotor starts running in the direction of rotating magnetic field. At
ing
standstill, rotor conductors are being cut by rotating flux wave at synchronous speed nt, there
fore frequency f 2 of the rotor e.m.f. and current is equal to the line frequency f x. When rotor
revolvesat a speed of nr r.p.s. in the direction of rotating flux wave, the relative speedbetween
synchronously-rotating flux and rotor conductors becomes (ns - n r) rps.
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•\Frequency of rotor e.m.f.
.p , . [relative speed between rotating flux and)
( o es) j rotor structure in r.p.s
t...(6.6 a)
P (*, ~ n r) ...(6.6 6)
Thus the frequency of the rotor e.m.f. and current in an induction motor is given by the
Product of slip s and the line frequency f v It is for this reason th a t f2 is also called the slip
flu en cy .
At standstill, rotor frequency is f\ and the field produced by rotor currents revolves at a
speed equal to 2 (rotor fre(\uencl l = n ) with respect to rotor structure. When the rotor i*
rotor poles
i uLui jjuica iPp 6
revolving at a speed nr, the rotor frequency is sf\ and the rotor-produced field revolves at a
speed of ^ = sn, with respect to rotor structure. But the rotor is already revolving at a
mechanical speed of nr rps with respect to stator. Therefore, the speed of rotor field with respect
to stator is equal to the sum of mechanical rotor speed nr and rotor-field speed sn, with respect
to rotor. Thus the speed of rotor field with respect to stato r is given by
nr + sn, = n, (1 - s) + sn, = n, r.p.s.
But the stator-field speed with respect to stator is synchronous speed n, rps. This concludes
th at the stator and rotor fields are stationary with respect to each other at all possible rotor
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speeds. Since the relative speed between stator and rotor fields is zero, a steady torque is
produced by their interaction and rotation is maintained.
The rotor of an induction motor can never attain synchronous speed. In case rotor speed is
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synchronous, the rotor conductors would be stationary with respect to the synchronously-rotat
ing magnetic field. As a result of it, no e.m.fs. would be generated in rotor conductors and,
asy
therefore, rotor m.m.f. would be zero. But the existence of rotor m.m.f. as per Eq. (6.5), is essen
tial for production of torque. This shows that the operating speed of the rotor of an induction
motor can never be equal to the synchronous speed.
En
E x a m p le 6 .2 ,A3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed o f 1440 r.p.m. For this
motor, calculate the following:
(a) number of poles gin
(b) full-load slip and rotor frequency
eer
(c) speed of stator field with respect to (i) stator structure and (ii) rotor structure and
ing
(d) speed of rotor field with respect to (i) rotor structure (ii) stator structure and (iii) stator
field.
For parts (c) and (d), answer should be given in rpm and rad I sec.
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t
S o lu tio n , (a) The use of full-load speed of 1440 r.p.m. in Eq. (3.69) gives
m n
1440 120 h
----- 1 2 0- x 5 0
„ n120x50 ,1 ,
OT ~ I440- 6 P
Since the number of poles must be even and a whole number, the induction motor must
have 4 po«es. Note that an induction motor runs at a speed, a little less than synchronous speed.
(6) Synchronous speed,
xr 120 x 50 ____
N, = ----- ------ = 1500 r.p.m.
•• ollD> _ N‘ _~_N r —
c i:— 5„ — _ 1500 - 1440
■ “ 0„ Q
„A.
H N, 1500 UU4-
Rotor frequency, f2 = s f = 0.04 x 50 = 2 Hz.
(c) (i) Speed of stator field with respect to stator structure
= N , = 1500 r.p.m.
2*Nf 2n x 1500 ....................
= gQ = ----- — ------= 150.08 rad /sec
ww
th respect to sta to r stru ctu re, speed of rotor field with respect to stator field is zero. Thus the
stator and rotor fields are station ary with respect to each other.
Exam ple 6.3 .A properly shunted centre-zero galvanometer is connected in the rotor circuit
w.E
ofa 6-pole, 50 Hz wound-rotor induction motor. I f the galvanometer makes 90 complete oscilla
tions in one minute, calculate the rotor speed.
asy
Solution. One com plete oscillation of galvanometer corresponds to one cycle of rotor fre
quency.
90
Rotor frequency, f 2 = sfx - 6 q _
' „
m
En
or Slip, s = ^ = 7 j§ = 0 03 gin
Rotor speed = (1 _ s) = eer
(1 - 0.03) = 970 r.p.m.
Exam p le 6 .4 . A ing
.ne
(а) Atwhat two speeds the
(б) Find the ratio o f the two voltages ava
(c) Find out whether the phase sequence of 3-ph.
^
t
pnme-m over s o
remain the same at the two
^ ^ ^ ^
^ 120 h _ 120 x 20 _ in a 3-
Speed of rotor field with respect to rotor structure - p 4
lArt. 6.5
714 Electrical Machinery
For negative sign, rotor must be driven against the direction of stator field at a speed,
nr = 1500 + 600 = 2100 rpm.
( b ) Rotor emf at any slip s is given by E ^ = n (sf i) ^2 ^w2
_ .. 1 5 0 0 -9 0 0
h or nr = 900 rpm, slip sx = - = 0.4
1500
.*. = ViT n (0.4 f x) N 2 <f>k w2 -ii)
_ ____ .. 1 5 0 0 -2 1 0 0 a a
For nr = 2100 rpm, slip s2 = J^qO =”
... f i 2 f / ' = V 2ic(-O .4/i)A r2 0AIB2 ...(ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
V2n ( - 0.4 f{) N 2 <f>k w2
= -1 .
£ 2/ V2 71 (0.4 A) N 2 0 k w2
ww
(c) For rotor speed nr = 900 rpm clockwise (say), stator field is running at 600 rpm clockwis
with respect to rotor. Let the phase sequence of the emfs generated at slip rings be abc.
w.E
For rotor speed nr = 2100 rpm clockwise, stator field is running a t 600 rpm anticlockwise
with respect to rotor. Therefore, phase sequence of the emfs generated at slip rings is reversed,
i.e. it is now acb.
6.5. R otor e.m.f., C u rren t and Pow er
asy
At standstill, the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and rotor conductors is
En
synchronous speed ns ; under this condition let the per phase generated e.m.f. in rotor circuit
gin
be E 2. When the rotor speed is, say 0.4ns, slip is 0.6 and the relative speed between rotating field
and rotor conductors is 0.6 ns ; under this condition, the per phase generated e.m.f. becomes
E2 .
eer
0.6 ns x — = 0.6 E 2. At a rotor speed of 0.8 n4, slip is 0.2 and the relative speed between rotating
ing
field and rotor conductors is 0.2 ns, therefore, the per phase generated e.m.f. under this condi-
E2
tion becomes 0.2 ns x — = 0.2 E 2. In general, for any value of slip s, the per phase generated
e.m.f. in rotor conductors is equal to sE 2 = s [<2nfxkw2 N 2 (j)] = V2n (s/i) k w2 N 2 <J>. .ne
Now rotor leakage reactance = 2 n (Rotor frequency) (Rotor leakage inductance l2)
Rotor leakage reactance at standstill = 2n/1/2 = x2 fl.
t
Rotor leakage reactance at any slip s = 2nf2 l2 = 2 k (sfx ) l 2 = s;c2 Q.
Rotor leakage impedance at standstill = Vr2 + x2.
At any slip s, rotor leakage impedance = Vr2 + (s*2)2 .
phasPe ^ T u r gren„etrated diVided * phaSe r °t0 r leaka8e ™ pedance gives the per
I - _ E2
^2 + (sx2f l ( r 2/ s f + xl ’
Polyphase In d u ction M o to rs
a\ can
//v Q\ an be
DC represented
i c p cocuvvru by ^a simple --------
series~ circuit as shown in -_ ------
Eq-I. '(0.0/
f ;. n rfrom
____i.U'Ir.
this circuit fVtof
that nper
o r r»Viaco
phase npower
n w o r iinput
n n n f t.n
to rrotor,
n tn r . Fig. 7 Rotor equivalent-
6.7.
S<r. 6 - 7 *l _ ▼ n circuit of an induction
Fig P = Ea/a cos 02. motor.
Per phase rotor resistance
But, cos 2 _ per phase rotor impedance
r2/ s
V(r2/ s f + (x2)
E2
r r2 T2 r 2 ...(6.9)
K' ■lo — - 1 2
ww + (*2) S S
An examination of Fig. 6.7 also reveals that per phase power input to rotor is equal to
w.E
as the reactance x2 consumes no power.
p is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air gap. In view of this, Pg is
asy
called the air-gap power. The expression for Pg may be written as
Pe =l\ — = l\ r2 +
o ( S J
2
1—
En
- « P f + (l - S ) P S gin
= (Rotor ohmic loss) + Internal mechanical power developed in rotor ( P J
- (6'1 0 a )
„ t2 ( l - s \
eer ...(6.10 b)
ww
are taken to be constant over the normal working range of the induction motor. Friction loss
may vary slightly with load and speed. But this loss is also considered constant as the speed
w.E
varies only by a small amount over the normal working range of the motor.
A 3-phase induction motor under its usual working conditions has very low-frequency cur
asy
rents in the rotor circuit. As a result, rotor core losses, almost proportional to frequency
squared, are negligible. The fixed losses or rotational losses (friction, windage and core losses)
can be obtained directly by performing no-load test on the induction motor.
En
Fixed losses = Power input at no load - (stator I 2R loss at no load)
gin
V ariable lo s s e s : These losses are composed of (a) stator ohmic loss (6) rotor ohmic loss (c)
brush contact loss for WRIMs only and (d) stray load losses. The stator and rotor ohmic losses
eer
can be calculated directly in case ac resistances of stator and rotor windings are known. Total
ohmic osses can be obtained by performing blocked rotor test on the induction motor The rotor
ing
ohmic loss in a squirrel cage induction motor can only be obtained by subtracting stator ohmic
loss from the total ohmic loss measured during the blocked rotor test.
.ne
| The brush contact loss for WRIM = slip-ring current x 1 volt.
Stray load loss occurs in iron as well as in conductors. Their m easurem ent is very complex
ro to r sh a ft
Psh
1- m c o re °ln « P ^'c ,l 0 ,• W in d a g e
'« • < * * .» “ & * „ £ , loss
at small sl.ps) and sTlp rm g sf.f a n y )
ww
cu rren t rotor p o w er fa c to r a n d torque a t the time o f starting.
„ , , 120 x 50
Solution. Synchronous speed = ----- = 1500 r.p.m.
, _
.. w.Er E2 120
Rotor current at starting, l 2st - ^ + x'l ~ ^ Q2f +
•
1.0198
^2 En 0-2 0 1 Qfi
Rotor power factor a t startin g =
gin
= yJ(0 .2 f + (l)J ~
_ J A - = 23.53 A.
" 0.204
r2 = A A - = 0.98.
Rotor power factor at full load - ^r 2 2 + (SX^ 0.204
1 2 ^"2
Full-load torque, Tef j - w
o), ^ s
=^
J - 3 (2 3 .53)2 H = ^87N m .
50n
w.E
are the main advantages of wound-rotor induction motor over squirrel-cage induction motor.
E x a m p le 6.6. A 3-phase, 6-pole, 50 Hz induction m otor h a s a fu ll-lo a d sp eed o f 960 r.p.m.
asy
with its slip rings short-circuited. The m otor drives a constant-torque load.
I f the rotor speed is reduced to (a) 800 r.p.m. an d (b) 400 r.p.m . by in serting external resis
En
tance in the rotor circuit, com pare the rotor ohm ic losses at these two red u ced speeds with that
at full load.
gin
Solution. Constant torque load requires constant electromagnetic torque Te. Eq. (6.12)
shows that for constant torque Te, air-gap power Pg remains constant because synchronous
. (a) At no load, total power input is equal to the sum of stator core loss, friction
S°lutl° nirtCc stator no-load I 2R loss and negligible rotor core loss,
j>yinda£e ’ .
** Stator core loss
■' - power input at no-load - Friction and windage loss - Stator I R loss at no load
f 8 \z
= 660 - 420 - 3 (1.2) = 163.2 W.
^3
,MAir-gaP power atfu llload ,
p = Stator input at full load - Stator core loss - Stator full load ohmic loss
9
f ia Y
= 11200 - 163.2 - 3 H g (1 2 ) = 10,648 watts.
ww
(c) Total rotor loss consists of rotor ohmic loss and friction, windage loss.
or
or
3o \(l\ i 2) -=< sPg
L 2 r2) >sg
asy
(228) = Sfl Pg —Sfl (10,648)
228
En
gin
.-. Full-load slip, sfl = 64g = 0.0212
eer
Nr = N , (1 - s) = 1500 (1 - 0.0212) = 1468.2 r.p.m.
x 45000 = 5000 W
0.9
„ 2 * *
Total losses = stator P R loss + stator core loss + rotor I R loss + mechanical loss ...(i)
At no load, the losses include mechanical (friction and windage) loss, stator core loss and a
8,nall amount of T2/? loss in stator and rotor. As I2R losses are neglected at no load, we have,
no-load losses = stator core loss + mechanical loss ...(ii)
mech i8given that mechanical loss is one-third of no load loss or no-load loss is 3 times the
^ical loss. Therefore, from (ii), we have,
3 (mechanical loss) = stator core loss + mechanical loss
Let stator I 2R loss (= rotor I 2R loss = stator core loss) be A. Then, from (i),
ww
Fig. 6.3 (c) shows rotor m.m.f. F 2 lagging behind air-gap flux by a space angle of 90 + 02. The
rotor m.m.f. reacts on the stator and calls for a compensating load component of stator current
12 such that
w.E
load component of stator m.m.f.
or
= rotor m.m.f. F 2
asy N
No
12 = fo X TFT
x r{/ =
- * 22 x N
No2 kk w 2
» rl-ki rwl
^ - (615)
En
Here AY and N 2 are the effective number of stator and rotor turns respectively. In Fig. 6.9,
load component of m.m.f.
gin
= I 2 N {, of the total stator m.m.f.
Fi, is shown opposing rotor m.m.f. F 2. Similarly, load-com
eer
ponent current I 2 , of the total stator current I lt is shown op
posite to rotor current / 2. In Fig. 6.9, per-phase rotor induced
ing
e.m.f. E 2 lags 4>by a time-phase angle of 90° as shown in Fig.
6.3 (c).
If hysterisis is neglected, then air-gap flux is in phase
with the resultant air-gap m.m.f. Fr. As in a transformer, the .ne
no-load magnetizing m.m.f. of the motor does not differ from
resultant air-gap m.m.f. F r. It is because of this reason that
motor magnetizing current Im is shown in phase with F r in Fig.
t
6.9. The phasor sum of F ,' and F r gives the total stator m.m.f.
F v Similarly the phasor sum of stator-load component of cur- ^ g g Pertaining t0 the induction
rent In and motor magnetizing current I mgives the total stator motor phasor diagram (bare over
\ 11 E\ etc not 9hown)-
cu rre n t/, as illustrated in Fig. 6.9. The stator (or the primary) 11 '
induced e.m.f. F , and rotor (or secondary) induced e.m.f. E 2 are shown lagging $ by 90 as i
transformer. c m (a) where
Complete induction motor phasor diagram at standstill is drawn in Fig 6 1 “ >“'•
m.m.fs. are not shown for the sake of clarity. At standstill, E 2 is shown equal to h J
core-loss component of stator current, i.e.1, is in phase w
and windage loss is zero. The stator no-load current is 7„ = 7,„ + 7„ and the stator loa
7, = 7', + 70. The stator applied voltage V, must balance the stator counter ean.l.
and the stator leakage impedance drop 7, (r, + > ,) as shown in Fig. 6.10 (a). The p
ww (b)
w.E (o)
Fig 6.10. Induction motor phasor diagram at (a) standstill and (b ) at a full-load slip s.
angle 0, (between and /,) at the stator terminals is very high, i.e. stator power factor is very
asy
poor at the time of starting a 3-phase induction motor.
At normal operating speed, slip s is small. The rotor voltage equation now becomes,
?0=7
72(r2
s £2=
En
+;sx2) and this is illustrated in the phasor diagram of Fig. 6.10 (6 ). In this figure,
m+ 7/c, where Ifc is the friction, windage and core-loss component of stator current. The rest
gin
ofthe phasor diagram is drawn in the same manner as illustrated in Fig 6.10 (a). Fig. 6.10 (b)
reveals that full load power factor at the stator terminals has considerably improved (0.8 to 0.9
lagging) from its power factor at starting.
eer
In the phasor diagrams of Figs. 6.9 and 6.10, all quantities have per-phase values.
6.8. Equivalent C irc u it ing
An induction motor has been shown equivalent to a transformer, naturally induction motor
equivalent circuit should be similar to the transformer equivalent circuit The cnty differ
.ne
is on account of the fact that the secondary winding (i.e. rotor winding) of an inaction motor
rotates and, therefore, involves the development of mechanical power. e fnrmpr All
tion motor equivalent circuit proceeds in the same manner as in the case of a transformer. All
the equivalent circuit parameters have per phase values.
t
We shall develop here first the circuit model for stator and then Ior|the rotor Thesetaro
circuit models are then combined to obtain the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase induction motor,
stator-circuit model. When a voltage V, is applied to the stator terminals of a 3-phase
“ duction motor, a rotating air-gap flux 4 is established. ^ “ rmfnaTvoltage V, has to over-
aU the 3 phases of stator (or the primary) winding. Th _
»me counter e m f V , ( - - E ,)and the stator leakage impedance drop Oh +/*!
« like a transformer, the stator or primary voltage is given by,
_ - -7 , • h ...(6.16)
V ^ V S + h iri+ JX i)
As in the case of a transformer, the stator cu rrent/, cons.stsof twocomponen^Onecom-
is the load component and counteract the reto m a m f / ^
(6-15>- The other component is the exciting current Z„ whose lunction
'
SH I I V I l z s E n i h i
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air-gap flux <J>and to provide the core loss. As in a transform er, the exciting current Ie can be
resolved into two components, core-loss component I c in phase with Vy and a magnetizing com
ponent I m lagging Vy by 90°. In a transformer, the exciting current is also called the no-load
c u rre n t; but in a 3-phase induction motor, it is not
so. It is because the no-load current I0 in a 3-phase
induction motor, as shown in Fig. 6.10, has to ere-
ate resultant air-gap flux (j) and to supply the no H
load losses (= core loss + friction, windage loss + small
stator and rotor I 2R loss), whereas function of It in
a transformer is to create <f>and to provide only the
core loss.
In a 3-phase induction motor, product V { l c )------------ / F re q u e n c y ,^ -------------------------------------------
gives core loss (= norload loss - friction, windage
ww
loss - negligible stator and rotor 12R loss at no
load). In the equivalent circuit, Ic and I m are ac
counted for by a shunt branch, consisting of core-
Fig. 6.11. S ta to r equ ivalen t circu it for a
polyphase induction motor.
asy
6.11. Once Rc and Xm are calculated under normal operating conditions, these are then treated
constant, even though the counter e.m.f. Vy or E l (across Rc and Xm) may depart slightly over
En
the normal operating region. Param eters Rc and Xm simulate respectively the core loss (= no
former.
gin
load loss-friction and windage loss-small I2R loss at no load) and air-gap flux as in a trans
.
eer
R o to r c irc u it m odel. The per phase rotor current is given by Eq. (6.8). It is repeated here
for convenience in phasor form as
/,=
sE <j
r2 + jsx2 ing ...(6.17)
'+ J*2
t ...(6.18)
Note that the magnitude and phase o f/2 obtained from the Eqs. (6.17) and (6.18) are the same.
There is, however, a significant difference between these two equations. In Eq. (6.17), slip-frequen-
cy generated e.m.f. sE 2, when divided by r2 + jsx 2 gives slip-frequency current, but in Eq. (6.18)
J*2
Ea
b' /Frequency, f
(b)
1*1
— •— -qip—
■Jtw r- r -aw .—
*rr h X 1U h
L
ijX m J A
r
'i V €, 1 :*c
H
ww EfS'Ei
. u - £ ---------
1c Tim
M ------------
w.E /Frequency, f
Trequency.f
(d)
asy
PS f ° n
En differentlp'eratingconditions.
- N ’ - E] ing
.ne
f r2 • ' (N ^
— +J*2
I5 )K J
S t
md *2
/, xre = / 2'a s in Eq. (6.15).
I 1 J • i a nf Fi<r. 6.12 (c) is of the line frequency and has
The voltage appearing across term in s a ^ These terminals can, therefore, be
e same magnitude as at the terminals ab oi r g. - ^ of an induction motor as shown in
nnected together to give the complete equivaie ^ t0 stator have been pnmed^A
8 6 12 W). Note that in this figure, rotor redrawn in Fig. 6.13 fo) where, for
« general equivalent circuit of induction motor has bee
tnplicity j j
(») the complex notation (bar over I j ^ the rotor quantities have been referred
®ut one must keep in mind that in Fig- 1q /a \are at stator frequency.
st*tor side. Note that all the quantities in Fig. 6 . « I '
'1 X1
< \*A\— ''DOTfV
-1+
(a) (6)
Pig. 6.13. (a) Equivnlcnt circuit for n polyphase induction motor
(/>) modified form of induction motor equivalent circuit.
Another form of equivalent circuit is drawn in Fig. 6.13 (6), where the resistance — has
w.E
This equivalent circuit emphasises the similarity between transformer and induction motor
equivalent circuits. For example, at standstill s = 1, the circuit of Fig. 6.13 (6) becomes the
equivalent circuit of a short-circuited two-winding transformer. In case s = 0 (at synchronous
asy
speed), the circuit becomes the equivalent circuit of an open-circuited transformer.
In Fig. 6.13 (6), r2 is the actual rotor resistance (referred to stator), whereas the variable
resistance r2 ^ -
En
jis the electrical analogue of the variable mechanical load.
gin
Use of th e eq u ivalen t c irc u it. At the time of starting, large currents flow in stator and
eer
rotor windings. These heavy inrush currents cause magnetic saturation and as a result of it,
leakage reactances are less than their values at full-load operating conditions The rotor fre
quency varies from line frequency at the time of starting to a low value of slip frequency at
ing
lull-Ioad speed. Therefore, the distribution of current in the rotor conductors is different at high
and low rotor frequencies, consequently the rotor resistance varies significantly over this speed
range. In view of this the equivalent circuit parameters should be determined at those values
of rotor frequency and current, at which the performance calculations are to be carried out by .ne
)
using the equivalent circuit.
Note that Rc in the induction motor equivalent circuit does not represent the no-load loss,
it represents only the core loss of the induction motor.
t
6.9. A nalysis of th e E q u iv alen t C ircu it
frnrrfiL^n imp° rt.a nt Perf° r mance characteristics of an induction motor can be determined
from its equivalent circuit. Expressions for the air-gap power Pg, internal mechanical power
m developed in rotor have already been obtained in Art. 6.4
tin n l™ USl ° f thC 0XKCt of Pig- 6.13 (6) is quite laborious. Some simplifica-
turns can however, be made in this equivalent circuit. In transformers, an analysis of the
equ,valent circuit is carried out either by neglecting the shunt branch consisting of Rr and .Y„,
in parallel, or by moving the shunt branch across the primary terminals. This simplification is
however not permissible in case of induction motor equivalent circuits. This is due to the fact
that the exciting current in transformers varies from 2 to 6% of full-load current and per unit
primary leakage reactances are small ; but in case of induction motors, the exciting current
vanes from 30 to 50 per cent of full-load current and per unit stator leakage reactances are
ww
in (r2 (1 - s) / s1 minus the mechanical loss (friction and windage losses). In Fig. 6.14, Rc is ig
nored, but loss represented by Rct i.e. core loss, must be accounted for along with friction and
w.E
windage losses while utilizing this equivalent circuit for computation of machine performance.
asy
En
gin
Statori Stator S t o t o r core ^
loss eer Rotor
U R loss
M echanical
power
Input i
power1
I*R Loss
Rotor
input ing developed in
r ot or , Pm
power
Fig 6 15 Power distribution in a 3-phase induction motor.
.ne
Note that all the e n t i t i e s used in the e q u i v a l e n t ^ are per phase ,u a n « « e s. ^
Steady-state perform ance Pa ra ™ ter
t
ivalent circuit of Fig. 6.14. In this figure, Z,v s
the^p^r-phase hnpedancl offered to the stator by the rotating air-gap field. Note that Z^includes
the reflected effect of rotor leakage impedance 1 + j*2 and the magnetizing reactance Xm. From
Fig. 6.14, / N
r2 ■
—
C
+JX 2
1 1 — -i— --------- --
Zf = R f + jX f=
— + j(X2+ Xm)
Stator current,
Ira n
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o V -(6.19)'
Once air-gap power is known, shaft output, torque, efficiency etc. can be determined by
referring to Art. 6.5.
E xam p le 6.9. A 3-phase, star-connected, 400 volts, 50 Hz, 4-pole induction motor has the
following p er p h a se constants in ohm s referred to s ta to r :
rj = 0.15, x2 = 0.45, r2 = 0.12, x2 = 0.45, Xm = 28.5.
Fixed losses (core, friction an d windage losses) = 400 watts.
ww
Compute the stator current, rotor speed, output torque a n d efficiency when the motor is
operated at rated voltage an d frequency a t a slip o f 4 percent.
w.E
Solution. From the equivalent circuit of the induction motor as shown in Fig. 6 16 the
impedance offered to the voltage source is ’
asy
^"2
7 + 7 *2
.
J.
(JX )
„
•+9"
015 045
---- 'titi
z ab ~ r 1+ j x i +
7 + j (x2 + X J En
= r i + j * i + R f+ jX f
gin
f0 1 2 .
0 ^ 4 + J 0 45 ° 28-5)
= 0.15 + j 0.45 + ^-------7 ~ 9 o L eer
ing
Fig' 6 1 6 E d u ctio n motor equ.valent
- m n a* 00^ 5 circu it, Exam ple 6.9
= 0.15 + j 0.45 + 2.87 + j 0.738
= 3.02 -t-j 1.188 = 3.25 / 21.470.
From above, Rf = 2.87 Q
.ne
Stator current,
Power factor
=
I x -------400 - 71 o c / 01 n o
^3 (3.25) /2 1 .4 7 ° “ 71-06 L r 21.47°
- cos 21.47° = 0.93 lag
a
t
■ = V3 <400 ) <7 1 0 6 )(°-9 3 ) = 45.784 kW.
rrom Eq. (6.19), total air-gap power,
ww
For applying Thevenin’s theorem to Fig. 6.14, consider two points a, b as shown. From
these two points view towards the voltage source Vj. As per Thevenin’s theorem, the circuit
w.E
consisting of r v x lt X m and source voltage Vx can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source
V, and an equivalent impedance Ze = R e + jX e, as shown in Fig. 6.17, where
asy Vx {jXm)
<3
...(6.20)
n
r l + j { x l + X n)
En ...(6.21)
IN
and
ii
rl + j ( x l + Xm)
Re Xe a gin Re Xe
-AWr-
■x2 ri
-AW—I t ---
eer
+jo—- w
™—qfifr- e - W -
T
ve -{
i _________ i ing
(a) . ^
Fig. 6.17. Thevenin’s equivalent circuits of an inductiou motor. .ne
Here Ve is the voltage appearing across terminals a, b with the rotor circuit disconnected
from these two points. Equivalent stator impedance Zt is the impedance viewed from terminals
t
a, b towards the voltage source and with the source voltage short circuited.
For most induction motors, ( i , + X J is much greater than r,. In view of this, r , can be
neglected in the denominator of both the Eqs. (6.20) and (6.21), without causing any noticeable
error. -
v
■xr
VJCm tr v
V,Xm ...(6.22)
Thus, xx + Xt
Xi
r\Xn jx i X„
and Z<= R<+j X'~ Xi + Xm + Xy+X„
r 1X,n. *1 X„ ...(6.23)
+7
XT *1
X x = Xj + X m, is the stator self-reactance per phase.
Here
IAn. 6.9
728 Electrical M achinery
•••(6.24 al
/z = (I r2'
Re + - + j (*2 + %e)
s j
and from Eq. (6.13), the total to. que is
V;i -------- — Nm ...(6.24 6)
(0, ' r2 ^
Re + —
e s
Hence m is the number of stator phases.
For convenience, Eq. (6.24 h) is re-written as,
Kt______ ■— Nm ...(6.25)
ww ' r2^
Re + -
c s
■X2
s
where w.E K( =
m Vl m
cos
nV1,
2nns
and
asy
X = x2 + X e.
The variation of torque with slip, or speed, of an induction motor can be plotted from Eq. (6.24) for
En
different values of slips and with the motor connected to constant-frequency voltage source. A general
shape of the torque-speed or torque-slip curve is shown in Fig. 6.18. Depending upon the value of slip
an induction motor can have the following operating regions or modes :
(a) Motoring Mode : 0 < s < 1. gin
eer
Under normal operation, rotor revolves in the direction of rotating field produced by the
ing
stator currents. As such, the slip varies from 1 at standstill to zero a t synchronous speed, i.e.
1 < s > 0. The corresponding speed values are zero (s = 1.0) and synchronous speed (s = 0.0).
.ne
t
----------------• - S P E E D
2 0 1-5 10 05 0 -0 -5 -1 0
j L1P -------------------------- 1
Fig. 6.18. Torquo-slip curve for nn induction m nclnnc showing
its braking, motor and gen erator regions.
kiGcneratm g m o d e :s < 0
.g 0perating mode, slip ts negative, i.e. s < 0. An induction motor will operate in this
for ^hen its stator term inals are connected to constant-frequency voltage source and
gofl °°y j nVCn above synchronous speed by a prime mover. The connection of stator ter-
' > r 15 '■oltage source is e sse n tia l in order to establish the rotating air-gap field at
s 8peed. In case stator is disconnected from voltage source and rotor is driven above
,yndir°n° US by the prime mover, no generating action would take place.
mode ; * > I
f h mode, slip is greater than 1. A slip more than one can be obtained by driving the
^°r 1 h*8 Drime mover, opposite to the direction of rotating field But such an use in practice
jotor. * 7 * a C.tlcai utility of slip more than 1 is obtained by bringing the rotor to a quick stop
|Sr*re .tlf,n called plugging F o r o b ta in in g s > 1. or for obtaining plugging, any two stator
fcvbraking ’ . Wlth thls the phase sequence is reversed and, therefore, the direction
are in_ _ etic field becomes suddenly opposite to that of the rotor rotation The- l*le^tr0'
ww
of rotating nQW artin|, opposite to rotor rotation, produces the braking action. Thus the
l"aenl " C be quickly brought to rest by plugging, but the stator must be disconnected from the
w.E
" “'“(.before the rotor can start tn the other direction
t i l e three regions of operation .braking region, s = 2.0 to r = 1.0 ; motor region, a - 1-0 to
, =0an g' ■
asy
A . . O r a t o r region, s = 0 to a = - 11 arc illustrated in Fig. 6 18.
l to ru u e This is also referred to as
Maximum ' " “ rn ^ ‘ 3 , etjon for maxjmum internal torque can be obtained by using the
stalling to
s fe r
En
theorem of circuit theory As per Eq (6 13). torque is maximum when
m
r* - vk ; ^ x: r = ing
*«r
.ne
^ T h u s the slip » „ r »< "'•'x,nUJm ,0 r'1Ut' UCC“ rS “ K,VCn ^
t „ 26)
‘ ra F n ( 6 2 5 ) g iv e s m a x im u m to rq u e Trm a s
Substitution of r , s„,r ■" " f '* ‘" J * ' *
K, I K * x ‘ l _ _
T,m “ i/t + v7.r^ A r iJ - x ‘
K, w L + x\
= (6 2 7 ,
_ _ _ _ _ _ ’
730 E le c tric a l M a ch in e ry [ 4 rt ^
This means that if r2 is increased by inserting external resistance in the rotor circuit of
wound-rotor induction motor, the magnitude of maximum internal torque is unaffected but the
slip at which it occurs is affected proportionally.
Now K t (oc Vf) is proportional to the square of stator voltage Vlt R e is proportional to stator
resistance rx and X is proportional to a n d x 2. In view of these facts, an examination of Eq
(6.27) shows that
(i ) Tem is directly proportional to the square of the stator voltage
(“ ) Tem is reduced by an increase in stator resistance r x {i.e. R e) and
(*“ ) Tem is reduced by an increase in stator leakage reactance x 1 and rotor leakage reactance x2
For obtaining higher value of maximum torque, the air-gap is kept as small as is possible
A small air gap allows more flux to be mutual between stator and rotor windings. As a conse
quence, leakage fluxes and therefore leakage reactances are reduced and the magnitude of
maximum torque becomes more. •
ww
Typical torque-slip curves for an induction motor with variable rotor-circuit resistances arP
shown m Fig. 6.19 (a). For the load torque curve TL as shown, the speed is n x for a rotor-circuit
w.E
resistance r2, speed is reduced to n2 for r2 > r2 etc. For rotor-circuit resistance r2/", Fig. 6.19 (a)
reveals that it is not possible to obtain maximum torque during motoring mode of the three-
phase induction machine. This value of rotor resistance can, however, give maximum torque
asy
only during braking mode of the induction machine. From the torque-slip curves of Fig 6 19 (a)
it can be concluded for a wound-rotor induction motor th at *
En
torque rernaiifs^unaffected3” ^ COntrobec*by vary*n£ the rotor-circuit resistance but maximum
gin
(ii) the starting torque can be varied by changing the rotor-circuit resistance
ing
(iv) the power factor at starting is also affected by rotor-circuit resistance
In order to get better performance of the induction motor starting tnrm il • ■ j u
.ne
T el f
t
Testa ^Mox. Torque 3
' n .'
" L2 SC c
u
u
D
'e *t2
u
L.
^ X \ ' s
o
v'Z > ri 'y r < <s>
L — \ p -
10 ■SLIP-
00 r Slip
SPEED n,
F ig y $ 4 9 . (a) Induction m otor torque-slip curves with
0 ns/2 Hg
d ifferent values o f rotor-circuit resistan ces. ig. 6.19. (6) Effect of rotor resistance on stator current
versus slip characteristics of a 3 -phase induction motor.
by Kt ng.
Te st ~
(R, + r tf+ tf'2 '"(6'28>
se-
o r q u e Test
r t i. n S ttorque -X e s l can be controlled by
---------------------------------------- J varying
•— rotor
& » circuit
vw * w x x -u n / resistance
i c o i o v a i « , c aas illustrated
o u ii1
iu o u h .w .j U
i a
^ _ order
jn dor to get
pet maximum starting torque,
toraue. the Tntnr-rirmit. reKistanr.e must be in
rotor-circuit resistance in-
^ ‘ edto y ffi+ X ? , refer to Eq. (6.26) where smT = 1.00. This new value of rotor-circuit resis-
As
cr0aS be obtained by inserting external resistance equal to (Vl?2 + X2 - r2) in the rotor
‘"S u T th e time of starting. :or
° fC totor
tor operaww“
o p eratio n n e a r synchronous
* ------------ speed.
“ When slip s is small, • r2/s
i- becomes quite * ge
^ oared to other denominator terms of Eq. (6.24 a) and consequently these can be
1 #4/ \m o m i « f o r m o T?n ( d O A n \ o n r l n n n o n n n o n t l v tllPRP. f.HTl D0 is
large as comp ^ 0yt ^ • •e,
^ored Thus from Eq. (6.24 a),
d-
sVe ...(6.29)
ww In —
r2
Kt 2 _ sK t ...(6.30 a)
n-
Here
K = — is a constant
En is
gin
An examination of Fig. 6.19 (with rotor-circuit resistance r.L) also reveals that under normal
operating region of small slips, the torque-slip characteristic is almost a linear one.
If terminal voltage is variable, then from Eq. (6.30 a),
m■V? eer ...(6.31)
Te = s
co,
e . — = KV\s
r2
ing
Here IC is also a constant. expression of an induction motor can also be
Motor to rq u e in te rm s of T em. lhe torque f .ne
_ . tnrnue T and the dimensionless ratio
expressed in terms of maximum torque em mT
. In order to get a
Since rl or Re is neglected,
...(6.32)
Tg 2X T
S
T.em / >\
•2 -X2
S
V /
732 E le c tric a l M a ch in e ry
ww Pm = m (1 - s) P ' = m 1%r. f \ - s
m V?
\
s
w aits
w.E P... =
R e + r2 +
M * -s)
■X2
fl- s
•••(6.34)
asy
Maximum power transfer theorem is invoked again to obtain maximum value of internal
En
mechanical power developed. Since F m per phase is the power delivered to r ( l ~ s
mechanical power developed is maximum, refer to Fig. 6.17 (6), when
, internal
SmP) = + r 2f + X2 gin
or
SmP =
2
~ —
eer ...(6.35 a)
in Eq. (6.34).
P mm =
t
[Re + r2 + V(/ee + r2) + X?]'2, + X2
or Pmm = mV2
________ ■
, 2 We + r2
* + ^(Re
v e + • rr2)'z
2/ ~ + ^x 2
J] ...(6.36)
rotor is l\ r<i and this all appears as ohmic loss in the rotor circuit and, therefore, the
tor «
,ical pow«r developed P m is zero. However, T ,a = ± . is not zero.
•bam1
p-e 6.20 shows th at power P m during braking region is negative. In other words, power
fig
ring plu£&tn£ *s re^urned ^he supply. As slip s is more than 1 during plugging, Eq.
h*24) shows that P m is negative. Note, however, that Te is positive during plugging or braking
(6
regi°n‘
ww
w.E
asy
En
i
2-0 _ ~
i
1-5
I ___
10
_i
0-5
gin _x
0
— —t- — — — —i _ —
-0 -5 -1 -0
eer
-• S L IP ----------------------
ing
showing its braking, motor and generator regions.
In order to get maximum power output from an induction generator, reference to Fig. 6.20
shows that the rotor m ust be driven at a speed given by
.ne
nr
(0 .1 5 + J2 8 .9 5 ) J 28-95
(0.15) (/28j l _ n 1476 12
Ke ~ j'2 8 .9 5
asy
63515.3
Maximum shaft torque - (50 7i) (0.8674) = 466.2 Nm
(6)
En
At starting s = 1. From Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, the rotor current at starting is
given by
/
2st
= 22J A
Vo.2676 + 0.893
gin
—r = 243.94 A
(d) From Eq. (6 .34 ), the internal power developed for a slip of 0.04 is
3 x (227.4)' 0.96
x 0.12
m r- 0.04
0.12x0.96
0.1476 + 0.12 + + .8932
0.04
= 41736.36 W = 41.736 kW
(e) The slip at which internal power developed is maximum is given by Eq. (6.35) as
0.12 = 0.114
SmP~ [(0.1476 + 0.12 )2 + 0.8932]1/s + 0.12
ww
Synchronous speed U3r = ^ f = n f with P = 4.
w.E
FromEq. (6.27), for f = 50 Hz,
3 V?
tm
asy
7i x 50 2 [0.1476 + >/0.14762 + 0.893z]
En
= 9.071 x 10" 3 V?
••• T
ing
* e.m = 9' 071 x 10" 3 x (113.22)2 = 116.28 Nm
*2 = 0.225 Cl
113.22 - = 396.24 Nm.
“ Tem = 7 ix 2 5 2 [0.1476 + 'T o.U ltf + 0.4465 1
W) When f = 5 Hz, Ve = 0.9845 x 23 = 22.644 V
Exam ple 6.12. From the equivalent circuit o f a polyphase induction motor, obtain theft,
lowing relation s:
~~7~.—2—
(a) h s t _ -\l s + s mT
U2 ~ v S2 (! +Smf)
/ \
hm T SmT
(b ) i +
I2 '2
Here I2st is the stator load-component o f current at starting and Tg-mT Is the stator load-com
ponent o f current at maximum torque. Neglect stator resistance.
Solution, (a) From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 6.17 (a), the stator load-component of
starting current I 2st is
w.E
/,=
2 V(72e + r2/ s f + (Xe + x2f
With negligible stator resistance r lt Re = 0 and the ratio of 7 ^ and I 2 gives
asy
hst J l(r2/s)*+
(r2/ s f X ?
...(6.37 a)
En
h ~ V rl++.X 2
ro
From Eq. (6.26) with Re = 0,
r2~ SmT X
gin
Substitution of the value of r2 (= smTX) in Eq. (6.37 a) gives
eer
h
_ 'l(s „ r /s f F t g
(SmTX f + t f
ing
=v .ne ...(6.37)
V.
+ SmT)
t
7o —
2" T
h-mT _ ~(r2/ s f + X 2
Io ” V'
2 ' (r2/ SmT f + ^ 2
But r2 = smTX,
hm T -v/ ( S n T / s f t f + X2
/o ■
(SmT-7SmT1)2 ^ + X 2
*17
_ J 1 + (smr/sVr _ \ | l
...(6.38)
> 1+ 1 2 ig.
le 6.13. A 10 kW, 400 V, 3-phase, 4-pole, 50 Hz slipring induction motor develops
t (i e 10 at rated voltage an d frequency and with its slip rings short-circuited. se-
oU torque equal to twice the full-load torque, occurs at a slip o f 10% with zero exter- 1a
;n the rotor circuit. Stator resistance and rotational loss are neglected. Determine
I resistan
0 slip and rotor speed at full-load torque,
(ii) rotor ohmic loss at full-load torque, ^
(iii) starting torque at rated voltage and frequency, ^
(iv) starting current in terms o f full-load current, .g
(v) stator current at m axim um torque, in terms o f full-load current and e
(Vi) full-load efficiency. d-
ww
The rotor resistance is now trebled by inserting external resistance in the rotor-circuit. For
lhe some full-load torque, find n-
(uii)
(viii)
(is)
w.E
the slip at maximum torque,
full-load slip and rotor speed,
starting torque, S
(x)
asy
starting current in terms o f full-load current, ie
»r
(xi) rotor 12R loss at full-load torque and
(xii) developed power at full-load torque and efficiency.
En is
Solution, (i) Maximum torque,
Tem = 2 (full-load torque, Te fl) gin
Ttm = 2Tefl and smT= 0.10
eer
From Eq. (6.33), -=£-= -------------
T em s mT t sfi
or^ = “
ing or - 0.4 s + 0.01 = 0
.ne
2 M + i2 _
Sp smT Sfi 0.1
Rotor speed,
sfl = 0.0268 or 2.68%.
Nr = 1500 (1 - 0.0268) = 1459.8 = 1460 r.p.m.
t
(ii) Since the rotational losses (i.e. fixed losses) are neglected, the mechanical power
developed is Pm = shaft power of 10,000 watts.
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1 s mT
T e .st ~
- 27g»— = 2 (2 ^ (65.42) = 25.91 Nm.
00.1
1 JL 1 10.1 10.1 v '
1 + 0.1
^ is t _ '\ j Sf l + SmT
(iv) From Eq. (6.37), T ~ ’ 0 .. 0
s fl ( 1 + s m T )
^ 2—
(0.0268) + ( 0-1/ =3g44
-4(0.0268)2 (1 + 0.01)
ww h st = 3.844 I2fi
w.E
(u) From Eq. (6.38),
asy = 2.623
*** ^2 mT - 2.623 I2fl.
En
Note that current I2 mT corresponding to maximum torque is less than the current I2tt at
starting.
gin
(vi) Efficiency =
Input
x
eer
100 = ~ ^0QQ x 100 =
10275.4
97 32%
with rj = 0,
ing
(vii) Before the external resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit, we have from Eq (6 26)
M
^ ~ = yJ(Xe + x2)2 = y l x * = x
.ne
or = smT
j \r - 1500 (1 - 0.0804) = 1379.4 r.p.m., less than previous speed of 1460 rpm.
speed,
r , „ _ t
~T 1 0-3
em —~ + ~~z
0.3 1
,, hn= ± (0-3) - - 3 7
(,) From Eq. <6-3 7 )> / 2/I V (0.0804)2 (1 + 0.09)
/ = 3 - 7 12fi, less than previous I 2 5st = 3 844 V
ww
\ k „ chan„ i„ the rotor circuit influences the stator through the resistance r ^ s . With
<*° A”5' d “ " f to 3 r , and with new full-load slip a, = 3s, resistance r 2/s remams constant
rj being increased “ ^ “ j e n t circuit parameters are constant and the stator ,s therefore
This implies that^afl q ^ ^
unaware ol any b w.E ^ means that stator current and power facto ,
r
asy
dr-gap power and torque remain unchanged so long as f ts constan .
IA rt. 6,9
740 Electrical Machinery
= SlPg =
/ 0 .0 4 ^
x 60,000 = 2500 W
0.96
ww
(c) It is given that
r2
= smr = 0.2
w.E
New slip at maximum torque,
asy
s. n = = 2 x 0.2 = 0.4
s2 + 0.16
x 2 x
ing
0 .4 s 2 1 2 4 1 .4 4
~ s2 + 0.16
s2
60000 1241.44 s2
104.72 (1 - s2) ~ s2 + o .l6
or s2 + 0.16 = 2.167 (s2 - s2)
or3.167 s2 ~ 2.167 s2 + 0.16 = 0
Its solution gives s2 = 0.084 and 0.6
Full-load slip, s2 = 0.084, the other value being redundant
(e) 104.72 (1 - 0.084) T2 = 60,000
lu- 1 6 T iff - 2
Tem 2 .0 T e fi smn ^ i
smTl
S«n " ^.5 SmTl + * “ 6
°r Its solution gives s,nTl = 0.5
From Eq. (6.26), for negligible stator impedance, = s mTl = 0.5 or r2 = 0.5 x2.
w.E
Its solution gives s mT2 = 0.1866 and from Eq. (6.26),
— = 0.1866
*2
asy
Rotor-circuit resistance for obtaining a slip of 5%,
r 2' = 0.1866 x2
En
Thus, re d u ctio n in rotor circuit resistance
= 0.5 x 2 —0.1866 x2 gin
.-. Percentage reduction in rotor-circuit resistance eer
_ 0.5 x2 - 0-1866 Xg ^ 1Q0 _ 62 68%.
0.5 x2 ing
Exam ple 6 .1 6 . The rotor o f a 3-p h a se mducfwn .ne
P^P ^
0.2 n standstill reactan ce p er p h ase. W hatex **
order to get h a lf o f the m axim um torque at star ing
? N giect stat0r impedance.
g
By what percentage w ill this external resistance chang
t ?
Tt lt
St _
i r,„
\ '^em 22 _
Solution. ~xTem
Z ~~.smT
Tem = mi- +, _ L
1 SmT
<* s2 T - 4 » mT4 -l = 0
= 4 ± i g 2 I = 3.73 or 0.27.
or
SmT ‘ 2 , . , „ = 0.27. For negligible stator impedance,
Higher value of 3.73 is redundant. Therefor ,
fr°m Eq. (6.26),
r2 = x2
«- S: C 0.2X0.27 = 0.054 a
To
ww
Percentage improvement in pf
~ 4.903
x 100 = 1.55%.
w.E “
0.261 - 0.196
0.196
x 100 = 33.16%.
asy
E xam p le 6.17. A 3-phase induction m otor with — = 0.5, h a s a starting torque o f 25.0 Nm.
x2
En
For negligible stator im pedance an d no-load current, determ ine the starting torque in case the
rotor-circuit resistance p er p h ase is (a) doubled (b) halved.
gin
Solution. With negligible stator impedance and no-load current, the starting torque from
the induction motor equivalent circuit is given by
r e st ~
3V*
eer
r2 = 25.00 Nm.
With
es‘
r9
CO, r22 + x22
ing
.ne
— = 0.5
II
o
* o
*2
3V\
or
1
—
T
3 V?
=~
est cos r\ + 4 r\
l = 2 5 x 5 = 125.
r , = 25
t
r2
or (l 3V?j ( 1 ) 125
T
■* e st
- = 31.2 5 Nm.
4
\ /
1.5 2smT
ww
From Eq. (6.33),
Test
T em ®mT 1
or
or
w.E "IT
s l T - 3.333 s mT + 1 = 0
SmT
„ 1
T'fl " to ,
r2 f l
2/7 Sfl
t
T est ‘ 2at
T e fl
\2 JJ5 0 _
(I
00695
^ j
or l u = 4.646 V t .mK (Ae res,s(on„
ww /
Maximum torque can also be obtained from Eq. (6.27) directly without computing smT. From
this equation,
w.E 3V
° Tr2
T*rn = —CO,
11 1
1
2 [i + Vlz + 82J = 5920 2 [1 + V65]
= 326.63 Nm.
asy
E xam p le 6.20. A 3-phase wound-rotor induction motor runs at a slip o f 5% at full load
torque an d with its slip rings short circuited. I f rotor-circuit resistance is now increased to four
En
times by inserting external non-inductive resistances in the rotor circuit; then determine, at full
load torque, the follow ing param eters in terms o f their previous values with rotor resistance
r2-
gin
(a) slip (b) rotor current, rotor ohm ic loss, rotor p.f. a n d (c) pow er output.
eer
Solution. Here subscript A is used for the values when rotor resistance is r2 and B for the
values when rotor resistance is 4r2.
0.2 V
and I 2B ~
4ro
ww
(c) Speed
Power output,
wA = (1 - sA) ws = 0.95 co,
PA = ^eA wa = 0 9 5 “ j TeA
or
Now
w.E
o)s TeA = PA/0 .9 5
sB = 0.20 and (oB = (1 - s B) ws = 0.80 a), ,
asy
P b = T'B «,„ = TeA X 0.80 0)s
0.8PA
( T’eA = T eB)
En
= 0.80 (w/T*) = - ^ g -
or P fl = 0.842 PA
Thus power output with 4r2 is reduced from PAto 0.842 PA. gin
eer
Example 6.21. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 6-pole induction motor has a shaft output o f 10 kW at 930
r.p.m. Friction and windage loss amount to 1% o f output. Total stator losses are 600 W.
(a) Determine the rotor input and stator input.
ing
<b) I f maximum torque is developed at 800 r.p.m.. compute the starting torque with rated-
voltage starting.
.ne
, ,
Solution, (a) Full-load slip -
1 0 0 0 - 9 3 0 _ nft7
^qqq
I
Friction and windage loss = 10,000«x ^qq - 100 W
uu
t
Mechanical power developed,
P = 10,000+ 100 = 10,100 W
•••Rotor input, P , - PmAl - *) “ 10100/0.93 = 10860.2 W
Stator input - Pe * total stator lo8SeS = 10S6° '2 + =
_ 1 0 0 0 ^ 8 0 0 = „ 20
[0) smT ~ 1000
P' 108602x^0 =1 0 3 7 lN m
T' f l = a i = 2tc x 1000
2 —
rm 0.2
_ —+— 0.07
~
0.07 0.2
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or Tem = 1.604 T #
Test 2
Tem 0 :2 + _ l
0.2
or Tts, = ^ x 1.604 x 103.71 = 63.981 Nm.
E x a m p le 6 .2 2 . A 7.5 kW, 420-V, 3-phase, star-connected, 50 Hz, 4-pole squ irrel cage indue
tion m otor develops fu ll-lo ad torque at a slip o f 4% un der rated voltage a n d frequ en cy conditions
Friction, w indage a n d core losses a re to be neglected. The m ach in e h a s the follow in g impedancp
data. '
ri = 1.2 a Xj = x 2 = 1.4 a xm= 38.6 n
D eterm ine the m axim um torque at rated voltage a n d frequen cy a n d the slip at which it
occurs. A lso calcu late the starting torque.
ww
S o lu tio n . Thevenin’s equivalent circuit param eters, refer to Fig. 6.17 (a), are as under •
R 1 .2 x 3 8 .6
' 38.6 + 1.40 ~ 58 Q
w.E = 1.351 n
asy
En
As friction, windage and core losses are neglected, the mechanical power developed
P m = 7500 W
Now P ;„ = 3 ( l - s ) P ^ = 3 ( l - s )gin *2 r2
F,n = 3 (1 —s)
S2 V?e '_ 2 ing
„2
rj
sV2
s
.ne
or
or
7500 = 3 ( 1 - 5 )
r2
3 j0 j> 6 )(0 04) (234)2
7500 ~ 0 841 Q
t
The slip at which maximum torque occurs is given by Eq. (6.26) as
0.841
s mT =
V l.l5 8 z
resistance is now dou bled by adding external series resistance. Determine (d) slip
fh e T°Y0utpnt (e) fu ll-load torque (f) slip at maximum torque.
(a) As rotational losses are neglected, 100 kW is the mechanical power developed
S°lu p = 100 kW
* ■*. r m
,ref°re’
fhe
P ,» P „ / (l-s * )-^ | k W
4 n f 4k x 50 100 k ,,
chronous speed, co. = —p = — g— = —- — rad/sec
Syn
Tefi
eft —~~J*~= n1QQ0; Q01°nX- -- = 994.72 Nm
efJ CO. 0.96 x 100 k
0.2 0.04
0.04 + 0.2
T = 2.6 Ten = 2 .6 x 9 9 4 .7 2 = 2586.272 Nm.
or
(M ww ■es/
■em
1 0.2 5.2
w.E 0.2 + 1
8 t = 5 = 0 -2 •'
IA rt 6.9
748 Electrical Machinery
ww
Slip at which maximum torque occurs,
f2
w.E
With new winding,
smT —X2
4s,
asy
Sm H ~ “ SmT
,nut frMuency rangC Of! 20t ^ '? ? ° Hz\lf ? V the lhac}'"'<’ losses, leakage impedance dn.pt
tPu. ' currents are neglected, then calculate
t KriUn" , ,
^ l oIsy*
e ' d W W <>f d c- mmolor'.
\vA rating o f the induction-motor stator,
lb) . < ? w #
the d.c. motor rating and its maximum torque output.
C aximvm speed is lim ited to 2700 r.p.m., then compute
Id) the number o f poles for the induction machine and
te) the new speed range o f the d.c. motor.
Solution, (a) Speed of the stator field
120 f 1 2 0 x 5 0 _nn
= = — Yo— = 600 r P m
for obtaining rotor frequencies greater than the stator frequency, the ro*or should
f ablvbe driven against the direction of stator field. Hence, if rotor speed is S\ r p m . then
ww
Relative speed between stator field and rotor conductors is (600 *„V,) r p m. In view of this, the
rotor frequency as per Eq. (6.6 a) is given by
w.E
P (600 + Nr)
120 -12
For
asy
10 (600 + Nr)
/ij = 120 Hz,
=120 Hz
.
120
En
Nr = 840 r.p.m.
For f2 = ^ z'
gin
.
10 ( 6 0 ° = 3QQ Hz
120
Nr = 3000 r.p.m. eer
Therefore, D .C .
ing
motor s p e e d r a n g e is fr o m 8 4 0 to 3 0 0 0 r.p .m .
,6, ana
to; and icj.
(C. At
At stan
frequency changer be
d s*.., iew
stanasuu, ,et the
we rotor per rphase
------ voitage
- be V,- and rotor , „
Since leakage impedance drops, exciting current =i n d ^ .ne ^
™
neglected, per phase electrical output V, / 2 from the rotor is cqua «
in p u t fr o m ^ r t o r o t o r .i., stator
% just like a transformer. As the rotor starts rotating, its per pna. , g
t
«s per phase output in v o lt-a m p cre s becomes sV2 /,. ^ ^ ,h;u) , h c voU.
In the frequency changer, slip s is greater lan ^ ^ ^ mu$l bo suppliod bv
a^nperes supplied by stator. Naturally the rest o p *
d.c. motor.
Power handled by d.c. motor - (8^2 A2" ' co'
= (s - 1) V, /. cos 0 watts. ,
1; (Tu jc sunnlied in two ways, nauu .v
This shows that electrical power output from rotor shfi rmgs P
it) electrically, from stator to rotor by transform! r
W) mechanically, from the d.c. motor wlmd.
For N, - 840 r.p.m.,
H-in * 600 o
Hlip*ic noO
48 .
Rotor kVA output, 3sV1I 1 = 60 kVA
l).o
60 , , TA
.*. Stator kVA rating, S V Ji = — = ^
s 2.4 ° r M kVA
= 25 kVA or 10 kVA.
Since the stator sho'uld"b.e.able to handle higher kVA, the stator kVA rating is 25 kVA.
D.C. motor rating = (s - 1) V\ Ii cos 0 = (2.4 - 1) 25 x 0.8 kW ,
= (6 - 1) 10 x 0.8 kW = 28 kW or 40 kW.
ww
/. D.C. motor rating is 40 kW.
„ „ . , _
D C. motor output torque
^ H
28,000 x 60.
= — — —r r r — or
27t X v840
40,000 x 60
—--- - - -
27t x 3000
, . , . ~
asy
V. ^
\' \
V
120x50
^
(d ) When the maximum speed is limited to 2700 np.m. j then let the number of induction
%
-
En
machine poles may be P v Then speed of stator field = r.p.m.
Pi
gin
Relative speed between stator field and rotor conductors is
120 x 50
Pi
2700
.\
r.p.m.
„ (1200 x 50
•+ 2700
eer
From Eq. (6.6 a),
120
ing
= 300 Hz.
p _ 30,000
1 2700
1
9
.ne
But P x can’t be a fraction, therefore, P x must be 12 (a higher even number).
(e) Maximum speed of d .c. motor
120x50
t
12 “ rl
12
= 300
120
A; Nrl = 2500 r.p.m.
Minimum speed of d.c. motor
120 x 50 \
12 + N.„r2
120
= 120
120
or Nr2 = 700 r.p.m.
Therefore, new speed range of d.c. motor is from 700 to 2500 r.p.m Note that the ratio of
maximum to minimum speeds is same f3000 2500 "i in both the cases.
840 700
i 6.26. A 3 -phase, 50 Hz, 4-pole induction motor has rated output o f 10 kW at 1425
Qffit&P ifruirn torque is developed at 1200 rpm. Calculate the starting torque. Neglect
'"‘S ta n c e and rotational losses.
.. 1500 - 1 4 2 5 „
^lution- S1‘P’ s - 1500 0 05
output = 10,000 W = power developed,Pmas the rotational losses are neglected.
P0* Cf . . rrs p m
. Electromagnetic torque, Te = ^ (1 _ g)
1 0 ,0 0 0 x 6 0 r.7 n i TMm
... efl 2k x 1500 (1 - 0.05) 67013 Nm
Slip at which maximum torque occurs is given by
1500 - 1200 „
ww s as full-load slip,
S^ =
Tefl
1500 = °-2
67.013
" 0,05
2
0.2
w.E"em
T a k i n g
or T,e.m = 142.403 Nm
asy
ining^tkrting torque, use the relation
For obtaining
E Tc, t
Tem 1
2__________2
SmT~ J _
TZ+ 1 02 ngi 02
1
= 0.3846
will run when supplied from a 3 -phase 340 V, 40 Hz system. Slip at which the rin
3-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz supply. F or the sam e developed torque find t h e *hP / ^ g u e n c y a *"•
° r
maximum torque using 50 Hz supply is 0.1. Neglect the stator im pedance an d assum e lin ear
torque-slip characteristic between zero torque and maximum torque in e wor g .ne
Solution. With stator impedance ignored, the maximum torque in a 3 phase induction
motor is given by
t
T -A *.
iem (i)s 2x2
For 400 V supply, smT = 0.1
40
3 3P V
Maximum torque, Ttm = — = 4 t f ' 2 (2 n /!^
** ■ T
1 cm « V2//"5
/
A1
752 E le c tric a l M ach in ery [Art. 6.9
As torque-slip characteristic is linear between zero torque and maximum torque, the
developed torque Ted at a slip of 0.04 is
400.\2 0.04
Ted = x 0.04
s mT 50 O.i t
For 340 V, 50 Hz, si
0
340^
ed
40 0.125
For the same developed torque, from U) and (it),
ww
E xam p le 6.28. A 50 Hz, 440 V, three-phase, 4-pole induction m otor develops h a lf the rated
torque at 1490 rpm. With the applied voltage m agnitude rem aining at the rated value, what
should be its frequency i f the motor has to develop the sam e torque at 1600 rpm ? Neglect stator
c , nr
w.E
an d rotor winding resistances, leakage reactances and iron losses.
s=
1 5 0 0 -1 4 9 0 1
(GATE, 1995)
asy
Solution. Slip,
1500 150
™ 3 V2 ft
T= —
<os f
r2
En
+ (X X + X2)
s
gin
+ rl
3 (440)^
f r2
For the same torque, from (i) and (ii), we get
(440) 1
t
f *2 S 50 r2 150
s
or ...(Hi)
7500 f'
120f
Synchronous speed, Ns = ——x = 30 f
„ 30 f - 1600
and
S|,P’ 5 = ' 30
Substituting the value of s in (iii ) above,
'3 0 f - 1 6 0 0 ^11 1
30 f f 7500
f - 7500 f - 400,000 = 0
Its solution gives f = 53.7 Hz.
( t ^ p l c e - 2 9 - The follow ing data refers t0 a I 2 -P°k. 420 V, 50 3-phase mesh connected
£‘ a m o to r:
2 gtj Q %i - 6 82 r2 = 2.08 Q, x2' =4.11 Q per phase.
fl" load, the line value o f magnetizing current is 6.7 A and the total core loss is 269 W.
0n 0 tfoe p f input current, equivalent rotor current and torque developed by the motor at a
peierrIlin* uSing exact equivalent circuit. Determine the maximum torque developed and the
>lipten din g speed. (I.A.S., 1989)
^ g lution. The equivalent circuit on no load is as shown in Fig. 6.22 (a),
per-phase magnetizing current,
6.7
‘m=-^ g ■= 3.87 A
I„
m
_ 393.45 = 1()167 Q
3.87 En
The exact equivalent circuit is now shown in Fig. 6.22 (6).
gin
eer 2-95 6-82 4-11
X| A
-dooo ■
—WW--- 'TTWC'- o- -VvVv---- 'UtitJtf'-
♦+ 2-95 6-82
' 11 - 3-87 A
ing
42 0 V 101-67 : 2_08
s
xm
.ne
(a)
Fig. 6.22. Pertaining to Example 6.29.
(6)
t
'2.08
+04.11 (/101.67)
0.03
From this circuit, Zf =
7" (69.33 + j 105.78)
69.452 /3 .4 ° x 1 0 1 .6 7 J 9 £ _ RR R3 ,36 64c
1o
or
= ~ rs
126.484 / 56.761
Rf +jXf = 44.80 + j 33.32
r i + j * l = 2-95 +J6.82
ZAB = 47.75 +040.14 = 62.38 fM S W
/ ~
12 - /1l jX
- 7 + j (*2 + Xm)
O
i 101.68
= 6.733 / ~ 4 0.05 x g9 33 + . 1Q5 ?g
101.68 /9 0 °
= 6.733 4 0 0 5 x 126 484 / 5 6 . f ^ = 5-413 Z z ^ i i !
ww v
e X1
* i Xm 6.82 x 101.67__ ______
108.49
w.E
X' = ~ x r = 108.49
Slip a t which maximum torque occurs,
= 6 -4 0 n
asy 2.08__________
SmT ~ Vtf* + (x2 + X ef ~ [2.7652 + (4.11 + 6.40)2] 1/2 = ° ' 1914
En
Speed a t maximum torque = 500 (1 - 0.1914) = 404.3 rpm
™
Maximum ^ = 3V?
torque, Tem ------•— ■ ,■1
H ’ em 27m, 2 [Re + ylRt + (x2 + X f ] gin
_ 3 x 60
eer
___________ 3 9 3 .62________________
2 k x 500
ing
2 [2.765 + V2.765* + (4.11 + 6.40)2] “ 325 55 Nm>
E x a m p le 6 .3 0 .A 10 kW, 50H z, 3 -phase induction m otor develops rated torque at 1440rpm.
In case lo a d torque is reduced to half, fin d the m otor speed a n d the p o w er output. Assume linear
torque-slip characteristics n ear the operatin g range.
.ne
S o lu tio n . Slip s = 15° 95~ q44Q = 0.04
and i T e~ s .
- T
2 6 1
" ~Y s ~ = 0 M or si = 2*0 .0 4 = 0.02
Rated torque = Nm
27t x 1460
ww r2
0-03 _ « «q7
cos r2
.
M o to r speed
w.E s * = o J i ~ °*037
= 1500 (1 - 0.037) = 1444.5 rpm
At small values of slips, rotor current from Eq. (6.29) is
s,V
asy0.03 V
s x 2002
6 06 ------
and «Vr2
g s x2002
or 74.604 0.04 x 400
f4001 * — 1 — = 0.01287
s = 0.04 x 6 x 200 * 74.604
or
ww
1.0 D ot 50 Hz. The inputsupply vaItage-us ubj ^
w.E
full-load torque at starting at this reduced .
Assume that the m agnetic circuit is unsaturated.
S ., 1975)
"(/.A ................
Solution. ' em
asy
= 2.5 Tefl, SmT = 018
1.0
*2 = 0.18 = 5.55 £1
Also smT^ - 0 - 18.
'ejl En 0.36s
where
...
s = full-load slip.
s2 - 0.9s + 0.0324 = 0 eer
Its solution gives s = 0.0376
V2 ing V2
T n= — •-
le fl co. /
L ^ L _ + 5.5'
0.0376 co, 2 7 .7 5 4
.ne
0.0376
Let the minimum voltage be x V where x < l . The motor can continue supplying its rated
torque until Tem at reduced voltage = Tefl.
t
_3 (xV)2 _3_ V2
co„ 2 x 5.55 co. 27.754
ww
For the same starting torque,
3^ 2 , 3 ^
or
w.E^ =ViVc.S)2=0.755
40 ' (0.8 x 2)2 50 (X2)2
asy
For the same maximum torque
_3_
En Vl _ 3 . Vf
or gin
40 ' 2 (0.8 x 2) 50 2 x 2
Example 6.35.
Vl
eer
A 3-phase, 4-pole, 60 kW, 50 Hz induction motor connected rate
ing
milage and running without load consumes 3 kW. When prevented from rotating it draws rated
current al 30% rated supply an d takes a power input o f 4 kW. Assuming that under rated loa
.ne
conditions, the stator an d rotor copper losses are equal and that the mechanical losses are 3 M
of the no-load losses, determ ine (a) slip at rated load and (b) starting torque o f emx
rated applied voltage.
Solution. Mechanical loss t
= io o x 3 0 0 0 = 9 0 0 W
Stator core loss = Power input at no-load - Mechanical loss - stator I*R loss at no load
[Art.
758 E lectrical M ach in ery
ww
maximum torque
Solution.
w.E
asy
At 50 Hz, leakage reactance of rotor = x2
At 45 Hz, leakage reactance of rotor = 0.9 x2
En
Vx gin
Subscripts 1 and 2 are used for Vlt 50 Hz operation and Vlf 45 Hz operation respectively.
Vx
Starting currents.
\r2 + x 2
eer
Istl = c r ~ 2 ' and J st2 = / 2 ^ m Qv .2
\r2 + (\j.vx2)
I_st2 J
ht\
r2 + x2
+ (0.9x2)2
~= J
ing
s 2mT+ 1
s 2mT + 0.92
= f Q .2 -H
> 0.22 + 0.81
=
'
Starting to rq u es:
.ne
r$t-2
Tst.l
^ r r2
r2 + (0.9x2)2
= 1.2235.
r\ + x 2
V fo
s 2mT + 1
f £ r + (0 .9 )2
o .22 + 1
0 .2 2 + 0.81 t
M aximum torques : = ~ •— —— •— — 1— l i n
Tnl to, 2 (0.9x2) 3 v? " 0.9 "
E x a m p le 6 .3 7 . A 2 0 kW, 400 V, 3-phase, 50-Hz, Y -connected, 4-p ole squ irrel-cag e induction
m otor h a s the follow in g p a ram eters in oh m s referred to sta to r :
= 0.2, Xj = x2 = 0.45, Xm = 18 .
A " jlere rotational and core losses are neglected, therefore power output 20 kW =
S°1Vtifpower developed, P m.
^ p 20,000 W at a slip of s = 0.04.
:• m _ p m _ 20000 _ 20,000
. Air-gaP power, r g l _ s i _ 0.04 0.96
*' „ 0.04 ....................
f R loss = s Pa =
Total ro to r 019 6 X 20,000 = 833,33 W
3 l l r2 = 833.33 W
ww Re
0.2 x 18 « vrvr- ^ v
18.45
0.45 x 18 ^
= 0.195 ft, Xe = - — — = 0.44 ft
e 18.45
w.E
From Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, rotor current is given by
In -
asy
12 ( R e + r 2 / s ) + 7 (X e + x 2)
225.322
3 I2 r2 — 3 x r 2 = 833.33 W
r*2
En
+ (0.44 + 0.45 )2
0.195 +
0.04
or
182.77 r2 = 0.038 + 625 r\ + 9.75 r 2 + 0.7921
r\ - 0.2768 r 2 + 0.001328 = 0 gin
Neglecting 0.001328, we get r 2 = 0.2768 ft.
eer
x 50
(a) Synchronous speed, (Os = — —— = 50 •n rad/sec
ing
Maximum internal torque, from Eqn. (6.27), is
vf .ne
= 438.3 Nm
t
Initial starting torque, Te . st = — • r r2
[Re + r 2]2 + [Xe + x2l
3 225.322 x 0.2768 = 264.5 Nm
50 ic ' [0.195 + 0.2768]2 + 0.89'
Slip at which maximum torque occurs is
SmT=^Rf7 k ^ 2
0.2768 = 0.3038.
~ ff0.195)2 + (0.89)2]1/2
r c = | p 2 -<i) f 2 c o s Q2
Use this expression to obtain the torque-slip characteristic o f a 3-phase induction motor
S o lu tio n . In the torque expression for a 3-phase induction motor, P = number of po]
<{>= air-gap flux per pole, F 2 = rotor mmf per pole and cos 02 = rotor power factor. For obtain^’
the torque-slip characteristic, each term of the torque expression must be examined so far
their variation with slip (or speed) is concerned.
(i) P o le s (P). The number of poles is a constant parameter. Once the winding is designs
for a given speed, number of poles P is fixed.
(ii) F lu x p e r pole (<}>). For the stator of a 3-phase induction motor, per-phase applied volt
age is given by
ww V1= E l + I 1 (rx+ j x i)
where E x = emf induced per phase in stator winding.
asy
flux also gets reduced accordingly with increase in load. However, the decrement in is quite
small, therefore air-gap flux <(>can be treated as almost constant with slip as shown in Fig. 6.23
(a).
Fl ux
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
(c)
Fig. 6.23. Variation of (a) air-gap flux <(>(6) rotor mm f F 2 (c) power factor cos 02 and
(rf) torque, with slip and speed in a 3-phase induction motor.
(Hi) R o to r m m f p e r pole (F2). It is seen from E q . (6.18) that as the slip decreases, rotor
current and therefore mmf F 2 decreases. At zero slip, I 2 = 0 and therefore F 2 = 0.
Variation of stator current is sketched in Fig. 6.19. As rotor mmf is balanced by s^a^or^jlU?i
the rotor mmf variation is similar to stator current or stator mmf variation of Fig. 6.19-
the variation of rotor mmf F 2 is as shown in Fig. 6.23 (6).
ww
P Solution. Let the subscripts d and y denote respectively the parameters of delta-connecte
. ?ar.connected windings of 3-phase induction motor.
w.E
Let the per-phase values of rated voltage and rated current be Vld and I ld for the stator in
delta.
asy
Rating of 3-phase induction motor = 3 Vld I ld cos 6
When stator is rewound in star, rated stator voltage per phase, Vu and rated stator
En
current per phase, / ,y = V3 J u , so th at rating = 3 V „ 7 „ c o s 0 = 3 ^ jo /3 cos 0
ing
Cross-sectional area of conductor in star, a „ = V3 a ld, because I ly = <3' l ld.
. T 1 r
:. Length of conductor in star, L\y - r—^id
.ne
All parameters referred below are per-phase parameters.
. ,
Leakage inductance in delta, lid ~ j^ej
i / _ ^Jy - 1 = -l\ d
leakage inductance in star, hy ~ r 6i 3 Rel 3
1
'• xly= 2 * u
(A rt. 6.9
76 2 Electrical Machinery
ww
Similarly
w.E
asy •i/a x i/j
-j—
Xlh
'TRT'-
En
gin
(a) eer (6)
(a)) ddelta
[a and
e lta a n d (b
ing
Fig. 6.24. 3-phase induction motor equivalent circuit with stator winding in
(b)) star,
s ta r , Example
E x a m p le 6.39.
b .3 9 .
Equivalent circuit of a 3-phase induction motor with stator winding in delta is shown in Fig.
6.24 (a). With stator rewound in star and for the conditions specified, the equivalent circuit is
.ne
given in Fig. 6.24 (6). All subscripts and primes are dropped for the sake of convenience.
j _ h d 'N ld
, Rotor current,
cux*— > h- N
iv2
Orator m sstar,
tai, I\y -N
*\y * iy
ly ^ z
f° rSt J Ily-Nly j 3 I ld Nu Iid ■Nld
. Rotor current, h ^ N% ^ ^
j^ows that rotor current is the same whether the stator winding is in delta or star. For
• can nower 3 /2 — , therefore operating slip s is the same in both types of stators.
thesa1*16 air s . .
• 6.40. A 3-phase induction motor has an air-gap length o f 2 mm. I f its air-gap
$%&m^creased to 2.5 mm, discuss its effect on the equivalent-circuit param eters as well as
M,tne'r’formance o f 3-phase induction motor.
' , , <i„n With increase in air-gap length from 2 mm to 2.5 mm, the new air-gap length
(2 5/2) = 1.25 times its previous gap length. Its effect on equivalent circuit parameters
^perform ance characteristics is examined below :
ww
(a) Effect on equivalent-circuit param eters
(i) Stator resistance r, and rotor resistance r2 remain unaffected.
w.E
,-i l„ » 3 ohase induction motor, mutual flux remains practically constant. Therefore, with
air-gap length increased by 1.25 times, the magnetizing current must be 1,25 times ite previous
asy
value so that constant flux is established. Therefore, new magnetizing reactance = = 0.8 I
ing
2
Et Z : “ “ ength leads to poor power factor at no load and also on full load as
.ne
starting torque Te st.
reactance results in lower va.ues of (a, maximum torque , . . . and (5,
_ IR 5C T S M 1M
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IArt. 6. 10
asy
m.m.f. F 2 is also quite small and the load angle, see Eq. (6.5), is very n e a r to 90°. As the applied
load torque is increased, electromagnetic torque Te m ust increase accordingly— this can happen
En
only if rotor m.m.f. F 2 and the load angle increase. In order th a t rotor m .m .f. F 2 or rotor current
/ 2 increase, the rotor e.m.f. sE 2 must increase or the slip m ust increase ; in other words the rotor
11
standstill.
n » a ■■ *-« ■ ■
gin
speed must decrease as the load torque is increased. Here E 2 is the rotor e.m.f. _per phase pha; a
eer
At no-load, rotor leakage reactance has little effect on the rotor leakage impedance, becaus<
ing
rotor frequency and sx2 are very small and load angle 90 + tan ~ 1 — 2 is very n ear to 90°. Whei
' 1 (
the slip increases with an increase in load, the rotor power factor angle 02 U t a n ' 1 ^
\
in
.ne
3 “ aS 3 reSUlt f ‘: l0ad 3,1816 (90 + is 3150 tacreased - This Shows th a t as the apple,
load torque is increased, the rotor speed falls and both the rotor m m f F
crease to supply the required load toraue T h p fa ll in a a a.
a i •
‘ ‘ ' 2 and *oad angle in
t
in the range of 2 to 5 per cent of rated speed In view of t h t ^ 0™ £ t0 ^ load is USuaU;
possess shunt characteristics. induction m otor can be said ti
(b ) P o w e r fa c to r. The stator current of a r,u • ^ .
following three components : -phase induction m otor is made up of thi
^ d Z “ f ; r r r ^ th e r o t o r •
,POnent o f/" at no load is to supply f r ic tio n and vri ! ^ ftmction o fth e third. i.e. load, co.
F W „ ‘A h ird ' ““ Ponent is zero) The rotor no (F W ) '° 8S (F o r a transformer at i
w - ,o8s- * * this 1068 - o - t e s mi i , , ™ ; rpr: ; r ' d vth op^ a t ,n ° ioad- * « « « . «<uai
and therefore load component is very sroe
uo)
^.0 the com bination of second and third com-
A
tJie ccurre>e
tbe :te small-
small B But
u t tne
the magnetizing
m agnetizing tu iie iiul mforms
current lurms a majur
major
5°0 e,nts
ptsis>s qUI
qU* - due
i . . « tn
to the Dresence
presence of air gap in an induction
induction motor,
^pone^
,0 0 °_load current
curre n t 10I 0 lags tne
the siaior
stator voltage bypy an angle 0O
esult- n°* 5<5 t0
^ a result’ tQ 85°.
g5o Consequently, the stator power factor at ino
* range ot
r ^ e • -- n^ ^ Q^i tn
tQ nQ 33 the
the lower
lowef values
V£dues being
being applicable f
applicable for
; a « n motors.
Wte
g tor is loaded, the third, i.e. load, component,
ntor component ui
of stator
^ the mo nodoac[ value. The increment of load com-
no-load
« ^ nt *r rfator current above its no load value is responsible for
P«»eIlt
P
<>nen load ttorque.
fI hpa load o r q u e . The
T h e sstator-load o m p o n e n t xI 27 given by Eq.
t a t o r - i o a o ccomponent
ipplying
su p P ^ dded t0 / , g i v e s t h e s t a t o r c u r r e n t OA at
gives the stator current at a power
a p o w e r factor
fa c to r
t6l5),0WWhh further increase of load on the motor, the rotor current - ^ Improvenlcnt „
ofcos 01- w
ww stator-load component / 2' whep, lidded to I0 gives power factor with increase
w.E
asy
loaded beyond this load, P ^ J ^ I ^ that bars over V*
; t.r and rotor leakage r e a a n c e d r o p . Not ^ ^
* , etc. to indicate them as
Even Qtherwise lt ,mphes
phasors, are not shown in
that the voltages, c u r r e n ts e tc ., dra
g. ^ ^
En
phasor diagram are phasors.
m ach in es th e induction m achine losses a re m ade up
«
ir) Efficiency. As in other electrical ma »
core loss + friction and win age b >- " 1 ^ ^ ^ gin
variable load losses. At no load, the
^
shaft power output is zero, therefore,
aremom as compared with the output, efficiencyus, ^ eer
,S ‘ therefore> low. As the load is increased, the
^ varjable losses are equal,
efficiency also rises and b e c o m e s i m o »
Maximum efficiency at about 80 ^ , oad resultm gm ing
rated output, the higher vab esb ein g p
.ne
o c c u r s
plicable for larger motors. If the 08 raDidly than the output, consequen y
Sciency, the load losses increase more rapiQ y
decreases.
(d) S tator c u r r e n t. The no-load
larger values being applicable to sm
increase in load,
1qCUS 0f the tips of stator ^ rre^
t
r r B n t is a b o u t 3 0 t o 5 0 % o f r a t e d c u r r e n t , t h e
^ 6 12
correspondingly. In the phasor diagr , induction motor circle diagr ,
loads, fo llo w s a s e m i - c i r c l e a n d t h i s ea h a v e (j) m o re ep ,
(e) Shape of s ta to r slo ts. For a given ab t a r e M h e ^ ^ ^ that slot leahage^ux
ith or (ii) less depth and more width^P induction m otorswithd P
iirectly proportional to f ‘ ^ I c e low values of T,.,„ Tm . s .r - Similar thought pr
ire leakage reactance and, theref . L<oka9.
applied
ap p lied tto
o induction motors
in d u c tio n m o w n * with wider s • — —v
’-closed
• or closed
-1 /\onn 1
Further, the slots may be open, se”11 g 27. For a
shown respectively in (a), (6) and (c ^ glots is
'en slot m.m.f., reluctance offered.% -x closed slots is
je (ii) semi-closed slots is less an ^ leakage
n less. Consequently the open slo ci0sed slots (o) <»> • W
L 6.27. (a) open (6) semi-open
stance than semiclosed slots, wherea . j osed slots.
and (c) closed slots.
^ more leakage reactance than t e s d jjnes.
% 6.27, the leakage flux is shown by dotted
(/) A ir gap. In induction motors, for constant supply voltage, the air-gap flux remains sub
stantially constant. If the air-gap length is increased, then constant flux requires more mag
netizing current. This reduces the no-load power factor as well as the full-load power factor of
the induction motor. Therefore, in order th at an induction motor operates at a better power
factor, the air-gap length is kept as small as is mechanically possible. Small air-gap clearance
in induction motors necessitates a heavier shaft and high-grade earm gs an are required for
other types of rotating machines of the same rating and speed.
Open slots in an induction motor has the effect of increasing the air-gap length (1.10 to 1.20
times the actual air-gap length) as a result of which more magnetizing current is required and
the operating power factor of the motor is worsened. But an induction motor with open slots has
less leakage reactance and, therefore, more Te.st> more Tem etc. Likewise an induction motor
with semi-closed slots or closed slots requires less magnetizing current and therefore better
operating power factor, hut its Te tl, Tem etc. are reduced. In view of this, at the design stage, a
compromise has to be made between Te sl, Tem and the operating power factor of the induction
ww
motors.
6 .1 0 .1 . In d u ctio n m o to r sta b ility . Practically in all the motors the speed drops as the
w.E
load torque is increased. Mere intersection of motor torque Te and load torque TL charac
teristics does not guarantee a stable operating point. Stable operation of the system consisting
of motor and load is possible if the motor speed decreases with an increase in load torque or
vice versa.
asy
An induction motor is designed to operate at low values of full-load slips (from 0.02 to 005)
En
under normal operating conditions. In Fig. 6.28 (a), the normal operating region extending from
s = smT is shown by solid curve. The region from s = 1 to smT as shown by dotted curve in Fig.
6.28 (a) is rarely used.
gin
In Fig 6 28 (b) motor starting torque OA is more than the load torque OB, the motor,
eer
therefore, accelerates to the operating point C. If the load torque increases from curve TLl to
curve Tu , the operating point shifts from C to D and the motor speed drops from Oc to Od. It
ing
can also be shown that if the load torque decreases, the motor speed increases. This leads to the
conclusion that point C is stable one.
.ne
For load characteristic TL as shown in Fig. 6.28 (c), the motor will not start, because start
ing torque OA is less than load torque OB. Thus the question of any operating point does not
3F1S6.
t
For load characteristic TLl of Fig. 6.28 (d), C is the stable operating point because an in
crease of load torque from TLl to TL2 shifts the operating point from C to D and the speed is
.
thereby decreased. Such a load characteristic, however, would rarely be used under norma
circumstances, because operating point C would result in higher values of slip, high currents,
low power factor, more loss and very low efficiency.
For load characteristic TLX as shown in Fig. 6.28 (e), A is the stable operating point. , ^
to some reason or the other, the load torque decreases suddenly from TL1 to TL2, motor torque
exceeds TL2— the rotor gets accelerated till the operating point B is reached. After the pom ^
is arrived at, if TL2 again increases to TLl, the operating point C at reduced speed is obtaine^
Thus the normal operating region from s = 0 to smT is more stable than the region rom mr
s f lnfid torque
It can be concluded from above that stable operation depends on the nature ot o ,{
and motor torque characteristics and the way they intersect. It may also be se
ww
w.E Torque
asy
(d )
F ir 6 28 Pertaining to the induction motor stability.
En
Practically, the region between s = 0 and smT is used. This region is sometimes referred to
as stable one, because all types of load-characteristics in this region result in stable-operating
gin
points Since the speed-torque characteristic in the normal operating region is like that of d.c.
shunt motor (low variation of speed from no load to full load), the induction motor is said to
possess shunt characteristics.
6.11. D eterm ination of Eq uivalent Circuit Param eters eer
ing
The equivalent circu.t parameters of polyphase induction motors can be determined from
.ne
no load test, blocked-rotor test and stator winding d.c. resistance. The object of this article is to
describe the methods of determining the parameters from these tests.
la) No-load test (o r ru n n in g light test). The induction motor is made to run at no load
at rated voltage and frequency. Per phase values of applied stator voltage Vnl, input current
and input power Pnl are recorded.
t
The no-load -dip »„ is very small, therefore, £ in Fig. 6.14 is very large as compared to
K In view of this, the resultant of parallel branches and +y*2J .s almost equal to
35 illustrated in Fig. 6.29 (a). Thus the no-load reactance Xnl seen from the stator terminals is
^ ual to x 1 + X m i.e.
Y _y ...(6.39)
X„j - Xx + X m Xx
wW e Xx is the stator self-reactance.
From the instrument readings at no load, stator no-load impedance,
V*;
ZrJ =
rwwi’ m.
*1
4 — <w/—W —r +9 W f— W T
Vnl lm
• m
"V I %
1 (a)
1 - ____________ I
(b)
Fig. 6.29. Induction motor equivalent circuits for (a) no-load test and (fe) blocked-rotor test.
nl
and stator no-load resistance, Rn[ =
hl
a Xn[ = ^ z2n l- R 2nl.
The rotational losses PR (friction, windage loss and core loss) are usually assumed constant
and can be obtained from the relation
=m fir ,)
ww
where m is the number of stator phases and r : is the per phase stator resistance.
(6) w.E
Thus the no-load test gives Xnl and the rotational losses PR.
Blocked-rotor test. Blocked-rotor test, similar to the short-circuit test on a trans
former, is performed on the induction motor to calculate its leakage impedance.
I
asy
For performing this test, the rotor shaft is blocked by external means, i.e. the rotor shaft is
held stationary by belt-pulley arrangement or by hand. Now balanced polyphase voltages at
En
rated frequency are applied to the stator terminals through a polyphase variac. This applied
voltage is adjusted till rated current flows in the stator winding. Per phase values of applied
gin
voltage Vbr, input current (= rated current) Ibr and the input power Pbr are recorded. Current
I br may be affected by rotor position, in view of this the rotor should be held in a position that
eer
gives I br equal to the mean of maximum and minimum current values. Measure the d.c. resis
tance per phase of the stator winding soon after this test and multiply it by 1.1 to 1.3 in order
to obtain the per phase effective stator resistance r v
ing
The equivalent circuit under blocked-rotor test is as shown in Fig. 6.29 (6). From the instru
ment readings during blocked-rotor test, the parameters can be obtained as under :
y .ne
The blocked-rotor impedance, Zbr = ——
hr
Z br = Rb r + jX br = T) + j x x + — m.(^2 ,
r2 + J (x2 + Xm)
= r, + ir x (rg + jx 2)[iz l + X m)
r 2 + j (*2 + X m) r2 -j (*2+ x m)
• J X ,m
= r) + ;x , + - ' h + j y 2 - > r 2 (% + X „ ) + X2 (X2 + f i„ ) l
'2 + (*2 + f i n)!
J
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"m x « +X2 Vs
X m [r2 + x2Xd
Xbr = X\ + 2 ir2 = *1 +
rU X $
±
r + x 3r
r2
r2
is
Since X2 » ra, Y may be neglected. With this e,
i-
Xpi x2 Xmx2 *2
ww X 6r = x 1 + : = Xi +
Xm+ x2
«*! +■
1+ l-
w.E *2 .
Usually the magnetizing reactance Xm » rotor leakage reactance x2, therefore, ^ is neg
g
ligibly small and this gives
asy ...(6.41) e
r
•
is assumed equal to x 2, i e - x \= x2 = 2 Afcr’
1
,
V
En
There is no practical methodof separating * , and * a. For wound-rotor induction motors, * ,
, ,. . .. . aA
gin
For squirrel cage induction motors, total leakage reactance Xbr (= * , + *2) can be distnbut
between stator and rotor as per the following table :
Table 6.1. E m p irica l D istribution of Leakage R eactan ce Xbr eer
ing
Fraction o f Xj,r
s
Class o f motor
*1
*2
0.5 .ne
t
0.5
1. Class A (norm al Te st and Ist)
0.6
0.4
2. Class B (norm al Te st and low l st)
0.7
0.3
3. Class C (high Te st and low Ilt)
0.5
0.5 -
4. Class D (high Te si and high slip)
« fa the stator magnetizing reactance is given by
Once is known, then from Eq. (6.39), tn
Xm - X ni *i- o n f vn (6 40) blocked-rotor resistance Rbr as
Now taking the real components of both sides of Eq. (6.40), bloc
8een from the stator terminals is
X2
R br —t j + r 2 ~2 . Y
o • v t'Jrherefore, in the denominator
For machines of normal design, X2 ^ r 2>
aa compared to X 2.
(X f
R bv = r x + r2
X2
V.
ww
to those encountered at the time of starting.
In case induction motor characteristics are required near synchronous speed {e.g. during
w.E
normal operation), then rotor frequency is equal to s fh therefore, the blocked-rotor test should
be carried out at reduced frequency and with normal currents.
asy
Exam ple 6.41. A 10 kW, 400 V, 4 pole delta-connected squirrel cage induction motor gave
the following test results :
N o-load test
Blocked-rotor test :
: 400 V, 8 A, 250 watts.
En
90 V, 35 A, 1350 watts. -
gin
The d.c. resistance o f the stator winding p er p h ase m easured im m ediately after the blocked-
rotor test is 0.6 Cl. Calculate the rotational losses an d the equivalent circuit param eters.
Solution. No-load rotational losses are
eer
PR = 2 5 0 - 3
V3
ing
x (0.6 x 1.20) = 203.92 watts.
Note that the effective stator resistance per phase is taken equal to 1.2 times its d.c. value.
From no-load test, .ne
Znt =
400
(8/V3)
250
= 86.6 Cl
t
Rnl 3o (8/V3)
/Q /Jo \2 “ 3 91 n
86.51 a
= ( 1.102- 0.6 x 1.2)
= 0.402 n.
84.352
Thus the parameters of the induction motor equivalent circuit are
rj = 0.72 £2, r 2 = 0.402 £2, = *2 = 2.158 £2
X m= 84.352 £2.
and
Example 6.42. (a) Explain how friction and windage loss can be computed from the no-load
test-
(b) Under norm al operation o f the induction motor, the rotor core loss is usually negligible.
Explain-
(a) The power input to the induction motor at no-load has to supply the stator
ww
S o lu tio n ,
asy
For computing the friction and windage loss, the applied voltage to the unloaded induction
motor is varied from 1.25 times the rated voltage to about 20% of the rated voltage. The input
En
power, current and voltage are recorded so that a graph can be plotted. The speed, with reduc
tion in voltage, will fall only slightly so that the friction and windage loss remains substantially
co n sta n t.
gin
From each of the input-power readings, the corresponding stator ohmic loss is substracted
to obtain the core loss and friction and windage loss, i.e.
PR = m (P nl- I 2nlrl) eer
ing
where P^ is the per phase power input, 1^ is the per phase stator current and r 1 is the effective
per phase stator resistance. The plot of rotational loss PR with variable stator voltage is shown
in Fig. 6.30. The intercept of the PR curve with APr .ne
the ordinate gives the friction and windage
loss, because the core loss is zero for zero ap
plied voltage. In order to get a more accurate
value of mechanical loss (friction and windage ui
Core loss at
t
fated voltage
loss), rotational loss PR should be plotted against g
(voltage)2. This plot of PR with (voltage)2 is almost -
linear and, therefore, the extrapolation is easier. c
(b) Core loss or iron loss consists of eddy-cur
rent loss (oc B2f ) and hysteresis loss (« #*/)• At
standstill, the rotor frequency is equal to supply F.W. I oss Rated
frequency f, therefore, the rotor core loss is ap voltage
preciable. As the motor speeds up, the rotor fre JZ
quency decreases and with it the rotor core loss Voltage
le a s e s accordingly. Under normal running Fig. 6.30. Variation of rotational loss w ith voltage.
c°nditions,
'"tions, the slip is small (0.02 0.05), tne
( 0.02 to u.uoj, the
Jot<>r frequency is also very sm all; consequently the rotor core loss is very low and can, there-
ore. be neglected.
E xam p le 6.43. A 10 kW, 420 V. 3-phase, 4-pole, 50 Hz, delta connected squirrel cage induc
tion motor gave the following d ata for blocked rotor te s t .
210 V, 20 A, 5 kW
Stator core loss at rated voltage and frequency is 300 watts. The d.c. resistance measured
between any two stator term inals is 0.6 Cl. Determine the starting torque at rated voltage and
frequency.
S o lu tio n . With the stator winding in delta, the resistance per phase R is obtained from the
r'q^iftion
£ |u/l
| £ = 0.6 or * = 0 9 n.
Effective stator resistance per phase
= 1.2 x 0.9 = 1.08 Cl
Power input at rated voltage during blocked rotor test
ww = 5 x ( I o J = 20kw
w.E
Stator current at rated voltage during blocked rotor test
= 2 0 * | § = 40A
asy
Air-gap power at rated voltage and frequency, with the rotor blocked, is given by
En
Pe = 20,000 - 3 ' 4 0 f x 1 . 0 8 - 3 0 0 = 17972 W
IE
Synchronous speed, (o. =
P gin
= 471 * 50 = 50ti rad/sec
4
• * - 3 Vj or
Starting orque ^ (impedance at 45 Hz)2 2
?e
= 3 x 3 x --------------------- x o .21 = 312.594 Nm. is
100 x rt 3 [0.42 + 0.866 ] e,
Example 6.45. A 3-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz star-connected induction motor gave the following 1-
test results:
No load :
Blocked rotor : ww 400 V> 7-5 A > 0.135 power factor
150 V, 35 A, 0.44 power factor
i-
w.E
The ratio o f standstill leakage reactance o f stator and rotor is estimated as 2. I f the motor is
running at a speed o f 960 rpm, determine.
(o) net m echanical pow er output (b) the net torque and
g
e
(c) efficiency o f the motor.
Assume stator an d rotor copper losses to be equal. asy r
gin
R„, = ZnI cos 0n/ = 30.793 x 0.135 = <4.157 ft _
Xnl =
eer
V30.7932 - 4.157^= 30.511 ft
B locked-rotor te st. z br = J f ^ 35 = 2 ,4 7 4 0
Rbr = Zbr cos %r = 2 4 7 4 x 0.44 = 1.09 fting
Xbr = J z Z ^ W r = ^2.474 2 - L 0F « 2.22 ft
.ne
Here ^ = 2, *i + *2 = X br or 3*2 = 2.22. This gives
The exact equivalent circuit for this induction E (6 22 ) and (6.23) are given
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit parameters obtained from hqs. t
below: .
V Y iJs . where x 1 + X „ = 1.48 .2 9 ,0 3 1 = 30.511 n
V‘ x ,+ X m
x j u u i ii i u u uy i i v j u u i ii
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I A rt. 6 .U
774 Electrical Machinery
0 519/1 1-409/1 074A
0545A 1-49A 0-74 A
T
V,-230 95V 129-031 ^ I q-545
n rti .
_ 0.545 x 29.031 = Q 5 1 9 f l
~ 30.511
_ 1 ,4 8 x 2 9 .0 3 1 _ j 408 n
30.511
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 6.31 (ft).
ww
Rotational losses = V3 x 400 x 7.5 x 0.135 - 3 x 7.5 2 x 0.545 = 609.5 W
1000 - 960
w.E
Synchronous speed = 1000
= iw v rpm, slip *s -= 10oo
h =7asy 219.75
0.545
0.519 +
En
0.04
+j 2.148
or
(a) Net mechanical power output = P m - Rotational losses
Psh = 9258.48 - 609.5 = 8648.98 W. ing
(6 ) Synchronous speed, cos =
4n x 50 100 71
g
3
rad /sec
.ne
Met torque,
P sH
Tsh = 0).
8648.98
100 71
(1 - 0.04)
= 86.033 Nm. t
P m ■s 9258.48 x 0.04
(c) Rotor ohmic losses = 385.77 W
1-s 0.96
Stator ohmic losses = 385.77 W
Rotational losses = 609.5 W
Total losses in motor = 385.77 x 2 + 609.5 = 1381.04 W
Power input = 8648.98 + 1381.04 = 10030.02 W
s _ 1 2 0 0 - 1175 J _
SUP. 1 1200 “ 48
prom Eqn. (6 -3 0 ). ra te d to rQu e is given by
T, . i l S . l - .1 3 Vf 1
- - .A
ws r 2 48 co r,2
With reduced voltage and lowered frequency, we get
Qf(\ O T 7 \2 .
Ti r = s 2 ^ f ^ ± . l . A . ± 3V J i
0.94 o)s r2 48 ‘ co, ^
c 0.94 A
or 2 0 .8 1 x 4 8
ww
New operating speed = — ° X 0g94 x 60 (i _ 0.0242) = 1100.70 rpm.
asy
means that whatever information can be obtained from the equivalent circuit, the same can also be
obtained from the circle diagram. The advantages of circle diagram are its simplicity and quick
En
estimation of the induction motor operating characteristics. Though a computer can rapidly provide
the performance characteristics of a 3-phase induction motor from its equivalent circuit, yet the
gin
graphical solution through the use of circle diagram is even now popular in several organisations
It is because a circle diagram
eer
ii) gives the results which are sufficiently accurate for practical purposes, despite the fact
that an approximate equivalent circuit is used in a circle diagTam,
ing
(ii) provides a panoramic view of how operating characteristics are affected by changes in
the machine param eters, voltage, frequency etc.
.ne
A circle diagram shows that the extremities of stator current phasor follow a circular locus
as the slip varies from + °° to - » . In this article, first the development of circle diagram from
|s approximate equivalent circuit is presented. Then the use of this circle diagram for obtain
Ing performance calculations is described.
(a)
t
C u rre n t lo cu s fo r th e r o to r c irc u it. The rotor circuit voltage equation in phasor form
can be written, by referring to its equivalent circuit of Fig. 6.7, as
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h www.EasyEngineering.net
[A rt. 6. 12
i: 776 E le c tric a l M ach in ery
5X2 (s * 1
Here 0 2 = rotor power-factor angle = t a"H — I-
ww
diagram.
(b ) C ircle d iag ram from th e a p p ro x im a te e q u iv a le n t c i r c u it . The shunt branch co
w.E
sisting o f R c &ndXm in parallel, see
Fig. 6.13 (a), may be connected across + o— ------ -v\W-
i
A ,
/Tnflfi
A 2
rmnr\
V, R es
I-
i i *
This circuit neglects the stator leakage
impedance drop due to Ie and is used En r t
C 1
J *<*>
eer
Fig g 33 Approximate equivalent circu it of an induction motor,
simplicity and reduced labour.
ing
The per phase voltage Vx sends a cu rren t / 2 through the series circuit consisting of
r x x lt — and x2.
s
'
. r 2N+ j (*i + x2) .ne
y
The current I 2 lags Vx by an angle
« 1 x \+ *2
t ...(6 .4 5 )
02 = tan ' 1 — -
r,
r' 7
Eq. (6.45) can be re-written as,
y rx+ —
-J X, -hX
= 72- J I 2 -
* l +*2
V r +
As before, - j — —l lags V, by 90° and ~ j l 2 — A lags j 2 by 9Qo and 7j lags by e2 where
02 = tan 1^ ~ T 7 This is ilIustrated in Fig. 6.34 (a), where Vj is taken along the vertical axis
ri + ~
r \+ ~s_
is the diameter of the rotor-current locus, OA = I 2 and AB = OC = I 2
tfere OB = X i+ X2 * 1 +X2'
dstill, for V\ applied voltage, I 2 (= OD) becomes very large and angle 02 increases to
At st»ni 7* "4"
-1 This is also shown in Fig. 6.34 (a) in which DB = I2 —— -
tan rj + r2 xl + x2
ww
w.E
(a)
asy (b)
Fig. 6 .3 4 . Induction motor circle diagram (o) with shunt branch neglected and
En
(b) effect of shunt branch included.
In order to include the effect of shunt branch in the circle diagram, draw magnetizing current
V
gin
Im = - r - = OQ' and core-loss component of current I c = Q'Q =
V\ . . .
■Then OQ is the exciting current
m .
eerC . . ( Vi
Ie. The rotor-current locus diagram of Fig. 6.34 (a) is repeated again with QB ~ x ^+
]
^ the
ing
diameter. In this manner circle diagram of Fig. 6.34 (6) is obtained from the approximate
equivalent circuit. Here QA is the rotor current I2, OA is the stator current I x and cos
operating power factor at stator terminals.
is the
.ne
Note that QQ' x Vlt in Fig. 6.34 (b), represents the core loss only. In order to take into
account the core loss, friction and windage loss at no load operation of the induction motor,
length QP in Fig. 6.35 should be made equal to
t
No-load induction motor loss per phase
Per phase Vi
The circle diagram of Fig. 6.34 (6 ) is re-drawn in Fig. 6.35 on a larger scale for the sake of
clarity. From this circle diagram, the following observations can be made .
(0 On no-load, I 2 = QN = 0 , therefore, point Q indicates no-load operation.
(QP) (V2) = No-load input to stator. Note that QP x Vx is equal to the friction and windage
loss. core loss and negligible amount of I 2R loss. OP is the magnetizing current and 60 is the
load power factor angle, obtained from the relation
_ l No-load power input
0 “ cos V3 (No-load current)
Current I 2 = QN is the rotor current referred to stator and I\ is the total stator current.
Auction motor operating power factor is given by cos 6 i-
ww
w.E
Fig. 6.35. Induction m otor circle diagram . S ta to r cu rrent-locu s shown by full-line (from point Q, N, D and
up to point S = « ) is for the induction motor and th at shown by dotted line (from point S = ° c , R ,M and up
to point Q) is for the induction generator.
asy
OD is the short-circuit current for Vl applied voltage and with the rotor at standstill. Under
En
short-circuit at rated voltage, the power input is lost as I 2R loss in stator-rotor conductors and
core loss in stator-rotor irons. In Fig. 6.35, the power input under short circuit is
gin
Vx •OD cos 0SC = Vl I sc cos 0SC = DE.
eer
In this figure, E F = QP represents the friction, windage and core loss. At standstill E F may
be taken to be equal to short-circuit core loss, because the absence of friction and windage loss
ing
un er short circuit is practically compensated by increased rotor core loss at standstill. In other
words, E F - Q P - (stator core loss + friction and windage loss) a t no load = (stator c o r e
oss + rotor core loss) at standstill Under this approximation, E F represents the per phase core
loss and DF gives the per phase I 2R loss in stator-rotor conductors at standstill.
.ne
Now divide D F so that
phas„er T diCU' ar ‘ ° ^
OF
= rotor ^ & 1°8S j • ,
and
t
stator j 2R 1oss • oint QO. For any operating point N, draw
(u) S ta to r and ro to r I 2R losses. From similar triangles QKH and QFD we get
h k = QK ’
DF QF
In right-angled A K
Q
NQK
; = QN cos [N Q K and in righhangled A;= cos /DQF.
... HK QK QN cos [N Q K
^ QF = QD cos /D Q F .-(6.46)
From right-angled AQNR,
cos /N Q K = cos /N Q R = Q K
■ Q R
b t a n n e d "b"y” C a m S c a n n e r www.EasyEngineering.net
r www.EasyEngineering.net
' N„w points ,R are jointed together as shown in Fig. 6.35. In the right-angled trian
D
qDR
cos [D Q F - cos [D Q R =
QR
Substitution of the values of cos /N Q K and cos /DQF in Eq. (6.46) gives,
QN)
QN
HK QR
_ = =
DF qD (Q » ) (QD)2 ( 4 )2
[ QR J
Multiplying the num erator and denominator by (r, + r2) of the right-hand side of above
expression, we get
H K _ (QN)2 (rt + r 2) _ (/2f (ri + r2)
(QO)2 (r 1 + r 2) " ( / sc)2 (r 1 + r2)
ww
This shows that i f DF, on the basis of power scale, is the stator and rotor 12R loss at
standstill when the current is QD, then H K must represent, on the same scale, the stator and
w.E
rotor I2R loss when the current is QN.
Thus it can be concluded that if DF represents stator and rotor I 2R loss for a current of
asy
QD, then H K must represent on the same scale the stator and rotor I 2R loss for a current of
QN. Further the triangles Q K J and QFG and also the triangles QJH and QGD are similar,
En
therefore, K J = stator I 2R loss at current QN and J H = rotor I 2R loss at current QN.
(iii) E fficien cy a n d slip. In Fig. 6.35, N L represents the total power input. Since KL rep
gin
resents friction, windage and core losses and KH the total stator and rotor ohmic losses, NH
must represent the power output, i.e. the shaft power Psh.
ing
The line QD on which the power output point H lies, is called output line. In other words,
the locus of all power-output points such as H, lie on the line QD called the output line.
^ Rotor I 2R losses _ J H
JN .ne ...(6.48)
t
^ Rotor input
(iv) T orque. Torque,
Rotor input or air-gap power, Pg
T =
Now NL represents the total power input and J L the total stator losses. Ther
W (= NL - J L )represents the rotor input or air-gap power. Torque T, .s proport.onal to
power N J. The locus of point J as the operating point N moves around the circle, is t re me
(JG-this line is, therefore, called torque line. Starting torque is given by D a -
(")The maximum output power is obtained by drawing fromi ther“ nt^ ^ ^
Porpendicular CA to the output line QD. see Fig. 6.35 (a). Now A/1, drawn normal to CM, id
rescnts the maximum power output to scale. . , r norn„nfuCi,iar
CB torciue is ol>taino<l by drawmB fr0"j ‘gives tlio maximum torquo to scale.
CB‘o the torque line QG. Then flfl, drawn normal to OA, gives me mi h
obt normal operuting region of the motor is nonr l',nxia” la’ ■’ . j , , current cor-
°btained by drawing a tangent from 0 to the circle. In big. 6.36, / , is >
tfiP0nding to the maximum power factor cos 0,„.
ii
I.
I
'•I ,
Fig. 6.36 Circle diagram from no-load and blocked-rotor testa.
If the rotor speed is made above synchronous speed, the induction machine starts‘ working
as an induction generator for which the stator-current locus is showni dotted‘ ^ _6^ 5.
electrical power output is ML to scale, cos 0G is the operating power factor and I (- OM) is the
ww
output current.
Power across the air gap = ML + Stator loss L J = M J.
w.E
Mechanical input from prime-mover MH.
asy
rotor input (= 2>'G') is less than rotor ohmic loss Z G . Braking region m the circle diagram ot
Ff g 6 35, is indicated by part of the circle between points D and s = ~. Note that for s = ~, rotor
(c) En
current is zero and, therefore, rotor I 2!? loss is zero.
C ircle d ia g ra m from te st d ata. The circle diagram depicting the locus of stator cur
gin
rent, can be drawn by using the test data obtained from no-load and blocked-rotor tests and the
stator resistance.
. , n ii eer
No-load and blocked-rotor tests are conducted as explained in Art. 6.11. The rated votage
nkoco vnlupR fnr no-load test. Current/,./ - OQ is drawn
ing
c°s e° VZl.
nl *nl .ne ...(6.49)
0O= cos
- 1 nl
V„,I.
nl nl
Note that OQ in Fig. 6.36 is drawn to a suitable scale.
t
In blocked-rotor test, the applied voltage V * is only a fraction of rated v , f S ^ d ’with
ed-rotor test data Vbr, I ir and Pbr is converted to values that would have been
rated applied per-phase voltage Vv
Xl
1 ac ~ ^ b r t r
'br
V il
P .c = P tr I Vbr
.(6.50)
„ p A$v
cos 8., - v i V7T.
Now O D = I,c is drawn making an angle of 0SCwith V,. Points Q and D on the current loc
are therefore, determined. Lines QR and OX are drawn perpendicular to phasor V,. Kignt
I,
bisector of the line joining points Q, D meets QR in C which is the centre of locus-C]rcle_Wl
ifc:
c as centre and CQ as radius, the circle is drawn. Now draw D E perpendicular to OX. Divide
If current scale is 1 cm = x amperes, then per phase power scale is 1 cm = xVl watts, where
Vj is the per phase voltage.
ww
Example 6.47. A 15 kW, 400 V, 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase star-connected induction m otor gave
the following test results :
Line voltage
Line current
w.E .
No-load test
400 V
9A
B locked-rotor test
200 V
50 A
Powerinput - 1310 watts
asy
Stator and rotor ohmic losses at standstill are assum ed equal.
7100 watts
Is c = 200 * 5 0 = 100 A -
The circle diagram can now be drawn \yith the help of above data, as follows :
Scale 6 A = 1 cm.
■g j U I I I U U U I II I V
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Q- O -e ^
QR in C and this is the required centre of the circle diagram. Note th at OX and QR are drawn
perpendicular to phasor Vx. With C as centre, draw a circle with CQ as radius. From D, draw
w.E
DE perpendicular to OX. Since stator and rotor ohmic losses are equal, make FG = GD. Join
G with Q to obtain the torque line GQ, Fig. 6.37.
asy
(a) Per phase power scale = xVx watts per cm.
and
Here Vx =
x = 6 A/cm. En
volts
ing
In order to get the operating point P, extend FD to D'. Make DDf =
5000
= 3.61 cm. Now
draw U P parallel to the output-line QD. Join P with O.
.ne
1385.7
A rt. 6.12]
Polyphase Induction M otors 783
= 5 0 ^ (6-65>(1385-7)(3) = 176Nm.
Slip at which maximum torque occurs
_ fU_ _ 1.58
BB' ~ 6.65 ~ 238-
.ne
I f the induction motor is m ade to work as an induction generator with output current equal
to motor full-load current, then find
(c) its pow er output, operating power factor and efficiency.
Solution. From no-load test, no-load power factor is
t
4 8 0 /3
cos 0„ = ; = 0.165 0O= 80.5°.
f4.2
400
V3
[Art. 6.12
784 Electrical Machinery
4.2
Per phase no-load current = = 2-42 A.
Scale 1 A = 1 cm.
Draw the circle diagram as explained in Example 6.47.
(a) In order to get the maximum torque, draw CB perpendicular to the torque line QG.
Draw B B ’ perpendicular to OX. Then BB' gives the maximum torque, fig . b.d«.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig. 6.38. Induction motor and g enerator circle diagram . E xam p le 6 .4 8 .
The maximum torque at starting can be obtained only if the operating point at starting is
eer
B (and not D). At this operating point B, the internal rotor resistance consumes a loss equal to
fB'. The remainder of the loss fB (at starting) must be consumed by the external resistance to
be inserted in the rotor circuit.
External resistance to be inserted _ Bf_ _ 4.6ing
Internal rotor resistance
.*. External resistance to be inserted
B 'f 1.25'
.ne
4.6
1.25
x 1.2 = 4.416 Q.
External resistance referred to rotor (or actual value of the external resistance)
t
4.416
= i.i0 4 a .
(2 )
Corresponding to maximum torque at starting, the per phase starting current is OB = 11.24 A or
the starting line current is 11.24 x V3 = 19.47 A. The power factor is cos ZOBB' = cos 45.5° = 0.701
lag.
4500
(6 ) Per phase power scale -x V j - 1 x 400 = 400 W/cm. Full-load power per phase =
1500 watts.
In order to get the full-load operating point P and thus the full-load torque Te fi extend FD
to D’ so that DD' = = 3.75 cm. Now draw D’P parallel to the output line QD. The full-load
torque Ttfl is proportional to bP. Now extend bP to M so that 6Af = 1.25 bP. Draw MN parallel
to the torque line QG. Draw NN’ normal to OX. Now N is the operating point at starting so that
1.25 times the full load torque is obtained. As in part (a), internal rotor resistance consumes a
loss equal to N'K and the remainder KN is consumed in the external resistance.
External resistance to be inserted
NK — .
= x Kotor resistance
2.9
= — x 1.2 = 1.657 Q.
ww
(c) Per phase output current when working as an induction generator
= OH = 5.35 A.
w.E
Induction generator p.£= cos 0G= cos 41.3° = 0.75 leading.
.'. Induction generator output
asy
= 3 x 400 x 5.35 x 0.75 = 4815 W = 4.815 kW.
Induction generator efficiency
=^P =
Ha 4.90 En
= 0.80612 or 80.612%.
gin
Exam ple 6.49. A 150 kW, 400 V, 8-pole, 50 Hz, star-connected induction motor has the
following impedance param eters in ohms per phase referred to stator.
eer
r1 = 0.02 Q, r2 = 0.04 Q, x} = x2 = 0.2 O, Xm = 9.8 Q.
ing
At rated shaft output, it runs with a slip o f 4 percent and with an efficiency o f 93%.
(a) Calculate the rotational and core losses at rated load from the data given above.
.ne
(b) I f this m otor is driven as a generator at a slip o f 4 percent, determine (i) electric power
output (ii) p f at the generator terminals and (iii) efficiency.
The induction generator is connected to a distribution system o f 400 V.
Solution, (a) From Fig. 6.14,
t
0.04
+ j 0.2 (79-8)
0.04 - 1.96 + j 9.8 1 ->10
Z,= i+ > io x i-jio
1 + j (9.8 + 0.2)
ww r j + jx x = 0.02 + >0.2
Total impedance, Z = - 0.931 + >0.491 = 1.0525 /1 5 2 .2 °
.
w.E400
/1 = -nr- x
11 ~ W X 1.0525 /1 5 2 .2
= 219.43 / - 152.2
Stator output current
asy
= 219.43 /2 7 .8 °
Power factor at machine terminals = cos 27.8° = 0.8846
(i) Electric power output
En
= Vjf x 400 x 219.43 x 0.8846 = 134478 W
(ii) Regarding 134478 W as output power, the induction generator works a t a leading pf of
0.8846.
(Hi) Air-gap power gin
= 3 (219.43)2 x 0.951 = 137370.6 W
Total stator I 2R loss
eer
= 3 (219.43)2 x 0.02 = 2889 W
Total rotor I 2R loss
Total rotational and core losses ing
= sPg = 0.04 x 137370.6 = 5494.8 W
= 3444.7 W
Total losses = 11828.5 W
.ne
Mechanical power input to drive the induction generator
= Power output + total losses
= 134,478 -i-11828.5 = 146306.5 W
t
Efficiency of induction generator =— x 100 = 91.92% .
motors may be light-loaded for a p art of their operation timT rh g SmCe mduct,on
factor is very low. The reasons th at an induction m o to ^ ltaT O o I r J °P eratin« Power
for any value of the load, are as follows : always operates a t lagging power factors
appliedTvholtm
agfbey 9 0 " g CUrrent’ ^ Pr° duCti° " of m agnetic flux, lags the
A rt. 6 .1 3 ]
— ------------ Polyphase Induction Motors 787
At present, major industrial and agricultural loads consist of polyphase induction motors '
operating at average low power factors. In order to utilize the distribution and feeder circuits .
be er an o ecrease e osses in these circuits, a larger operating power factor is essential.
The important methods of power factor control of polyphase induction motors are :
T ? ( stat*c c a Pac'f ° rs across the stator terminals of both the squirrel cage and
wound-rotor induction motors and
(6 ) by the use of auxiliary machines for wound-rotor induction motors.
sideredthiS artid e’ ^ firSt m6th° d °f P°Wer fact° r COntro1 of A u ctio n motors is con-
ww
fi qqfaVpS 6 SwM f static capacitors across the stator terminals, refer to Fig.
6.39 (a). Fig. 6.39 (6 ) shows that without the use of static capacitors, the stator current is 7, and the
motor operating power factor is cos Gj.
w.E
When capacitors are connected across
stator terminals as shown in Fig. 6.39
(c), the cu rre n t Ic through the
Vl Jl
asy
capacitors lead the voltage Vl by 90°
(assumed ideal capacitors). The phasor
sum of 11 and I c gives the current /j'
En
drawn from the supply. In Fig. 6.39 (6),
stator leakage impedance drop is ig
nored for the sake of simplicity. The
gin
power factor of the combination
(capacitors and induction motor) im eer
(a) (h)
m [Art ^
788 Electrical Machinery_________ _ _ ___________ _________ — --------- ----------------------------------
capacitors. A still bettor way of avoiding self-excitation is to adjust the capacitance with load
either manually or automatically. nhn** Ann v sn u
E xam p le 6.60. An induction m otor operoti"g f ™ * ' d i l a t e the p e r p h a se value o f
Z ^ ta T a n d [ Z Z I vaI ^ Z 3-phase ^ a c i t o r b a n k uthich, tvhen connected to the
motor terminals, would improve the line pow er factor to O.V ag.
Solution. It is not given whether the induction motor J L T u T ed m 's'ta^nd
the case with 3-phase capacitor bank. Here the indue ion m connected The above
the capacitor bank is taken to be first star-connected and t!hen de t < a b o v e
calculations are again repeated with the induction-motor sta o ri • >
to Fig. 6.39 (6 ).
(a) S ta to r in sta r. Per phase current,
J, = 10 A.
ww
With phase voltage as reference, the current in phasor from is
7j = 10 ( 0 .8 - j 0 .6 ) = 8 - j 6 = oa - j ab.
w.E
When the power factor is improved to 0.9 lag, current is I lt but its real component oa is
again 8 A. Thus the magnitude of I f is given by
1
asy
Real part o f /,
cos e x
8
0.9
In phasor form,
En
I f = 8.89 (0.9 —j 0.436) = 8 —j 3.880 = oa —j ac.
Examination of Fig. 6.39 (6 ) reveals that reactive component of current to be neutralised by
capacitor is cb.
... gin
cb = ab - ac = 6 - 3.88 = 2.12 A.
The capacitors must supply this current of 2.12 A.
(i ) If capacitor bank is star-connected, then eer
Ic = 2.12 A
ing
id voltage across each capacitor = V.
.ne
.or
Capacitive reactance
C-
=
•—
= >/3x^2 12 =
2n x 50 x 108.94
= 29.22 |iF.
^
t
Total kVA rating of the 3-phase capacitor bank
= 3 /c x ^ = 3 x 2 . 1 2 x ^ = 1.469 kVA.
X - - i - '
A 2 nfC
A rt. 6 .1 3 ]
Polyphase Induction M o to rs 789
Star-equivalent of delta-connected capacitor bank
X Y= X 1
~a =
3 2nf(3C)
—Qy O 1Qv 1
ww ¥
(6 ) S ta to r in d elta. Per phase current
X 1M0 = l-469 kVA
In phasor form,
w.E r
m
10
=^g = 5.77 A.
/ , = 5 .77 (0.8 _ j 0 6 ) = 4 62 _ . 3 4(J
asy
When power factor is 0.9 lag, then magnitude o f/,' is
r , 4.62
En
7l = " o T = 5 1 3 A -
In phasor form,
As in part (a) gin
/j ' = 5.13 (0.9 - 0.436) = 4.62 - j 2.24
cb = a b ~ ac = 3.46 - 2.24 = 1.22 A.
eer
(i) For star-connected capacitor bank of capacitor C per phase
X r = 2nfC
1
ing
Delta-equivalent of star-connected capacitor bank
3 .ne
Per phase voltage across delta-equivalent bank = 400 V
Per phase capacitor current = 1.22 A
t
400 3
X —
c 1.22 2 k x 50 x C
ww
Solution. Motor per phase input current
r _________ 206---------- -= 1 4 5 .3 2 A.
asy
7j = 145.32 (0 .7 - j 0.714) = 101.72 - j 103.76.
Magnitude of per phase motor current I f as the power factor is improved to 0.9 [refer to Fig.
6.39(6)],
En
7i/=
Real component of I x 101.72 _ .
0^ " 0.9 gin ‘
^ ^
' ;l
In phasor form,
eer
I f = 113.02 (0.9 —j 0.436) = 101.72 —j 49.28. ;
ing
.-. Reactive component of per phase current that capacitor must supply = Reactive com
ponent of I 1 - Reactive component of I f
= 103.76 - 49.28 = 54.48 A.
Here the induction motor is star-connected and the capacitor bank is delta-connected. Con .ne
verting delta-connected bank of per-phase capacitance C to an equivalent star-connected bank,
we get
t
x L _ |
Y 3 27c f(3C)
r> phase
Per i u
voltage = 3300
n V3 x 54.48 „ I
0r 3300 x 2te x 50 x 3 ^ !
Now each capacitor is rated at 420 V, therefore, 8 =
330( such capacitors w ill have to be
420
connected in series.
Then, power lost in the distribution circuit without capacitor bank = 3 (145.32)2 R watts.
Power lost when the capacitor bank is installed
= 3 (113.02)2 R watts.
.-. Percentage saving in the losses
_ 3_[145.32)2 R - 3 (113.02 )2 R |n ,
3 (145.32) 7? X 100 = 39'51%-
In case the capacitor bank is star-connected, then it can be computed that the capacitance
of each bank is 30.34 x 3 = 91.02 pF. Five such capacitors 3300
would have to be con-
~ y/3 x 420
nected in series and capacitance of each capacitor should be
w.E
6.14. Starting of Polyphase Induction Motors
It is seen from Fig. 6 18 that a 3-phase induction motor has positive finite starting torque
7^, when slip s - 1.0 . This means that 3-phase induction motor is a self-starting motor and
asy
begins to rotate on its own when connected to a 3 -phase source
Clr<^ 1T
En
At the instant of starting, a 3-phase induction motor behaves like a transformer with short-
17' CoTnse(luently* a 3-phase induction motor takes high starting current if
gin
started at full voltage In order to limit this high starting current to reasonable values, some
methods are adopted for the starting of 3 -phase induction motors.
eer
In this article, various methods of starting polyphase induction motors are described. First
the methods of starting squirrel-cage motors are presented and then the methods of starting
wound-rotor motors. 6
6.14.1. ing
S ta rtin g of sq u irrel-cag e m otors. For cage motors, the choice of any particular
.ne
method of starting depends on (i) size and design of the motor (ii) capacity of the power lines
and (lit) type of the driven load. There are primarily two methods of starting squirrel-cage
starting consists of DOL starting only. The reduced-voltage starting has the advantage of
t
induction motors : (a) full-voltage starting and (6 ) reduced-voltage starting. The full-voltage
reducing the starting current, but it produces an objectionable reduction in the starting torque,
on account of the fact that motor torque is proportional to the square of the applied voltage!
Despite this, reduced-voltage starting is the most popular method of starting three-phase
squirrel-cage induction motors and consists of stator resistor (or reactor) starting, auto-trans
former starting and star-delta starting. The various methods are now described in what fol
lows.
(a) D irect-on-line (across-the-line) starting. As the name suggests, this method invol
ves the direct switching of polyphase stator on to the supply mains. The motor takes low-power
factor starting current of 5 to 7 times its full-load current, depending upon its size and design.
Such large currents of short duration don’t harm the rugged squirrel cage motor, but the high
currents may cause objetionable voltage drop in the power supply lines feeding the induction
motor. These large voltage drops cause undesirable dip in the supply line voltage; consequently
the operation of other equipments connected to the same supply line is effected considerably. A
common example is the momentary dimming of lamp and tube-lights in the home at the instant
a refrigerator motor starts.
792 E le c tric a l M a c h i n e r y l^ t_ k l4
If the supply system is of sufficient power capacity and the low-power factor starting-cur
rent surges don’t cause objectionable voltage dips in the supply line voltage, then the direct-on
line starting should be preferred.
The relation between starting torque Te gt and full-load torque Te.fi is now obtained. L et/rt
and Ifl be the per-phase stator currents drawn from the supply mains corresponding to starting
and frill-load conditions respectively. From Eq. (6.13),
-a
e o>, 2 s
n /4 f r \2
Te.st _ 1 l 2st ...(6.51 a)
T *fl j2 r2 h fl
l 2 fl —
S fi
Eq. (6.51 a) is valid in case rotor resistance remains constant. Actually, rotor resistance
ww
varies with the frequency of rotor cu rren t; at starting rotor frequency is 50 Hz and at full load
it is only a few hertz.
w.E
Here I 2tt and I™ are the per-phase rotor currents at startin g and full-load conditions
respectively.
If no-load current is neglected, then
asy
I tl x effective stator turns = I 2 st x effective rotor turns
or
En
Itt = I?# (effective rotor to stator turns ratio)
or
gin
I # (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio) I 2 st
Ifl (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio) I 2fl
or
ht
h
Iz st
h fi eer
From Eq. (6.51a),
T e st _ [1 s t
\2
Sfi ing ...(6.51 b)
T e fi [ h
If Vi is the per phase stator voltage and Z$c is the standstill per phase leakage impedance .ne
referred to stator, then per phase short-circuit current at standstill (or at starting) is,
/
t
^ 8C
/ - /1 SC
“ “ ry •
"» C
T .„
\2
Sfi ...(6.52)
T < fl~
*
■e st (I•*StN
As before, ...(6.54 a)
ww ■efl
est 2 (I*sc '
...(6.54 b)
or
w.E r~ =x
•efl
In an induction motor, torque oc (voltage)2
■Sfl
asy
Starting torque with Reactor starting _ (xV\
Starting torque with direct switching V1
- x ...(6.55)
v
En/
Series reactor is more costly than the series resistor, but the former has lower energy loss
gin
and is more effective in reducing the voltage, because the induction-motor power factor at start
ing is quite low.
(c) A u to -tra n sfo rm e r sta rtin g . A fraction x
supply voltage Vl is applied to the stator terminals at the
of the
eer
time of starting, by means of an auto-transformer as shown
in Fig. 6.41. This reduces the motor current and also the cur ing
rent drawn from the supply. After the motor has accelerated
near to its operating speed, auto-transformer is disconnected .ne
and full line voltage is applied to the induction motor by con
necting it directly across the supply mains. Note that here x
is less than one. •
t
Fig. 6 .4 1 . P ertain in g to
au to-tran sform er sta rtin g .
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Eq. (6.56) shows that motor starting current per phase is reduced only to x times the direct
switching current I sc; but the pe. phase starting current from the supply mains is reduced to
x 2 times the direct switching Isc. As per Eq. (6.51 b),
• _!• 2
Te sl (Per phase starting current in motor winding)
sfl
1 e fl (Per phase motor full-load current)"'
T e st (x I sc)
From Eq. (6.56) ■sfi
lefl 4
\2
) (T
ic
= X
Sfl ...(6.58)
Per phase starting current, Ist, from the supply mains can be included in Eq. (6.58) with the
help of Eq. (6.57). Substitution of the value of I sc in terms of Ist gives
Test _ 2 1 I
ww T e fl
w.E v' /
l st
■Sfl
The ratio of starting to full-load torque in terms of both I st and I 8Ccan be obtained from Eq.
...(6.59)
(6.58) as follows.
asy
Test
T.e f l
(x I sc) I sc
En
1 st ‘ 1 sc
$
■Sfl
gin ...(6.60)
eer
Per phase motor starting current in terms of Ist, from Eq. (6.56), is given by
x I sc = x —2 I st
X ing
.ne ...(6.61)
ww
w.E
asy
tripple pole double throw (TPDT) switch to position 1 and after steady-state speed has reached,
En
TPDT is thrown over to position 2, thereby connecting the stator winding in delta, see Fig. 6.42
(6).
gin
In position 1, terminals a, b, c are short circuited. In position 2, terminal a is connected to
B ; b to C ; c to A.
eer
Let VL be the line voltage. Then per phase motor starting current Isty with stator winding
in star is given by
V,
W zZ
’
ing
With stator winding in star, I sty is also the starting line current with star-delta starter.
.ne
If the stator winding were delta-connected, then with direct switching, the per phase motor
starting current Istd would be given by
_ V,
t
^ s t d ~ ~y *s c -d
SC
VL
and starting line current with direct switching would be equal to V3 ^3 Ist d = ^3 Ix d . Note
^SC
that Ist y = ^ Ist d. Here the subscripts y and d denote star and delta connections of stator wind
ing respectively.
Starting line current with star-delta starter
Starting line current with direct switching in delta
1 Yk
kV 1
Thus with star-delta starter, the starting current from the mains is one-third of that with
direct switching in delta. Also,
(V l
Is 1
, Starting torque with star-delta startei _ v, i
Starting torque with direct switching in delta v£ _3
This shows that star-delta starter also reduces the starting torque to one-third of that
produced by direct switching in delta.
In auto-transformer, if the ratio of output voltage to supply voltage is then both the starting
line current, Eq. (6.57), and motor starting torque, Eq. (6.62), are reduced to one-third of their
corresponding values with direct switching in delta. This shows that with star delta-starter, a
motor behaves as if it were started by an auto-transformer starter with* = ^ = 0.58, i.e ., with 58%
tapping.
ww Starting torque with star-delta starter, Test
(1 T
x2
asy V3 std
^5 Sfl
En
1 *scd
3 Lfld gin ...(6.63)
eer
ing
voltages exceeding1
delta requires large turns making the motor more expensive .ne 6tC: ^ lin*
winding in
starting line current for an induction m otor with p 5 a n d m .lo a d slip equ a! (o 0 Q5
so lu tio n , (o, Starting torque with an auto-transformer starting = - L (per phase startlng
= — I sc
. , r'2 ...(6.64)
(i).
2
Test with stator-reactor starting - - L (per phase starting current in motor winding)2.
5 .
ww
1_ (* h e) ' r2 _ 1 (* Ix)2 T 1
Id
ht ~ ^4 ~ ^ Mi. r r2~ ^ Js x s° r2
Test Per line ampere with auto-transformer starting
t 1
co,
, asy
to, ic 2
— •x ■I.c r7
*c 2
1
x'
En
gin
Since x is less than 1 , starting torque per line ampere with auto-transformer starting is
more than that obtained with stator-reactor starting.
(6) For auto-transformer starting, from Eq. (6.60),
Test ht ' he eer
l 'fl Ifl
sfl
ing ...(6.6a)
For stator-reactor starting, from Eq. (6.54 a),
.ne
T e s,
T e fl
fh t
I 7*
SP
r or an induction motor ol given rating, 1 c^j, sp, Ifi and Is
t ...(6.54 a)
'T u l j
Test - - f t sf l ' 1SC lSt
or T
1 est = K Is i
^ 1 ...(6.65)
and Eq. (6.54 a) becomes
T — ~ eA o . 72
1e s t ~ ~ o“ Sfl *
l fl
= K Aj M
l ...( 6 .66 )
Eq. (6.65) shows that for an auto-transformer starting, variation of starting torque Tesi with
starting line current Ist is linear. For stator-reactor starting, Eq. (6 .66 ) shows that Te.st varies
n°n-linearly with Ist- • ' v
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/ * T h t
For —■- 5 and st] = 0.05, various value of - - - for different values of , are given below in
In * e fl "
tabular form :
S tn rtin jj cu rre n t t ,i 2 3 4
0 1 5
Pull load cu rre n t Ip
methods are equal. It is also seen from the table and Fig. j*
6.43 that stator-reactor starting is suitable only in those -v. *00 4
y /
applications, which require low-starting torques. J? 075
/ A sV
ww
a fu ll-load slip o f 0.05. The motor starting current at
rated voltage is 6 times its full-load current. Find the
tapping on the auto-transform er starter which should
/r
/
1
/
■ i 5
starting
w.E
give full-load torque at start. Also fin d the line current at
starting.
r*Viu— ■
Pig. 6.43. Pertaining to Example 6.52.
asy
Solution. Here motor starting or short-circuit current /*. is 6/^. Now from Eq. (6.58),
n2
En
.*. 1 = x ‘ ( 6 r x 0.05
gin
x=
eer
= ° -745 or 74.5% tapping.
/“ —51.
0.4 V
It is seen from Eq. (6.57) that per phase starting current from supply mains is, Ilt = *2 h
Since the starting line current Ist is limited to 1.5 Ifl, we have
f25
hi = 1-5 Ifl= x
4 M
2 6
or X = -----
25‘
A rt. 6 .14)
Polyphase Induction M o to rs 799
Y
^ s f2 = ( ° - 3 0 •Tc.n)
0.4 \\
= X 0 .3 T c „ = ^ X X 0 .3 T,.n = 0 .4 5 T,„
Starting torque is 45% of full-load torque.
720^ a;^ eres ^ A ssi^ in s^ h a^ a 2^ ^ V d,stnbut^n circuit is designed to supply not more than
w.E
(b) if it is to be started using an auto-transformer stepping down the voltage to 80% ?
(c) if it is designed for use with a star-delta starter ? {I E S 1978)
c
asy
S?!Uti°n; ) ^ aximum Permissible linecurrent that the 3-phase induction motor can take
from the distribution circuit is 1200 A at the time of starting. It is given that the starting
En
current at rated voltage is 5 times the rated current of the induction motor. Therefore the rated
gin
line current of 3-phase induction motor with full-voltage starting is = 240 A. Thus the
maximum permissible induction motor rating when started at full voltage
= V3 \\ l x cos 0! x Efficiency
eer
= V3 (440) (240) (0.8) (0.85) watts = 124.371 kW.
ing
(fe) From Eq. (6.57), maximum permissible starting current from supply mains,
or
Ist —1200 = x 2 Isc = x~ (5 Iff)
1200 = (0.8 )2 (5 Ip) .ne
1200
(0.8 )2 x 5
= 375 A.
Ip = 720 A.
Maximum permissible induction motor rating
= V3 (440) (720) (0.8) (0.85) = 373.113 kW.
Exam ple 6.56. A 10 kW, 400 V, 3-phase induction motor has full-load efficiency o f 0.87 and
power-factor o f 0.85. At standstill and at rated voltage, the motor draws 5 times its full-load
current and develops a starting torque o f 1.5 times its full-load torque. An auto-transformer is
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[Art. 6.14
800 E le c tric a l M a c h in e r y ___________________________________________________ ____________________________________ _
installed to reduce the starting current an d to give fu ll-load torque at starting. Neglecting excit
ing current o f auto-transformer, determ ine at the time of starting
(a) the voltage applied to the m otor term inals
(b) the current draw n by the motor an d
(c) the line current drawn from the supply mains.
Solution, (a) The electromagnetic torque Te is proportional to square o t e vo age.
... Te stl = 1.5 Te fl - (400)2
Also Test2 = Te.fi oc (V-!)2
gy.fl . 1 5 Te fl _ '400 f
^cs(2 Te.fi Vi
y
400
V1 = J ^ . = 326.6 volts.
ww
(b ) For 400 V, the motor starting current = 5 Ifl
For 326.6 V, the motor starting current
w.E = 5 // > w = 4 0 8 2 5 ^
Now motor full-load current,
asy
r _ ______ 10,000_______ 19 50 a
f1 V3x 4 0 0 x 0 8 7 x 0 .8 5
.-. Motor starting current = 4.08 x 19.52 = 79.6904 A. En ' '
gin
(c) On the auto-transformer secondary, the motor current is 79.64 A and the secondary
voltage is 326.6 V. Therefore the current on the auto transformer primary side o f400 V, is given
by
eer
400
* 79.64 = 65.03 A.
1
A rt. 6 .1 4 ] P olyphase In d u ction M o to rs 801
T<» = J o X V T , n) = 0.39ST'fl.
(b ) With star-delta starter, starting torque is one-third of that obtained by direct-on-line
starter.
Tett = i (0.396 Tefl) = 0.132 Tefl.
(c) With auto-transformer starter, from Eq. (6.62), we get
Te.st = (0.70)2 x 0.396 Te fl = 0.194 Tefl.
Exam ple 6.58. A 40 kW induction motor with a star-delta starter is supplied through a
feeder from 400 V, 50 Hz main. Owing to the line drop, the starting torque is found to be the same
with star as with delta connections. Determine the resistance o f the feeder. From a short-circuit i
test on the motor, when delta-connected, the following data were obtained : V = 200 V ; I = 100
A ; power factor - 0.4 (all line values). I f a second feeder o f the sam e cross-section is run in
parallel with the original one, find the percentage increase in starting torque, obtained with each
connection. (I.A.S., 1986)
ww
Solution. Per phase equivalent circuit parameters of the induction motor can be obtained
from short-circuit test data :
w.EZsc = ^ ^ = 3.464 £1
100
D asy
Rsc = Zsc cos 0SC= 3.464 x 0.4 = 1.386 Q
Xsc = V3.4642 - 1.3862 = 3.175 a .
En
Let R be the resistance of each feeder line.
Starting torque with star connection
= ^_ (400 f 1
gin
x 1.386
w, 1^3 j [(H + 1.386)2 + (3.175)'1
eer
When the stator winding is connected in delta, balanced delta connection must be replaced
ing
by an equivalent star connection so that each phase of the star is in series with each feeder line.
Therefore, starting torque with delta connection is given by
3 f 400
co. 1.386^1 f3.175']
1.386
.ne
R+
=^
3 4 * - ° - ° 4 6 4 * x 100 - 36.64%
0.0464 K
Previous starting torque with delta connection and one feeder
(231)' xIM = o 1392 K
O). 1.386
\2
3.175
2+
where *i =- 1.386
co„
New starting torque with delta connection and two feeders in parallel
(231)'
co. x = 0.307 K v
\ ( 1.386 s) 3.175 ^
ww
Percentage increase in starting torque with delta connection
= 0.307 K x - 0.1392 K x
asy
a p e r phase. The m otor ,s fed from 400 V, 50 Hz source through a feed er 500 m long Determine
s t u Z Z T J Z T ' c r o s s - s e c t i o n , 0 f e a c k '°°ndu" ° r ‘ in,orderZfsZti^orZ
En
t h r l T bel edT n y m° re than 30% due to voltaSe dr°P in the feeder. The m achine is started
ug a star-delta starter. Take resistivity o f feed er m aterial as 0.02 Ci / m/ m m 2.
S olution. Starting torque without feeder
3V2 1 gin
co. 1. 2 ' -x x 1.2
1 0.7
(R + 1.2)2 + 32 ( 1.2)2 + 32
or
R 2 + 2.4 R - 4.4743 = 0
or R = 1.232 n .
Now pL 0.02 x 500
A A ~ 1,232 n
A = 8.117 mm 2
rotor ohm ic loss during blocked rotor test. SS lS assu m ed e(l ual t0
(a) Determine the starting torque i f DOL starting is used for this motor
(b) What mould be the starting torque i f phase windings are connected in star an d DOL
starting is used ?
Solution. During blocked-rotor test, power input to a 3 -phase induction motor appears
almost entirely as I R loss in both stator and rotor windings.
••• Stator 12R loss + rotor I2R loss = 120 kW
It is given that stator ohmic loss = rotor ohmic loss during blocked rotor test.
(b)
ww With phase windings in star, starting phase current is reduced to ^ times the starting
current when in delta.
w.E 60
Total rotor ohmic loss, 3 l l r2 when in star = — = 20 kW
3
En
Exam ple 6.61. (a) A 5 kW, 3-phase cage induction motor is fitted with an automatic star-
gin
delta starter. On account o f faulty operation o f the starter, the motor continues running with its
stator winding in star. What is the power capacity o f the induction motor when running in star ?
Assume the motor losses to be negligible.
eer
(b) What is the draw back o f star-delta starter ? How can it be overcome ?
ing
(c)A3 p h ase squirrel cage induction motor is fitted with a star-delta starter. On sm all loads,
i f the stator winding is reconnected in star, its operating power factor improves. Explain.
.ne
In case a fully-loaded delta-connected induction motor is reconnected in star, explain what
happens to its operating power factor, line current and efficiency.
Solution, (q) Since the induction motor is fitted with star-delta starter, the motor is
designed to develop 5 kW with its stator winding in delta. Let the per phase value of voltage
and current for the delta-connected motor be V\ and 11so that 3 Vj/j cos 0i = 5 kW.
t
V,
When the motor winding is in star, the per phase value of voltage reduces to but the
rated phase current remains as /,. Thus the rating of induction motor when reconnected in star,
becomes 3 ^ cos 0! = ^ = 2.887 kW. It is assumed that the operating power factor of the
duced voltages may be anywhere between 0° and 180°. In case the time phase angle turns out
to be 0 °, both the supply voltage and the stator induced voltages are added up algebraically and
a large current surge is observed in all the phases.
This drawback can be overcome by using a modified form of star-delta starter, which does
not interrupt the current during the change over from star to delta. Such a starter will natural
ly be more complex and, therefore, more costly.
(c) In Fig. 6.44, OA is the no-load current with stator winding in delta, for a phase voltage
Vx
of Vj. When starter is reconnected in star, the phase voltage becomes ^ and the no-load cur
rent reduces to OB. Had there been no saturation, OB would be equal to OA, but on account
of saturation OB is much less than OA. Blocked-rotor test gives point C with the winding in
delta and point D with the winding in star. The current locus passing through C has a diameter
. Vx
ww
V\
of and diameter of that passing through D is -j— For any particular power out-
X\+X% . 'Vo(Xi+X2)
put (less than that given by point E ), I x is the stator current with the winding in delta and I {
w.E
with the winding in star. Note that operating power factor cos 0X' with the winding in star is
better than the operating power factor cos 0 ! with the winding in delta. For power-outputs less
asy
than that given by point E, the power factor is better with the winding in star. But for power
outputs greater than that given by point E, operating power factor is better with the winding
En
in delta. At the operating point E, power factor is same whether the winding is in star or in
delta, see Fig. 6.44 (6 ). On small loads (30 to 50% of full load) and with the winding in star,
eer
ing
.ne
0-5
p.u.Output
1-0t
Fig. 6.44. Pertaining to Example 6.53. Both the figures illu strateth e
effect of reconnecting the delta-connected winding in star.
With stator winding in delta, full-load power output is greater than that indicated by point
E. In/Fig. 6.44 (a), let this operating point be F. When the stator winding is reconnected in star,
the point F shifts to G, showing thereby that when operating in star at full-load the power
factor becomes poorer as compared to its value in delta and the current increases from OF to
OG. Consequently there are more losses and efficiency in star at full-load is less than its value
in delta at full load.
6.1 4 .2 . M ethods of startin g w ound-rotor m otors. The methods used for starting squirrel-
cage motors can also be employed for starting wound-rotor motors, but it is usually not done so be
cause then the advantages of wound-rotor induction motors can’t be fully realized.
The simplest and cheapest method of starting wound-rotor induction motors is by means 01
added rotor resistance, with full-line voltage across the stator terminals. It has already been
discussed that at the time of start, the addition of external resistance in the rotor circuit of a
wound-rotor induction motor
(i) decreases its starting current
(ii) increases its starting torque (for a suitable external resistance) and
(iii) improves its starting power factor.
The rotor winding terminals of a wound-rotor motor are connected to three slip-rings
mounted on but insulated from the shaft. The
leads, from the three brushes pressing on these
Storting
slip rings, are taken to external resistances as resistan ce
shown in Fig. 6.45. At the time of start, the entire
external resistance is added in the rotor circuit.
As the rotor speeds up, the external resistance is
decreased in steps so that motor torque tends to
ww
Slip rings
remain maximum during the accelerating period.
Finally, under normal operation, the external
Fig. 6.45. Illustrating the addition of external
w.E
resistance is fully cut off and the slip rings are
short-circuited so that motor now develops full
load torque at low value of slip for which it is
resistance in the rotor circuit of a wound-rotor
induction motor.
designed.
asy
Calculation of resistances of elements (or sections). Consider one phase of the rotor of a
En
wound-rotor induction motor, with resistance r2 and standstill leakage reactance x2. Let
R\, R2, R3 ... Rn be the resistances of the n resistance elements (or sections) and
R2 , R 3 , ...
gin
Rn , be the total resistances in each phase of the rotor circuit on 1st, 2nd, 3rd,
.... nth and (n + l)th stud respectively as shown in Fig. 6.46 (a), such that
Studs eer
— ing
Rn-i Rn
—|-
Rn Rrm rj .ne
...L ..L J L L t
Slip rings-
(a)
_5j 54 55 Sn»i=5m
I, max
^min .
c
32
Q.
C 3
—u
Time.t-
(b)
Fig. 6.46. (a) Pertaining to the design of starter for wound-rotor induction motor.
(b) Variation of input current with time.
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[A rt. 6.14
806 E lectrical M achinery -------------------------------------------------------------------------
R { = R X+ R2 + R 3 + #4 + -• + R n~ 1 + Rn + T2
R2’ = R 2 + R3 + R4 + ... + Rn- 1 + R n + r2
RS = i ? 3 + i?4 + - + R n- 1 + + r2
Note that Fig. 6.46 (a) illustrates n-element starter, n-section starter, (n + 1) stud starter
or n-step starter. #
For calculation of the section resistances, the following assumptions are raa e :
(i) During starting time, a constant load torque is assumed.
I (ii) The stator leakage impedance and its no-load current are neglected.
(iii ) Stator current is taken to fluctuate between fixed limits I\max (maximum value) and
H
ww
I lmin (minimum value) as shown in Fig. 6.46 (b ).
At the time of start, the movable handle is at stud 1 and the rotor-circuit resistance is R
w.E
When the supply is switched on to the stator, the input current shoots to I lmcjx and its value is
given by
T
lmax
asy V,
V(R S / s t f + 4
...(6.67)
ing
As soon as Iimin is reached at stud 1, resistance R i is cut out by moving the handle from stud
1 to stud 2 . During the notching process (the process of moving the handle from one stud to the
next stud), the speed is assumed to remain constant, i.e., the slip remains as s 2 but current at
stud 2 becomes I ]in.IT as illustrated in Fig. 6.46 ( 6 ). .ne
V s2f +4
t .,.(6.69)
At stud 2, the speed rises so that the slip falls to s 3 and current decreases to
, - vi
• T w /n t+ 4 •■'(6TO)
During the next notching process, i.e.. at the third stud when J?, is cut out
' I '
and , - - Yj
and so on.
{
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A rt. 6 .1 4 ]
Polyphase Induction M o to rs 807
1lmai ~ T — ^ Vi
V fE j'/s^ + x; V(i?2 / S2)2 V(/?3'/ s 3)2 + x2
From above it follows that
- ..... _ ^n_ _ R n + I _ r2
...(6.73)
rotor circuit is redirepH Under ncf mal °Perating conditions when all external resistance in
rotor circuit is reduced to zero and the input current is / ,
lmax*
From Eq. (6.73), we get
^2 _ S3 _ S4
ww S1 s 22 S
s3 Sn _ l
^n+ l
w.E _
«i'
Rn + 1 r2
Ri R 3 ’ = .........: Rn - 2 R,n - 1
(6.73), is
s, En
From Eq. (6.74),
R / = — r2= —
sr
gin ...(6.75)
R 2 - R\ a, R 3 = R2' a = R / a 2
eer
R4t, = R 3, a = R 2, a 2 = R 1' a 3
ing
+ I - R l a" .ne
or r 2 = RS a n
Substituting the value of Rj' from Eq. (6.75) in Eq. (6.76), we get t .(6.76)
T ry = a n'
or a n = sr
0r OC = ( « * ) * ..(6.77)
Resistances of the sections are :
R\ = R\ ~ R 2= R \ (1 ~ oc) ..(6.78)
R2 = R2 - R 3'= R 2' (1 - a) = a R 3 (1 - a) = a R l
R 3 = R 2 ~ R i = R 3 (1 —oc) = a R2 (1 - a) = a 2Rj.
Similarly R4= a R1
Rn = a n~l R 1 ...(6.79)
(A rt. 6.14
808 E lectrical M ach in ery -
asy
As a check, sum of R x, R 2, R3, R 4 and r 2 should be equal to R f . Here R x+ R 2 + R 3 + R 4 + r2
= 0.292 + 0.121 + 0.051 + 0.021 + 0.015 = 0.50 ft = R x.
En
Exam ple 6.63. Design the 5 sections o f a 6-stud starter for a 3-phase slip-ring induction
motor. The full-load slip is 2% and the maximum starting current is lim ited to twice the full-load
current. Rotor resistance per phase is 0.03 ft.
gin
eer
Solution. In this example, note that slip sm is to be calculated corresponding to maximum
input current = 2 •(72 /i).
Rotor current, / 2=
+ x2 ing
r_2
For small values of slips, — » x .ne
f t
In view of this,
S
/ 2= — s
r2
E t
r E
" 22 e2
or
=— *7, = - 2 (0 . 02 )
I~O2 sf J ~ Ir~o2
Since the starting current is limited to twice the full-load current, we have
sm = 0.04.
Here number of sections, n = 5
From E£l- a = (s j /n = (0.04)1/5 = 0.525.
9
has a star connected rotor. Stator to rotor turns ratio is 3.2. Rotor resistance and leakage reac
ww
tance are 0.1 Cl an d 1 11 respectively. Neglect stator impedance and exciting current. Find (a)
current and torque at starting on rated voltage and with slip rings short circuited and (h) the
external resistance required to reduce the starting current to 50 A with across-the-line starting.
w.E
Compute also the starting torque under these conditions.
Solution. r2 when referred to stator
asy
= (3.2)z x 0.1 = 1.02411
x2 when referred to stator = (3.2 )2 x 1 = 10.24 H
cos =
4 nf 4k x 50 100 k
= — - — = — - — rad/sec. En
gin
r O O
/ X T 3300/V3 nc , J A
(а) Ict = 1 „ 9 , „ ^ i - 185.14 A
st V(1.024) ■ + (10.24)2
eer
T . = — l l r 2 = 7 ^ - (185.14)2 x 1.024 = 1005.5 Nm.
64/ (l)s S t 100 K
*
ing
(б ) Let R be the external resistance connected in each phase of the rotor circuit.
I , 3300/J 3 -— 50 A .ne
or
, J
R when referred to rotor =
35.681 _
st V(1.024 +R) + 10.24
R = 35.681 Cl
„
2 = 3-484 12
t
(3.2)'
T A . 72 (50)2 x (1 024 + 35 681) = 2628.8 Nm.
1 est St 2 100k V '
Note that the effect of external resistance is to decrease the starting current by a factor of
185.14/50 = 3.703 and increase the starting torque by (2628.8/1005.5) = 2.614.
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(a) F irst Method. In order to perform the polarity test on the induction motor, single
phase supply is given to any one phase, say A, of the induction motor and see that the rated
current is not exceeded. Mark the terminals of phase A arbitrarily as A 1 and A 2 as shown in Fig.
6.47 (a). Now join one terminal of phase B with terminal A2 of phase A. Connect a voltmeter of
suitable rating across A! and the remaining terminal of Phase B as illustrated in Fig. 6.47 (a).
Since the magnetic axes of phases A and B are displaced from each other by a space angle of
120° electrical, the voltage induced in phase B by tansformer action is given by V1 cos 120°
(ideal case). If the phase B polarity, relative to phase A polarity, is as shown in Fig. 6.47 (b) then
voltmeter reading (traversing closed circuit clockwise) would be given by
Voltage drop (going from plus to minus) in phase B + Voltage rise in phase
A = - (Vj cos 120°) + Vj
= - (- 0.5 Vi) + Vx = 1.5 Vx.
In actual practice, the magnitude of voltage induced in phase B is less than 0.5 Vx because
ww
of the existence of large leakage flux. From this, it can be concluded that if voltmeter reading
is more than the supply voltage Vx, then phase B polarity markings relative to phase A polarity
markings are as shown in Eicr fi 47 (h\
w.E
asy
En
In case the phase gin
Fig. 6.47. First method of polarity test on a 3-phase induction motor.
eer
the voltmeter reading would be less than the supply voltage V,. The same procedure can be
adopted for phase C of the induction motor.
(a)
ww
winding axis. Similarly, flux <])c is set up by phase C along its winding axis. Their resultant is
shown as §R = <t>. Since tyR is along the axis of phase B, emf induced in phase B is not zero.
w.E
Ideally, this emf in phase B should be equal to V\/2, but in practice it is much less than V\/2
because of the existance of large leakage flux. Thus if voltage across phase B is not zero, the
phase C polarity markings, with respect to phase A, are as shown in Fig. 6.49 (a).
asy
If the polarity markings of phase C, with respect to phase A, are as shown in Fig. 6.49 (6 ),
then fluxes <J>A and <)>c are set up along their respective winding axis as shown. With 4>A = <})c
En
= <(), their resultant §R is equal to V3 (J>. As the axis of resultant flux tyR is perpendicular to phase
B axis, emf induced in phase B would be zero. Thus, in case voltmeter placed across phase B
gin
reads zero, the polarity markings of phases A and C are as shown in Fig. 6.49 (6 ). Same se
quence of steps can be adopted for other phases as well.
Aj
eer
ing
Of
.ne
Php se B
t
axis
(a)
X
{b)
Fig. 6.49. Third method of polarity test on a 3-phase induction motor.
1. •
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ww
and rotor current as per Eqn. (6.17),
torque as per Eqn. (6.25) and power as
per Eqn. (6.34), all attain negative
w.E
values. This implies that for negative
slip, electric torque developed is nega
tive, i.e., opposite to the prime-mover Fig. 6.50. Torque-slip characteristics of a 3-phase induction machine
torque. Under such a condition,
machine must act as a generator and asy showing plugging, motoring and generating modes.
En
delivers its generated power to the supply mains from which it was taking power when working
as a 3-phase induction motor. In other words, when rotor speed is made more than synchronous
gin
speed, slip becomes negative and 3-phase induction machine begins to operate as a 3-phase
induction generator.
eer
Just as point A denotes the maximum torque of a 3-phase induction motor, point C indi
cates the maximum torque that can be applied to induction machine now working as an induc
.ne
For prime-mover speed above synchronous speed, the rotor is being driven at a speed faster
than the synchronously rotatmg magnetic field. The rotor conductors are now befng cut by the
d e ra te d e
generatedI m E
emf ^ 2,
3 rrotor
Z c™ T fI2* and hence dU"
current ng m°t0ring
its stator mode'
component U This shows
change theirthat rotor
signs as
t
^Z onool t ^ tStat° r r ? " 4 ° M iS" 0WC°mp0Sed° fcu rren t° « andcomPonent/ , ' in
ator one f 10n V° Uage F ig ' 6 '5 1 ' A s the ^ during induction-gener-
ator operation ,s not synchronous, it is also called an asynchronous generator.
In polyphase induction motors, rotating magnetic field is set up by the magnetizing current
drawn by the stator from the supply mains. When the speed of the machine is made more than
synchronous speed, even then this magnetizing current must he rf»iiv» I t. , .
erator by the supply mains so that rotating flu l Z s U b T s h e d £ “ l i t SnducUon £
orator is not a sdf-cxcted machine and must therefore continue to get its magnetizing current
A rt. 6 .1 6 ]
P olyp h ase In d u ction M o to rs 813
ww
p /’ small value of no-load slip. Under
this condition, ac source supplies (i)
quadrature magnetizing current OP
w.E
and (ii) a power component PQ to
supply friction, windage and core loss
Fig. 6.51. Circle diagram for motoring as well as generating
modes of a 3-phase induction machine.
asy
in 3-phase induction motor. Now increase the speed of p.m. so that operating point P is ob
tained. At this point P, speed is synchronous, all losses are supplied by p.m. and the bus-bar
En
supplies the magnetizing current OP as well as the corresponding reactive power (= Vr •OP) to
the 3-phase induction machine.
gin
As the p.m. speed is increased, induction generator begins to share the active load of the
bus-bars or synchronous generator/s, but the reactive power is still withdrawn from the 3-phase
eer
ac mams. When operating point M (at about s = - 0.03 to - 0.05) is reached in Fig. 6.51, then
MH = mechanical power input to induction generator
ML = electrical power output of induction generator
CM = stator current ing
OL = magnetizing current taken from the bus-bar which has increased from OP to OL
KL = constant losses .ne
K J = stator ohmic loss
J H = rotor ohmic loss
cos eG= cos /V^ OM = leading pf of the induction generator.
t
6.16.1. Self-excited or isolated induction generator. This type of induction generator
does not require an existing ac supply system for obtaining its magnetizing reactive power. In
the self-excited induction generator, a capacitor bank is connected across its stator terminals
as shown in Fig. 6.52. The capacitor bank provides the lagging reactive power of both the in
duction generator as well as the load. In Fig. 6.52,
Capacitive reactive power, Q = Qlt reactive power needed by 3-phase induction generator
+ Q2, reactive power needed by the load. '
In self-excited induction generator, stator terminal voltage depends upon its magnetization
curve as shown in Fig. 6.53 (a). The reactive current of a capacitor depends upon the voltage
across its terminals, i.e., capacitor voltage Vc = I ■Xc where Xc = ^ •In Fig. 6.53 (6 ), load lines
of capacitor banks having different capacitances C1> C2 > C3 > C 4 are drawn.
Fig. 6.52. A capacitor bank connected across stator terminals of a 3-phase induction generator.
ww
w.E
(a)
asy (b)
Fig. 6.53. Characteristics of (a) induction generator and (6) cap acitor bank.
En
In Fig. 6.52, capacitor bank is connected across the stator terminals of a 3-phase induction
machine. When the rotor of induction machine is run at the required speed, residual magnetism
gin
present in the rotor iron generates a small terminal voltage oa across stator terminals, Fig. 6.54
(a). This voltage produces a capacitor current ob. This current ob creates a flux which aids the
eer
residual flux, thus producing more flux and therefore more generated voltage be across stator
terminals. This voltage be sends a current od in the capacitor bank which eventually generates
ing
voltage de. This cumulative process of voltage build up continues till the saturation curve of
induction generator intersects the capacitor load line at point/, thus giving a no-load generated
emf of g/for magnetizing current 7ml. Note that this voltage build up process is similar to that
in a dc shunt generator.
.ne
t
www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
if the residual flux is absent in the rotor iron, the induction generator will not build up. This
problem can, however, be overcome by running the machine as a polyphase induction motor for
some time to create residual magnetism.
Note that the voltage build up depends upon the value of capacitor. Higher the value of
capacitance, greater is the voltage build up, see Fig. 6.54 (6). In case capacitor load line does not
intersect the magnetization curve of induction machine, there would be no voltage build up. In
Fig. 6.54 (6), voltage build up for capacitor C4 does not occur.
6.16.2. A pplications of induction generators
(а) E xtern ally -excited generators. This type of generators require a little auxiliary
equipment. These are run in parallel with an existing 3-phase system. Thus, voltage and fre
quency of induction generators cannot be controlled. Only the active power can be regulated
through the speed control of prime-mover driving the 3-phase induction generator. These gen
erators don’t hunt. The short-circuit current of these generators is limited. It is because a short-
circuit at once reduces the excitation and thus short-circuit current gets limited.
ww
Externally-excited induction generators are also used in unattended small remote hydro
plants thereby interconnecting a small power station to a large power distribution network.
Their disadvantages are as under :
w.E
(i) They require considerable amount of reactive power from the existing supply system.
(ii) Efficiency is relatively poor.
asy
(iii) It can work at leading power factor only.
Induction generator principle is used for regenerative braking of hoists or electric locomo
tives driven by 3-phase induction motors.
En
(б ) Self-excited g en erators. With depletion of energy sources world wide, every effort is
gin
made to convert other forms of unconventional energies into electrical energy. Therefore, ener
gy recovery schemes are becoming an important aspect of present-day industrial processes. In
eer
the coastal areas, wind energy is available in abundance. For the conversion of this wind energy
into electrical energy, an induction generator coupled with a wind-mill offers an ideal solution.
ing
Exam ple 6.65. A 400 V, 3-phase, 6-pole, 50 Hz, star-connected induction motor has the
following per-phase param eters referred to sta tor:
rj = 0.2 O, r2 = 0.5 Q, Xj = x2 = 2 O, Xm =48 0.
.ne
t
This motor drives a hoist. During lowering o f the hoist, the load accelerates the motor to a
speed o f 1050 rpm. At this speed, determine (a) the line current (b) power returned to 3-phase
supply and (c) the efficiency in case its rotational and core losses are 600 W.
Solution. The induction motor equivalent circuit, for this example, is shown in Fig. 6.55.
400
Per-phase supply voltage, Vx = = 230.95 V
1 2 0 x 5 0 1ftnnrnm
Synchronous speed ------= 1000 rpm
{Art. 6.17
816 E le c tric a l M a c h i n e r y -
- - l+ j 5 -1-7 5 26
Zf = R f + j X f = - 8.862 + j 3.692 Q
r\ + jx\ = 0.2 + j 2 fl
Total input impedance, Z = - 8,862 * j 3.692 + 0.2 + j 2
= - 8.662 + j 5.692 = 10.365 ^146^_
r _ Vi 230.95____ _ 22 282 / - 1 4 6 / P A
' 1_ Z “ 10.365 f 146.7°
Stator line current = 22.282 ( - 146/T A
Power factor at stator terminals = cos / r 146:Z! = " 0>83®
A negative value of pf means that power factor is 0.836 leading.
(6) Power at stator terminals = 3 ^ / ] cos Oj
= 3 x 230.95 x 22.282 x cos 146.7° = - 12906.24 W
As power at stator terminals is negative, the induction machine is acting as a 3-phase
ww
induction generator and a power of 12906.24 W is being fed back to the 3-phase supply system.
(c) Air-gap power =3 l\ R ,=
3 x 22.282s x 8.862 = 1
w.E
Total stator 12R loss
Total rotor I 2R loss
= 3 x 22.282s x 0.2 = 297.9 W
= s Pg - 0.05 x 13199.62 = 659.98 W
Rotational and core losses = 600 W
asy
Total losses in induction generator = 297.9 + 659.98 + 600 = 1555.88 W
•
Prob. 6]
Pnlvphase In d u ctio n M o to r s
817
mipntlv T2R lnoe • ec*u*res considerably less conductor material than a wound rotor, conse-
wound-rotor motor *S ^ SS' ^ ere^ore>ca8e motor is a little more efficient than a
ww
tenance'char^s are'low°re rUKed a" d re,;uires n0 sliP rings’ brushes etc., therefore, its main-
(") Cage rotor can be ca»la<i better because of its bare end-rings.
gin
S.No. Induction Motor
Synchronous M otor
1. It h as inherent self-starting torque
It has no inherent self-starting torque, therefore some e xtern al
eer
means must be used to sta rt it.
Its speed falls with increase of load. It can It runs a t a constant synchronous speed a t all possible loads.
never run a t synchronous speed.
It requires no d.c. excitation, i.e., it is a
singly excited m achine.
ing
It requires both a.c. and d.c., i.e. synchronous m achine is a
doubly excited machine.
It can operate only a t lagging power factors.
Speed control is possible.
.ne
It can operate both at leading and lagging power factors.
Under normal circumstances, synchronous m otor works w ith
PROBLEM S
S.* ■ 6.1 . D escrib e con stru ction al featu res of both squirrel-cage induction motor and slip -ring induction m otor.
D iscuss th e m erits o f one over the other.
11 6 .2 . (a) D iscuss th e points of sim ila rities between a transform er and an induction m ach in e. H en ce, explain
why an induction m ach in e is called a generalized transform er.
(i>) E x p la in why a 3-p h ase induction motor, a t no-load, operates at a v eiy low power factor.
(c) Two 3-ph ase induction m otors A , B a re identical in all re sp e cts e x ce p t t h a t m o to r A h a s a la rg e r air
gap th an m otor B. E xp lain which of th e two m otors will h ave
(i) m ore no-load cu rren t
(ii) poorer no-load power factor and
(Hi) b e tte r full-load power factor. lA ns. ( c ) : (i) and (ii) Motor A, (Hi) Motor B]
(b )f2 < f l
(O f2> h
(d) rotor g enerated voltage and rotor cu rre n t a re m axim u m
ww
(e) rotor em f E2 and ro to r cu rre n t a re zero
(/) both E 2 and / 2 are minim um
w.E
(g ) both E 2 an d 72 are negative.
[A ns. (a ) A t stan d still (b) U n d er norm al run n in g conditions (c) R otor is d riven a g a in s t th e direction of
ro ta tin g m agnetic field (d ) A t stan d still (e) A t synchronous speed (f) A t no-load (g) W h en o p e ra tin g as a 3-phase
induction generator]
asy
6 .5 . D iscuss the production of sta rtin g torque, th rou g h th e con cep t of in te ra ctio n of flux an d m m f waves
in a 3-ph ase slip-ring induction motor.
En
H ence show th a t th e ro to r is forced to ro tate in the direction of ro ta tin g flux w ave.
gin
6 .6 . E xp lain the production of torque in a 3-p h ase slip -rin g induction m o to r w hen th e ro to r is ru n n in g with
a slip s. H ence introduce th e concept of load angle.
eer
D iscuss th e conditions und er which optim um torq u e is developed in a 3 -p h a s e in d u ction m otor.
6 .7 . D escribe th e developm ent of electrom agn etic torque in a sq u irre l-ca g e in d u ction m o to r through the
ing
in teraction of flux and m m f w aves, w hen the ro to r is ru n n in g a t a speed less th a n sy n ch ro n o u s speed.
I ,* ,., t
2 E x p lain h °w th is torque expression
K I2 cos 62 can be used to obtain the torque-slip ch a ra cte ristics of a 3-p h ase in d u ction m otor.
•
- 6 .9 . (a) T h e speed of rotor field, w ith resp ect to sta to r, is alw avs eau al tn 5vnr(im T,n„o j * ui
speeds o f th e induction motor. E xplain . * q syn ch ron ou s speed a t all possible
( « E xp lain why th e rotor of a polyphase induction m otor can n ev er a tta in syn ch ron ou s speed.
(c) I he rotor o f a sh p -n n g induction m otor is connected to an n r « « , , , « „ v i 4 . ,. •
short-circuited. I f rota tin g m agnetic field produced by rotor w in d in g 1 ! , ’ , W a S 1 5 s ta to r wmding IS
which the rotor m ust revolve. g ro ta tes clockw ise, ex p lain th e direction in
_ n . . i [Ans. (c) Anti-clockwise]
4-Mes but « . ^ is
(m) speed o f rotor field w ith resp ect to rotor stru ctu re ; w ith resp ect to s ta to r stru c tu re and w ith resp ect
to sta to r field. (Ans (fl) Nq (ft) Yeg (c) g 2 Hz 4() ^ 1000 rpm flnd zero
6 .1 1 . (a) Show t h a t th e voltage g en erated in th e rotor circu it of a 3-p h ase in d u ction m otor a t a n y slip s is
equ al to s tu n es th e voltage g en erated a t stan d still.
(b ) W ith th e help of rotor eq u iv alen t circu it o f an induction m otor, show th a t th e pow er tra n sfe rre d
ww
m otor ^ v a n a b ^e *®sses m a 3-phase induction m otor ? G ive the power-flow d iagram for th is
m otor and d iscu ss th e various losses involved in it.
dir. 6 ' 1 4 ' Y 4 ‘P° le ’ 3 *p h a s®- 5 0 Hz synchronous m achine h as its rotor directly coupled to th a t o f a 3-p h ase
! i 3 Y r T
D eterm in e th e n u m b «
0
asy
S ta to rs o f both m achines are connected to th e sam e 3-p h ase, 5 0 H z supply I t is
150 Hz across th e rotor term in als o f th e in d u ction m otor.
D eterm in e th e n u m b er of poles for w hich th e induction m achine should be wound. G ive a ll p o ssib ilities.
gin
a t t h t ’ n n p r a t i ^ Y 8' del^ ' C0Tm®cted - 4 'P ole<50 Hz induction motor h a s a s ta to r re sista n ce o f 0 .4 f i p er p h ase
? tem p eratu re. F o r a lu ie cu rren t of 2 0 A, th e total sta to r inpu t is 4 0 0 0 w atts. F o r n egligible
s ta to r core lo sses, find out th e in te rn a l torque. (Ang 2 4 45 Nml
) eer
6 ' i ? ‘ A. 3 ' P.haSe; 4 3 0 V ’ 5 0 Hz induction motor ta k es a power input of 35 kW a t its full-load speed of 9 8 0
r.p.m . T h e to tal s ta to r lo sses are 1 kW and the friction and windage lo sses are 1.5 kW . C a lcu la te (a ) slip ( b)
rotor ohm ic lo sses (c) sh a ft power (d) sh a ft torque and (e) efficiency.
ing
(A ns. (a) 0 .0 2 (6) 6 8 0 W (c) 3 1 .8 2 kW (d) 3 1 0 .0 6 Nm (e) 90.91% )
V 1 /Y x Y x t Y Uen2Cy
.ne
u 6 1 7 * ^ 4 0 0 V ’ 3 Ph a s e > 6 P °le * 5 0 H z induction m otor d raw s a pow er of 2 k W a t no load an d a t ra te d
a fulM oad shp ° f 3 % ’ th e P ° w e r in Pu t t0 m o to r is 5 0 k W an d th e s t a t o r o hm ic loss
,S i k ^ , NCg eCt/ R ! T a t n 0 ,l0ad - I f the sta to r core loss and m ech an ical losses a re assu m ed eq u al th e n at
a slip o f 3% c a lc u la te (a) rotor ohm ic loss (6) sh a ft (or output) pow er (c) sh a ft torque (d) in te rn a l torq u e and
(e) efficiency. (Ans. (a) 1.425 kW (6) 45.075 kW (c) 443.75 Nm (d) 453.60 Nm (e) 9 ? l S i j
6 .1 8 . A 2 0 kW , 6 pole, 4 0 0 V , 50 Hz 3-ph ase induction m otor h as a full-load slip o f 0 0 2 I f th e torou e lost
t
in m ech a n ica l (fn c tio n and w indage) losses is 20 N m, find th e rotor ohm ic loss, m otor in p u t and e f L e n c v
S ta to r lo sses to ta l 9 0 0 w atts. F wm -iency.
^ 20,000 x 60......... .................
IH“ ‘ - T" = 2 . » 1 0 0 0 x 0 . 9 8 * 194 88 ^ N" ’-
M ech a n ica l torq u e developed = 1 9 4 .8 1 + 2 0 = 2 1 4 .8 8 Nm.
. D 2n x 1000 (0.98) ............ . . I4 „
” m~ go (214.88) = ...J [Ans. 450.04 w atts, 23402.1 w atts. 85.462%1
6 .1 9 . A 10 kW , 3 -p h a se, 5 0 Hz, 4 pole induction m otor h as a full-load slip of 0 .0 3 . M ech an ical and stra y
load lo sses a t full-load a re 3 .5 % o f output power. Com pute
(a ) pow er d elivered by s ta to r to rotor,
( b ) electro m a g n etic (in te rn a l) torque a t full load, and 1
(c) rotor ohm ic lo sses a t full load. |Ans. (a) 10.67 kW (6) 67.93 Nm (c) 320.10 W|
(Prob . 6
820 Electrical M a ch in e ry _________________________________________ ____ ________________________________________
6 .2 2 . (a) Discuss why the speed of a 3-phase induction m otor falls as its load to rq u e is in cre a se d .
(6) Two w attm eters are connected to m easure the power input to a 3 -p h a se induction m o to r ru n n in g a t no
load. One of the two w attm eters gives negative reading. W hy ? E xp lain .
(c) Explain why a 3-phase induction motor, in gen eral sim ilar to a tra n sfo rm e r, ta k e s m ore m a g n etizin g
cu rren t as com pared to a transform er.
6 .2 3 . (a) Explain why slip in a 3-phase induction m otor is d irectly p roportion al to to rq u e w hen o p e ra tin g
n ear synchronous speed.
C alculate
ww
(ft) A 4-pole, 2 0 kW, 5 0 Hz, 4 0 0 V SCIM has a sta rtin g torque of 1 6 0 N m and a full-load to rq u e o f 1 2 0 Nm .
w.E
(ii) voltage so th a t m otor operates satisfactorily a t full load from a 6 0 -H z so u rce,
(lii) voltage applied to sta to r so th a t full-load torque is developed a t sta rtin g .
V'
[H int. (ft) Keep j constant)
En
m otor having 2 poles. The synchronous m otor, coupled m ech an ically w ith in d u ction m o to r, ru n s clockwise
w hereas the ro tatin g field in 3-<J> induction m otor ro ta te s counterclockw ise.
(6)
C alcu late frequency of the voltages taken from th e slip rin gs of SR IM .
gin
Find the num ber of synchronous-m otor poles and th e conditions for o b tain in g a freq u en cy of 150 Hz
from the ro to r of SRIM of p art (a).
(c) R epeat p art (ft) for obtaining a slip-ring frequency of 16 - Hz. eer
3
ing
[A ns. (a) 250 H z (ft) 4 poles, synchronous m otor ro ta tio n a g a in st th e d irectio n o f ro ta tin g field in SRIM (c)
6 poles, synchronous m otor rotation in the direction of ro ta tin g field in SRIM.
6 .2 5 . A 4-pole, 3-ph ase SRIM is coupled m ech an ically w ith a sv n rh rrm m ,c
synchronous m otor and sta to r of the induction m otor a re fed from n
u
.ne
7 ,n 8 P
, r™
(H
i)th e ro to r c u rr e n t a t s ta rtin g in p er u n it of full-lond ro to r c u r r e n t. , , . E .S .. W ?S|
diagrum of aCtransformer ?80r ^ * * " P“'y,,1,“SC induCtil>'' » — •How does i, differ from the phasor
^s S tD
„Th?tprall ? : i ; t i : lt c “/eu irlyphasc induction ra°i°r-
P ro b . 6]
Polyphase In d u ction M o to rs 821
circ u it p a ra m e te rs ? ' nt*u c t' on n iotor eq u iv alen t circu it, w h a t should be k ep t in m ind re g a rd in g th e e q u iv a le n t
ind u ction m o to r e q u iv a le n t^ r c u T ^ E x p y a in '6111 C' rCU*t- T ^ is’ how ever, is n ° t p erm issib le in th e a n a ly sis o f
T - 1 ^
em 2 n n ,2 T 2
ww T..„
em s ^ S
smT
S smT
w.E
F o r sm a ll v a lu e o f slip o ccu rrin g in th e sta b le o p eratin g region prove th a t
r1' = -2 F„„ S
smT
^
.ne
[H in t. (W U) I f s t a t o r re s is ta n c e w ere con sid ered then th e slip a t w hich m a x im u m to rq u e o ccu rs, is given
s,nT=^ J 7 F
S in ce smT is red u ced w ith th e co n sid eratio n of s t a t o r re s is ta n c e , th e full-load slip w ould be sm a lle r.
t
r2 0 fl4
( « ) y = s,uT = 0 .2 o r X = = 0 .2 « etc.)
[A ns. (a) (,) See Fig. 6 .1 7 ( « ) All the three T „ „ Ttm and smT a re reduced. (6) « ) 0 .0 2 5 4 , sm aller, (ii) 0 .1 6 O).
(ii) th e m a x im u m to rq u e in te rm s o f full-load to rq u e an d
[Prob. 6
822 Electrical M achinery _______ "
T'f, 2
IHint- (6)
Sp s mT
I 21
T.n sfl S,nT- — SmT
Now -J-L
7 ? L= - — 75------------ 7Sn
r. = j2 7 ~ 16
16 S fl
i , 2 2 ‘ 2m T 2 '* '
. / r , . T --- ----------
/2'"r *,nr
1 s-nr 2 .e|c_
" . 16 Sfl SmT + Sfl
Sfl s mT
[Ans. (a) (i) Tttl and Ttm are reduced to ^, but n, and smT remain unchanged.
w Z- increase, T „ re ra -in , same but a . is reduced te half.
ww
depend on th e rotor circuit resistan ce.
(6) A 3-ph ase squirrel-cage induction m otor h as a rotor sta rtin g cu rre n t o f 6 tim es its full load value. The
m otor h as a full load slip of 5% . D eterm ine
w.E
(i) th e sta rtin g torque in term s of full-load torque ;
(ii) th e slip a t which m axim um torque occurs ; and
(Hi) m axim um torque in term s of full-load torque.
(H in t, (i) U se Eq. (6 .5 1 a).
asy
(ii) U se Eq. 6 .3 7 . lAns. (b) (i) 1.8 Tr „ (ii) 0 .3 1 (Hi) 3 .18 Ttfl]
En
6 .3 4 . (a) W ith s ta to r resistan ce neglected, th e torque-slip c h a ra c te ris tic can be obtained from th e expression
Tt
T eni s mT
s s Tm
S
gin
D erive this expression and show th a t
eer
ing
s = sm7 > ± VA:2 - 1]
where ^ = -sr-
1e
(U se n egative sign if smT > s, e.g., smT >
.ne
and use positive sign in ca se s mT < s, e.g. a t s ta rtin g ).
(b ) The m axim u m torque of a 3-p h ase sq u irrel-cage induction m otor is 4 tim e s th e full-load torq u e and the
sta rtin g torque is 1.6 tim es th e full-load torque. N eglect s ta to r re s is ta n c e . C a lc u la te
Prob. 6]
Polyphase Induction Motors 823
T - i K
«». 2x2 ~ 2
or 2 40 = -
2
K = 480.
fa ) I f R is th e su m o f r o to r re s is ta n c e a n d e x te rn a l re s is ta n c e , th e n a t s t a t i n g
ww re sl ~- J - xX_ 3V?
[«2 + *^l
-
or
<6 >
■
w.E 0 . 7 5 x 2 4 0 = —^ — R etc
R 2 + 1 ,e tc -
0 .7 5 x 2 4 0 = f M f _ i 8 0 _ R
asy
1,400 J fl2 + i ’ ‘ IA n s. (a) 0 .2 5 1 4 Q, (6) 0 .4 7 2 fl]
t h a t to in c re a s e th e s t a r t i n g t o r q u ^ e x t S S ^ M
En t t e r o t o ! * ^ m 0 t° r Ke“ “ P r° V<i
P h a s e r ™ ts ^ V o P2hr c S . t X
e a ch r o , h fa p ro d u ce a ~ r £ e ^ ^
gin
^ l de ^ 'r 3 "17 * ^
^
l0">” at * • *«* °f W » ^ ™ «P-
[H in t, (a ) C on d ition for m a x im u m to rq u e is
r2 eer
T h e e x te r n a l r e s is ta n c e in ro to r c irc u it a t s ta r tin g is ing ...(6 .2 5 )
(V ^ + J^ -r,).
.ne
an H
(8)
_
*-
2 smr,
r 2
1
^
*■f
1
s m T1
* added resistance
2 sistance
t
s m T, =
. [A ns. (6) 0 .3 3 6 fl)
6 .3 8 . ( a ) E x p la in th e d ifferen ces b etw een th e c h a r a c te ris tic s n f «lirx ,
in d u ction m o to rs. S k e tc h a ty p ica l c h a r a c te r is tic for e a ch . sq u irre l-c a g e polyphasi
[Prob. 6
824 E lectrical M achinery _----------- !— :---------- ------------- - " 7 ..
------------ " . • , u* n of full-load torque a t starting.
(fe ) t h e resistance to b e added to the rotor circu it o o a |Ans. 9 2.89 Nm, 0.192 Q]
j ■ tor h as s ta to r im p ed an ce of 0 .0 7 + j 0 .3 0 O and
6 .4 2 . A 420-V , 6-pole, 5 0 Hz s ta r ^ m agn etizin g c u rr e n t is n eglected . D eterm ine
stan d still rotor im pedance referred to s ta to r is 0 .0 8 + 7 0 . 3 7 U. i n g
(a) the m axim um internal power developed and the corresponding slip and
(b) the m axim um internal torque and the slip at ^ RW Q 1Q44 . (6) 108 8 .1 7 6 Nm, 0.1187]
ww
w hen developm g the sam e torque bu g
^ .(b ) A 3-ph ase induction m otor h as 5% slip a t full-loa
tnrmlP a n d a t n orm al voltage. T h e ro to r resistan ce
q W h a t should be th e percentage
- 3 ,4 th of n o ™ , full-load speed.
N eglect s ta to r im pedance.
w.E
[Hint, (a) U se E q . (6 .3 1 )
(*>) T* P = T T T Iv
r0.10]
V\
asy 0.10
x 0.05
En
+ ( 0 .6)2
0.05 J
(*V?) 0.10 [Ans. (a) 4.938% , (6) 20.356%]
X 0.2875 CtC‘
gin
6 4 4 A 440-V 3-phase, 4-pole, 5 0 Hz slip-ring star-co n n ected induction m otor h a s a voltag e of 8 0 V between
eer
slin Hnirs when full-voltage is applied to the sta to r and the slip-rings a re o p e n -c rc u ite d w ith the rotor
s a t i o n a i The sta to r cu rren t a t no-load is 2A a t a p f of 0 .2 lagging. T h e ro to r is sta r-co n n e cte d w ith a per
phase stan d still leakage im pedance of 0 .0 5 +j 0 .2 5 fi referred to rotor. F o r th e m o to r ru n n in g w ith th e slip-nngs
sh ort-circuited and a t a slip of 5% , calculate
(a) the torque developed in Nm, ing
{b ) the mechanical power developed,
(c) the rotor ohmic loss and •
.ne
(id) the stator current and power factor. -9
Neglect stator leakage impedance and rotational l’g sses.
[H in t, (d) R otor cu rre n t a t 0 .0 5 slip, / 2 = 4 4 .8 1 A.
t
Rotor pf at 0.05 slip, cos 02 = 0.970
Rotor current in phasor form, 72 = / 2 (cos 02 - j sin 02) = 4 3 .4 7 - j 10.89.
Stator current required to balance the rotor current is given by
" _1_T
5.5
= - b h + ( 0 . 4 - 7 1 .96) = (8 .3 - j 3 .9 4 ) A e tc.].
5 .5 J
[Ans. (a) 3 8.35 Nm (6) 5 7 2 2 .8 w atts (c) 3 01.2 w atts (d) 9 .1 8 8 A at 0.903 pf lagging !
[H in t, (a) 0 .8 5 = t= s ^ = y •
Vr22 + ( 0 .0 4 * 2)2
This gives r 2 = 0 .0 6 4 5 4 jc2.
Slip a t reduced voltage = 0 .0 5 2 2 etc.
(6) M axim um startin g torque can, at the most, be equal to maximum torque Tem. H ere smT = 1 /3 .
Te-it 2
etc. (A ns. (a) 0 .7 7 7 5 lag (6 ) 0 .6 1 4 3 )
T<m ' 1 /3 1
1 1 /3
.4 6 . A 3 -p h a s e , 5 0 H z, 4 0 0 -V w ound-rotor induction m otor ru n s a t 9 6 0 r.p .m . a t fu ll-load . T h e ro to r
resis a n ce an d sta n d still re a c ta n c e p er p h ase a re 0 .2 11 an d 1 £1 resp ectiv ely . I f a re s is ta n c e of 1 .8 £2 is ad d ed
o e a c h p h a se o f th e ro to r a t stan d still, w h a t would be th e ra tio o f s ta rtin g to rq u e w ith full v o lta g e an d th e
added re s is ta n c e to th e full-load torq u e u n d er n o rm al r u n n i n g conditions ? S ta te a ssu m p tio n s m a d e in y o u r
ca cu latio n s. C a n th e sa m e s ta r tin g torq u e be obtained w ith a n o th e r v alu e of th e a d d ition al r e s is ta n c e ? E x p la in .
It th e a n sw e r is y e s, find its v alu e. ( I E S 1979)
H in t . Te.,t = — • | v a ; r e/r = ^ - . - 5 - V 2 e tc
ww
esl (os 5 ’ efl (og 2 6
[A n s. A ssu m p tio n s, (i) s ta to r im p edance and ro ta tio n a l losses ignored an d (ii) in d u ction m o to r p a ra m e te r s
re m a in co n sta n t. 2 .0 8 . Y e s , b u t w ith an additional re sista n ce of 0 .3 £1).
w.E
6 .4 7 . A 4 0 k W , 3 -p h a s e slip rin g induction m otor of negligible s ta to r im p edan ce ru n s a t a sp eed o f 0 .9 6
tim e s syn ch ron ou s speed a t ra te d torque. The slip a t m axim u m torq u e is 4 tim e s th e full load v alu e. I f th e
asy
ro to r re s is ta n c e of th e m o to r is in creased by 5 tim e s, d eterm in e
En
(b) th e sp eed co rresp on d in g to m axim u m torque.
N eglect m e ch a n ica l losses. (GATE 1993)
eer
negligible in d u ctan ce. On s ta rtin g th e m otor u sing a s ta r-d e lta s ta r te r , it is found t h a t th e s ta r tin g to rq u e is
th e sa m e on s t a r a s w ell as d elta connection, due to th e v oltag e drop in th e feed er re s is ta n c e . T h e eq u iv alen t
circu it p a ra m e te rs of th e m o to r a re a s follows :
.ne
6 .4 9 . A 4 0 0 V, 5 0 H z, 3 -p h ase, d elta connected, 6-pole induction m o to r h a s th e follow ing sta n d still le a k a g e
[Ans. 5 .3 7 8 £1]
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(b ) ww
[A ns. ( a ) D elta : T o ta l tu rn s = 144, cond u ctor w eig h t = 0 .6 7 6 2 kg.
S t a r : T o ta l tu rn s = 8 4 , cond u ctor w eig h t = 0 .6 8 3 1 kg.]
w.E
6 .5 5 . A 3 -p h a se ind u ction m otor is designed to o p era te a t ra te d v o lta g e V a n d r a te d fre q u e n c y f . In ca se
both sou rce voltage an d freq u en cy a re re sp ectiv ely ch a n g ed to (a ) ~ , f / 2 (6 ) V , f / 2 (c) — , f
£ 2
(d ) V,
asy
2f ; find th e m axim u m and s ta r tin g to rq u e s in te rm s o f th e ir ra te d v a lu e s . N e g le c t a ll s t a to r losses.
A n s . (a) 1, 2 ( 6 ) 4, 8 (c) i i (d ) J , |
6 .5 6 .
En
(a ) W h a t a re th e fa cto rs th a t govern th e o p e ra tin g c h a r a c te r is tic s o f p o ly p h a s e in d u c tio n m otors
gin
(W In ca se o f p o ly p h ase in d u ctio n m otors, ex p la in w hy th e ro to r sp e ed f a lls a s th e lo a d to rq u e is in creased .
(c ) R ow er fa c to r o f a p o ly p h ase in d u ctio n m o to r is low a t n o -lo ad b u t it im nrn v p s
is in crea sed . E x p la in . ’ im p ro v es a s th e lo a d on th e m otor
“ e * —**
one offfie? Z £ £ Z Z S S tZ S S X ; *“ “
eri
(a )
Cb) M o to r
(c) M o to r
A h a s sem i-clo sed ro to r slo ts b u t m o to r B h a s
A h a s lo n g er a ir-g a p th a n m o to r B. ng
M o to r A h a s open s ta to r s lo ts b u t m o to r B h a s sem i-clo se d s t a t o r s lo ts .
clo sed ro to r slo ts .
6 .6 1 . (a) E x p la in how th e circle diagram for a polyphase induction m otor ca n be d raw n from its t e s t d a ta .
( 6 ) A 4 0 0 V , 3-p h a se, 8 pole, 5 0 Hz sta r-co n n ected induction m otor gave th e follow ing t e s t r e s u lts :
No-load test (line v a lu e s ): 400 V, 10 A, cos 0O= 0.2.
Blocked-rotor test (line v a lu e s ): 160 V, 30 A, cos 0,f = 0 . 35.
ww If, a t full load and rated voltage, th e power fa cto r is a t its m axim u m , th e n c a lc u la te fu ll-lo ad c u rre n t,
pow er factor, torq u e in n ew ton -m etres, speed, power output and efficiency. S ta to r and ro to r o h m ic lo sse s a re
w.E
equaL lA ns. 28.75 A, 0.806, 174.224 Nm, 6 98.7 r.p.m ., 12.644 kW, 78.834% 1
r n A 4 klV’ 400 Y’ 50 Hz‘ 3 ‘p h a se >4 -Pole d elta connected slip rin g ind u ction m otor h a s s ta to r r e s is ta n c e
o f 0 .3 6 D p er p h ase, rotor re sista n ce o f 0 .0 6 D per phase and per p h ase s ta to r to ro to r tu rn s ra tio o f 2 T h e
following d ata p e rta in s to th e line valu es d uring lig h t load te sts :
No load
Locked rotor
;
: asy
400 V, 3.3 A, cos 0(1= 0.174
210 V, 16 A, cos 0 = 0.45
torque^ ^
gin
° p e ra tin g pow er fa cto r. m axim um power output, m axim u m to rq u e in N m an d slip a t m a x im u m
eer
startin g 1116 eX te m a l re sista n c e th a t m u st be in se rted in series w ith ro to r circ u it to o b ta in m a x im u m to rq u e a t
1ULUI *J
ing
(Ans. (a) 8.66 A, 0.8434, 0.057, 26.738 Nm. 77.65% (6 ) 0.852. 6.42 kW, 5 0.04 Nm, 0 .2 1 (c) 0 .2 2 6 4 f l referred to
*
6 .6 3 .
w ith th e help o f circ le diagram th a t th e b est possible op eratin g pow er fa cto r is given by V* .ne
(a ) I f no-load pow er facto r a n gle 0O for a polyphase induction m otor is ta k e n to b e e q u a l to 9 0 °, show
r : M
(b) Tw o in d u ction m otors A an d B a re id en tical in a ll resp ects exceDt th a t m ntnr 4
x
t
V , + 2 / 0 (x , + x 2) ‘
pow:sr “ dr
(H in t. (6 ) In d u ctio n m otor le a k a g e re a cta n ce is d irectly proportional to th e n u m b er o f poles.)
lA n s. ( b ) M otor B . C on sequ en tly slow -speed ind u ction m otors (m otor A h e re ) o p era te a t poor pow er fa cto rs I
6 .6 4 . (a ) W h a t a re th e cau ses o f an induction m otor o p eratin g alw ays a t lag g in g pow er fa cto rs ?
E x p la in how th e pow er facto r o f an induction m otor is controlled by s ta tic ca p a cito rs Show th a t for n
co n sta n t ca p a cita n ce , th e d egree o f pow er fa cto r co rrectio n is n ot th e sa m e a t d iffere n t load s.
(6 ) A d elta-co n n ected ind u ction m otor o p eratin g from a b alanced 3 -p h a se, 4 0 0 V 5 0 Hz suddIv tn k e« n
cu n-ent o f 5 0 A a t 0 .7 6 p.f. lag. C a lcu la te per p h ase v alu e o f th e ca p a cita n ce and to tal’ kV A ra tin g o f th e 3 D h o s o
d elta-connected ca p a cito r b an k w hich w hen connected to th e m otor te rm in a ls would im prove th e lin e pow er
factor to 0 .9 lag. | w 6 4 „ mF „ 768PkVA]
6 .6 5 . (a) D iscu ss why th e pow er fa cto r o f a 3 -p h a se ind u ction m otor is low a t (a ) no-load and ( b ) also u n d er
overloads. UCI
■■ ■iKJNNriiwnnroi ■■ wi
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ww
6 .6 9 . A 3 -p h a se sta r-c o n n e cte d , 4 4 0 V , 5 0 H z, 4-p o le in d u ctio n m o to r h a s th e fo llo w in g c o n s ta n ts in ohm s
p e r p h a se re fe rre d to s ta to r sid e :
r , = 0.2 9 4 , x , = 0 .503, r 2 = 0.1 4 4 , x 2 = 0 .2 0 9 , X m = 13.25
w.E
T h e s ta to r core lo sses a re n eg lig ib le.
T o ta l frictio n and o th e r lo sses (a ssu m ed co n s ta n t) = 1 4 0 0 W
asy
F in d th e pow er o u tp u t in k W an d th e ra te d o u tp u t in N m i f th e m o to r is b e in g o p e ra te d a t ra te d voltage
and freq u en cy w ith 2 p e rce n t slip . ( I .A .S ., 1 9 7 9 ] |Ans. 2 1 .0 9 3 kW , 137.02 Nm]
En
o f 0 .8 8 . W ith s ta to r w ind ing in d e lta , s h o rt-c irc u it lin e c u r r e n t a t 2 0 0 V is 7 0 A. I f th is m o to r is fitte d w ith a
s ta r -d e lta s t a r te r , find
(a ) th e ra tio o f s ta r tin g to fu ll-lo ad lin e c u rre n t an d
gin
( 6 ) th e s ta r tin g to rq u e in te rm s o f fu ll-lo ad to rq u e , for a fu ll-lo a d s lip o f 5 % .
(H in t. ( b ) U s e E q . (6.63)1.
eer [A n s. ( a ) 1 .223 ( 6 ) 0.2244]
ing
( b ) C a lc u la te th e re la tiv e v alu es o f s ta r tin g c u r r e n ts an d s t a r tin g to r q u e s o f a 3 -p h a s e squ irrel-cage
in d u ctio n m o to r, w h en i t is s ta rte d by
(i) d ire ct-o n -lin e s t a r t e r ,
(ii) s ta r -d e lta s t a r t e r an d
.ne •
t
I- A 7.2 ’ ^ 3 'P ^ a s e s q u ir r e l ca g e in d u ctio n m o to r h a s a s h o r t-c ir c u it c u r r e n t o f 5 tim e s th e fu ll-lo a d current.
It s fu ll-lo ad slip is 5% . C a lc u la te th e s t a r tin g to rq u e as a p e r c e n ta g e o f fu ll-lo a d to r q u e i f th e m otor is started
,
(A n s. (o) 1 : - : 0.361
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a u ^° tra n sfo rm e r s ta r te r lim its the s ta rtin g cu rre n t from th e supply to tw ice th e fu ll-load c u rre n t,
d eterm in e th e s ta rtin g torque and au to -tran sfo rm er tapping.
H in t. From Eq. (6.51). s p = (Ans. (a) 4.2 Ip , 2.94 I p , 0.98 T , p (6 ) 0.667 T , p . 57 . 74 % tappingl
tim e * thn n . n T ' * ! 0/ Cage ‘nd uct‘on m °to r when sta rte d by sta r-d e lta s ta rte r, develops a s ta r tin g to rq u e o f 0 .4
th e su nnlv lin orque and l a ^es from th e supply a s ta rtin g cu rren t o f tw ice th e full-load c u rre n t. C a lc u la te
SUpply h ne cu rre n t and s ta rtin g torque if th is induction m otor is sta rte d by
(а) a cro ss-th e -lin e sta rte r,
( б ) a u to -tra n sfo rm e r s ta r te r w ith 80%. tapping.
H in t. Here sn = — ,. . . _.
. n 30 |Ans. (a ) 6 I p , \ .2 T t p (b ) 3.84 l p , 0 .7 6 8 T e p \
powe6r factor oPfO S ’ w S Y ’ J 0? V Squi.rre l‘ca e e induction m otor h a s a full-load efficien cy o f 0 .8 7 an d a fu ll-lo ad
ra ted voltage Its full lu d e lta * th e m ° t0 r ta k es a s ta r tin S c u rre n t o f 8 0 am p e re s a t
th a t s ta r tin g torq u e eo u al to h a lf th ' f* u i ; m m im um s ta r lin E cu rre n t to be ta k e n from th e su pply in o rd er
6 t0rqUe eq u al t0 h a lf th e full-load torque is developed w hen sta rte d by
(a ) a n a u to -tra n sfo rm e r sta rte r,
ww
( b ) s ta to r re sisto r sta rte r.
C a lc u la te th e p e rce n ta g e tap p in g on a u to -tra n sfo rm er also. |Ana. (a) 47.432 A, 77% U pping <(,) 51 6 6 4 Al
w.E
r o t o n r la c U m e 'o f 2 ^ Sft'p e r T h e r a t io IT o to r,h a s • ,">*” e fO .3 n p e r p h a se an d a s ta n d s till
En
2 0.12
W ith s ta r-d e lta s ta r tin g torq u e is reduced to o n e-th ird o f th a t d urin g d ire ct sw itch in g ]. [A n s. 0.2 3 6 6 ]
gin
6 .7 7 . A 5 0 kVA 4 4 0 V , 3-p h a se, 5 0 Hz in d u ction m otor is provided w ith a 3 -p h a s e step -d ow n a u to tr-xn*
form er s t a r t e r w hich ste p s down th e v o ltage to 50 % o f th e input. G iven th a t th e s ta r tin g c u r re n t n f t l i
eer
on ra te d v o ltag e ,s 6 tim e s th e ra te d full-load c u rre n t, e s tim a te th e c u rre n t d raw n hv r / a! u „ ♦ t h e fm o to r
from th e m a in s a t s ta r tin g . W h a t is th e s ta r tin g kV A draw n by th e a u to -tra n sfo rm e r ? u T s w Y )
ing IA n s . 9 8 .4 1 5 A, 75 kVA]
6 .7 8 . T h e s t a r tin g c u rre n t o f a d elta-co n n ected 3 -p h a se in d u ction m o to r a t ra te d v o lt * ™ ic * *• ‘
.ne
fu ll-load c u r r e n t and th e slip a t fu ll load is 5% . T h e no-load c u rre n t is n eg lig ib le . S
(а ) I f a n a u to -tra n s fo r m e r s t a r t e r is u sed to lim it th e s ta r tin g c u rre n t from m a in s to 9 r n i
t
c u rre n t, e s tim a te th e s ta r tin g to rq u e th e n o b ta in ed a s a p e rce n ta g e o f th e fu ll-lo ad to rq u e ° °3
<M N e g le c tin g s t a to r im p ed an ce, d e te rm in e th e slip a t w h ich m a x im u m to rq u e o ccu rs in th e m otor.
( I .A .S ., 1 9 9 1 ) [A n s. (a) 5 0 per ce n t (6 ) 0 .2 5 3 ]
6.79. A 3-phase, 4 0 0 V , 5 0 A, 4-pole, 1 4 4 0 r.p.m. induction motor ta k e s a hlnrkod rn in * ro •
it s fu ll-lo ad c u r r e n t a t 0 .4 p.f. la g a t ra te d v o lta g e an d d evelops a to rq u e o f 1 8 tim e s it s fu ll lo a d toroY
in d u ctio n m o to r is s ta r te d by a n a u to -tra n s fo r m e r w ith 6 0 % ta p p in g th e n a t th e tim e o f t i i
m o to r p o w er fa c to r ( 6 ) m o to r c u r r e n t (c) lin e c u rre n t « ) p o w e r 't a p * to m o to r “' f
o f fu ll-lo a d to rq u e . IA n, (a )P „ ,4 ,a g ^ m A
6 .8 0 . A SCIM has a starting current of six times the full-load current at a slip of 0.04 Calculate the lin e
current and starting torque in p.u. of full-load values for the following methods of starting :
ja ) Direct switching
caCe'nduclio)^otors ?°l ° dViSab'C^ S‘art W°“nd'r0l0r induction molors b* lhc employed for stnrtinC
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6 .8 3 . D esign a 4-step s ta r te r for a 3 -ph ase wound rotor in d u ction m otor. T h e fu ll-lo a d slip is 2 .5 % and th e
m axim um sta rtin g cu rre n t is lim ited to 1.6 tim es its full load value. R oto r r e s is ta n c e p e r p h a se is 0 .0 2 12.
D erive th e form ula used for calcu latin g th e re sista n ce sectio n s an d s t a te th e v a rio u s a ssu m p tio n s m ade.
[A ns. 0 .2 7 7 12, 0 .1 2 4 12, 0 .0 5 5 12, 0 .025 111
ww
w ith th e ro to r open circuited. W h at a re th e p o larity m a rk in g s o f p h a se B , r e la tiv e to p h a se A ?
[A n s. (6 ) T h e two te rm in a ls o f p h ases A and B , w hich a re co n n ected to g e th e r, h a v e th e s a m e p o larity
m arkin gs.)
w.E
6 .8 5 . ( a ) W h a t is an ind u ction g en era to r ? D escrib e, w ith th e h elp o f c irc le d ia g ra m , th e o p e ra tio n o f an
ex tern a lly -e x cited 3-p h ase induction g enerator.
(6 ) D iscu ss th e follow ing for a 3-p h ase in d u ction g e n e ra to r :
asy
(i) I t o p erates alw ays a t a lead in g pow er factor.
(ii) C ontrol o f load on ind u ction g en era to r and its lim it.
(iii) A p p lication o f S C IM in th e g en e ra tin g mode.
En
(iv) It re q u ires reactiv e pow er for its op eration from a n e x is tin g su p p ly n etw o rk .
(o)
gin
C om p arison o f th e use o f induction g e n e ra to r w ith a sy n ch ro n o u s g e n e r a to r.
6 . 86 . (a) E x p la in th e p rin cip le o f op eration o f a self-e x cited 3 -p h a se in d u ctio n g e n e r a to r .
Give th e condition u nd er w hich th is g e n e ra to r m ay fa il to b u ild up.
(6 ) eer
G ive th e ap p licatio n s o f both e x te rn a lly -e x c ite d an d se lf-e x c ite d 3 -p h a s e in d u c tio n g e n e r a to rs .
ing
6 .8 7 . ( a ) C om p are th e re la tiv e ad v an tag es an d d isa d v a n ta g e s o f c a g e -ro to r a n d w o u n d -ro to r in d u ction
m otors o f th e sa m e pow er ratin g .
motor*? H°Wd° y°UCOmpare the operation of a P°lypbase induction motor with that of a polyphase synchronous
.ne
t
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'■■'I'.;.
SEVEN
Armature Windings
The windings used in rotating electnVal u- , .
windings and (6) distributed windings machines can be classified as (a) concentrated
In concentrated type of winding all
ww
multi-turn coil. Examples of concentrator! g turns 816 wound together in series to form one
machines as well as for d.c. machines I n m n l T S f 6 ? 8111 windings for salient-pole synchronous
Primary and secondary windings of a tran<sf ** 1 C° ’ ^ the turns have the same magnetic axis.
In distributed
w.E
of w S L ^ “ ^ r a l s o f o n n concentrated windings.
fractional-pitch coils. These coils" am tv, ' v. *ums are arranged in several full-pitch or
Dnint f u
machines' etc- in ci°sed windinEs- * • » “ •
.ne
th e a tr e
any point on the winding and traverses it, one again reaches the starting
L rm " ^
circur-Hns'3 n
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Art. ]
832 Electrical Machinery
or W-tum coil depending on whether it has two turns, three turns or W-turns respectively. A
multi-turn (or IV-tum) coil is one which has more than one turn.
(iv) Coil-side. One coil with any number of turns has two coil-sides, see Fig. 7.1 where
AB and DE are the two coil-sides.
The number of conductors in any coil-side is equal to the number of turns in that coil. For example,
each coil-side of one-tum-coil in Fig. 7.1 (a) has one conductor, each coil-side of N-tum coil in Fig. 7.1
(c) has N conductors. Note thatBCD in Fig. 7.1 is called the end-connection or overhang.
C Overhang C
B B
Coil - Coil- .
' sides’ sides
ww
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(a)
asy (6 ) (c)
Fig. 7.1. Schem atic diagram of (a) one-turn coil, ( 6) two-turn coil and (c) m u lti-tu rn coil.
En
(u) Single-layer and double-layer windings. If the winding is so designed that one coil-side
occupies the total slot area, then it is called a single layer winding, see Fig. 7.2 (a). In case the slot
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contains even number (may be 2,4 , 6 etc.) of coil-sides in two layers, the winding is referred to as a
two layer winding, see Fig. 7.2 (6) and (c). Single-layer winding is used only in small a.c. machines,
Coil-sides eer
whereas double-layer winding is more common above about 5 kW machines.
Top layer
w iir ir in■gh s s r
i n [U H
.ne
H i i
(*)
Top layer
t
B o tto m layer
(c) .
Fig. 7.2. (a) One coil-side per slot ( b ) two-coil-sides per slot and (c) 4 coil-sides per slot.
The advantages of double-layer winding over single layer winding are (a) easier to house
the winding in slots during repairs, (6 ) lower-leakage reactance and, therefore, better perfor
mance, (c) better e.m.f. waveform in case of generators and (d) more economical.
(vi) Pole-pitch. The term pitch indicates a particular method of measurement in terms of
coil-sides, teeth etc. A pole pitch is defined as the peripheral distance between identical points
on two adjacent poles, see Figs. 3.10 (a) and 3.11 (c). Pole-pitch is always equal to 180° electri-
(vii) Coi 1-span or coil-pitch. The distance between the two coil-sides of a coil is called
coil-span or coil-pitch. It is usually measured in terms of teeth, slots or electrical degrees.
(viii) Chorded-coil. If the coil-span (or coil-pitch) is equal to the pole-pitch as illustrated
in Fig. 7.3 (a), then the coil is termed a full-pitch coil. In case the coil-pitch is less than pole-
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[A rt. 7.1 lA
Armature Windings 833
pitch as shown in Fig. 7.3 (6 ), then it ic roii j l ,
p itch QTfractional-pitch coil. If there a reS slot's ( " t l t a T d IN I Is I
P poles, then pole pitch = | slots per pole. L tJ ■
Lr^J L?J
pitch Pole^
If coil-pitch =-p, it results in full-pitch winding. In case "pitch
1
coil-pitch < -p .it results in chorded, short-pitched or fraction-
_C oi(^
p ,hhCh Wi" ding' The C<>il' PitCh ^ rarely « " “ * * “ »■» Pole- s p on Coil -
"span '
7.1. Closed W indings
As has been stated before, closed windings are used for
ww
(6 )
double layer winding has its one coil-side in top layer and its Fig. 7.3. (a) F ull pitch coil and
( b ) short-pitched or chorded coil.
other coil-side in the bottom layer. In drawing these wind
• .U * r 1 i. j *a w.E
ings, the top coil-side is shown with a solid linp and tho
illustrated in Figs. 7.4 and 7 5 Upper part of F ie I d
-j l j u
coi -side by a dotted line as
, upper part oi rig. 7.4 (a) shows one lap coil with one coil-side
£ w e ro a rtZ 7
segments 1 and 2 .
w t
asy
0th: i C° \ Siie in the b0tt0ra 0f ° ther s'° ‘ ^ a pole pitch“ p a rt
schematic diagram of one lap-coil connected to commutator
Lap coil
En
Top
c o '1 -s id e . gin Top co il-s id e s Bottom c o il-s id e s
eer
ing
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B 5Z 5Z
Lap coil
I
i
i
t
%
** (
'I
i
t
B ottom |
Top—* co il sid e |
c o i l sid e
. V
' C oil e n d
:.‘5 ’ •.
—^yc=tk- —Iv h -
(4)
I ■ Pie. 7.4. Up-coij mnnections, ,o) single mulU-tum lap coil and (4) three mnlti-turn lap coils.
e simple closed windings are of two types, namely (i) simplex lap winding and (ii) simplex
wave win mg. From the construction point of view, the difference between lap and wave wind
ings epends upon the manner of connecting the coil ends to the commutator segments.
n simplex lap winding (or lap winding), the two coil-ends of a coil are connected to the two
a jacent commutator segments as shown in Fig. 7.4 (a). Note that two coil-ends, one from top
coi -side and the other from bottom coil-side are connected to adjacent commutator segments.
examination of Fig. 7.4 (6) shows that bottom coil-side of coil 1 and top coil-side of coil 2 are
connected to segment 2 ; bottom coil-side of coil 2 and top coil-side of coil 3 are connected to
segment 3 and so on. In other words, for simplex lap winding each commutator segment has
two coil-ends connected to it-one coil-end is from the top coil-side of one coil and the other
coil-end is from the bottom coil-side of the adjacent coil.
In simplex wave winding, the two coil-ends of a coil are bent in opposite directions and
connected to commutator segments which are approximately two pole-pitches (i.e. 360° electri
cal) apart as shown in Fig. 7.5. In wave winding also, each commutator segment has two coil-
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ends connected to it-one from the top coil-side and the other from bottom coil side.
Examination of Fig. 7.4 (6) reveals that if lap coils are traversed, the movement is forward
and backward alternately ; whereas Fig. 7.5 (a) reveals that for wave winding, the movement
w.Ey Lpj
is forward only. In both the lap and wave windings, all the coils are traversed in series.
y I4 J
asy ! Coil-1 Coil -2
En
gin
-yv»-yb*y,—*
- V ,0; 9
eer
=17-0-1 -V 2
=9 26
ing
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Coil-1
(a)
Coil-2
t
1
l
26
I
l
X 1
f
ii
21
yc * w - ai
(b)
F ig . 7.5. Simplex wave winding showing (a) single-turn coils, and (5) multi-turn coils.
1 3 5
u 2 4 6
Fig . 7.6. Illu stra tin g the method o f num bering coil sides in com m utator m achines.
B ack P itc h . The distance between the top and bottom coil-sides of one coil, measured at
the back of the arm ature (or measured at the other side of the commutator), is called back pitch,
symbol
sides. ww
It may be expressed in terms of teeth, slots or more conveniently in terms of coil-
w.E
In Fig. 7.4 ( 6 ), the top coil-sides are numbered 1,3 ,5 ... and bottom coil-sides are numbered,
say 8 ,1 0 ,1 2 ..., as per the num bering scheme adopted for commutator machines. For coil 1, the
top coil-side is numbered 1 and bottom coil-side is numbered 8 . Therefore, back pitch for coil 1
asy
is 8 - 1 = 7 ; similarly for other coils, the back pitch isy 6 = 10 - 3 = 12 - 5 = 7. For wave winding
in Fig. 7.5, the numbers given to top and bottom coil-sides are 1 and 10 respectively, there back
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pitch is therefore, yb = 10 - 1 = 9. Similarly, for coil 2 the back pitch isy 6 = 26 - 17 = 9 . Note that
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back pitch y b is always odd, since it is equal to the difference between even and odd numbers
given to the two coil-sides of the same coil.
eer
F ro n t p itch . The distance between the two coil-sides connected to the same commutator
segment, is called front pitch, symbol yf.
ing
In Fig. 7.4 (b ), the two coil-sides connected to commutator segment, say 2, are numbered as
3 and 8 , therefore, front pitch is yf = 8 - 3 = 5. For segment 3, yf = 10 - 5 = 5. In Fig. 7.5, the
coil-sides connected to segment, say 11, are 10 and 17—therefore, front pitch yf = 17 - 10 = 7.
.ne
Note that a top coil-side numbered odd and a bottom coil-side numbered even, are con
nected to the same commutator segment— this shows that the front pitchy^is always odd.
Winding pitch. The distance between the two consecutive and similar top, or bottom, coil-
t
sides, as the winding progresses, is called the winding pitch, symbol yw. It is expressed in terms
of coil-sides.
In Fig. 7.4 (6 ), the consecutive and similar top coil-sides are numbered 1, 3, 5 ... or similar
bottom coil-sides are numbered 8 , 10, 12 ... Therefore, for Fig. 7.4 (6 ), winding pitch yw = 3 - 1
= 5 - 3 = i o - 8 = 1 2 - 1 0 = 2 . An examination of Fig. 7.4 (6 ) reveals that for simplex lap wind-
^ - yb —yf-
In Fig. 7.5, the consecutive and similar top coil-sides, as the winding progresses, are num-
bfred 1, 17 or similar bottom coil sides are numbered 10, 26. Therefore, for Fig. 7.5, winding
= 17 - 1 = 26 - 10 = 16. An examination of Fig. 7.5 reveals that for simplex wave wind-
'ng>y,v = yb +yf.
Note that winding pitch yu, is always even, because it is equal to either the difference or the
Edition of two odd numbers yh and yf.
A rt. 7.2)
XJft Kleclrical M ach in en
Com m utator pitch. The distance between the two commutator segments, to which the two
ends of one coil are joined, is called the commutator pitch, symbol yc. It is always expressed in terms
of commutator segments.
For simplex lap winding, the two ends of coil 1 are joined to segments 2 and 1, therefore,
ye - 2 - 1 = 1, see Fig 7.4 For simplex wave winding, the two ends of coil 1 are joined to seg
ments 11 and 1, therefore,yt = 11 —1 = 10. Fig. 7.5. For simplex lap winding, .y, is always equal
to 1. For simplex wave winding, yc is almost equal to 2 pole-pitches.
7.2. Sim plex Lap Winding
Let C be the number of armature coils and P the number of poles. Since each coil has two
coil-sides, total number of coil-sides is 2 C The back pitch yb, almost equal to pole pitch, must
be odd, therefore,
yb = coil-sides per pole ± K
or 2C
>'b = ±K ...(7 1)
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where K is a number (integer or fraction* added to 2C /P to make yb an odd integer. Here
2C /P is equal to the pole-pitch in terms of coil-sides per pole.
w.E
An armature winding may be either progressive or retrogressive. In progressive lap wind
ings, if coil 1 is placed first, then coil 2 is placed in slots to the right of slots occupied by coil 1,
coil 3 in the slots to the right of coil 2 and so on as show n in Fig. 7.7 (a). Thus the progressive
asy
winding progresses to the right as seen from the commutator side. Therefore, for the progres
sive simplex lap winding, the winding pitch is
and y, = ♦ 1 En
y* = Vfc - >V= <8 - 1 >- (8 - 3) = + 2
gin
In retrogressive lap winding, coil 2 is placed in slots to the left of coil 1, coil 3 in slots to the
left of coil 2 and so on, see Fig 7 7 (b> Thus the winding retrogresses, i.e. progresses to the left
eer
as seen from the commutator end Therefore, for simplex retrogressive lap winding the wind
ing pitch is
|A rt. 7 .2
' *~~~ -— —----- — _ _ _ _ ________ Armature Windings S37
lap w in d in g * ? ^ F o r Q com m utat° r m achine with € poles an d 40 coils, determ ine fo r a sim plex
asy
hxnm ple r. 2 . h o r a com m utator m achine with 12 coils and 4 poles, design a progressive
simplex lap w inding with two coll u d es per slot Draw the winding diagram also.
En
Solution. Number of commutator segments » number of coils. C = 12. Twelve coils have 24
coil-sides For two coil-sides per slot, total number of slots
24
« ~ » 12
gin
Back pitch.
o(* ( J»4
y b ■ rn t A'« - ♦ 1 • 7 or 5.
/ •» eer
For progressive lap winding,
ing
v„ * .v* - V/ » ♦ 2
Vr e» 5 for » * 7
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or
A rt. 7.2]
838 Electrical Machinery
wwA careful examination of winding diagram of Fig. 7.8 reveals that currents leave at the
commutator segments 1, 7 and the currents enter at the commutator segments 4 , 10 . Thus four
w.E
brushes A, B, C, D can be placed in contact with segments 1, 4, 7, 10 respectively as shown.
Brushes A and C have the same polarity, these can, therefore, be joined together, similarly
brushes C and D can be joined. Armature power can be handled at the terminals marked
asy
E, F. If E and F are marked positive and negative respectively, the machine works as a gene
rator as shown in Fig. 7.8 and the direction of rotation is clockwise. In case E and F are given
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negative and positive polarities respectively, the machine works as a motor with the direction
of rotation anti-clockwise.
gin
ro ; i
I I N
eer
ing
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t
Fig. 7.8. Simplex lap winding for 4 poles. 12 slota and two coil-sides
per slot, pertaining to Example 7.2.
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[Art, 7.2
Armature Windings 839
From brush A, one parallel path is through *1 u ~ "
path is through coils I, k j to brush D From brn«i?r? ° t0 brUsh 3 and the second Parallel
brush B and the second parallel path through r ’I ^ parallel Path is through coils/, e, d to
a n y instant, are illustrated in Fig. 7.9 There are tb g ’r * 10 bmsh D- These ParalleI paths at
in general, for a simplex lap winding n u m W „ °,Ur paralIel Paths for a 4-pole machine—
D i.e.
P, pvnrpcoinn -§
• a —rd. expression ZnP reveals
z------- ' tkof u. & P 8 a is equal to the »number- ■ of poles
’ a reveals that the generated e.m f
ww a P
and current per brush (or per brush-set or per brush-arm) ‘
w
w.E
= 2/ ,
- P I;
It is also seen from Fig. 7.8 th at brushes are physically
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placed just below the pole centres. Therefore, electrical angle be
tween adjacent brushes is 180°. Note that physical location of
$ '■
Jk
HSl'
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• '
brushes under the pole centres is because of the diamond shape ?'9' Pertainine to Example 7.2. •gpi
m1
of the coils Fig. 7.20. Brushes are actually connected electrically to the coil-sides lying close to
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the mterpolar region This shows that brushes are displaced 90° electrical away from the main-
pole axis. This fact of 90° displacement between main-pole axis and brushes (or brush-axis) is
•
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ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
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the remaining two coil-sides of the same slot (top and bottom) under the effect of neighbouring
ing
pole. But in the present case, there are only two coil-sides per slot. Here if we take 7 slots under
the effect of two north poles and the remaining 7 slots under the effect of two south poles, the
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position of brushes can be located. In Fig. 7.10, 4, 3, 3, 4 slots are taken under the effect of
N 1, S 1, N2, S 2 poles respectively. Crosses are shown under north poles and dots under south
poles.
t
Since currents are leaving segments 1 and 2, brush A is shown covering both the segments partly.
Same is true for segments 11 and 12 where the currents are entering. Brushes B and C touch seg
ments 5 and 8 respectively. The machine works as a motor because E and F are given negative and
positive polarities respectively and the direction of rotation is counter-clockwise.
E xam p le 7.4. A d.c. m achine is designed to have
(a) 2 coil-sides p er slot
(b) 4 coil-sides p er slot
(c) 6 coil-sides p er slot and
(d) 8 coil-sides p er slot.
Indicate the num ber given to coil-sides p laced in 10th slot. Hence show that the number
given to the coil-side in nth slot is
(i) nu for thc last coil-side an d
(ii) (nu - u + 1) for the first coil-side.
Here sym bol u denotes the num ber o f coil-sides p er slot.
[A rt. 7.2
A rm a tu re W ind in gs 841
lnt from
slot from o^ to ^ nin third'slntP
to o, f
tnird slot from 9 *to^rst
12 anH fornnu =T'u-
slot’cr» 4 ’ are
ii. numbered
v. from
i 1j to *4, in second
n 11
where the coil-sides placed in 10th slot for u
&1UL’ IOr u -~94, a
4, a6 andj 8Vare lshown.
Pr0CGSS g‘ 1
19
37 39 55 57 59 73 75 77 79
O OO ooo oooo
O
20
Q Q
38 40
OOP,
56 58 60
oooo
74 7 6 78 80
(o) (1*) (d)
F>g. 7.11. N um bers given to coil-sides placed in 10th slot, Exam ple 7.4 .
ww
55 (- 10 x 6 - 6 + 1 - nu - u + 1) and 73 (= 10 x 8 - 8 + 1) are the first coil-sides in 10th slot. In
general, therefore, the first coil-side in nth slot is numbered as (nu - u + 1). .
w.E
7.2.1. Split coils. During thewinding design, it maybe foundthat somecoils with their
top coil-sides together in one slot, maynot havetheir bottomcoil-sidestogether in another
slot. Such cases arise only when there are more than two coil-sides per slot. These coils with
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their top coil-sides in one slot and bottom coil-sides in two different slots, are called split coils.
So far as commutation is concerned, split coils are helpful but the labour charges increase
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considerably. Example 7.5 illustrates the condition that must be satisfied if split coils are to
be avoided.
gin
Exam ple 7.5. Work out a suitable arrangement for the simplex lap winding with no split
coils, in the follow ing two cases :
(a) 30 slots, 60 coils, 4 poles.
(b) 20 slots, 60 coils, 4 poles. eer
Solution, (a) Total coil-sides = 2C = 2 x 60 = 120.
ing
.ne
12D
Coil-sides per slot, u= = 4.
30
B“ck pitch, yb =j - ±K
= ± 1 = 29 or 31.
4
3
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A r t . 7.3J
842 E lectrical M achinery
S lot 1
r m
(a) (ft)
F ig . 7.12. I llu s t r a t in g th e s p lit c o il. E x a m p le 7.5.
For yh = 29, top coil-sides 1, 3, 5 should be connected to bottom coil-sides 30 (1 + 29), 32 (3 + 29)
and 34 (5 + 29). Fig. 7.12(6) reveals that this back pitch results in split coils. Therefore,yb = 29 is ruled
out.
ww
For v<>= 31, top coil-sides 1 ,3 ,5 should be connected to bottom coil-sides 32,34 and 36 which
arc in the bottom layer of slot 6 .
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From parts (a) and (6 ), it may be concluded that split coils or split winding can be avoided
eer
In Fig. 7.5 (a), one end of coil 1 is connected to segment 1 and its other end is connected to
ing
segment 11, which is approximately 360° electrical away from segment 1. One end of coil 2 is
connected to segment 11 and its other end, for a 4-pole machine, must be connected to a seg
ment just ahead of segment 1 for progressive wave winding or to a segment just before segment
1 for retrogressive wave winding.
Fig. 7.5 (a) is reproduced in Fig. 7.13 in a radial form and for progressive wave winding. .ne
This figure reveals that for a 4-pole machine, there are two commutator pitches yc along the
commutator periphery. As stated before, the number of commutator segments is equal to the
number of coils C. Since the last coil-end of coil 2 must be connected to a segment either ahead
t
(for progressive winding) or before (for retrogressive winding) segment 1, the following relation
for a 4-pole machine can be written as
2yc = C ± l
or |>-c = C ± l
or | y e= C ± l .
~yc= C ± l.
k _____
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or ww |y„ = 2C ±2.
w.E
For a 6 -pole machine, there are three
winding pitches,
| y (t, = 2 C ± 2 .
asy
Consequently, for a P-pole machine,
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22 y«> = 2C ± 2.
gin
F ig . 7.1 3. I llu s t r a t in g c o m m u ta to r p i t c h y a n d w in d in g
p itc h y w f o r p ro g re s s iv e s im p le x w a v e
eer
w in d in g fo r a 4 -p o le m a c h in e .
Winding pitch for a simplex wave wind
ing is
2C ±2
P /2
= 2yc
ing ...(7.3)
Note that in Eqs (7.2) and (7.3), positive and negative signs should be used for progressive
311 retrogressive windings respectively. .ne
As yc must be an integer, yw must always be even for wave winding. Alsoy,,, = yb +yf. Since
both
>6 andjy are their sum must always be even—this verifies the above statement. t
is th^aVe is also known as series winding. The cause of designating it as wave winding
hat during the traverse of a parallel path, one moves through the winding in a wavelike
S e s s io n .
Example 7.6. Design an d draw a simplex wave winding with the following data :
Poles, l i slots, 2 coil-sides p er slot, progressive winding.
°lution. Number of coil-sides = 11 x 2 = 22
A rt. 7 .3)
844 E lectrical M achinery
ww
ment 3, because two currents are going towards this segment. The only ether point where the
two currents are going away from each other is at the other end of the commutator—this is
indicated by B x. Since the brushes must touch the commutator segment, the brush B can be
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placed where the two coil-sides of coil k are connected. That is, brush B may be placed either at
segment 6 or at segment 11. In Fig. 7.14, it is shown at segment 11.
asy
From brush A, one parallel path is through c, i, d.... to brush B and other parallel path is
through h, b,g.... to brush B as shown in Fig. 7.15. Therefore, in simplex wave winding, two
En
gin
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ing
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t
Fig. 7 .1 4 . P ro g ressiv e sim p lex w ave w inding for 4-p o les. 11 slo ts
and 2 co il-sid es per slot. E x a m p le 7 .6 .
ww
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may be cut off, insulated and not connected to th ° n8 m° re) 0011
This unused and inactive cofi t h Z h o l l ed -n J T muta? )r S^ mentS'
mechanical balance is called a dead or dummv
metrical armature winding a dummvcoil shn asy
I ^ ar™a ure slots for
°r? e[ t0 have sym'
on new punch, ng tools etc. If dummy coils are to be avoided, then ^ gin should not be an integer
this is revealed in Example 7.7.
Examples 7.7 and 7.8 illustrate the use of a dummy coil. eer ’
* = ° ± ± . i ± L | i . 47| or 4g, t
pJ m. T * Wmdingy‘ must be an intl* er' If all the 144 coils are used, wave winding is not
>« a na dthe
) h commutator
7 Z e J\ 'Stn0tpitch
a" r is now
8" - H° WeVer'
given by ^ ° " e COi' iS made dUmmy then actiTO are
y' = ^ 3 ^ = 48 0 r4 7 i
Winding pitch, ^ =^ = 2 x J | 3 ± 2 = 96or94|
Now°WS that ° nly pr0gressive simPlex wave winding with one dummy coil is possible.
y " =y b + y f= 96-
*»thy6 = 49 andy^= 47>hecause both need be odd. At the same time, split coils are avoided
y h - 1 _ 4JU 1 ’
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A rt. 7.4]
846 E lectrical M ach in ery _ ---------------------------------------------------------------
Here = 24 is an integer and a dummy coil is essential. It shows that if dummy coils are
6/2 Q #
to be avoided in simplex wave winding, then should not be an integer.
Exam p le 7.8. Design the winding for a 4-pole armature with 2540 conductors, 127 com
mutator sectors (or segments) and 32 slots.
I f an induced voltage o f 500 V is required, calculate its speed for a field flux o f 5 mWb per
pole.
Solution. Conductors per slot x Slots = zs x S = 2540
2540 nrk or7K
.’. Conductors per slot, zs - ^ ~
ww
.-. Turns per coil = 2^ fi27 = 10 08 s
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Since the coil is a multi-turn coil, wave winding should be used.
It is essential that actual coils are equal to the number of commutator segments 127. In
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view of this, one coil must be made dummy, so that there are 127 active coils.
••
• y
yc
=C±l
P /2
= 127±JL = 64 o r 6 3
4 /2
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= 2 C ± 2 = 2 x 1 2 7 4 2 = 128orl26
y“ P /2 4 /2
eer
ing
yb ~ 65 andy/-= 63 for progressive wave winding andyb = 63 andy^= 63 for retrogressive
wave winding.
Since the dummy coil is not in circuit, the number of active conductors is
127 x 1 0 x 2 = 2540 .ne
Now £„ = *
5 x 1 0 _ 3 x 2540 x n x 4
t /
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connected to 3 segments behind or ahead o
C ± 3
f ar°Und the “ “ “ “tator. is
w.E y° P/2
P/ 2 wave Ending.
En
sign is f ^ t T e ^ e s X n^ndfngP° SltiVe gin
^ ^ pr0^ ssive winding and negative
The number of parallel paths a in lap winding is a = mP «„,» •
eer
Multiplex wave windings are rarely used in L
7-5. Equalizer Rings
ing
m a 'Jn e s ^ ‘ =^
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Showing reasons f l a p ‘ c o n n e c t e d ™ chines may be due to any one or all of the
t
faulty assemhi **** under different poles may not be the same, due to w e a r of th» h ■
re' different c m fs aZ
.* ? LUXbe different under th« various poles and. there-
(t'-) ^ s - are generated in the parallel circuits.
lrnpe^ectionfinTkT! re' uctances for each magnetic path may also be due to the impurities or
in e materials constituting the magnetic circuit.
Ordpr a._ •«!
!!nnected comm , J rate the detrimental efTects of circulating currents, consider a 4-pole lao-
ale-m.fs «en * ° j machine shown in Fi&- 7 1 7 - Suppose the full-load current is 200 A. For
5 erated in the parallel paths, the distribution of currents is ns illustrated in Fig
! A rt. 7 .5]
848 E lectrical M achinery
IX
100A
/
k /
\ N
\ • '* / 60 A
(c)
F ig . 7.1 7. (a ) A r m a t u r e c u r r e n t d is tr ib u tio n fo r e q u a l e .m .fs . (6 ) C ir c u la t in g c u r r e n t d u e to u n e q u a l e .m .fs . a n d
(c) r e s u lt a n t a r m a tu r e c u r r e n t d is t r ib u t io n d u e to u n e q u a l e .m .fs .
ww
\1 (a). All the four brushes are handling 100 A of current and each parallel path is carrying
50 A.
w.E
Now suppose that the air gap under the top pole-pair N h S x.becomes more than that under
the bottom pole-pair N2, S 2, due to wear of the bearings. As a result of this wear, air-gap flux
asy
under N 4, S x decreases and that under poles N2, S 2, increases. On account of these different
air-gap fluxes, the emf. generated in the parallel paths under N lt S x becomes less and that
En
under N2, S 2 becomes more. Let these emfs generated in parallel paths B 3 B 2 and B 3 B 2 be 48
volts and that in parallel paths Bj B 4 and B 3 B 4 be 52 volts as shown in Fig. 7.17 (b). The poten
gin
tial of negative brushesBj, B 3 remains unchanged, because from B xto B 3 or from B 3 t o B x, there
is an equal voltage rise and equal voltage fall. From brush B 2 to brush B 4,
VD
u2B = ~ 48 + 52 = 4 V. eer
This shows that brush B 4 is at a higher potential than brush B 2 by 4 volts. If armature
resistance for each parallel path is 0.1 Q, then resistance between brushes B 2 B 4 is also ing
r 0 2^
0.10 = _2 [ In vieW ° f this’ a P°tential difference of 4 volts across brushes B 2 B 4 causes
.ne
4
q 2 —40 A to flow from brush B 4 to B 2 as shown in Fig. 7.17 (6 ). The resultant current distribu
tion in various parallel paths, obtained by superimposing the current distribution of Figs 7.17
t
(a) and (6 ), is shown in Fig. 7.17 (c). This figure reveals that brushes B lt B 2, B 3 and B 4 handle
100 A, 60 A, 100 A, and 140 A respectively. Brush B 4 is thus overloaded and may cause spark
ing. With uniform currents of Fig. 7.17 (a), the armature circuit losses are 4(50)2 x 0 1 = 1000
watts. With circulating currents present as shown in Fig. 7.17 (c), the arm ature circuit losses
are 2 (30) x 0.1 + 2 (70) x 0.1 = 1160 watts. This shows that the circulating currents result in
overheating of the armature also.
In order to avoid overloading and sparking at the brushes, it is essential to take some steps
so that circulating currents are not handled by the brushes. These steps consist in providing
equalizer rings or equalizer connections. An equalizer ring is a low resistance conductor wire,
which connects together the points in the armature winding which should be at the same poten
tial. The function of equalizer ring is to cause the circulating currents to flow within the arma
ture winding itself, without letting them pass through the brushes.
www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
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functions of equalizer rings are
(t) to save the brushes from handling the circulating currents and
w.E
(ii) to reduce the magnetic flux unbalance that causes the potential difference in various
parallel paths.
asy
Refer now to Fig. 7.19. Points 1 and 2 on the armature
winding are under the centre of poles N 3 and N2 respective
\ ^nngs^
En
ly. These points are two pole-pitches apart and have the
same induced emf, if there is no flux unbalance. If points 1
and 2 are short-circuited by an equalizer-ring as shown,
then this ring will carry no current and the armature wind
gin
ing remains unaffected. Similarly, points 3 and 4 can be
connected by another equalizer-ring as depicted in Fig. 7.19.
eer
In case there is flux unbalance, then points 1, 2 or 3, 4
will be at different potentials and circulating current will ing
start flowing through the rings and armature coils, without
flowing through the brushes.
.ne
' An examination of Fig. 7.19 reveals that an equalizer
nog connects as many coils as there are pole-pairs. In Fig.
•19, the ring connects 2 coils because there are two pole-
t
F ig ..7.19. Illu stra tin g the m ethod o f
connecting equalizer rings.
Paus. It is also obvious from Fig. 7.19 that any two points
nu° Pole' pitches aPart, can be joined by an equalizer ring. There is, however, a limit to the
the 6r equabzer rings from the economy point of view. It is usual to employ 10 to 20 rings,
actual number depending on the size of the machine.
tial ^ *s seen distance between coils (or points) having the same poten-
118^pole-pitches, i.e.
„ 0 i .. , Total number of coils
yeQ= 2 pole-pitches = ----------- :------:----------
* Pole pairs
2C
coils ...(7.6)
P/2 " P
The -
di8tance 8^ mbo1 is called the equipotential pitch in terms of coils, because ycq indicates the
e etween two adjacent equipotential points.
A rt. 7.5)
850 Electrical Machinery
ber. ww
Note from Eq. (7.8) that if equalizer rings are to be employed, 2 C /P must be a whole num-
It is usual to provide equalizer rings at the back of the armature, i.e. at the other side of the
commutator.
w.E
Equalizer rings are not required for simplex wave windings even i f there is ma^netlJ: ” n*
asy
balance. This is due to the fact that coil-sides in two parallel paths are distributed under all the
poles. In view of this, both the parallel circuits are affected equally and there is, therefore, no
need of equalizer rings in simplex wave windings.
En
E xam p le 7.9. Work out a suitable arrangement o fte n equalizer rings for a commutator
m achine having 8 poles, 240 coils, simplex lap winding.
Solution. From Eq. (7.6), the equipotential pitch is
gin
2C _ 2 x 240
eer
= 60 coils.
ing
yeq- p - 8
Pitch of the tapping points, from Eq. (7.8), is
JtD
= 2C = 24 M = 6coils.
_P
rP -10
~ x 8
~ .ne
The arrangement of the equalizer rings and the coils connected to them is given below in
tabular form.
t
R ings
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 . 2 3
->
49 55
1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43
109 115
N um ber o f coils 61 67 73 79 85 91 97 103
connected to th e rings 175
121 127 133 139 145 151 157 163 169
235
181 187 193 199 205 211 217 223 229
Since there are 4 pole-pairs, 4 coils are connected to each equalizer ring. For example rnv
2 has coils connected to it which are numbered 7, 6 7 ,1 2 7 and 187 in the above table.
lArt 7.5
ArmalureWindin
Summary. A review of the salient features o f l« n u . . .
7.1 below : 01 laP and wave winding is presented in Table
2. Average coil-span
p coil-s.des where C = Number of 2c
-p coil-side
coils
Back pitch, y b
2C
± K , odd 0 ^. - y f) , odd
Front pitch, y f
>b ± 2 , odd <+ for retrogressive wdg
<yu. -y^, odd
and - for progressive wdr)
5.
ww
Commutator pitch, y c
±1
1______
C 11
JV 2 |
Winding pitch, y u
w.E ^ J b r ^ r o g r e s s i v e a ^ . for retrogressive w d ,
±2
2C ± 2
----
asy
L
P /2 r yb + yf
^ L P f g g l g j g i v e wdg and - for retrogressive wdg
Number o f parallel paths, a
Number o f brushes
10.
Dummy coils
Equalizer rings
Not needed
gin brushes may be equal to P )
May be required
* * — * » .
if W e o r moTpnh m g um a y J b e f i t t e d w i t h 3 8 m a n y b r u s h e s a « t h e n u m b e r o f p o l e s I n s u c h »
A rt. 7.51
852 E lectrical M ach inery --------- " '
. .• ■ a fart that wave windings do not require
The preferred choice of wave windings is duetc> are )ess expcnsive os compared to
equalizer-rings. As a consequence, wave-wound dc m - 400 A, lap winding is the
lap-wound dc machines. However, for armature per path in wave
only choice. It is because for ^niature currents^exceed,ng 4C inwave-
winding would be more than 200 A and such a curr
wound dc machines. „ - . 11a ___
In addition to lap and wave windings, there is another type of 3 ^ ^ “ “
winding or frog-leg winding. It is a combination of simplex lap and ^ P le^ a e J ngS
and requires no equalizer rings. It is beyond the scope of this book to describe frog leg winding.
This type of w in d in g is used mainly on high-power com m utator m ac m e .
Exam p le 7.10. (a) From on outside appearance o f the arm ature o f a com m utator machine,
how would you distinguish whether it is lap-or wave-wound.
(b) A simplex lap-wound armature has 12 coils, each o f resistance 0.1 £2.
(i) What is the resistance m easured between two adjacent com m utator segments ?
ww
(ii) I f one coil gets open-circuited or short-circuited, explain how it can be located.
(c) A com m utator m achine has Z conductors, ‘a ’ p a ra llel p a th s an d P poles. I f each con
ductor h as a length (including overhang) o f L metre, area o f cross-section o f A metre and a
w.E
resistivity o f pCl-m, fin d the resistance o f com m utator m achine. How are these expressions
m odified for lap and wave-connected m achines ?
asy
Solution, (a) For a lap-wound armature, if the ends of the coils connected to commutator
segments are bent, say, to the left then its other coil-ends, on the other side of commutator, are
also bent to the left, see Fig. 7.4. In other words, lap-wound armatures have both their coil ends
bent in the same direction.
En
gin
For a wave-wound armature, if the ends of coils connected to commutator segments are
bent, say, to the left, then its other coil-ends, on the other side of commutator, are bent to the
eer
right, see Fig. 7.5. In other words, wave-wound armatures have their coil-ends bent in opposite
directions.
(b)
ing
(i) Resistance of one coil connected to adjacent commutator segments is 0.1 ft. This coil
is in parallel with the remaining 11 series-connected arm ature coils of total resistance
.ne
11 x 0.1 = 1.1 ft. In other words, one coil of resistance 0.1 ft becomes in parallel with 11 series-
connected coils of resistance 1.10 ft. This can be ascertained by referring to Fig. 7.8. Therefore,
the resistance measured between two adjacent commutator segments is
Q'* x = o 0917 ft
0 . 1 + 1.1 u u y i ' “ -
t
(ii) The resistance measured across two commutator segments to which one open-circuited
coil is connected, would be that given by the remaining 11 series-connected coils. In view of this,
the resistance measured across an open-circuited coil is
1 1 x 0 . 1 = 1.1 0 f t
With one coil short-circuited, the resistance measured across its two coil-ends (or segments)
would be (ideally) zero.
It may be concluded from above that an open-circuited coil is indicated by the highest pos
sible resistance across its two segments ; whereas a short-circuited coil can be located by the
lowest possible resistance across its terminals.
- /
[Art. 7.6 :
A rm a tu re W ind in gs 853 ...
■ ■
... Resistance of each parallel path = ^ . £ k q
a A I?'J'
Thus, resistance of the commutator
or machine with number of parallel paths ‘o', is given by ; jj
=± f e .e k V z .s k a ■$1
ww
Closed or commutator windings arp a li i
windings may be single layer or double layer As stated before” " ^ ! whereas a c - "m a tu re !I
I
kW.
w.E
for small a.c. machines, whereas double layer windi™ Tr y6r Windings are used
3yer wmdlngs are used for machines above about 5
u!
!‘
asy
The main difference between single and dnnhio lo.m •j- .
i•■ their overhang. In single layer winding the coils arp a Windlngs 1S m the arrangement of l|j
i
overhang crossing the overhang of adjacent gronns TV ranSed *n groups. Each group has its if
En
coil groups of different sizes and shapes This means Jh ^ i8 by haVing individual
variety of sets of coils with each set differing bothTn si! hat a Sln^ layer winding requires a i\
adds to the cost of single-layer windings S W 1p.iT
modern machines except in small sizes In sinelp law gin and shape from the other sets. All this
v!gS- therefore* rarely used in
ill
lr:‘
i; i
' have the same shape and size
eer
smgle-layer mush windings,however, all the coils
Ii
Top coil
t
Bottom
kver ud advanta&es °f double-layer winding over single side coil side i||
winding are as follows:
■ f'.'M 1
ww
phasor of length E x = lying along the vertical. Conductor 4 is cutting zero lines of flux and
w.E
has, therefore, zero emf induced in it. This can be represented by phasor E Asince its vertical
projection is zero. The emf generated in conductor 7 is maximum, because it is cutting maxi
mum lines of flux from S pole. The polarity of emf in conductor 7 will be opposite to that in
asy
E . . 1
conductor 1, it is, therefore, represented by £7 = ~^> opposite to E v Sim ilarly the emfs
«.
En
generated in conductors 2 , 3 , 5 , 6 and in conductors 8 to 12 can be represented by phasors
£ 2, £ 3, £ 5, E 6 and £g to £ 12 as shown in Fig. 7.21 (a).
Eu
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
(a) (fr)
Fig. 7.21. P ertaining to 3-phase winding, (a) P h a se spread is 120° and
(fr) tim e phase angle is 120° betw een E A, E fl and E Q.
(Art 7.6
------------------------------- Armature Windings
/iiiiidiure n855
in u in p
their e.m.fs. are additive, then the resultant p m r uT ~ "
8 is obtained by taking the phasor sum of e.m T p v n the fr° nt ends of conduct° rs 5 and
by e.m.f. Eb in Fig. 7.21 ( 6 ). Similarly with S I ' 6’ &nd ^ 8' ^ bis Pbasor sum is indicated
sum of e.m.fs. £ 9, E * n and £ „ is ! ’ 10’ U “ d 12 in series, the phasor
three phases A, B, C. Note that the space an 1 ° manner, 12 conductors are grouped in
the time phase angle, Fig. 7.21 (6 ), between e m f V ' 2p ^ C°Vered by each phase is 120° and
3 and 4 in adjacent slots, belong to phase A—th • E ° iS a,S0 120°‘ The conductors 1, 2,
is called phase-band, phase-belt or p h a se-e rn n ^ Q0mblnation of 4 conductors in adjacent slots
second phase-belt and conductors 9, 10, l l and 19 rh !u-y JC° i; ductors 5 ’ 6 ’ 7 and 8 constitute
belt may be defined as the group of adjacent1 , 1 , 5 rd Phase belt. In general, the p W
The angle subtended by one phase-belt is called nfr bel° ngln&to ona phase under one pole-pair.
in Fig. 7.21 ( a ) is 120°, because 4 adjacent Symbo1 a ' Thus the Phase spread
pitches (= 4 x 30° = 120°). J3Cent slots Pertaining to any one phase belt cover 4 slot-
If conductors 1,2 are connected in series fh r
ly join 3' 4 - 5*6 >7 ‘8 . 9-10 and 11-12 r e s p e c tiv e ^ * Z l A ♦ ° btained’ see FiS- 7-2 2 lb). Similar-
ww
shown in Fig. 7.22 ( 6 ). These 6 voltages form r I
them. Note that here the phase spread is 60° b e ^ a u ^ th ^
glVe voltages B, C, D, E and F as
PhaSe &ngle of 60° between
w.E
consisting of two adjacent slots of any one phase's 60°, see Tig 7 2 2 ^ ? ^ * * ° ne phase-belt
^ ’A
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
(a)
Fig. 7.22. P e rta in in g t„ 6 -phase w inding, (a) phase spread i , 60* and (4) U n ip h a s e angle is 6 0 ”.t
f ha1s e ’b eltf- The developed view of Fig. 7.22 (a) is drawn in Fig. 7.23 fa) f o r
hsvdtg a Phase spread of e T In FfaS 7C2 3 ( l US7d > ° btain.?hree-Phase single-layer winding
* 12/2 = 6 slots ,■ g' ' 3 (a)l coll'P,tch or “ d-span is taken equal to pole pitch
- 7.23 (a) p ‘
(a ) P n r V i1SfC0 j Po n ’ conductor
r T n 1 c1ondu.c t o r 1i should
snouid be connected to conductor 7 as shown in
fcrto . ' '• t o r 12 s lo t s a n d 9 n n lp s e ln f .o n r n t lo v n if n li u - ono rn ____ />___ - ,
' “•■two a d L . ? Sl0tS and 2 p0,es' ^ “t-nngnlar pitch 7 = 30”. Therefore, for phase spread
luctor 88 hhel"
Coriductor pl ,0tS,must
i!“ u a t belong
UC1U11S tow the
u i e ssame
am e p phase.
n a s e . Thus,
i n u s , sslot z cconductor
lo t 2 o n d u c t o r aand
n d iits
t s rreturn
etu rn
, COr 0 belong to nhase A In nfhpr words mnd,mfnrC 1 ond 9 „.......... return
7 1 + 6) a * a P A' In °ther words* cond«ctors 1 and 2 are connected to conductors
A c t o r s an Hi 6) * S S,h°Wn Fig- 7 2 3 (a)' ThnS' conductors 7 and 8 form the return
^W-belt rabelled A', A'. For the sake of convenience in drawing the winding diagrams,
te*UrP condC° nS*St*n^ conductors 2 is designated A whereas the phase-belt made up of
Wn the st Uf ° rs 7> 8 *s den°ted by - A. For a 3-phase winding, phase B must start 120° away
5>^0r cond °^pbase A ■Since the slot-angular pitch is 30°, the phase B must start from slot
^before nh ^ ^ a° d conductors 11 (= 5 + 6) and 12 (= 6 + 6) form the return conductors.
»P ase-belt made up of conductors 5, 6 is denoted by B and phase-band consisting of
A rt. 7.7]
856 Electrical Machinery
ww
w.E
V=3 0
✓
asy
>" S
C ' V >
V
CL
Ai
<•1
En
(\
A2
c!
B]
i
B2
1b
Cl
0
C2
(a)
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
-E 12
X j ”, DU • a lo ts . 2 -p o le W in d in g a rra n g e m e n t.
(6) T im e -p h a s e d ia g ra m fo r th e e .m .fs. g e n e ra te d in (a).
[Art. 7.7
A rm a tu re W in d in g s 857
per pole. If the coil-pitch is taken tobe t^uT to hdTpltoh^the^b ” ofa Ending is 6 slots
in slot 1 should be connected to bottom coil-side (shown by
Since the* are 6 slots per pole of !80°, the slot angular pitch is T. i f . 30°. For a phase spread
of60°, slots 1 and 2 must contain coil-sidp<? + u a
ww
connected to bottom coil-side in slot 8 (= 2 + 6 l Thp
r ^ r .T a ^ e ^ -
^ pper co^‘s'de in slot 2 must be
w.E
^itatedthat ^
N
asy S N ^ s
En
12 3 6 5 6 7
I j 9
gin
>0 11 12 13 U 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
H t
eer t 1
ing
.ne
A1°
Fig. 7.24. P ertain in g to the double-layer, full pitch integral slot winding.
Now consider a 3-phase machine with slot-angular pitch r = 30°, slots per pole = 6 and coil-
t
Span = full-pitch = 6 slots. For phase-spread a = 60°, 2 1 = ^ adjacent slots must belong to
slot8 7^ ^°r C0^ 'sPan = 6 * top coil sides in slots 1, 2 should be Connected to bottom coil-sides in
for h 1+ ® (= 2 + 6 ). As coil-sides 7, 8 form the return coil-sides for upper coil-sides 1, 2
£ m ase A>phase-belt 7, 8 is labelled - A and phase-belt 1, 2 as A, Fig. 7.25. Starting of phase
PhaUS» be Space disPlaced by 120° (= 4 slot-pitches) from the start of phase A. In view of this,
phaSe must start from slot 5 (= 1 + 4). For 60° phase spread, two slots 5 and 6 must belong to
Here6 ? ' The top co>l-sides in slots 5 , 6 should be connected to bottom coil-sides in slots 11, 12.
form- Phase-belt consisting of lower return coil-sides 11, 12 is designated - B and that
have ^,Upper c°il-sides 5, 6 as B, Fig. 7.25, slots 9, 10 belong to phase C. As thc various coils
then, span = full-pitch = 180° each slot contains coil-sides belonging to the same phase. If
coil ft;^0e phase winding having more than 2 poles is completed, slots 3 4 would contain return
th a t.S ' for Phase C, these phase-belts are therefore labelled - C in Fig. 7.25. It isthus seen
quenon, e 8Pread of 60° produces a phase-band sequence of A, C, B, - A, C, - B for a se-
Ce °f AflC for 3-phase voltage.
A rt. 7.7]
858 E lectrical M achinery
Fig. 7.25. Developed winding diagram for a 3 -phase m achine w ith double layer,
slot-angular pitch = 30°. coil-span = 6 slots and phase spread - 6 0 .
Consider now a phase spread of 120° for the 3-phase machine with y = 30 , coil-span = full-
pitch = 6 slots. A phase spread of 120° requires 4 = — adjacent slots for each phase. Therefore,
ww
upper coil-sides in slots 1, 2 ,3 , 4 pertain to phase A and its return coil-sides are in slots 7 , 8 , 9,
10. As before, the phase-belt consisting of upper coil-sides 1, 2, 3, 4 is labelled A and the phase-
belt formed by lower coil-sides 7, 8 , 9, 10 is designated - A. Similarly, the arrangements of
w.E
coil-sides pertaining to phases B and C is as shown in Fig. 7.26. An examination of this figure
reveals that for a phase spread o f 120°, sequence of phase-belts is A, B, C ; for a sequence of
ABC for its 3-phase voltages.
P o le - p ilc h
asy Pole - p i l c h
• !
■SO—j y * 3 0oIh
6 En 1A
ing
120° ■ 120
Fig. 7.26. Double-layer developed winding diagram for a 3-p h ase m ach in e w ith
slot-angular pitch = 30°, coil-span = 6 slots and phase spread = 120°.
In Fig_7.27 are shown the phase-belts for the first 12 slots, 2 poles of 3-phase double-layer .ne
^ 7 3 f f ' sp,read 0f 60°- The Ph ase-belts shown here can be used to
bk n n r n Z U ftT “ h , f , " 1 T ? " 15 °an * * obtaiM‘l h? their interconnection. For
this purpose, left-hand terminal of phase-belt A forms its starting terminal A ,. The other end
t
of this phase-belt A is connected to right-hand terminal of phase-belt - A. The left-hand ter-
Phase -c B
belts -A -B
Slots 2 2 2
mm (W n 2
rw nmn n rm rm \
(Art. 1^1
, , A rm a tu r e W in d in g s 859
minal of phase-belt - A forms the end terminal nf k , -------------------------
interconnect the phase-belts of phases B *P l*9 • same Procedure is adopted to
niinals B ,, B 2 and Clf C2 in Fig. 7.27. ’ 1 ° obta,n their respective start and end ter-
The winding arrangement can also be s h n k
method. In the dock diagram, the arrangement oU h . method, called clock-diagram
winding arrangement of Fig. 7.25 is drawn in Fie 7 o« 3 ln b°th layers is illustrated. The
the form of clock diagram. ln
Consider now another examnle witk qc i .
full-pitch winding with a phase spread of 6 0 °H trelhe
slot-angular pitch y = ^ . 20.. Therefore ^ #
w.E
bells is shown in Fig. 7.30. Note that there arc 4 n h !!!
belts for each of the three phases. For the phase I the
terminals A„ A2 may be connected cither in series or in w
asy A-) ) r
F ig . 7 .2 8 . C lo c k d ia g r a m fo r F ig . 7 .2 5 .
En 36
cr-60° %
b \~5
1
gin
2 ^
•b E l
eer
L~ > t r /a X -c \ 5
ing
.ne
t
P aralle i ■ 1.2% . C lock d iagram for 36 slots, 4 poles, phase spread 60°.
8eries c Wltb tbe terminals, A3,A a depending upon the operating voltage of the machii._.
inc. .For
See Pjg ^nec^i°n A2 and A 3 are joined together giving A l and A 4 as the two output terminals,
°utPutt 3° (ab Phases B and C are also connected similarly to give B h B Aand C u CAas the
erminals. Here A j, B h form either the starting or the finish of phases A, B , Crespec-
amScanner www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
A rt. 7.71
860 Electrical Machinery
P hase -c B A C -B
6 -A -B 3
b e lts ■A *C 3 3
3 3
n n nn nn nn
3 3
S lo ts ■ ■3 3 3 inn
ffT^ W
a3 a6
>A|
(a)
A -C B - a C -B
Phase C -B
A -C B -A
b e lts 3 3 3 3
S lo ts 3
ftfri
3
nn nn
3 3
inn nrci pre] pnr] nnn
nn
ww Al
A2
w.E S ta rt of A
(6)
F in is h of A
asy
F in. 7 30. I llu s tr a tin g th e in te r-c o n n e c tio n s a m o n g s t th e p h a s e -b e lts
o f a 3-phase w in d in g w ith 36 slo ts, 4 poles and 60° phase s p re a d .
En
lively. For parallel connection. A„ A, are joined withAj, A, respectively as shown in Fig. 7.30
(b ). In this figure, the joints of A 1(A3 is taken arbitrarily as the start of phase A. For clarity
sake, the inter-connections of the various phase-belts is shown only for phase A. For phases
B and C, the same procedure is followed as adopted for phase A. gin
Coil pitch in polyphase machines is usually less than
In te g ra l slo t c h o rd e d w in d in g .
pole-pitch and such a winding arrangement is called short-pitch, fractional-pitch or chorded eer
winding. The advantages of using chorded coils are :
(t) to reduce the amount of copper required for the end-connections (or over hang) and ing
(ii) to suppress or reduce the magnitude of certain harmonics in the waveform of phase
e.m.fs. and mmfs. .ne
In most a.c. machines, it is usually a standard practice to use chorded winding. The coil-
pitch generally varies from 2/3 pole-pitch to full pole-pitch. A coil-span less than - pole-pitch is
2
u
t , , .
not used in practice. It is because a chording more than 1/3 pole-pitch would reduce the phase
emf noticeably. In order to compensate for this reduction, use of additional turns becomes
necessary and this offsets the saving made in the overhang copper. Consider a 3-phase machine
with 12 slots, 2 poles, 60° phase spread and with coil-pitch equal to 5/6 pole-pitch, i.e. I 50
electrical, 5 slots or 5 teeth. The winding details in developed and clock diagrams are illustrated
in Fig. 7.31. Upper coil-sides in slots 1 and 2 are connected to bottom coil-sides 6 (=1 + 5) and 7
(2 + 5). Phases B and C start from slots 5 and 9 as before. Note that some slots do not contain
coil-sides pertaining to the same phase. The interconnection between the phase belts of the
three-phase winding is done in a manner similar to that explained in Fig. 7.30.
A few examples given below, illustrate how 3-phase double-layer windings are design^
and drawn.
2*
[Art. 7.7_____________________________ _
____________ A rm a lu r e W in d in g s H6 1
1.11
4 5 6
A -C --C
c aB B I -A
B - A c3 ™ V 12
U -C -c
snSJjlS
6B B |-A -A C C
I \ 1
—l*?=30l
\r l —
n
ww ° ^ “A the
Total num ber o f slots
Number o f p oles w.E = 24
=4
n li i
Double-layer wtnd.
Coil-span
asy
fu ll.pUch
En
iiC n tZ tu p T ^ dlg^
in
W
gin the connection o f
eer
id)Calculate its distribu tion factor.
Phase spread,
24
CT_ go0 .ne
Number of adjacent slots in one phase-belt = ^ = ^ = 2
y 30
t
. 24
Coil-span = full-pitch = — = 6 slots.
4
W in d ’ l
there ar ^ 8 f° r th° 3'Phase a r m a t u r e is p r e p a r e d b elo w . F o r d o u b le -la y e r w in d in g ,
W red 6 c o d 'S id e s p e r s lo t ; o n e u p p e r co il-sid e a n d th e o th e r lo w e r co il-sid e. A s re-
na m e d r Po ' e i \ COil' S i d e s a r e nam ed 1> 2 > 3 > ••• a n d th e co rre s p o n d in g low er co il-sid e s a r e
1 ’ 2 . 3', ... .
one con ^ ase^> upper coil-side 1 in slot 1 is connected to lower coil-side T (= 1 + 6) to form
M t- / ti,P P e r c o d ' s *d e s 1 . 2 form phase-belt A and their lower coil-sides 7 ' , 8 ' make phase-
^ » ese are called coil-group (C .G .) I and so on.
n toe winding table below, 5 and F denote start and finish of any one phase.
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A rt. 7.71
862 E le c tric a l M ach in ery
A-phase :
+6 +6 ...C.G.I.
S (1 -7 ')-> (2 -8 ')
^ + 6 = 1 pole pitch
(7 - 13') (8 - 14') - C-G - 11 Phase A
+6
(1(13 - 19') —> (14 - 20')
...C.G. Ill
+6
F (19 - 1') <- (20 - 2 ' (= 26 - 24))-* -.C.G. IV
C -phase: ...C.G.I.
F (3 - 9') -> (4 - 1 0 ')x
)+6 ...C.G. II
^ ( 9 - 1 5 ') <—(10 - 1 6 7 . Phase ( - C)
< (15 - 21') -> (16 - 22')--------- ...C.G. Ill
ww
+6
S (21 - 3') 4- (22 - 4' (= 28 - 24))- ...C.G. IV
w.E
ZJ-phase :
S (5 - 1 1 ') -> (6 -12')> ...C.G.I.
En
+6
...C.G. IV
F (23 - 5') <- (24 - 6 ' (= 30 - 24))—1 ...U.ii. iv
gin
Above is the winding table for 3-phase armature winding having 24 slots, 4 poles, phase
eer
SPre<6 ) B y referring to the above winding table, detailed winding diagram for phase A only is
drawn in Fig. 7.32 (a). As shown, phase A starts from top coil-side 1 in slot 1 and finishes P
ing
coil-side 1 9 in slot 19. Note that the winding is traversed clockwise in coil - groups I and IIIand
anticlockwise in coil-groups II and IV. Terminals Al and A 2 are marked as the start and finish
respectively for phase A winding.
coil group I CG11 C G 111
.ne CG IV
t
^ N S ^ 'Z '' N
Lower ,
coil-side No
A1 * AAj
Fig. 7.3 2 . (a) D etailed d ouble-layer w inding d iagram for p h ase A for a 3 -phase
arm atu re having 24 slots, 4 poles, p h ase spread 60°. E x a m p le 7 .1 1 .
[Art. 7.7
— ________________ A rm a tu r e W in d in g s 8 6 3
(C) The star of coil emfs can be drawn sjmilar
emfs. to the star of slot emfs or star of conductor
ww
w.E
asy ' ,
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
ww
dure is adopted for obtaining phase voltages B and C in Fig. . ( )•
(d) Distribution factor, from Eqn. (3.46), is given by
w.E k d—
sm -
o .
v
2 sin
asy
Here 0 = 60°, y = 30°,
24
7= ^ ^ =2
En
•
••
k d= „Sin 3° ° - ■ 0.96593.
a 2 sin 15° gin
eer
E xam p le 7.12. Repeat all the part o f Exam ple 7.11 in case p h a se spread is 120 .
[E.M.D. (AMIE : S’ 98)\
Coil-span = 6 slots
Winding table for a = 120° is made below :
A-phase : S (1 - 7') - > (2 - 8') -4 (3 - 9') -4 (4 - 10') -4
t ...C.G.I
i + 12 (= 2 Pole pitches) .
-4 ( 13 - 19') (14 - 2 0 , 4 (15 - 21') - 4 (1 6 - 22') F ...C.G. 11
5 -phase: S (5 - 11') -4 (6 - 12') v7 - 13') -> (8 - 14') -4
-> (17 - 23') -4 (18 - 24') -4 (19 - 1') -> (20 - 2 ' (= 26 - 24)) F - c G- 11
C-phase : S (9 - 15') -4 (10 - 16') -4 (11 - 17') -4 (12 - 18') -4 -C .G . }T
-4 (21 - 3') -4 (22 - 4') (23 - 5') -4 (24 - 6 ') F - CU
(6 ) Winding diagram for phase A is drawn in Fig. 7.33 (a). As shown, phase A starts fr°m
top coil-side 1 in slot 1 and finishes at bottom coil-side 22 ' in slot 22 .
(c) Star of the coil-emfs is the same as shown in Fig. 7.32 (6 ).
\ B Ccan
Phasor diagram for wide-spread, i.e. phase spread 120°, showing phase voltages A,
be drawn by referring to winding table prepared in part (a) above. For phase A, first obt, ^ nlfs
phasor sum oa of coil-emfs 1 - 7', 2 - 8 ', 3 - 9', 4 - 10' of coil-group 7. Now add coi -
Lower
coif-sid e N o . — *
ww
w.E
asy 16-22
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
Pjg y ^ — .— 0
• P h asor d ia g ra m sh o w in g the p h a so r sum o f coil em fs to obtain phase voltages
A and B . P h ase C is also shown, E xam p le 7.12.
A rt. 7.7)
866 E le c tr ic a l M a ch in ery _____________ _ _ _ _ _______ -
S m 9 2 4 - 9
kd = \ Here a = 120°, y = 30 , q = j ^ - 2
. a
V Sm 2q
_ s i n 6 0 _ Qg66
R(l 120
. 2 sin ^
E xam p le 7.13.' A 3-phase machine has 4 poles, 9 slots per pole an d 4 condtwtors per slot
arranged in two-layer lap-connected winding with coil span closely equ al to 80 h o f the pole
pitch. There are to be two distinct circuits per phase arranged for p arallel connection. Draw up
a winding table, indicating clearly the start and finish o f e a c h p h a s e w indm g and a circuit
ww
diagram for parallel connection. Also obtain effective turns per phase. [E.M.D. (AMIE : W98JJ
Solution. Slots per pole = 9
w.E
Slot-angular pitch, y = - j p = 20°
180
asy
For a phase-spread of 60°, number of adjacent slots belonging to any one phase
_ a _ 60 _ „
•• '
Pole pitch = 9 slots
"y 20
En
80
Coil-span = 80% of pole pitch = -r^r x 9 = 7.2
n n l p
100
n i t r h =
gin
So take a coil-span of 7 slots.
eer
From above, winding table for this machine is prepared as under. Here S and F denote start
ing
and finish of any one phase. The top coil-sides are labelled 1, 2, 3, ... and bottom coil-sides
r , 2', 3 ' , . . . .
A-phase:
+7
S (1 - 8 ') -> (2 - 9') -> (3 - 10')^”7\ ...C.G.I. .ne
+ 9(
W 10 - 17') <- (11 - 18') f - (12 - 19')
) + 9 (= 1 pole- pitch)
...C.G. II t
M 19 - 26') -> (20 - 27') -> (21 - 28') ...C.G. Ill
’ +9
F (28 - 35') 4 - (29 - 36') <- (30 - 1' (= 37 - 36 V ...C.G. IV
(Art 7.7
Armature Windings 867
B-phase : S (7 - 14') - > (8 - 15-) (9 _
...C.G.I.
+ 9 ^ ( 1 6 - 2 3 ' ) - ( 1 7 - 2 4 ' , ^ (1 8 . 26, / 9
...C.G. II
(25 - 3 2 ' ) ( 2 6 - 33 ') _ (27 _ 34,
...C.G. Ill
F ( 34 - 5 ') <— (35 _ g.( )+ 9
As required, start and finish of PhaSe , r r tv
.able It is men from this winding table that each p h t e h ° a ‘ndicated in the above w iping
y s s s tt- *■ '« » s a r a s s s *
The various phase-belts are shown i p-
. ,
Coilww
amongst phase-belts of phase A are s h o w n V r m i^ lt A '
groups
____
~ I
734 the interconnections
" Al arejomed together to form the
PK“ " ‘
cu>
Slots-
A
_ a
w.E -c
-
e~' c
t-
-
B
-c
III
e -a
IV
-B
nn asy
En
Stort of phase A ^ Ai gin
Coil
9foups eer Finish of phase A
Ph. Belts
Slots
ing
.ne
t
Start of phase B
Finish of
Co ft phase B
9'oups •
I!—
—
A Hi IV
Ph B e lts .
r —A —
-\ r
S lo lt( _ A ~C B -A
>3 3 -C B A A C -B
__________________ A n . 7.8J
868 Electrical Machinery -------------------------------
• i a ' 4 " together form the finish of phase A. Note that
starting point of phase A. T e r m i n a l s \A2 , 2 g . Fj 7 34 (ay One parallel path is
there are two distinct parallel paths for phase- „ a » Similarly, interconnections
from A,' to A,' and the second parallel path, ,s from 4 ^ * ^ 7 J 4 ((>) (c)
a m o n g s t p h a s e - b e l t s p e r t a i n i n g to p h a s e s \ B a h a s e s B a n d C in t h i s f ig u r e ,
ly . T w o d i s t i n c t p a r a l l e l p a t h s a r e a ls o in d i c a t e d f o r p h a s e s zj
9x4^4 ci
Total turns in the machine = ^ = 72
, _ _9 _ q y —20 °
Here phase spread a = 60°, slots per pole per phase, <7 - 3 »T
, _ sin g /2 _ sin 30° _ q 9593
.-. Distribution factor, nd - v “ 3 sin 10° *
q sin ^
Coil-span = 7 y = 7 x 20= 140°
Chording-angle, £ = 180” - 140” = 40”.
wwCoil-span factor,
/. Winding factor,
kp = cos —= cos 20° = 0.9397.
kw = kd x k p = 0.9598 x 0.9397 = 0.901924.
w.E
Number of effective turns per phase = [Turns/phase] x kw
= ^ x 0.901924 = 21.65.
o
7.8. Fractional Slot Windings asy
En
In fractional slot windings, the number of slots per pole per phase is not a whole number.
But from the view point of symmetry, the number of slots must be divisible by the number of
phases, i.e. 3.
The advantages of these windings are as given below : gin
eer
(:) This winding reduces the high-frequency harmonics in the e.m.f. and m.m.f. waveforms.
(ii) This winding permits the use of already existing slotting numbers for the armature
ing
laminations, because here the armature slots need not be a multiple of the number of poles.
This avoids additional expenditure on new punching tools etc.
(iii) This winding allows more freedom in the choice of coil-pitch. For example, a machine
4
.ne
t
with 48 slots and 10 poles has 4 - slots per pole and the coil-pitch for a fractional slot winding
can be taken as 4 or 3 (always less than the slots per pole).
The restrictions of the fractional-slot winding are th a t:
(i) it can be used only with double-layer windings and
(ii) the number of parallel circuits is limited (as explained at a later stage in this article).
Let S be the total number of slots (a multiple of 3 for a 3-phase winding) and P be the
number of poles. Then the slots per pole per phase, for a 3-phaseJSdUng a « W If * is
the highest common factor between 5 /3 and P, then slots per pole per phase can be written as
5 /3 _ k •Sh Sk
P kP k P,
3
where S k = 5 /3
k~
and p, = PP
k= k
_ - ~— Armature W inding W9
The ratio S ./P , is called the seachitrl ratio of the fractional slot wind,no S, rep
per phase, distributed amone P. R„ e - „ e „ ; , *• * rrprr. cnu
t e n 5 /3 and P represents the number of re p e a ta b le ^ Th%h" :h''5' comm° " <*<'<" * •*-
_v be connected in series or in parallel k aUmriv ,u ,0" s Since thc repeatable sections
windin*. For example, wiih S 1 48 and P Mo™ pa,alW dreurt* •
_ 4 8 /3 16 2 x 8 8
Pk 10 " 10 2 x 5 „5
Here highest common factor k is 2, therefore v.i •
sible parallel circuits is 2 . The characteristic ratio 8 / ^ s W T \ 'T ,hp numb<' r of P0*'
distributed among 5 successive poles. In other words 8 coils b I ° ar<’ 8 C<" l!‘ ,K r pha,<--
distributed under 5 adjacent poles as follows : ’ 'longing to any one phase may be
• 1 co“ 2 c o ils
j nX. r.uh^v2e;t :^ s^ n r r st *• ~
*
ww °f 8 per Phase '
w.E
J n " e d t i o w ■VCrC° mC thiS d' mCUlty’ aC0" ' KroUh table as shown
1. Calculate the slot-angular pitch,
Table 7 2 is prepared a,
Y=
asy 180 x P
5
180x10 0 l c
*
48
=37^
_
2
sn. , I f 1 °f 8 mt° aCC° Unt the si°t*angular pitch In case the angle exceeds En
slot 2 ? 4 Cate241T -M i? h w a ? 8,° ‘ " umber 1 wi,lh “ ro dcercc- N °" fill in the table for the next
Poles can hT k!!P ° f f^ °VC thre° StepS’ thC distribution of 8 <= Sk) coils under 5 (= P k) adjacent
e obtained from Table 7.2 which is now prepared as under :
t
T a b l e 7 .2
1-oie-pucn 1-----------
-----------------------------------------------------------------
----------*1
1 2 3 5
*
0° 37! 75 112 5 ’ 150
2
A A -C . ............... . .
L »
1*— ----------- _
------------ I'ole-pitch 2 -----------------------
6 7 8 (1 .......................... 10
7 .5 " 45 ® 82 5 120 15? 5
_ -A - A c M B
\*---------- 15
14
12 13
Slot No. 11
1 27.5 165
52.5 90
Angle 15*
B B
A -C
Phase A
Pole-pitch 4 ■ ■*1
19 20
17 18
Slot No. 16
135 172.5
60 97.5
Angle 22.5
C - B -B
Phase - A C
T|
--------Pole-pitch 5
l<----------
22 23 24
Slot No. 21
67.5 105 142.5
Angle 30°
B
ww
Phase A -C -C
Table 7.2 shows that 8 coils belonging to phase A are distributed under 5 successive or
1st Pole
w.E
adjacent poles as follows :
2
asy
2 2 1 1
En
There is another method of determining the distribution of S h coils under Pk adjacent poles.
This method is quite simple and straight-forward. According to this method, a tabular construc
tion, as explained below is adopted.
gin
In this table, number of rows is made equal to the basic pole unit Pk (in this case 5). The
eer
total number of columns is made equal to 3 S b (in the present case 24). The sequence of the
phase-belts is obtained by dividing 3Sh columns in three equal sections ACB for a 3-phase 60°
ing
phase-spread winding. Start from the extreme left and top square with a cross. Now proceed to
the right and go on putting crosses separated from each other by P b (= 5 ). After first row, go to
the second row and so on. From Table 7.3, it is seen that S , (= 8 ) coils belonging to phased are
.ne
distributed under/* successive or adjacent poles as obtained from Table 7 2 In Table 7 3 coils
pertaining to phasert are indicated by 2 crosses in first row for first pole, 2 crosses in the second
row for pole number 2 and so on. t
T a b l e 7 .3
T a b u la r m e th o d o f c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r f r a c t i o n a l - s l o t w in d i n g s
1 2 3 4 5
+ 2 -2 + 2 -1 + 1
-2 + 1 -1 + 2 -2
+ 1 -2 + 2 -2 -t-1
T h e c l o c k d i a g r a m l a y o u t f o r o n e l a y e r o f t h e w i n d i n g ( u s u a l l y u p p e r l a y e r ) is s h o w n in F i g .
7.35. T h e l o w e r l a y e r h a s t h e s a m e g r o u p i n g s b u t is d i s p l a c e d f r o m t h e u p p e r g r o u p s b y t h e
c o il-p itc h . S i n c e s l o t s p e r p o l e i s a f r a c t i o n a l n u m b e r , t h e coil p i t c h c a n ’t b e f u l l - p i t c h b u t i t m u s t
be same for all coils. With 48 slots and 10 poles, there are yjj = 4 ^ slots per pole and the coil-
ww
w.E P O iE -2
asy
En
gin
PDLE-3
eer
ing P01E-4
.ne
Fig. 7.35. C lock d iag ram for 48 slots, 10 poles, 60» phase spread fractional-slot winding.
t
Requirement o f s y m m e try . Even in fractional slot windings, the time-phase angle be-
'* * n the 3-phase voltages must be 120° or 2n /3 ^ ians. between ^ sUrting of
Let Sab and Sac represent the number of slot-pitch dispia
Phase A and the starting of phases B and C respective y. ©n
O-re
c v = — or ^ - + XK
ab • 3 3
^ S
o r ~"T- + *xn71
y= — or
ac ' 3 3
i» “C 3, T; _ n o 4 .. the polarity of the starting phase belts
of i re x may have any integral value. If x - * * ’ ^elt 0f phase A. In case a. - 1, , .
tf ases B and C is the same as that of opposite to that of phase A These
pd]a 6?°'arity of the starting phase belts of phases : ter.connection of the phase e s.
es must be taken into consideration dur.ng the mter
M l
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1
A rt. 7.8)
872 E lectrical M achinery
= ^ ( 3 x + 2) ...(7.9)
ww
Sac can never be whole numbers and
therefore, fractional slot winding is not
w.E
possible. For example, 33 slots and 6 poles
give Sk/P k equal to 11/6, therefore, frac
tional slot winding is not possible for these
slots and poles.
asy
For illustrating the inter-connection
among the various phase belts, the layout
of the winding arrangement is as shown in
En -B § rr
Now 8
Sac = g (3x + 4)
For x = 2 8
Sac = - ( 3 x 2 + 4) = 16.
phase A. Since x = 2, the polarity of the starting oh h l / f 6 ^ pitches from the starting of
starting phase belt of phase A, see Fig 7 36 In thi^f ° f phase C is the same as that of the
only shown for the sake of clarity. However s ta r t i n ^ n k ,nte[*connection of p h a s e A belts is
Fmm tkn e f * x . . ’ of phases B and 0 has been indicated.
From the starting of phase A slot seouenm „r*k Z ' ” inaicaitu‘
10 poles. Examination of Fig, 7.35 reveals that the flM * M ‘ S Ls 22211' 22211 for “'! ‘If
m j : ____. .. . tnat thG s‘ot sequence of thn nkncnc n nml C belts
from their corresponding s t a ^ f p ” ^ Ph“ CS ° aWl ' bC"
* 6 - us
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(Art- 7.8
" ----- ----------------- ------- Armature Windings 873
7.14. (a) Develop a winding table for th--------------------------------- ----------------------
E x a m p le
the following data : * e for the armature of a 3-phase machine having
48 slots, 10 poles, narrow-spread, coil-span- 1 1 ,
Name the upper coil-side as n and lower coil ,
(b) Draw the coil-emfstar for phase A onl °S* the nth slot*
Solution, (a) A table giving the construct- r
already prepared in Table 7.3. This table is repeated a - - " WindinB of this « “»nple is
are written m the boxes instead of crosses. So now start ? “ . f ' 6 7'4 ' but here
(or and write 1 . In the next cross of Table 7^
b o x ) fr° m the and top square
row, wnte 3 and so on, till one unit of 5 poles is mm ’ 1 T f - and the next cross in the same
that for the first unit of 5 poles, completed in Table 7.4. It is seen from this table
(i) coils 1, 2, 6 , 7, 1 1 ,1 2 ,1 6 and 21 (total fit nDi . ,
(ii) coils 3, 4, 8 ,1 3 , 17, 18, 22 and 23 (total 81 bT® P ’
(iii)coils 5, 9 ,1 0 , 1 4 ,1 5 ,1 9 , 20 and 24 (total 8 >beto <_ C> a“ d
The winding table 7.5 for phases AB r a g ° phase B
ww
coil-side 1 to bottom coil-side 4' (= 1 + 3); ^ c ! ! L ^ F ° r phase
Remember that coils under first unit of 5 poles r e a L t and , T C0,' ' Side 5' (= 2 + 3) and
10-pole machine. P
connect ‘ °P
™-
ePeat under the second unit of 5 poles for this
w.E^ *i j * . .. T a b l e 7 .4
^ O o d d .,tn b u t io n f o r fr a c tio n a l s lo t „ io d in e , E x a n p U , u
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
T a b l e 7 .5
D e v e l o p m e n t o f w in d i n g t a b l e f o r f r a c t io n a l- s lo t w in d in g , E x . 7.1
t
ww
in coil 16 is 15° away from emf 6 and that in coil 21 is ahead Fig. 7.37. C o il- e m f s t a r f o r ph a se A.
of emf 2 by 7.5°. All the emfs generated in one S-pole unit
shown in Fig. 7.37 constitute the coil-emf star for phase A.
w.E
7.9. Single-Layer Windings 4 .
As stated earlier single-layer windings (SLWs) are not commonly employed in practice
asy
except for machines of a few kW rating. The three-phase SLWs are of two types, namely (i)
concentric windings and (ii) mush windings. In addition to the disadvantages enumerated ear
En
lier, SLWs have the following limitations :
(i) Concentric SLW cannot have chorded coils.
gin
(ii) In concentric SLW, effective coil span is equal to pole-pitch, even though coil-span of
individual coils in a coil-group differs from pole-pitch.
eer
(iii) In mush windings, coil-span is constant. In other words, all the coils have the same
shape and size.
ing
(iu) In mush windings, coil-span is always odd. This requirement may result in the coils to
be chorded. For example, in a 4-pole, 36-slot machine, the coil-span = pole-pitch = 9. In 4-pole,
24-slot machine, coil-span cannot be equal to pole-pitch = 6 slots. A coil-span has to be odd, so
a coil-span of 5 slots or 7 slots can be chosen. A coil-span of 5 slots results in chorded coils. .ne
(v) Fractional-slot windings cannot be used for concentric as well as mush windings.
In single-layer windings, one coil-side occupies one slot completely, in view of this, number t
of coils C is equal to half the number of slots S, i.e. C = ^ S. Now concentric and mush windings
are described briefly.
7.9.1. C oncen tric Windings. These windings are so called because the coils under one
pole pair are wound in such a manner as if these have one centre. The concentric winding can
further be sub-divided into (a) half-coil winding or unbifurcated winding and (6) whole-coi
winding or bifurcated winding.
(a) H alf coil w inding. Half-coil winding arrangement with 2 slots per pole per phase and
for 60° phase spread is as shown in Fig. 7.38 (a) for one phase only. A coil-group may be define
as the group of coils having the same centre. Thus Fig. 7.38 (a) reveals that there are two
= - coil-groups and each coil-group has 2 coils [= £l?.ase spread \ ^ ^ words, the numbed
ZJ i slot pitch J
of coils in each coil-group is equal to the number of coil-sides in each phase belt. It is als°
f^ co u -g ro u p ^ J oil g r o
—* — I -------- --
-a
■b
c. (b)
d-
ww
Fig. 7.38. Sin g le lay er co n cen tric w inding (0 ) half-coil *2
w.E
observed from this figure that the coils arP
direction in all the coil-groups, [clockwise in
(6) Whole-coil w inding The whole 1 *
g6ment ^ ^ Wh°Ie coil arraneement.
*S * * they Carry CUrrent in the same
asy
phase is as illustrated in Fig." 7.38 (6 ) for'one X ^ o n W T ^ T " 1 With 4 sl°ts P<* Pole per
* ^ s a w sEsnagi a s :— - - • -“ =
Solution (n) •/
Z h Z iJnlSe1™" *»**>•' o n u i
^ “ 60 P^ase spread,
on*(a) H alf-coil concentric winding.
Slots-angularpitch, y=—* *8Q-=30o eri
^11-pitchorpole-pitch =^ =6slots-pitches. ng.
n e
*"Hbeconnectedto13(-7Jr? f C0,1'pitchisequal to6s|ot-pitches. Coil-s.deto°t
?,P t e d a2 t
°07
6lThat S " belt mUS! 2Sl 0tS- “ W* 1wouldbeJoined
- nt oforphase , T
PhaSe A, i : number
^ ' slot
i.e. from 6)and805t “ shou,datartl2o° awayfromthe- £ i
- 1 + 4 j Similarly phase C should start
frt"» * t 9 (= 5 +4).
The
a!^hich t S ‘ 0fT ,g 7,39 i[Justrates the coil distribution in all the 24 slots. For the instant
Pi? 7.39 Note tu / T 3" 1 ° f F l g - 7 39 is drawn>the Phasordia^ am is as shown in the right
°nbifurcated W‘ h current enters terminal Aj and leaves terminals B x and Ch The
(6) ^ wding shown in Fig. 7.39 requires two-plane overhang.
jUjber o f e ^ r c ° n c e n tr ic w inding. For slot-pitch y = 30° and phase spread o = 60°, the
' 8 ereth0 per Puase-belt are 2, therefore, the number of coils in each coil-pronn
ww
i ipo
17 18 19 29 21 22 23 2L - - - S l o t no
i p >i ii i p o c i
B B -A -A
w.E
C C -B -B
of
phase belts
Second
asy plone
En
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ing
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F i g . 7 . 3 9 . H a .f-c o U » i n « n 6 d i a ^ m fo r Si" 8 ,e -|ayer
t
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w.E
asy
F i , 7 ,0 . spread.
gin
The single-layer mush windings are sometimes e m p l o y e T t o m a n s ^ ” * H°r i " the COils'
eer
«*» the end connections „ f ? H i ‘ r T
endconnections in adjacent S t ing
connections of the short coil-sides are bent to theleft
C0ll'sldes are bent to the right. In other words the
ofSlots per pole per nhn«
t°r 24 slots 4 D0L ? , T
f ^ “ m °PPoslte directions. In this winding, the number
e 3 ™h°le number- Tbe coil-pitch is always odd. For example .ne
must be odd ii caTbt takT
fCOl,s are preferred) the v a
^ 1°'* PitCh iS 6 slot-Pitches- Si"ce the coil-
™ ° T ChoosinS here a coil-pitch of 5 slot-pitches (chorded
forelarity sake th ’ ■ * Wlndin£ arrangement for the 3-phase is as shown in Fig. 7.41 where
. he inter-connections among phase B coils are not shown. Here y = 30° and for
t
_ S N e
COHfc
LENGTH
lg_ j 4i ' *
' •S in g le -la y e r m u sh w ind ing d iag ram for 24 slots, 4 poles nnd 60* phase spread
I Prob. 7
878 Electrical Machinery---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
. Al U o c o EYir t h p instant shown in Fig. 7.41, the phasor
a = 60°, 2 slots must belong to thesame phase, ror
diagram is the same as in Fig. 7.39.
Note that the method of mush coil inter' < ; ^
sh o rtco T sid e ! “ u " a nand0So°o„8 The slots allotted to the 3-phases are the same
as given in Example 7.15 (6 ).
9
PROBLEMS
7 .1 . (a ) W h a t a re th e tw o g e n e ra l ty p es o f a rm a tu re w in d in g s an d w h e re a re th e s e u sed ?
(6) Explain the follow ing with respect to arm ature w in d ings :
C on d u ctor, tu r n . coil, co il-sid e. s ine U -»n d d o u b lo-lay cr w in d in g s, a d ’ " * "
s in g le -la y e r w in d in g s, p o le-p itch , co il-p itch , fu ll-p itch w in d in g s a n c or e -
. , , , .___. w inH inps so f a r a s t h e ir co n stru ctio n and
7 .2 . (a ) D istin g u is h b etw een sim p lex lap an d sim p lex w ave w in a g
n u m b er o f p a ra lle l p a th s a re concerned.
(6 )
w.E
7 .3 . (a ) D istin g u is h betw een p ro g ressive and re tro g re ssiv e sim p lex lap w in d in g s. W h y is th e sim plex lap
w in d ing ca lle d so ?
(b) F o r a co m m u ta to r m a ch in e w ith 4 poles. 16 slo ts an d 2 co il-sid es p e r s lo t, o b ta in th e follow ing :
asy
W in d in g ta b le , w in d ing d iag ram in rad ial form and position o f b ru s h e s on th e c o m m u ta to r In d ica te the
co ils p e rta in in g to th e p a ra lle l p ath s. T h e w in d ing is o f p ro g ressiv e sim p le x la p ty p e. | A n s.yft - 9 , y f - l , y e = I)
En
7.4. M ake a w inding table and winding diagram for a dc m achine a rm a tu re w ith th e follow ing specifications :
gin
N a tu re o f w in d ing : sim p lex p ro g ressiv e lap . C le a rly ex p la in how th e p o sitio n o f b ru s h e s is fixed and
in d ic a te th e n u m b e r o f p a ra lle l p ath s in you r w in d ing d iag ram .
(b )
eer
7 .5 . (a ) W h a t a re s p lit coils ? How can th e se be avoided in co m m u ta to r m a c h in e s ?
F in d ou t th e s u ita b le v alu es o f b ack p itch for th e sim p le x lap w in d in g w ith n o s p lit co ils, in th e following
ing
tw o ca s e s :
( j) 3 0 slo ts, 9 0 co ils, 6 poles and
3 0 slo ts , 1 20 coils, 6 poles. |Ans. (b ) (i ) 31, (») 411
.ne
(ii)
t
(6 ) A 4 -pole d c a rm a tu re w ind ing h av in g 4 0 slo ts an d 1 2 0 coils is to be provid ed w ith a sim p le x -la p winding.
W ork out a s u ita b le a rra n g e m e n t so th a t sp lit w in d ing is n o t used.
7 .7 . ( a ) F o r a sim p le x w ave w ind ing, d eriv e th e follow ing re la tio n s :
C om m utator pitch, yc =
2C ± 2
W in d in g p itch , y„, = f/ ~
pu rpose is served by it ?
(6 ) A sta n d a rd a rm a tu re w ith 3 7 slo ts an d 1 4 7 c o m m u ta to r s e g m e n ts is to b e u sed for a 4 -pole winding
w ith 1470 con d u ctors. D isc u ss w hich ty p e o f w in d in g sh o u ld b e em ployed fo r th is a r m a tu r e . T h e n workou
su ita b le a rra n g e m e n t for th is w ind ing.
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www.EasyEngineering.net
7 9 , (a) E n u m e ra te th e m a in p o in ts o f d istin c tio n b etw een sim p lex lap an d sim p le x w ave w in d in g s ?
{b) A 20 kW , 2 5 0 V 4-p o le , la p -c o n n e cte d g e n e r a to r h a s 2 8 8 con d u ctors w ith s in g le -tu r n co ils. I f th e
" “’ S in t. lb) Wave-winding w ould h a v e one dummy c o i l j |Ans. 10 A 496 53 v le m 2 kw| 71:II
7. 10. (a) W h at a re th e ad van tages o f m ultiplex windings over simplex windings ?
Distinguish b etw een d u p lex an d tr ip le x w in d in g s o f both types. !i|;
(b) When are th e c ir c u la tin g c u r r e n ts p re s e n t in lap -co n n ected a rm a tu re s ? E x p la in th e ca u s e s o f th e ir
existence.
liij
w it h
, . U . to) In th e c a s e o f la p -c o n n e cte d a r m a tu r e s , illu s tr a te th e d e trim e n ta l e ffe c ts o f c ir c u la tin g c u rre n ts
suitable d iag ram s. fa I
lij {
(b) What is an e q u a liz e r rin g ? E x p la in how it perform s its two fu n ction s?
ww
7.!2 (a)i A 2 0 0 kW , 5 0 0 V, 10-p o le d.c. m a c h in e is lap-w ound. F in d th e c u rre n t h an d led by e a c h b ru sh and
each parallel path. '
w.E
(W A 4-pole d.c m ach in e h a s g en era ted e m f o f 2 5 0 V. I f th is m achine is re-wound w ith 8 poles, o th er th in g s
remaining unchanged, th e m ag n itu d e o f g en erated e m f rem a in s a t 2 5 0 V. Is the m achine w ave or fep-w ound ’
ill
(c) Work out a s u ita b le a r r a n g e m e n t o f 10 e q u ilia e r rin g s for a com m u tator m a ch in e h a v in g 6 p oles 1 2 0
tjjV'M
ft
* ! ' mPIC,< lap wmd,n|!-
En
(i) What is th e re s is ta n c e m e a su re d b etw ee n two a d ja ce n t co m m u tato r seg m en ts ?
(ii) If one coil g ets o p en -circu ited or sh o rt-circ u ite d , ex p la in how it can be located.
I{ti^\»
!>ii
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Number o f poles, sp eed o f r o ta tio n , v o lta g e an d pow er ra tin g s a re th e sam e for two m a c h in e s one o f
(b)
which is lap-wound an d th e o th e r is w ave-w ound . Sh ow th a t th e am oun t o f copper req u ired for th e a rm a tu re
winding of each m ach in e is th e sa m e . a rm a tu re
■
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IHint. (b) S u b scrip ts L an d \V a re u sed to d en o te laD and w ave w indings resp ectiv ely.
W ' 1-
aid
X ,3
7 _ 2 Eu 2 7 ing
Area o f c o n d u c to r c ro s s -s e c tio n , .ne
t
A , = — • — = — ■—
L a 5 P 6
Also / I P
Vni
''Omrnp _____ , ■ ... = 2 8 2 L
^ ^ e ° w ppd -for w a v e - w in d in g = A ,„ Z,„ ...| |A n s . (a ) (/) 0.16364 tJ ( it ) 0.9 Q, 0 .0 9 tl|
« ABC- ■
63'Phase vo\t P^ a se s P r e a d o f 1 2 0 ° p ro d u ces a seq u e n ce o f A B C in th e p h a se -b e lts for A B C p h a se seq u e n ce
/ •" *•
7 .1 7 . (a) W h a t a r e t h e m e r it s o f u s in g c h o r d e d c o ils ?
(6 ) A 4 8 - s lo t s t a t o r is to be w o u n d f o r 4 -p o le s , 3 -p h a s e , d o u b le la y e r w i n d i n g a n d 6 0 " p h a s e s p re a d . D raw
c o ils .
S h o w t h e in t e r c o n n e c t io n s a m o n g s t t h e p h a s e - b e lts o f a n y p h a s e i n d i c a t i n g s e r ie s a n d p a r a lle l schem es
7 .1 8 . ( a ) W h a t is f r a c t io n a l - s lo t w i n d i n g ? W h y s h o u ld it s a r m a t u r e s lo ts be d i v is ib le b y 3 i n ca se o f 3-phase
m a c h in e s ?
( b ) G iv e t h e m e r i t s o f f r a c t io n a l- s lo t w in d in g s . A r e t h e r e a n y r e s t r ic t io n s o n t h i s w i n d i n g ?
(c ) W h a t is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r a t io o f f r a c t io n a l- s lo t w in d in g s a n d w h a t d o e s i t s ig n if y ?
i d ) D e s ig n a n d d r a w a d o u b le la y e r w i n d i n g f o r 4 2 s lo ts , 10 p o le s , 3 p h a s e s a n d 6 0 p h a s e s p r e a d . In d ic a te
t h e s t a r t o f e a c h p h a s e . S h o w t h e in t e r - c o n n e c t io n a m o n g s t t h e c o ils o f a n y o n e p h a s e .
7 .1 9 . ( a ) E x p l a i n w h e t h e r c h o r d e d c o ils a n d f r a c t io n a l- s lo t w in d in g s a r e p o s s ib le in a s in g le - la y e r w in d in g .
( b ) D e s ig n a n d d r a w a d o u b le - la y e r w i n d i n g w i t h 9 0 s lo ts , 8 p o le s , 3 p h a s e s a n d 6 0 ° p h a s e s p re a d . In d ic a te
t h e s t a r t o f e a c h p h a s e . S h o w t h e in te r - c o n n e c t io n a m o n g s t t h e c o ils o f a n y o n e p h a s e .
7 .2 0 . J u s t i f y t h e f o llo w in g s t a t e m e n t s :
ww
(a) A p h a s e s p r e a d o f 6 0 ° is m o r e c o m m o n ly u s e d t h a n a p h a s e s p r e a d o f 1 2 0 ° in 3 - p h a s e m a c h in e s .
( b ) T h e w i n d i n g s a r e u s u a l ly s h o r t- p it c h e d .
w.E
(c ) F r a c t io n a l - s lo t w in d in g s a r e q u it e c o m m o n in 3 - p h a s e a c m a c h in e s .
( d ) F r a c t io n a l - s lo t w i n d i n g is n o t p o s s ib le i f /% , in t h e c h a r a c t e r is t ic r a t i o S k/ P * , is a m u l t i p l e o f th re e .
asy
3 6 s lo t s , d o u b le - la y e r w i n d i n g , 4 p o le s , n a r r o w - s p r e a d a n d c o il- s p a n = p o le - p it c h .
In d ic a te th e u p p er co il-sid e by n an d low er co il-sid e by n ' fo r n th s lo t (1 < n < 3 6 ).
En
( b ) D r a w t h e d e t a ile d w i n d i n g d ia g r a m f o r o n e p h a s e o n ly c le a r ly s h o w in g t h e c o n n e c tio n o f d if f e r e n t coil
g ro u p s .
gin
(c ) S h o w t h e s t a r o f c o il- e m fs . D r a w p h a s o r d ia g r a m f o r n a r r o w - s p r e a d c o n n e c tio n s o f t h e 3 -p h a s e w in d in g
s h o w in g c o il e m fs f o r p h a s e s A a n d C o n ly .
7 . 2 2 . ( a ) M a k e a w i n d i n g t a b le f o r t h e a r m a t u r e o f a 3 - p h a s e m a c h in e h a v in g t h e f o ll o w i n g d a ta :
5 4 s lo ts , 8 p o le s , n a rro w - s p r e a d , c o il-s p a n = 6.
eer
N a m e t h e u p p e r c o il- s id e a s n a n d lo w e r c o il- s id e as n ' f o r t h e n t h s lo t.
(b ) D r a w t h e c o i l- e m f s t a r f o r p h a s e A o n ly .
ing
7 . 2 3 . ( a ) D is tin g u is h b etw een sin g le -la y e r co n c e n tric an d m u sh w in d in g s.
( b ) W h y a r e th e co n c e n tric w in d ing s so ca lle d ? D is tin g u is h b etw ee n h a lf-co ile d a n d w h ole-coiled arm ature
w in d in g s. .ne
( c ) F o r th e s a m e p h a s e v o ltag e, how m a n y tu rn s p er coil a r e th e r e for th e w h o le-co iled w in d in g w ith respect
to th e n u m b e r in a h a lf-co iled w inding.
( d ) D e fin e a co il-grou p . How a re th e co ils in su ch a g roup co n n e cte d ?
t
(e) E x p lain how th e n u m ber o f coils in a coil-group a re determ ined for half-coil a s w ell as whole-coil windings .
(/) E x p la in how th e su c c e ssiv e co il-g rou p s a r e co n n e cte d in th e u n b ifu rc a te d a n d b ifu rc a te d w indings.
[A n s . ( c ) N u m b e r o f coils in w hole-coil w in d in g a r e d o u b le o f t h a t in th e h a lf-c o il w in d ing . T h erefo re, for
th e s a m e v o lta g e and co n se q u e n tly for th e s a m e p h a se tu r n s , th e n u m b e r o f tu r n s per coil in a
w h o le-co il w in d in g is h a l f th e n u m b e r o f tu rn s in a h a lf-c o il w in d in g .!
7 .2 4 . ( a ) E x p la in how th e m u sh w in d in g is fitte d in th e a r m a t u r e s lo ts .
( b ) W h a t is th e s im ila r ity b etw ee n w h o le-co il an d m u sh w in d in g s.
O B J E C T IV E T Y P E Q U E S T IO N S
The multiple choice questions given in this appendix pertain to f t0pics
and in particular, to the electrical-machinery topics covered in this . q ns have been
taken from competitive examinations like GATE, IES, IAS etc.
Out of the various alternatives given, choose the most appropriate answer
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
1. The resistance between the opposite faces of 1 metre-cube is found to be 1 £2. If its length is
increased to 2 metres, its volume remaining unchanged, then resistance between the opposite
faces of its length is
(a) 2 £2 (tij 4 Q (c) 1 ft (d) 8 0.
ww
2. Time constant for an RL series circuit is given by
(a) R /L (b) 1/R L (c) RL {&) L /R
3. Time constant for series RL circuit is defined as the time taken by the current to reach
w.E
(a) 36.8% of its final value
« f 63.2% of its final value
(6) 36.8% of its initial value
(d) 63.2% of its initial value
asy
4. Time constant for RC series circuit is equal to
(a) 1/R C (b) R /C (c) C /R (8 ) RC
5. A series RC circuit is suddenly connected to a dc voltage of V volts. The current in the series
(6) V/R C
En
circuit, just after the switch is closed is equal to
(a) zero (c) VC/R (d) V /R
gin
6. A series RL circuit is suddenly connected to a dc voltage source of V volts. The current in this
circuit, soon after the switch is closed, is equal to
(a) zero (6) V /L (c) V /R
eer (d) V L /R
7. A series LC circuit is suddenly connected to a dc voltage source of V volts. The current in this
circuit at t = 0+, is equal to
in) zero (6) V /L (c) V /C
ing
(d) V L /C
(ij.
8. In the network shown in Fig. C .l, the current through 11 Q resistor is '
1
(6) I A (c )f A (d )| A .ne ,)
90 12a t
v t^ Fig. C.2.
: m m
* 2 0 V
A V \V
H i- io k y ~ v 5K
/ * v
■3H ' 5£;
4V ■=k
■i/1
A* 1— -\\\v-
11. The current through the galvanometer G shown in Fig. C.4 is zero. The current / 5 throush the
source is
(a) 1 mA (6) 2 m A (c) 3 m A (c/) 4 m A
12. The time constant of the network shown in Fig. C .5 is ^
(a) 2 RC (b) 3 RC (c) R C /2 '{ d f 2 R C /3
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13. In the circuit shown in Fig. C.6 , the current through R L is
(a) 2 A (6) zero (e) - 2 A (cf) - 6 A
w.E '.A
' ' -itr ' -•,‘V °
asy
120
n
H^iov
420 v
En — 420 n
L gin
Fig. C.5. Fig. C.6.
eer
14. The Thevenin’s impedance across the terminals AB of the network o f Fi^ C 7 is
« o fn ',n " ing
.ne
4
15. In the bridge given in Fig. C .8 , reading of the.high-impedance voltmeter is
~*T
t
V
Fig. C.8.
Fig. C.9.
(a) zero (6 ) 6 .6 6 V (c) 4.20 V ,33 V
16. Resistance between terminals A and B of Fig. C.9 is
(a) ~ R w | a id )R
5
17. Resistance between terminals A and B of Fig. C .1Q is
« ■ >5! *" « ! * W ! S (d )R
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*>20 Electrical
^ M ii
R
—AAty\,—
A I R R I R R R
o - -* ■ -A W V — A \A V ■ - i - -A A A V ~ -oB A
o— -WV- -V W - -VVw—*—5
I .-AWV--------
R
Fig. C . l l .
Fig. C.10.
(O R (d )\ R MW--------- — __
R
19. Resistance between terminals A and B of Fig. C. 12 Fig. C.12.
is
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(6) 12 n (c) 18 £i (d) 24 n
asy
En
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Fig. C.13.
ing
21. The voltage VC1, vc2 and V^.3 across the capacitors in the circuit shown in Fig. C.14, under
Fig. C.14.
k !! A (6 ) f A (c) | a (d) 1 A
/ •- -• V .
921
{R jn Fig- C.16 *s adjusted so that power developed by the voltage source is zero.
10)1,0 611
- 0 -
± -3 V
Fig. C.16.
n 17 the current through the ammeter is
j M n r w - 0 '1' ’ ______
(b) OA
<^7 4 A
C d lf^ A
(c)?A
,
9
ww • • f
.nifhrm coil of inductance L henries and associated resistance R ohms is physically cut
27'•^w ^oexacth alves which are than rewound in parallel. The resistance and inductance of the
R a t i o n are
w.E (6) 2 B a n d 2 L
R aL
(c) — and —
'• 2 ““ “ 2
asy
»t The current flowing through the resistor RL in the given circuit of Fig. C.18 is
10) 1 A (6, zero (c )3 A
En (d) 5
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ing
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Flg . _ ia
29. All resistances in the circuit in Fig. C.19
Fig. C.19.
w S w S W . 1 2 .5 W s .2 5 W s
« 50 W, 25 Ws 25 W s H> « » W . 12 5 W s>25 W s
922
in 2n
-VWv- -VvVv-
ft . Source
■- -t
jtol V\ jta)t
|V,|® rce »R=in 2 Vjje
Volts
(u
O'.Volts
Fig. C.20. !L
32. A 0 - 10 mA PMMC ammeter reads 4 mA in a circuit. Its bottom control spring snaps suddenly,
The meter will now read nearly
(a) 10 mA (bJJJ mA
(c) 2 mA 4 <f)zero
33. The insulation resistance of a cable of length of 10 kM is 10 MQ. For a length of 100 ItM of the
same cable, the insulation resistance will be „V- M , ItjkUOVj
ww
(a)^L00 MQ
\J n 1 MO
(ft) 10 MQ
(d) 0.1 MQ
b
c
O v. Tw 'r-!
w.E
34. An ideal voltage source will charge an ideal capacitor
(a)^in infinite time
instantaneously
(6) exponentially
(d) none of the above
Hh -AW .
asy
35. In the series circuit shown in Fig. C.22, voltage across C starts increas
ing when the dc source is switched on. The rate of increase of voltage
across C at the instant just after the switch is closed (i.e. at t - 0+) will
be
(a) zero (b) infinity En Fig. C.22,
IV
(c) RC . ^ i/ rc
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36. If v, w, q stand for voltage, energy and charge, then v can be expressed as
(a) v = ~R~
dw dq
eer
, \ j
(c) du= —
dq
dw
(<d) dv =
dw
ing
37. A rectangular pulse of duration T and magnitude I has the Laplace transform
(a )-
s (b) - ■e~T s
.ne
t
yS
v.: v ‘S'
Kt)
18 A
i(t) 10^
ww -i-'W W V -
y 6A
w.E
PMMC
tiT;
(a)
En
44. A voltage source with an internal resistance Rs supplies power to load RL. The power delivered
to the load varies with RL as
Pi
gin Pi
eer
ing
(o)
.ne
(d)
45 A *
• unity feedback system with open-loop transfer function
G (s )= 9
t fr-Ju»
8 (8 + 3)
has natural frequency = 9
‘ natural frequency = 3
6. damping ratio = 1 /2
4- damping ratio = 1 /6 v
Proi
111these, the correct answer is
<*) 1, 3 ltd 2 , 3
(c) 1, 4
(d) 2, 4 10A 50V
in .
volta6 Clrcuit ° f Fig. C.25, the inductor current and capacitor
Curage ? re given at a time instant t. A t this instant, the
(ai i an<* d i/d t are respectively
! : A. - 5 0 0 A / , (8 ) - 5 A , - 5 0 0 A /s
tcl 5 A, soo A /s Fig. C.25.
(d) - 5 A, 500 A /s . 1 f
924 Electrical Ma
47. Match the waveforms on the left hand side with the correct mathematical description listed
on
the right-hand side :
W aveform s fit)
(P)t ■u ( t - 1)
(Q) it + 1) ■u it 1)
(R) t ■u (t)
iS) it + 1) •u (t)
(T) ( t - 1) u (t)
( U ) i t - l ) u (t - 1)
ww j\
w.E 0 ■A'l
-A
viAA]“
J.} * 0
asy 5
En 0
gin \ \ i VN
48. The rms value of the periodic wave e (t) shown in Fig
C.26 is eer I
(a)
v r- ib) ing u
VV gT A.
3
/
T
2
T
.ne / --------- >
t
t
iC) y[2 A
■• •» -
49. The output of a linear system for a unit step input iis
given by t2 - e *. The transfer function is given by Fig. C.26.
51* I c r o s s X ^ t e n n f th!e CUrre^ COil ° f a wattmeter is * = 1 + 2 sin at amperes and the voltage
(a) 8 00 V sin ^ volts. The wattmeter reading in watts would be
ro T, V . , ( 6 ) 5 ’05 ^ 2 -00 id) 0.00
° ’ actobs 2 n ’ 5 7a nnd 10 K are connected in series and a 20 V dc supply is applied
r> H I*.i i 1 Odbhmllon, A voltmeter of internal resistance 10 i f reads Vi volts across the
10 it ruMiHtor. o fth
onintor. Which of the* following statements
*& & & £ < «= true
is h, ?
W y ^
<") v , < & (d) v x > ~ ^ : ; . : . ;
■
— rCuit below resonant frequency is
x ^es ROC C1 (fa) capacitive (c) inductive (d) none of these
$S,AfreSisdV® .rcuit above resonant frequency is
er»eS • (b)Jcapacitive
(0 v(c) inductive
7 ----- —— *w (d) none ui
of i/iiese
these
(1) *eS^ ' ,eA'&oram for alternating quantities can be drawn if they have
hPphaS°r t (6) rectangular
(b) rectangularwaves
waves
tine waves (d) triangular waves
•'l
(c) isq treWaves • i off
nre is the reciprocal
(6) capacitive reactance
if
i-°:”id
„ d i ' ' ereac“ nce (d) impedance
ww +J,
rt r
60. For an n
<b)ac + bd (c ) b c - b d (d) be + ad
series circuit, current at series resonance is
iaffmng pf (b) maximum at leading pf
r! l £ Z
(1 for an KU. P
w.E
S S y
f
pf «*> — » at unity pf
. .n RLC parallel circuit, current at parallel resonance is
{b) maximum at lagging pf
<»>
(e) ">axim
t unto Pf
asy
(#) - W " * ™ at pf
unsymmetrical alternating quantity should be calculated over
* Mhalf cycle (M one cycle (c) two cycles
En
(d) complete number of cycles
S3. A permanent-magnet moving coil irm trom ent^m easure
ing
(rf) pulgating quantities only
65.AdyLmmineter type of i n s t r u m e n t ac
W« ,rf) pulsating quantities only
.ne
US. Rectifier type instrument can measure ^ ^ ^
g ac only
^
Jd Jpulsating quantities only
t
« . An electrostatic type of instrument to used for measuring
(a) voltage in dc circuit
{b) current in dc circuit
(c) voltage in both dcand ac circuits
id) current in both dcand ac circuits
* Tfe internal resistance of milliammeter must be 1 ^ marimomvottage d r o p across the m
(®) higher accuracy . . . nce (d) high sensitivity
(c) minimum effect on the circuit rests ^ it possesses
69‘ A voltmeter must have very high into ltage range
(«> high accuracy * current through the meter.
(c) maximum loading effect i > .
7°. A material whose resistivity is 0.4 G (d) semiconductor
*«) conductor (6 ) resistor « «*u lator
925
53. A series RLC circuit below resonant frequency is
(fl) resistive (6) capacitive (c) inductive
(d) none of these
54. A series RLC circuit above resonant frequency is
(a) resistive (6) capacitive (c) inductive {d) none of these
ww
(a) ac + ad (6) ac + bd L
60. For an RLC series circuit current nt cm •
(a) maximum at lagging pf n c® resonance is
+
.
w.E
(c) maximum at unity pf . .. maximum at leading pf
asy
(a) maximum at leading pf parallel resonance is
(c) maximum at unity pf , 2 max.lmum at lagging pf
En “ ^ Pf
Sh° 7 ld be ™lculated over
63. A permanent-magnet moving coil instrument
(a) ac only
(c) dc only
ument can measure
^ both dc and ac gin
complete number of cycles
68 Th m b° th dC and 3C CirCuits
Electrical
926
ww (c)
4R
(d)
R +X
R
M'
/ ^ 2
w.E
75. For a sinusoidal waveform, the ratio of average to rms value is '( *
(0) i n
(b) n (c
- )2^2
zvz
(d)
a/2" •K
2
En
77. In the circuit of Fig. C.28, voltage Va
gin
(а) leads current I by 90°
(б) lags current I by 90°
(c) lags current I by some angle less than 90°
(of) leads current I by some angle less than 90°
eer R
-Amr-
ing 0
-*r
.ne
Fig. C.27. Fig. C.28. t
78. For an ac circuit, v = Vm sin (tot + a) and i * Im sin (tot + p). The phase angle between voltage and
current waveforms is
(a) a + p or a - p (6 )a -p o rp -a
(c) P - a or p + a (d)a-p
79. In the figure shown below, <|>= power-factor angle, W = watts, V A = volt ampere and VAr-
volt-ampere reactive for an ac circuit. Tick mark the correct figure.
VAr VAr
.?
it
■vys-:; . vY* m
V>t'.
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1 ) (. „ www.EasyEngineering.net
1« ' e l !
f ' J ’4 M , h„ , 1
: 2 Hi -A ’3-c1 ,
■' ^ ‘
<?
^
*
"-> a> 927
- ' ^ V , 100 W bulb has resistance fiA and 230 V, 200 W bulb has resistance R„. Here
0'A „ -,R„ 2. Rb > K a 3. Ra = 2 R b 4. R b„ =* 2 « , s d _ <c
these the correct answer is
W* i 3 ’ (6) 2, 4 (c) 1, 5 (d) 1 only
Jf a
0
In Fig- c -29’ the bulb Wil1 t*s
(6) not light
(d) light at regular intervals
(c )^ v®tflickering lig M r
<f v-
c
" 0>
n
-=-23° Bulb
R L
■AWV —TTQIT-
ww
82i At resonance, reading of voltmeter X in Fig. C.30 will be equal to
w.E
83. A coil of resistance R and inductance L is connected in parallel with a capacitor C across an ac
supply. At resonance,
asy
1. the impedance of the circuit is maximum
2. the susceptance of the circuit is zero
3. the circuit behaves like a pure resistance of value R O'
En
4. the circuit behaves like a pure resistance of value L /R
Fromthese, the correct answer is
la) 2,4 (6) 1, 2 (C) 2, 3
gin
(d) 1, 2, 4
eer
84. The current in the circuit of Fig. C.31 is
(a) 5 A (6) 10 A (c) 15 A (d) 50 A
20 0 ing -j2 n
.ne
250Hz
200V
'1
j§ zl=io^8
t
Fig. C.31. / Fig. C.32.
85. The
- impedance seen by the source in the circuit of Fig. C.32 is
ta) 14.54 - j 1.687) Q (6) (4.54 + j 2.313) Q
(c) (142.56 + j 78) Q (d) (142.56 - j 82) ft
If the ac voltage wave is corrupted with an arbitrary number of harmonics, then the overall
voltage waveform differs from its fundamental-frequency component in terms of
(Q) only the peak values (6 ) only the rms values
(C) only the average values (d) all the three measures
a*d V° lta?e Phasor of a circuit is 10 ^15° V and the current phasor ip 2 Z - 45° A. The active
Powers in the circuit are
(c 9A^[,and 17 32 vAr (6) 5 W and 8.66 VAr
i Jzuo W and 60 VAr (d) 2 0 V 2 W and 10 V2 VAr
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Electrical Mad
928R _ ___ —
— d by the 5 n resistor is 10 W, then
88. In the circuit shown in Fig. C.33, if the power co
factor of the circuit is (d) zero
(a) 0.8 (6) 0.6 (<0 °-5 , an inductor as shown in Fig. C.34. At
89. A part of a circuit consists of a resistor, a rins value of the current through the
steady state, (t) =? 10 sin t and Vi (.t) - c
capacitor is ^
(d) 15 V2* A
(6) VI25 A
R
® ~
C
<•----- (M)- Hh
-(A 3)-------- ( ~ ) —
v(t)=100 sinoat
,
\ '
^
Jy
w.E
Fig. C.33.
90. In Fig. C.3S ; A ^ a n d A g are ideal ammeters. If A , and
1.*_Aof tirill
reading A% will be
3
g A and 13 A respectively,
.
V
.
(a) 8 A
(1
d) maewjiuiinatc
[a)
(6) 12 A
indeterminate unless the asy (c) 1® A
actual values
—--------- ,
_ , w are specified.
^
V
En
91. In a series RLC circuit excited by a voltage = E sin <*, where LC < ^ .
(a)
(b)
current lags the applied voltage
current leads the applied voltage
gin
eer
(c) current is in phase with the applied voltage
(d)
(d) voltage across L
voltage across and C
L and C are equal
9 voltage and variable frequency source
92-
using the codes given below the lists : ing
S T c I d . Match lis t I with lis t II and select the e n a c t answer
List I U stU
.ne
A.
B.
AA
BB
1-
2.
current
impedance
capacitive reactance
t
C. CC 3.
DD 4. net reactance
D.
5. inductive reactance
A B C D
Codes
2 1 3 5
(a)
1 2 3 5
(b)
(c) 1 2 3 4
Id) 1 2 4 3
S& Y
i73 2 V
e the parallel circuit of Fig. C.38 constituted by
(<i>) 1
Altt !^S°n0^ed coil and a capacitor behaves like Fig. C.37.
an open circuit
^ aI«hort circuit
(/,) 8 nur^ resistor of valued
5}a pure resistor of value higher than R
ww
w.E
Fig. C.38. asy i
16 A, 20 A En
Q, ln the circuit of Fig. C.39, currents I x and I are respectively
(6) 32 A, 44 A ?z-
(e) 32 a! 34.2 A id) 16 A, 28 A
gin
9t. A series RLC circuit has R = 10 £2, L = 0.01 H and C = 100 (|F. The Q factor of the circc
resonance is
44)1-0 W 0-316 K eer
,< [
! ;
\
.-,„ v
(c) 0.1 • (d) 10 l-*.
ing
97. Two loads of 10 kW each, are operating at a power factor 0.8 lagging (each). What is
.ne
combined power factor ? i.
(c) 0.4 lag (&) °-64 laS
(c) 0.8 lag (d) 1.00
98. Tw loads, one of 20 kW at pf 0.8 lag and other of 12 kW at f t
Their combined power factor would be
(o)0.8 lag
(c) 0.7 lag
(6) 0.6 lag
(d) 0.711 lag
7r
b ,
% A
lag, are connected in s,
«.
'■*'* » *
t
99. A water boiler at home is switched on to the ac mains supplying power at 230 V /5 0 Hz
frequency of the instantaneous power consumed by the boiler is
(a)OHz (6) 50 Hz
(<0 100 Hz (d) 150 Hz
I06-A constant voltage but variable frequency ac source feeds A
Jand C in parallel as shown in Fig. C.40. The impedance seen by KJ
«>e source is Z.
1■2 is zero when f = 0
•Z is zero when f = infinity
Fig. C.40.
•Z is infinite when f ~ 0
■ " is infinite when f —infinity tuVT“
resonant frequency, (Or -
O
-U
930 Electrical Ms
80 a
-v \ w -
7. 0),
\J 20/1 250
From above, the correct answer is -------" A -'A -i -----
(a) 1, 2, 5 {b) 3, 4, 5 ^s.Ot ■ | - D
lc) 1, 2, 6 (d) 3 ,4 ,7 ^ ,5 ''U ') .
= _ 100V <
101. In the network of Fig. C.41, the current in the 25 12 resistof- F 10n
will be
____ __________ <----------------- - ..
l°
(c)) 5 2.5
A A (5
(d)) 4 zero
A (I.A.i>., 1993)
, Fig. C.41.
102. Match List I withList IIand select thecorrect answer (o ■
using the codes givenbelowthe lists : V •
List I Ml'-•
(Transient current response)
X
(Condition)
« =0 1. Undamped oscillations
A.
.\k'
j:
Codes :
asy A B c D
4 S V
En
(a) 1 2 3
r* -O 1 4 3 2
(6)
(c) 3
3
gin 2
4
1
1
4
2
V"
eer
(d) [I.A.S., 19931
ANSW ERS 0
1. (6)
6. (a)
2. (d)
7. (a)
3. (c)
8. (a) ing 4. (d) 5. (d)
.ne
9. (6) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. {d)
16. (6) 17. (d) 18. (6) 19. (a) 2 0 . (a)
21. (6)
26. (a)
31. (6)
36. (b)
22. (c)
27. (d)
32. (d)
37. (d)
23. (6)
28. (6)
33. (c)
38. (d)
2 4 . (a)
29. (c)
34. (c)
39. (d)
25. (b)
30. (a)
35. (d)
40. (c)
t
41. (d) 42. (6) 43. (c) 44. (c) 45. (6)
46. (a) 47. A -> R , B - > U , C - > S , D - > P 48. (6) 49. (b)
50. (d) 51. (c) 52. (d) 53. (6) 54. (c)
55. (a) 56. (c) 57. (d) 58. (a) 59. (6)
60. (c) 61. (d) 62. (6) 63. (c) 64. (6)
65. (6) 66. (a) 67. (c) 68. (c) 69. (d)
70. (d) 71. (6) 72. (d) 73. (c) 74. (c)
75. (6) 76. (6) 77. (a) 78. (6) 79. {d)
80. (a) 81. (b) 82. (d) 83. (b) 84. (a)
85. (a) 86. (d) 87. (a) 88. (b) 89. (a)
90. (6) 91. (6) 92. (c) 93. (c) _94. (d) __
95. (a) 96. (a) 97. (c) 98. (d) 99. (c)
100. (a) 101. (d) 102. (a)
r r o a - i T r i - c f c r D y - v t c t i 'i u o a i n i c i www.EasyEngineering.net
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TRANSFORMERS
• dings of a transformer are designated us
i T"'0 'V1?orv and secondary windings
> ) P "” ry and h.v. windings
(W p condary and l.v. windings or primary and l.v. windings
(J) ^ and U windings '
ww
2, Cores made of soft-ferrite are used in pulse transformers
3, Air-core transformers are used in radio devices 1
(a) 2,3, 4
w.E
4, Cores of powdered alloy are used in isolation transformers
From above, the correct answer is
( 6 ) 2 ,3 (c) 1, 3, 4 (d) 2, 4
asy
5. For a given cross-sectional area of transformer core, stepped cores are used
(а) to reduce the core loss
En
(б) to provide more mechanical strength to the core
(c) to reduce the conductor material and therefore I2R loss
(cf) to reduce the magnetizing current '
gin
6. In single-phase core-type transformers, LV and HV windings are arranged as under
(а) L.V. on one core-limb, H.V. on the other core-limb
eer
(б) half H.V. near the core and half L.V. outside the H.V. on each limb
°
.ne
7. A400/200 V, 50 Hz transformer operates at a flux density of 1.2 T when energised from its H.V.
side. For this transformer, linear dimensions of core are doubled while the number of turns are
932 Electrical M
12. For understanding the behaviour of a transformer, the folkswing laws may be called for
-1. -Lenz’s
• ■law 2. Newton’s second law
3. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction 4. Ohm’s law
5. Fleming’s right-hand rule 6. Right-hand grip rule
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 3, 4 (6) 2, 3, 4, 5 (e) 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 (d) 1, 3, 4, 6
13. In an ideal transformer, if K is some constant, then the supply voltage V, in terms of jtg
magnetizing current Im can be expressed as
ww16. A transformer has sometimes two or more ratings depending upon the use of
(a) the cooling techniques (6) the type of windings
w.E
(c) the type of core (d) the type of insulation
17. In a transformer, exciting current is made up of two components ; namely magnetizing ciirrent
Im and core-loss current lc. With negligible leakage impedance drop,
asy
(а) both Im and Ic lag supply voltage V* by 90°
(б ) both Im and Ic are in phase with Vj
En
(c) l m lags Vi by 90° whereas lc is in phase with Vi
(d) Im is in phase with V1 but Ic lags V1 by 90°.
gin
18. A transformer at no load is excited at rated voltage. Now a cut is made in the transformer yoke
thus creating a small air gap. With this, the transformer core flux
eer
(a) will decrease and magnetizing current Im will increase
(b) will remain constant and Im will increase
(c) as well as Im both will increase
(d) as well as Im both will decrease ing
.ne
19. I f the secondary winding of the ideal transformer shown in the circuit of Fig. C.42 has 40 turns,
the number of turns in the primary winding for maximum power transfer to the 2 £2 resistor will
be
(a) 20 (b) 40
Ideal
(c) 80 (d) 160 -
t
transformer
8n
-yW W
~ i *j—
I
o —40 a o- -oc
I o Turns : 2X1
bo- -od
t
N ,: Nz
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933
ww
(C) a triangular wave
(6) a sine wave
(d) a pulsed wave
26. The primary (220 V side) of a 2 2 0 /6 V, 50 Hz transformer is connected to 110 V, 60 Hz source.
En
dary-winding reactance x2 £2, when referred to primary, is
(a) *2
(N 2 ')2
Ni
KT
(6) *2 N,
gin
(c)*2 Hi
\2
Nt
eer
ing
29. A 400/200 V transformer has total resistance of 0.02 pu on its l.v. side. This resistance when
referred to h.v. side would be
(a) 0.02 (6) 0.04 (c) 0.01
30. The leakage flux in a transformer depends upon
(d) 0.08
.ne
31‘
(a) the applied voltage
(c) the load current
(6) the frequency
(d) the mutual flux
useful flux of a transformer is 1 Wb. When it is loaded at 0.8 pf lag, then its mutual flux
(a) may decrease to 0.8 Wb (b) may increase to 1.01 Wb
t
(c) remains constant (d) may decrease to 0.99 Wb
32 If * , .
‘ u>m a transformer Pc = core loss and Psc = full-load ohmic loss, then maximum kVA delivered
the load at maximum efficiency is equal to rated kVA multiplied by
W p- f Pr
K (b) (c)
sc r C
38 fi\
de •*transformers of the same type, using the same grade of iron and conductor materials are
signed to work at the same flux and current densities ; but the linear dimensions of one are
0 »nae8 those of the other in all respects. The ratio of kVA ratings of the two transformer
cl°8ely equals
(0) 16
34 . (6) 8 (c) 4 (d) 2
t . ^, an8^orm'erhaia
The *^ hasuiijjcuautc
impedance uiofv-*
(1- "'+j j 5)*■
£2won the
** —— •l.v. side and (9 + j 45) £1 on the h.v. side.
(a) ] g A bivalent impedance at the h.v. terminals is
+ / 90 £1 (6) 2 + j 10 Q
(c) 10 +j 50 ft
(d) 8 + j 40 n
(b) ■\ZZjT
Pc Pc
(c) — (d )~
ww 38. The maximum efficiency for a transformer occurs at 80% of full load. Its core loss is Pc and ohmic
w.E
■*oh
(a) 0.8 (b) 1.25 (c) 0.64 (d) 0.8944
39. Frequency of the supply voltage to a transformer at no load is increased but the supply voltaee
asy
is held fixed. With this
(1) eddy-current loss remains constant but hysteresis loss increases
(2) eddy-current loss remains constant but hysteresis loss decreases
‘
En
(3) magnetizing current increases but core-loss current decreases
(4) both magnetizing and core-loss currents decrease.
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 2, 3 (b) 2, 4 (C) 1, 3 gin (d) 1, 4
40.
eer
The voltage applied to a transformer primary is increased keeping — constant. With this, the
core loss will
ing
(a) decrease and magnetizing current Im will increase
(b) increase and Im will also increase
(c) remain constant and Im will also remain constant
.ne
! ■■■ (d) increase and will remain constant
t
41. A 4 kVA, 400/200 V, 1-phase transformer has leakage impedance of 0.02 + j 0.04 per unit. This
leakage impedance in ohms, when referred to h.v. side is
(a) 0 . 8 + j 1.612 (b) 0.2 +j 0.4 Q
(c) 0.08 + j 0.16 Q (d) 1 + j 2 Q
42. As the load on a transformer is increased, the core losses
(a) decrease slightly Ideal
(b) increase slightly transformer
Ao-
(c) remain constant
(d) may decrease or increase slightly depending 1
I '■’ Pure
upon the nature of load. I inductive
o i i a itoad
»
o i
43. For the system shown in Fig. C.44, the phase rela I L.
U
tion of current I with respect to the voltage is Bo- T
(a) zero (6) 90° lead
(c) 90° lag (d) 180° Fig. C.44.
(а) change to three times the original value maX'mUm °°™ flUX ^
(б) change to 1.5 times the original value
(c) change to 0.5 times the original value
(d) remains the same as the original value
46. In a transformer, low-voltage winding j
aS‘ ° „ mdl” E lS ^ aed — the core m case of concentric windings so
ww
1. reduce the leakage flux
2. reduce the insulation requirement
w.E
3. reduce the risk of voltage shnMr Jr, „
4. reduce the core loss “ “
.
° f lnsala« “ > breakdown
asy
5. reduce the total conductor material
From these, the correct answer is ,
En
47. c L Y s O H z tr a n sfe r e r t ’e L e d for 25 H z L f ’th ■ ^ '
rated value corresponding to 50 Hz ?
W N "n r 4 “
’
gin
6 mpUt VoltaSe 1S maintained constant at the
eer
(c) No. Owing to decreased reactance'of tran f C° re t° excessive ite ra tio n
ing
v 5 1 T ' WiU be d° Ubled a t l0ad
Under t h i s ^ ^ -^ i o n f Pnmary of a transfb™ e r is kept constant but its frequency is decreased
sida will0™ " Secondary is connected to pure resistive load. The power factor on the primary
16 Electrical Machinery
w.E
54. In a 1-phase transformer, the magnitude of leakage reactance is twice that of resistance of both
primary and secondary. With secondary short-circuited, the input pf is
(a) ^ (6) i t
asy (c) w
55. High leakage-impedance transformers are used for applications such as
{d) 1
En
(a) power distribution (6) electric toys
(c) fluorescent lamps (d) arc welding
56. In an ideal transformer shown in Fig. C.45,
(a) Vl = a V 2,I 2 = - a I l
gin (6) V2 = a Vj, 72 = - a 7j
(c) V1 = a V 2, l 2 = ^ l 1
r O
o
o
o
o
a-.l
<
F
oo
o
o
o
ing
.ne
!_
Fig. C.45.
mmrmmm-
>cannea oy ca m
m sScc a
c nner www.EasyEngineering.net
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937
. W orm ed on h.v. side ~
4 Jt I® erformed at rated voltage
ww
6 It gives ohmic loss on the side instruments are connected
7 It helps in the calculation of voltage regulation
w.E
prom these, the correct answer is
(a) 1,2, 6, 7 (*>) 2, 3, 4, 7 (c) 4, 5, 6, 7 (d) 2, 4, 7
61. A 10 kVA, 400/200 V, single-phase transformer with 10% leakage impedance draws a steady
short-circuit line current of
(a) 50 A (b) 150 A (c)
asy
250 A (d) 350 A
En
62. While performing the open-circuit and short-circuit tests on a transformer to determine its
parameters, the status of the low-voltage (L.V.) and high-voltage (H.V,) windings will be such
that
(а) in O.C., L.V. is open and in S.C., H.V. is shorted
(б) in O.C., H.V. is open and in S.C., L.V. is shorted gin
(c) in O.C., L.V. is open and in S.C., L.V. is shorted
(d) in O.C., H.V. is open and in S.C., H.V. is shorted eer
ing
63. A multimeter, for measuring resistance, is connected to one terminal of primary and the other
terminal of secondary. The multimeter reading would be
(a) zero
(c) zero or infinity
(6) infinity
(d)equal to the resistance of the windings
.ne
is x. What will be the per unit leakage impedance of this transformer when the voltage and
volt-ampere bases are both doubled ?
(a)0.5x (6) 2 x (c) 4 x id) x
t
64. For given base voltage and base volt-amperes, the per unit leakage impedance of a transformer
Electrical Mai
938
thick laminations has eddy-current loss of 12Q w
69. A 220 V, 50 Hz transformer with 0.35 mm tn transformer is built with 0.7 mm
which is two-third of the total loss at no-lo ■ nQ_load loss would be M
laminations and is worked from 110 V, 2 » ^ ^
(a) 150 W (6) 510 W (c) 50 Hz, has eddy-current loss of 50 W a ,
70. A transformer, fed from an alternator . ’ ver driving the alternator drops to 80*
hysteresis loss of 100 W. If the speed of the losses in the »*'
its previous speed, then eddy-current an y
transformer would respectively be , aq w , 64 W
«w 40 W, 80 W (6, 32 W, 80 W (c, 3 W « ^
71. Two windings of a transformer are ,, f l 0 0 V is applied
A S and CD as shown in Fig. C A V ^voltage of lOO V is^ P P ^
e n a
w.E
(c) 2 or 1 (d) 3 or 1
73. A 400 V /2 0 0 V /200 V, 50 Hz, three-winding transformer is
connected as shown in Fig. C.48. The reading of the
voltmeter V will be
(a) 0 V asy (6) 400 V Fig. C.48.
(c) 600 V
En
(d) 800 V
74. A transformer has leakage impedance of ze = re +jxe. Its maximum voltage regulation occurs at
a power factor of
gin
(a) — leading
xe
(6) — lagging
ze
(c) — leading
ze
eer (d) — leading
ze
75. A transformer has leakage impedance of ze = re + j xe. Zero voltage regulation for this transformer
occurs at a pf of
r3 xe
e ing e
(a) — leading
xe
(6) — lagging
Ze
(c)
(c) —— leading
zz„
e
leading (d) — leading
Zg
.ne
76. A 1-phase transformer has p.u. leakage impedance of 0.02 + j 0.04. Its regulation at pf 0.8 lagging
and 0.8 leading are respectively
(a) 4%, 0.8% (b) 4%, - 0.8% (c) 2.4%, - 0;8% (d) 4%, - 1%
77. A 10 kVA, 400 V /2 0 0 V, 1-phase transformer with a percentage resistance of 3% and percentage
t
reactance of 6% is supplying a current of 50 A to a resistive load. The value of the load voltage
is
(a) 194 V (6) 390 V (c) 192 V (d) 196 V ,
78. In a transformer, re2 + j xe2 = equivalent leakage impedance ze2. Its maximum voltage regulation
is equal to
■ ..
ww
regulation at full load 0.8 p f leading will be
(a) - 2.5% (&) zero (c) - 0.9% (d) 2.5%
w.E
85. In Sumpner’s test on two identical transformers having rated frequency f,
(a) both the primaries and the regulating transformer should be fed from voltage sources of
frequency f
asy
(b) both the primaries and the regulating transformer may be fed from voltage sources at
frequencies different from f
En
(c) both the primaries should be fed from voltage source at frequency /'but regulating transformer
may be fed at a frequency different from f
gin
(d) both the primaries may be fed from voltage source at a frequency different from f but
regulating transformer should be fed at f
will be ;
eer
86. The efficiency of a transformer at full load 0.8 pf lag is 90%. Its efficiency at full load 0.8 pf lead
ing
(a) somewhat less than 90% (6) somewhat more than 90%
(c) 90% id) 91%
.ne
87. Transformer maximum efficiency, for a constant load current, occurs at
(a) at any pf (&) zero pf leading
(c) zero pf lagging id) unity pf
88. One transformer has leakage impedance of 1 + j 4 Q and 3 + j 11 a for its primary and secondary
windings respectively. This transformer has
(a) h.v. primary (&) medium voltage primary
t
(c) l.v. primary (<*) Lv- secondary .
89. Transformer at no-load behaves like ,
(a) a resistor p f= 0 an mductive reactor, pf = 0.2 lagging
(c) a capacitive reactor, p f = 0.2 leading «*) ™ inductive reactor, pf - 0.8 lagging
80. In a transformer, the tappings are provided on
to) h.v. side at one end of the winding Q>) -v- s|de at oae end ° f the winding
to) h.v. side at the middle . & Lv' Slde at the middle
81- In transformers, the windings are tapped in the middle
to) to avoid the radial forces on the windings
(b) to eliminate the axial forces on the windings
to) to reduce the insulation level of the windings
to) to provide a mechanical balance to the windings
In transformers, tappings are provided on the h.v. side because
it has larger number of turns which allow smoother control of output voltage
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Electrical MachiJ
940
ww
w.E
(a)
asy(b)
Fig. C.49.
En
95. Short-circuit test on a single-phase transformer gave the following data .
30 V at 50 Hz, 20 A ,p f = 0.2 lag
Eb -E ,
{d) buck both E a and E b with lc
z eb
941
.nd!s^:— -------------
tr a n s fo r m e r s of identical voltages but of different capacities are operating in parallel. For
99- T* ° f^tory load sharing,
must be equal
{<*) J impedances must be equal
* r-unit impedances and j| ratios must be equal
^ yr
J) imped®11068 ®nd ^ ratios must be equal
(jwn transformers of different kVA ratings working in parallel share the load in proportion to
1°°* their ratings when their
1 per unit leakage impedances on the same kVA base are equal
2 per unit leakage impedances based on their respective kVA ratings are equal
3. ohmic values of the leakage impedances are inversely proportional to their ratings
4 ohmic values of the magnetizing reactances are the same.
From these, the correct answer is
ww
(a) 1, 3>4 2- 3 to) 2, 3 ,4 (d ) 1, 4
101. Transformer operating in parallel will share a common load in the best possible manner if
[GATE, 1992]
w.E
(a) the leakage impedances are proportional to their respective kVA ratings
(ib) the leakage impedances are equal
(c) per unit leakage impedances are equal
asy
{rf) per unit leakage impedances are proportional to their respective kVA ratings
102. The necessary conditions for parallel operation of two 1-phase transformers is that these should
have the same
1. polarity 2. kVA rating
En
3. voltage regulation
4. efficiencies 5. voltage ratio
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
w 5>6 eer^ 2, 5, 6
(d) 1, 3, 5, 6
1M lT ad^“ ff M Cre 0Perating in Para“ el haVC different quality of their teakaf * impedances. For .ne
(a) both would operate at pfe less than 0.8
(b) both would operate at pfe more than 0.8
(c) both would operate at the same pfe
t
Id) one would operate at pf > 0.8 and the other at pf < 0.8
W ^ + ; i Pm o L ^ f nSf° r!? erSJ ' ith e,U al turns rati0 have impedances of ( 0 .5 + j 3 ) Q and
SeCOmia,y- IftHey 0Parab! to h° “ share a Z l
vi t v2 v, + v2 v. + v,
vi r K --— k
2 1
Electrical Maeli
942
V, + ^2 ^1 + ^2
W T v k - '- v T T .
. . ” r ..... {a reconnected as an autotransformer arm*
107. A .100 V /1 0 0 V, 10 kVA, two-winding transformer « » c()uld acr®»
n suitable voltage. Tho maximum rating of such a tin •
<«> 50 kVA (*, 15 kVA (c) 12.5 kVA « '7 j kVA
108. 'An ’-"VV.V.
nutotrnnsformur Imving a
MMA'IVUUIOI MOVI»»|; «» transformationratio
' of 0.8
1 aupplie.
■ a load of 10 kW. The p„Wer
transferred inductively from the primary to tho seconan y
(a )1 0 k W (6) 8 k W (c) 2 kW (d) zero
109. A single-phase transformer has a rating of 15 kVA, 6 ° ° V /1 2 0 V It ^ ^connected as an
autotransformer to supply at 720 V from a 600 V primary source. The maximum load it can
supply is :
(a) 90 kVA (6) 180 kVA (c) 15 kVA (4) 18 kVA
HO. in mi autotransformer of voltage ratio rj - and Vj > V%, the fraction of power transferred induc-
72 ’
tively is
ww Vl
(<I) v'l + V2
^2
(/>) V\
vl~ v2
(C) V'l + ^2
V2
‘
(a) 3, 7
w.E
111. A 10 kVA step down autotransformer has voltage ratio of 0.7. The transformed and conducted
kVA can be respectively
(b) 7, 3 (c) 5, 5 (d) 3.5, 6.5
asy
112. A supply of 100 V can be obtained from a source of 300 V, by means of a two-winding transformer
or an autotransformer. The ratio of weights of conductor material in the autotransformer with
respect to two-winding transformer is
(a) 1 : 1.5 (6) 1.5 : 1
En
(c) 3 : 1 (d) 1 : 3
Vy V2 V, -V o gin
113. In an autotransformer of voltage ratio Vx/V 2 with Vy > V2, the conducted power in terms of total
power is
V, - Vo
W it :
f2 W
" " v,
i t -
■' v,
w V - 1
eerW>
w v2
is
20
(«) T
Q on
f (d) 2
t
weight of conductor material in a two-winding transformer to that required in an autotransformer
116. A 400 V /200 V transformer has a full-load voltage regulation of x p.u. at 0.8 pf lagging If this
transformer is used as an autotransformer with voltage rating 400 V /6 0 0 V or 200 V /6 0 0 V then
its voltage regulation would be ’
, sx x , 2x x 2x 2x v 9v
( 0 ,3 '3 "3" ’ 3 w f ' T <d)f - f
117. An autotransfbrmer has V , . / , as input quantities nnd V2, / 2 as output quantises with
2 < 'l - The VA conducted from input to output is
(a) 72 (6) V2 ly (c) Vy Iy - V2 / 2 (d) (Vy - V2) Iy
118. An autotransformer has V „ 7, as input quantities and V2, / 2 as output quantities with V2 < V,.
ine VA transformed from primary to secondary is
(a) V\ h (b) V2 Iy (C) Vy Iy - V2 I2
h id) (Vy - V2) Iy
943
— - -
• rv of a 100 kVA transformer is 0.98 at full as well as half load. For this transformer
o Th« theohmic loss
I1 at fo11 ^ 3 0 core loss (£>) is equal to core loss
(fl) is than core loss (d)none of the above
lS VA transformer has a core loss of400 W and a full-load copper loss of 800 W. The proportion
i20. M °n load at maximum efficiency is
50# (b) 62'3% (C) 7° ‘7% 10° %
^ a the following statements about induction regulators :
nsid®1*1 4 4 J.
jjl. ipensating windings are needed in single-phase induction regulators (IR).
1 1 singlO'Pb®36 IR. secondary induced voltage E2 is in phase with the appliedvoltage Vv
^i single-phase IR, magnitude of E2 remains constant with the rotor movement.
ln 3-phase IR, magnitude of E 2 varies with rotor position.
5 In 3-phase IR, E2 is not in phase with Vx except when 6 = 0° or 180°.
these the correct statements are
ww ( i ] W ( 0 1 ,2 ,4 1 ,2 ,5
In a tap changer, the voltage at consumers terminals is kept within the prescribed limits by
w.E
(ajTatfoo^turns between primary and secondary windings
(b) frequency
rn A
flux density in the core
asy
(d angle between the magnetic axes of the primary and secondary windings
single-phase induction regulator is a constant-voltage input transformer to obtain smooth
’ variation of the output voltage by varying the
En
(a) ratio of turns between primary and secondary windings
(b) frequency
(cl flux density in the core gin . . . ____
,!4' t . ^ • a. u
n w itZ l Si eer
(d) angle between the magnetic axes of the primary and secondary windings
in a 1 nha«sp 200 V 5 kVA system to keep the voltage
The rating (in kVA, of the voitage reguiator is
(a) 0.05 (6 ) 0.5 (c) 5 (d) 50
ing
125. A 3-phase induction voltage regulator needed to regulate 100 kVA between the voltage hunts
1200 and 800 V has a rating of
(a) 10 kVA (6) 20 kVA (c) 5 kVA
kVA
(d) 30 kVA .ne , _
126. A 3-phase delta-star transformer has secondary to Pnaiary turns ratl° per p ase 0 '
primary voltage of 400 V, the secondary voltage wou
(a) 2000 V (6) 80 V (c) 3464 V
e
(d) 80 V3 V
t
m . A 3-phase star-delta transformer has secondary to primary turns ratio per phase of 5. For a
Primary voltage of400 V, the — ndary vo ^ g e wo ^ ^
— ■■■— i linn n m — a,
_____ I
131. Match the items on the left-hand side with the most appropriate item on the right-hand side •
Type \ Application
A. Power transformer 1. Thyristor firing circuits
B. Distribution transformer 2. Impedance matching
C. Pulse transformer 3-. At different city localities
D. Audio-frequency transformer 4. At generating stations
ww
has the same value as the angle of equivalent impedance
3. Voltage regulation of a transformer at zero power factor is always zero
4. Voltage regulation of a transformer can be negative at leading power factor
w.E
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
Codes :
(a) 1 and 3
asy
(6) 2 and 3 (c) 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
133. When a short-circuit test is conducted on a single-phase transformer, 30% of the rated voltage
[/.AS., l&ft]
En
is required to allow full-load current. The short-circuit power factor is found to be 0.2. The
percentage regulation at UPF is
gin
30 (b) 29.5 (c) 15 (d) 6 [I.A.S., 1993]
134. A bank of three identical single-phase 250 kVA, 11 kV/230 V transformer is used to provide
400 V low-tension supply from a l l kV, 3-phase sub-station. The effective kVA rating of the bank
will be
(a) 250 (6) 250 V3~ <c) 500 eer (d) 750 [/A S ., 1994]
ing
135. A transformer designed for operation of 60 Hz supply is worked on 50 Hz supply system without
changing its voltage and current ratings. When compared with full-load efficiency at 60 Hz the
transformer efficiency on full load at 50 Hz will
(a) increase marginally (6) increase by a factor of 1.2
.ne
(c) remain unaltered (d) decrease marginally
136. The voltage regulation of a large transformer is mainly influenced by
(а) no-load current and load power factor
(б) winding resistances and load power factor
t
(c) leakage fluxes and load power factor
(d) winding resistances and core loss
137. Fig. C.50 shows an ideal single-phase transformer. The primary and secondary coils are wound
on the core as shown. Turns ratio (N y/N2) = 2. The correct phasors of voltages E h E2, currents
Ilt 12 and core flux <j>are as shown in
(a) Fig. (a) (b) Fig. (b) (c) Fig. (c) (d) Fig. (d) [GATE, 2003]
, 1E1 El ’
i2a
"I
E2
III, *1 ih
ww
139. A single-phase transformer has a maximum efficiency of 90%
Efficiency at half load at the same power factor is
(a) 86.7% (6) 88.26%
[GATE, 2003]
full load and unity power factor.
a n sw e r s
IGATE, 2003]
1. (d)
6. (d)
11. (d)
2. (6)
7- (b)
asy 3.
8.
0b)
(c)
4. (6)
9. (c)
5. (c)
10. (a)
En
12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (6)
16. (a) 17. (c) 18. ib) 19. (c)
21. (c) 20 . (c)
gin
22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (6) 25. {d)
26. (b) 27. (6) 28. (c) 29. (a) 30. (c)
31. (d) 32. (c) 33. (a)
eer
34. (a) 35. (c)
36. (b) 37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (6)
41. (a). 40. (d)
42. (d) 43. (&) 44. (c)
ing
46, (d) 45. (a)
47. (b) 48. (d) 49. (a)
51. (d) 50. (6)
52. (c) 53. (6) 54. (6)
56. (a) 55. (d)
6i. (C)
66 .(6 )
57. (d)
62. (6)
58.
63.
(a)
(&)
5 9 .(a)
6 4 . (a)
60. (d)
65. (c) .ne
t
67. (a) 68. (6) 6 9 .(a) 70. (5)
71- (c) 72. (a) 73. (6) 74. (6) 75. (c)
76. (6) 77. (a) 78. (d) 79. (a) 80.(5)
81. (6)
82. (d) 83. (a) 84. (c) 85. (c)
86. (a)
87. (d) 88. (c) 89. (6) 90. (c)
91. ffi)
92. (d) 93. (a) 94. (a) & (&) 95. (c)
96. (d)
97. (a) 98. (c) 99. (c) 100. (6)
Ml. (c) 1 0 2 .(d) 103. (c) 104. (d) 105. (c)
106 . (a)
107. (a) 108. (e) 109. (a) 110. (d)
JU. (a)
112. (a) 113. (6) 114. (d) 115. (a)
1J6. (d)
117. (6) 118. (d) 119. (c) 120. (c)
!21- (d
122. (a) 123. (d) 124. (6) 125. (6)
126. {c;
127. (6) 128. (d) 129. (6) 130, (6)
131. A 4 d
, C - > l ,Z ) - > 2 132. (a) 133. (d) 1 3 4 .(d)
1®5. (d)
136. (c) 137. (d) 138. (d) 1 3 9 .(d)
id)
ww ond u>r will have negntive direction and others will remain in positive direction.
^ Wfld - field energy stored, then magnetic force developed in a singly-excited linear magnetic
*• h w.E
system is given by
, f d wnd (V. *)
--------^ r ;-------, saturation may, or may not, be neglected
.) f
fe *
d w{7d (<t>. *)
^ asy
.
. saturation is included
En
, saturation is included
gin
d X
aw ,/7rf -r) ,
4. fe « + j . saturation is neglected.
2. Wju + Wfu' = v i
Wfld + Wfjd' - F <J>
4. = 4r Rl
5- Wfid + Wfu = | L i2
947
— -----------------
tomechanical energy conversion process, it is essential
that coupling magnetic field
Magnet
ww
nptic stored-energy density in iron is given by
ib) *
1 B2
w 2 7
2
*
' i.
w.E
The energy stored in a magnetic field is given by
94 8 __________________________________________ ________________________________________
w.E
4. decrease the inductance
5. decrease current at constant flux linkages.
asy
From these, the correct statements are
(a) 2, 3, 5 ib) 1, 3, 4 (c) 1, 3, 4, 5 (d) 1, 3, 5
En
17. A physical system of electromechanical energy conversion consists of a stationary part creating
a magnetic field with electric energy input and a moving part giving mechanical eneigy output.
gin
If now the movable part is kept fixed, the entire electrical energy input will be
(a) stored in the magnetic field
ib) stored in the electric field
eer
(c) divided equally between the magnetic and electric fields
id) zero
ing
18. An electromagnetic relay has linear magnetic circuit. If the armature moves slowly to shorten
the air gap, then
•
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1
1
1
r
1
I 1
Y \ f°rce ° " . force is equal to the rate of 1
^ u o ^ e f ^ n e t i c field energy w.th
1
1 Moving
fw T h T r a tee roff fincrease of' coenergy 1t armature
“
i j■ ft <e ,s
^ equal
c o n s t„ a " « tna ntt current 0-----------
2; arePulsive force
4 811 i ww
3 ” ^ a c tiv e force proportional to currents
force proportional to currents
w.E
5 a repulsive proportional to distance between adioimng turns
6. an attractive o proportion£l to distance between adjoining turns
7^
r.
From
i v
these the
these, tne correct
^ ^ ^statements
? areg
(c) asy
’Jforce inversely proportional to distance between adjommg turns
«/) 2, 5, 8
En
^ ^ Stati0naiT ParaUel ^
gin “ (Steady) "
eer
, i8 inversely proportional to the separation of wires
2. is proportional to the magnitude of each current
3. satisfies Newton’s third law
(o)B=-
/ n _ iL L
{b)B = (c) B
= _A L (d)B =
1
U.J
2 k R*
t
2 prcK 2R v" 27tfl
M. The energy stored in the magnetic ®eld of a solenmd 30 Stator- pole
'a x is
cm long and 3 cm diameter wound with 1000 turns of
wire carrying a current of 10 A is
(o)0.015 joule (6) 0.15 joule
Rotor-pole
(c) 0.5 joule (d) 1.15 joule a x is
i5- In Fig. C.55, a free rotating permanent magnet R lies
between the poles of a stator. If dc supply is connected
to the terminals AS, the rotor will
(0) start rotating
\f>), oscillate
uouimie about
aoout the
tne stator-pole \axis
stator-,---------
Fig. C.55
(c)1 alien
align itself with the pole
nnle axis of( the stator
(d) have no effect
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Electrical
86. In a simple magnetic relay, armature is in open j ^ nsity B and vary tht
yoke under the influence of magnetic force/;, air-gap '
ww
30. Reluctance torque in rotating machines is present when
1. air gap is not uniform ‘
w.E
2. reluctance seen by stator mmf varies with rotor movement
3. reluctance seen by rotor mmf varies with rotor movement
asy
4. reluctance seen by the working mmf varies with rotor movement
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 4 only
En
(c) 2, 3 (d) 2, 3, 4
31. Electromagnetic torque in rotating electrical machineiy is present when
(а) air gap is uniform
(б) stator winding alone carries current
gin
eer
(c) rotor winding alone carries current
(d) both stator and rotor windings carry current
32’ i t l t S r l T
ing
0 conversion devices make use o f the magnetic field rather
an tne electric field as the coupling medium. This is because
a) electric field systems present insulation difficulties
(o) electnc Field systems have more dielectric lose the.™
rating of the machine
™ „
.ne
magnetic loss for the same power
( S in
* *
may " e expressed in a general form as
dt dt
Which of the following are represented by the first
side of this equation ? ’ second and third terms on the right-hand
1. Accelerating torque
2. Damping torque
3. Friction torque
4. Load torque
Select the correct combination
using the following codes :
Codes:
First term Second term B — Third term [Cl
. dt2 . dt
(a) 3
2 1 and 4
(b) 3
4 1 and 2
(c) 1
4 2 and 3
(d) 1
2 3 and 4
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951
35 ww
(d) Lj and L2 do not vary with respect to 0
electromechanical energy conversion device has uniform air gap. If 5 is the space angle
A ro ta tin g
w.E
between the axes of stator field and rotor field, then the average torque developed is proportional
to (A and B are constants)
(a) A sin 8 (6) A sin 25
(c) A sin 8 + B sin 2 8
asy Id) 5
36. An electromechanical energy conversion device has cylindrical stator but salient-pole rotor. If
5is the angle between the stator field and rotor field, the average torque developed is proportional
to (A and B are constants )
(a) A sin 8 En (6) A sin 28
(c) A sin 8 + B sin 25
gin
Id) 8
37. An electromechanical energy conversion device has cylindrical stator but salient-pole rotor. Rotor
eer
is not excited. If 8 is the angle between stator field and rotor-long axis, then average torque
developed is proportional to (A and B are constants)
(a) A sin 5
(c) A sin 8 +B sin 25 (d) zero
ing
(8) A sin 25
38. In an electromechanical energy conversion device, both stator and rotor have salient ^ l e con
.ne
figuration. Stator carries a winding but rotor is made from ferromagnetic material. If 5 is the
space angle between the stator-field axis and long-rotor axis, then the average torque developed
is proportional to (A and B are constants):
(a) A sin 8
(c) A sin 5 + B sin 25 5
(5) A sm 25 t
39- Pour singly-excited electromagnetic structures are shown in Fig. C.56 and labelled I, II, III and
IV (R ; Rotor ; S : Stator).
Fig. C.56.
Kl#< iriiiii
■40. Four electromagnetic rotating machines are shown in C.57, These are labelled J( 2,
4 /? :rotor ; S :stator)
Fig. C.57,
These machines raav produce electromagnetic torque (EMT), reluctance torque <ft f ; or both KMT
and RT. ' '
Use the following codes to choose the correct combination
ww
Codes : EMT is produced in Figs. RT in produced in Figs.
(а) 1, 3,4 3,4
(б ) 1, 2, 3,4 1, 3,4
w.E
(ci
id'
1,2,3
1, 2, 3
1,3,4
1, 2,3
asy
41. A parallel-plate capacitor has a capacitance of 10 |iF. If the linear dimensions of the plates arn
doubled and distance between them is also doubled, then new value of capacitance would Iks
l a) 1 0 uF (b) 20 pF
(c) 5 uF
En (c/)40pF
gin
42. A parallel-plate capacitor is charged and then the dc supply is disconnected.Now the plate
separation is allowed to decrease due to force of attraction between the twoplates. As a
consequence
1. charge on the plates increases 2. charge on the
3. capacitance C increases 4. capacitance C
eer plates remains constant
remains constant
5. potential difference increases
7. energy stored decreases
ing 6. potential difference decreases
8. energy stored increases
.ne
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 3, 6 lb) 2, 4, 8 (c) 2, 3, 6, 7 id) 2,4, 5, 8
Torque
ww
C. No torque is developed
w.E
asy
D. Both electromagnetic and reluctance torques
En
are developed
gin
eer
Ans.A-», C -> , D->
ing
W. Two conductors are carrying forward ant
magnetic field intensity H at point P is
.ne
-►x
+1
©
P
-I
©
t
h 4 .
Fig. C.58,
(“) ~~~:y
7id J (b)h x
(c) (id) ■x [GATE, 2003]
2nd
48‘ A Parallel plate capacitor has an electrode area of 100 mm2, with a spacing of 0.1 mm between
electrodes. The dielectric between the plates is air with a permittivity of 8.85 x 1 0 "12 F/m .
/he charge on the capacitor is 100 V. The stored energy in the capacitor is
W 8.85 p J (6) 440 p J
(c) 22.1 n J {d) 44.3 n J [GATE, 2003\
Electrical Madji
954
ANSW ERS
4. (d) 5- («0
1. (a) 2. <o0 3. (c)
9. (6) 10. (6)
6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c)
to (a) 14. (6) I5- <«)
11. (d) 12. (c)
16. (a) 1 7 .(a) Is £ 19 20' w
21. (a) 22. (d) S3 c) »• <» 25
26. (c) 27. (b) 28 a 29 <rf) 22’ '*
33 S 34. (<0 35. (a)
31. (rf) 32. (d)
38 f 39. 60 40. W
36. (c) 37. (6) 44 60 45.
41. (6) 42. (c) 43. (a)
46. A -> 3, B -> 4, C -> 1, D -> 2. 47. (a) 48< (d)
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
?>v
r -\ :
I ww
stationary armature winding
hiBher vol,“«es 2-
nding on the stator because
w.E
3. won d lead to reduced shp-nng losses 4. would have no sloT h "moo os
5. would have reduced armature reactance
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (6) 1, 2, 3, 5
asy
5. A pole pitch in electrical machines is
(c) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (d) 1, 2, 4, 5
(b) leads $ by 90
t
(c) lags <j>by 90° (d) lags * by 180
10. A winding is distributed in the slots along the air-gap periphery
1. to add mechanical strength to the winding
2. to reduce the amount of conductor material required
3. to reduce the harmonics in the generated emf
4. to reduce the size o f the machine
5. for full utilization of iron and conductor materials
3 ! Bp L D 4
5 Q C D _ P
JtflL 6' B™ - n rl
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 2, 5 (b) 2, 3, 5 (c) 2, 3, 6 (d)3, 4, 5
13. The belt factor is defined as the ratio of
ww (а) arithmetic sum of coil emfs to the phasor sum of coil emfs
(б) phasor sum of emf per coil to the arithmetic sum of emf per coil
(c) phasor sum of coil emfs to the arithmetic sum of coil emfs
w.E
(d) phasor sum of coil emfs to the per phase voltage
14. A fraction-pitch winding is used to reduce
1. amount of copper in the winding 2. size of the machine
asy
3. harmonics in the generated emf
From these, the correct answer is
4. cost of the machine
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (6) 1, 2, 3
En
(c) 2, 3, 4 (d) 1, 3, 4
15. The pitch factor, in rotating electrical machinery, is defined as the ratio of resultant emf of a
(a) full-pitched coil to that of a chorded coil
(c) chorded coil to the phase emf gin
(6)full-pitched coil to the phase emf
(d) chorded coil to thatof a full-pitched coil
ing
17. The armature winding of a 2-pole, 3-phase alternator for each phase is distributed in a number
of slots per phase. The rms value of the voltage per phase is less than the rms value of the voltage
per coil multiplied by the number of coils in series because the
(o) rms value of the voltage in different coils of the phase is different
.ne
(б) equal rms voltages in different coils of the phase has mutual phase difference
(c) maximum value of the induced voltage in different coils of the phase are different
t
(d) different coils of the phase pass through different saturated regions of the magnetic circuit.
18. A 3-pliase, 4-pole alternator has 48 stator slots carrying a 3-phase distributed winding. Each
coil of the winding is short chorded by one slot pitch. The winding factor is given by
cos 7.5 . c o t 7.5 1 ...c o t 7.5
(0) 16 {b> 8 (C)8^taT 5
19. The windings for a 3-phase alternator are :
1. 36 slots, 4 poles, span 1 to 8
2. 72 slots, 6 poles, span 1 to 10
3. 96 slots, 4 poles, span 1 to 21
The windings having pitch factor of more than 0.97 are
(a) 1 and 2 only (6) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
.
20 Consider the following statements regarding the design of distributed armature winding in 8
3-phase alternator :
1. It reduces the phase-belt harmonics
2. It increases the utilization of the armature iron and copper
?T%
*Y www.EasyEngineering.net
J
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______________________________________________957
ww
23. Two transformers of the same type, using the same grade of iron and conductor materials, are
' designed to work at the same flux and current densities ; but the linear dimensions of one are
two times those of the other in all respects. The ratio of kVA ratings of the two transformers
closely equals
(a) 16 w.E
(&) 8 (c) 4 {d) 2
asy
24. For eliminating nth harmonic from the emf generated in the phase of a 3-phase alternator, the
chording angle should be
(a) n x full-pitch
En (6) — x full-pitch
gin
(c) - x full-pitch (d) — x full-pitch
n n
25. For eliminating nth harmonic from the emf generated in one phase of a 3-phase alternator, the
coil-span (pitch of the coils) must be
(a) x full-pitch eer
(b) — — - x full-pitch
(c)
n
n+ 1
x full-pitch (d)ingn
2 71
n+1
r X full-pitch
.ne
26. For eliminating 5th harmonic from the phase emf generated in an alternator, the coil-span in
terms of full-pitch (or pitch fraction) would be
(a) | (6) | W f
t
27. In 48 slot, 4-pole, 3-phase alternator, the coil-span is 10. Its distribution and pitch factors are
respectively
(o) 0.9717, 0.966 (&) 0-9822, 0.9814
(c) 0.9577, 0.9814 0.9577, 0.966
28. In an alternator, frequency per revolution is equal to
(a) number of poles I twice the ™ ^ ber ° f P°les
(c) speed in rps (d) number of pok-pairs
29- A 6-pole machine is rotating at a speed of 1200 rpm. This speed in mechanical rad/sec and
electrical radians per sec is respectively
(a) 40 7i, ^ - 2 120 n>40 71
(c) 20 n, 60 jt &) 40 n, 120 Jt
90. The short-pitch winding for an alternator gives
!• improved waveform of the generated emf per phase
2. reduced value of self-inductance of the winding
3- increased rating of machine
4‘ educed tooth ripples
958
Jllectri<-al Machir
5. increased total generated emf
6. saving in winding copper
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 (6) 1, 2, 6 (c) 1, 2, 4, 6 (d) 1, 3, 4, 6
31. A 3-phase machine has integral slot winding with fundamental distribution factor k^. p0r
>
harmonics, the distribution factor is
| (Q) less than kffi (6) morethan k^i
lc) equal to Arfl (rf)depends upon the number of slots and poles
32. Consider the following statements :
1. breadth factor for third hannonic is more than that for fundamental k^i
2. krfs < /trfl
3. may be less or more than k depending upon the number of slots and poles
ww
4. coil-span factor for third harmonic kp3 > Apl (coil-span factor for fundamental)
5- Ap3<Api
(a) 2, 5
w.E
6. /tp3 may be less or more than kpl depending upon the number of slots and poles.
From these, the correct answer is
(6) 1, 4 (c) 3, 6 (d) 1, 3, 4, 6
asy
33. In order to minimise both fifth and seventh harmonics, the coil-span in three-ptase ac machines
must be
(a) 144°
5 En (b) ^th of pels pitch
eer
34. A synchronous machine has full-pitch coils having coil-span of 12 slots. For eliminating third
harmonic, the coil-span should be
■■ (a) 6 slots (6) 8 slots (c) 9 slots (d) 10 slots
1 ing
35. Machine A has 60° phase spread and machine B has 120° phase spread. Both the machines have
uniformly distributed winding. The ratio of distribution factors of machine A to machine B is
(a) 0.866 (b) 1.1 (c.) 1.55
36. The emf generated in an alternator depends upon
(d) 1.155
.ne
1. speed
3. series turnsper phase
5. coil-span
From these, the correct answer is
2. maximum flux per pole
4 . phase spread
6 . type of alternator t
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 (6) 1, 3, 4f 5
(c) 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 (d) I, 3, 4, 5, 6
37. A 3-phase alternator is wound with a 60 degree phase spread armature winding and devekps
300 kVA. If the armature is reconnected utilizing all the coils for single-phase operation with a
phase spread of 180 degree, the new rating of themaehine is.
(a) 100 kVA (6) 200 kVA (c) 250 kVA (d) 300 kVA
38. A 3-phase alternator is wound with a 60 degree phase-spread armature winding and develops
300 kVA. If the armature is reconnected utilising all the eoils for two-phase operation, the new
rating of the machine would be
(a) 282.8 kVA (b) 259.8 kVA (c) 200 kVA (d) 173.2 kVA
39. The armature of a single-phase alternator is completely wound with T single-turn cods di«'
tributed uniformly. The induced voltage in each turn is 2 V (rms). The emf of the whole wiadw£
is
(a) 2 T volts (6 ) 1.11 T volts (c) 1.414 T volts (d) 1.273 T volts [GATE,
Appendix—C
959
40. The armature of a star-connont j " ~ ----------------------- ------------------- ------------------------
N full-pitched turns. The g "ne“ j ‘te™ ator 18 “ "tformly wound with T coils, each coil having
(u lfw T v o l* (6 ) 4 VT 6 P6r C r 181 V ,rmSl The Per Pha38 emf is
“ n ( C ) = O T volts ( d ^ w r volts
41. A 6-pole alternator with 36 slot
by ® t 15“ ^ Winding factor “ JiJen by'Pha8e distributed windin8 « d is short-pitched
|a) T 7 T <*> (c) c o t l £ cot 15
42, The chortling angle for *!«_.- 2 6
(0) 30° 340 lnatmg 5th harmonics should be
43. I K ,. * , and B , are respectively t h e i r , (d) 3*°
generaW jneachphsss of a sfaw.J ! ^ ? 1? Woffundam4nt»l. and fifth harmonic voltages
{<*) 3 + £3 + alternator, then the line voltage is
(c) V3 (b) V3 ^ E 'i+ E $ + E (
ww
emf ia e , and output is P2 for a w i d ^ p ^ H ^ V 1?
(a) E i - E2 , Pl = 1.15 p2 H
“ “ ""w -sprcad, whereas phase
•Mere E h E2, P x and P2 are related as under :
(c) E2 = 1.15
w.E
; Pl = 1. 15p 2
f * ®* = ;
P1 = 1.15P2
= 1 1 5 Pi
(a) rectangular of amplitude —
(c) rectangular of amplitude Ni asy * * 118
^ trapezoidal of ^ P ^ u d e ^
(a)
*
. . . 120
(6) —Jt (c)
on
? ing
rrfx ^60
.ne
W V (d)
W t^ d a r n n d i^ e tX e e d
1 artaature mmf wave m a dc machine is triangular and
1- rotates with respect to stator
*• w stationary with respect to stator
3. rotates with respect to armature
18 stationary with respect to armature
960
ww 54. The fifth harmonic mmf wave, produced by 3-phase currents flowing in 3-phase balanced wind
ing, rotates with respect to the fundamental field {Ns = speed of fundamental mmf wave) at a
speed of
(Q) |
w.E
Ns (6) <c)f H. (d )^ N s
asy
55. The seventh harmonic mmf wave, produced by 3-phase currents flowing in 3-phase balanced
winding, rotates with respect to the fundamental field (Ns = speed of fundamental mmf wave)
at a speed of
1
G O ® *, (6) | W ,
En (c )| w , (d )| w .
gin
56. In a dc machine ; Z, P, Ia and a are respectively the number of conductors, number of poles,
armature current and number of parallel paths. The peak value of fundamental component of
armature mmf wave is
Z z eer
2P p
zing a
ww
5. synchronous motors is m kVA
From these, the correct statements are
6. dc generators is in kvA
(c) 1, 3, 4, 5
w.E
(6) 1, 2, 3, 4 (c) 2, 3, 4, 6 (d) 2, 3, 4
62. If 0 is the maximum value of flux due to any one phase, then resultant flux in 2-phase and
asy
3-phase ac machines would respectively be given by
(Q) 0m and 1-5 <)>m; both rotating
(&) 0m and 1.5 0m ; both stand still
0m •standstill and 1.5 <|>m rotating
(d) 1.5 tpm and 2<pW
I ; both rotating En
gin
I t o t^ fie T d Z d tto r “ eldmif meS' eleCtriCi" torqUe “ whcn • * "« "
(a) zero
(fe) equal to rotor speed eer
(c) equal and opposite to rotor speed
(d) dependent upon the type of electrical machine
ing
64. No-load rotational losses in electrical machines consist of
(a) Friction and windage (F and W) losses (fe) stator core, F and W losses
.ne
(c) rotor core, F and W losses (d) no-load core, F and W losses
65. Consider the following statements regarding efficiency of electrical machines :
1. Efficiency should be calculated by measuring output and input
2. Efficiency is maximum when constant losses = variable losses
t
3. Electrical machines are designed to have maximum efficiency at full load
4. Electrical machines are designed to have maximum efficiency at near about full load
5. Efficiency should be calculated by measuring the losses
6. Efficiency is maximum when constant losses =x (variable losses)
From these, the correct answer is
(g) 1, 3, 6 (6) 2, 4, 5 (c) 1, 2, 3 (d) 4, 5, 6
66. If P, be the iron loss and P0 be the ohmic loss on full load, then which of the following conditions
has to be satisfied to obtain maximum efficiency at 3 /4 full load ?
(a)P„ = 3 P ,/4 (fe) P„ = 4 P /3 (c)P0 = 16 P /9 (d) PQ= 9 P /1 6
67. For estimating the power rating of an electric derive, its losses can be considered to be proportional
to
(a) power (fe) (power)2 (c) (power)3 (d) torque
/ ' ■* ]
Rest
10 kW
Load : 20 kW
60 s
120 s
Duration : 120 s
c iuwuv* ------ *.
(b) 16.4 kW
(a) 20 kW (d) 15.81 kW
(c)
(c) 14.14
14.14 kW
kW temperature rise in one hour. Its heating
70. A machine attains a temperature rise of 60% ot its iina f
ww
to,ot is to,, and the stator ^ stator
turns per phase), then the rotor emf with A 2 as tne tolu f
winding factor and K „ - rotor winding factor), ;
w.E
(c) er = iV2 ((0 - cor) A„ir $ •sin (co - to,.) /
[I.A.S., 1997]
asy
72. In hydrogen-cooled synchronous machines
1 pressure inside the machine is more than atmospheric pressu
En
2.' pressure inside the machine is less than atmospheric pressure
3 heat-storing capacity of hydrogen is more than that ot air
gin
t f i ^ S T t h e m a c h i n e is minimised because hydrogen content is more than 70*.
ing
4’ an
73. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below
List I List II
.ne
A.
(Type o f load torque on motor)
continuous loads 1.
(Applications)
punch press t
2. sluice gates
B. pulsating loads
Codes: A B C D ■•-'y
.. ■. ;• ’r< •v; -
(a) 1 2 3 4
(*) 3 4 2 1
'j ; ' •
(c) 3 4 1 2
•4 ; ' .
id) 3 1 4 2
-■
- ■■
Appendix C 963
List I List II
5. pulsating torque
w.E
Use the following codes to choose the correct answer :
Codes. A B C D
(a)
(b)
asy
1 3 4 1
En
1 2 3 5
(c) 2 1 4 6
(d) 4 3
gin 1 2
76. Match the items in the left-side column with t
Power losses eer
A. No-load rotational loss
1. ing
Dependent upon
Square of load
B.
C.
Hysteresis and eddy-current losses
Brush contact loss
2.
3.
Rotor rotation
Value of flux .ne
D.
Ans. A
Stray load loss
B C -> ,
77. The sinusoidal distributed balanced 3-nhase
D —*
4. Load
t
balanced 3-phase currents : shown m Fig. C.59 are supplied with
iA = / msin ((o f-y 6)
5jc '
rB = / in sin
v
ic ~ Im sin (co* + yfc)
M ^ angular in start o* = | the value ef angular position 9 of the rotating m m [F with respect
to phase A axis will be
(a)
(6) V i
(c) Ve
w (d)O - f
(
7B' Sinusoidal distributed balanced 3-phase winding shown in Fia r an • ,
3-phase currents : wmmng snown in fig. C.60 is supplied with balanced
S c a n n e d Dy u a m bca n ne r www.EasyEngineering.net
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ifltlifiTliTl
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Electrical Mathi
964
V c
N. r
•Zy
c.s '
Fig. C.60.
Fig. C.59.
iB = / msin (tot - %)
ic = lm sin (tot + 5)F6)
The rotating mmf would be directed along the axis of phase C when tot equals
, . 2n id) f
ww <■ >!
w -f (C)T
79. Following are some of the properties of rotating electnca mac 1 ■
w.E
P Stator winding current isdc, rotor winding current isac
Q Stator winding current isac, rotor winding current isdc
R Stator winding current isac, rotor winding current isac
S Stator has salient poles and rotor has commutator
asy
T Rotor has salient poles and sliprings and stator is cyhndrica
U Both stator and rotor have polyphase windings
. « "w i • il ~ •
En
DC machines, synchronous machines and induction m achines exh ibit some of the above proper
n r m m ■h 1Cl S IP
j ■
DC machines
gin
Synchronous machines Induction machines
(a)
(b)
P. s
Q. U
Q.T
eer
P, T
R, U
R, S
(c) PS R, U
ing Q, T
.ne
R.S Q, U P.T
(d)
[GATE, 2003}
North pole_________
(a)
South pole_________
(M
North pole
(c)
Id) South pole
[GATE, 2003]
answ ers
1. (C) 2. (a)
6- (d) 3. (c)
7. (6) 4. (6) 5. (a)
11. (b) 8. [b)
12. (a) 9. (c) 10. id)
16. (b) 13. (c)
17. (6) 14. (d) 15. (d)
21. (d) 18. (6) 19. (c)
22. (d) 20. (c)
26. (a) 23. (a)
31.
36. ww
(c)
(6)
27. (d)
32. (a)
37. (6)
28. (d)
33. (c)
38. (a)
24. {b)
29. (d)
34. (fe)
25.
30.
35.
(a)
(6j
(<d)
41.
46.
51.
(a)
(6)
(d) w.E
42. (C)
47. (a)
52. (d)
43. (d)
48. (C)
5 3 . {b)
39. (d)
44.(6)
49. (d)
40.
45.
50.
(6)
(a)
[d)
56.
61.
66.
(d)
(d)
(c)
57. (a)
62. (a)
asy 58. (d)
63. (a)
54.(6)
59. (c)
64. (d)
55.
60.
(a)
(5)
En
67. (6) 68 . ( 6) 65. (5)
71. (c) 72. (d) 69. (c) 70.
73. (c) (a)
76. A - 2, B 74. (d)
gin
' 3, C -> 4, D 1. 77. (d) 75. (c)
80. (c) 78. (6) 79. (a)
eer
ing
.ne
t
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D.C. MACHINES
1. In dc machines, the armature windings are placed on ^ e r°t°r because of the necessity f0r
(a) electromechanical energy conversion development of torque
(c) commutation 1’
2. In dc machines, the fieldsystem has to be provided on stator unlike synchronous machine
wherein it could be on any member, because
(а) it reduces field structure iron losses
(б) it gives more uniform air-gap flux distribution
(c) commutator action is not possible otherwise
(d) dc machines are comparatively low rating machines. i . . - >96]
3. In dc machines, the space distribution of air-gap flux density wave at
(a) sinusoidal (c) co-sinusoidal (c) flat-topped (d) rectangular
ww 3. convert ac to dc
5. provide controlled full-wave rectification
From these, the correct answer is ^ ^ ^ # ^
’
^ 4 ,
w.E
5. In dc machines, the space waveform of the air-gap torque
$
asy
b7 h f t e UtlTueandVv o S e «D the voltage nor the torque
6. In dc machines, the field-flux axis and a rm atu m -m m f ^ s ^ r ^ v e ^ n g , ^
(a) direct axis and indirect axis
(c) quadrature axis and direct axis En quadrature axis and interpolar axis
W qu«*ui«i
7. The brush-axis of^a bipolar
• n dc j motor
gin
* is rotated kv
by qn°
Eb and the torque developed Td would be such that
yu . The
ine effect
enect of
ui this
u rotation on the back emf
ing
of 0 2 Q The current through the load will be .ne
(a) 3.33 A (6)23.33 A (cj 5 A (d) 1 A
t
9. Consider the following statements regarding the magnetization characteristics of a dc generate.
1 Tt rpnresents the variation of field flux with field current. r
2. Variation of open-circuit terminal voltage with field current is independent of speed
,
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— mjm A U tu iitu itS O tu m in'niiTift—i‘ ~4k^ “•1
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ww
(б) armature winding
(c) interpole winding
°
w.E
1. the field circuit is open to bmld up’ because
3. the residual magnetism is absent 2' th® armature circuit is open
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 3 only (&) j 3 asy 4' ^ direction of rotation is wrong
En
17. A dc shunt generator builds up 230 V whe V " 1* 4 . W) 2 and 3
“ wise dirccti“-
(■c) somewhat more than 230 V
*<■ »
gin ^ somewhat less than 230 V
f ; iven in
20* S,hUnt gGnerat0r having a shunt field of 50 £2 was generating normally at l nnn m
critical resistance of this machine was 80 £2. Due to some reason, the soeed^if tK •rpm' e
became such that the generator just failed to generate. 6 pnme' mover
The speed at that time must have been
(a) 1000 rpm (6) 800 rpm (c) 625 rpm [d) 500 rpm
21. A dc shunt generator, when commissioned after a major repair of the field system failed *■ u . j
up voltage. It was because ’
(a) field resistance was higher than critical resistance
(b) field system lost residual magnetism
(c) field winding was wrongly connected
(d) there was a break in the armature circuit
w
Electrical Machin.^
i 968
i
4 • j ■ ifo rat-pH sDeed. The no-load voltage across its armah,
22. A 230-V dc series generator is driven at its rated speea armature
i
terminals would be s01Tiewhat more than 230 V
(a) 230 V ° 6V
(c) somewhat less than 230 V 1
ww 25. In a dc machine, ,
1. physically, the brush axis is along the direct axis
2. physically, the brush axis is along the interpolar axis
w.E
3. schematically, the brush axis is along the direct axis
4. schematically, the brush axis is along the quadrature axis
5. armature mmf is directed along the brush axis
asy
From these, the correct statements are
(a) 1, 4, 5 (b) 1, 3, 5 (c) 2, 3, 5 (d) 2, 4, 5
26. The direction of generated emf in the armature coil of a dc machine is
En
1. the same as that of the current in a generator
2. the same as that of the current in a motor
gin
3. opposite to that of the current in a generator
4. opposite to that of the current in a motor
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 3 (b) 2, 3 (c) 2, 4
eer (d) 1, 4
27. The counter (or back) emf in a dc machine is
1. the same as generated emf in a dc motor
2. proportional to field flux and armature speed ing
3. not the same as generated emf in a dc motor
4. inversely proportional to field flux .ne
5. proportional to number of armature conductors
6. constant from no load to full load
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 2, 5 (b) 2, 4, 5, 6
t
(c) 2, 3, 6 (d) 3, 4, 5
Appen^r£__-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- -
30 A separately-excited dc motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 Q. It runs off a 250 V dc supply
’ drawing an armature current of 20 A at 1500 rpm. The torque developed for an armature current
of 10 A, for the same field current, will be
(a) 15.28 Nm (6) 15.92 Nm
(c) 15.6 Nm (dj 16.55 Nm
31. A bipolar dc machine with interpoles has a main-pole flux of (
j)per pole and an interpole flux of
0, per pole. The yoke of the machine is divided into four quadrants by the main-pole axis and
the commutation axis.
The flux-distribution in tbe quadrants will be
(c) g + ty) *n two diametrically opposite quadrants and ^ (tp - 0;) in the remaining two
ww
quadrants
w.E
(^) 2 ^ + ^ ^wo adjacent quadrants and — (0 - 0() in the remaining two quadrants
[/.A S ., 1996 ]
32. The residual magnetism of a self-excited dc generator is lost. To build up its emf again
(а) the field winding must be replaced
asy
(б) the armature connection must be reversed
(c) the field winding connection must be reversed
En
(d) field winding must be excited by low voltage dc supply [/AS 1993 ]
Kioctrica! Ma
970
Motion
‘ as Gen.
LEGEND
Flux density
Mmf
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig. C.63.
U.E.S., 19951
eer
39. In a loaded dc generator, if the brushes are given a shift from the interpolar axis in the direction
ing
orotation, then the commutation will
f
(a) improve with fall of terminal voltage V, (b) deteriorate with fall of V,
(c) improve with rise in V, «*> deteriorate with rise in V,
40. In a loaded dc motor, if the brushes are given a shift from the interpolar axis in
.ne t h e direction o
" r i " ^
(c) deteriorate and the speed falls
Wi"
t
<*> deteriorate and the speed rises
id) improve and the speed rises
41. In a dc machine, the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction is due to
(a) component of armature mmf along field axis
(b) non-sinusoidal nature of armature mmf
(c) magnetic saturation in half of the field pole [I.A.S-, ^
(id) uneven air-gap length
42. Which of the following factors improve commutation in a dc machine ?
1 High contact resistance of brushes
2. High inductance of the coils undergoing commutation o p p o s i t e directs
3. Shifting of brushes in the direction of rotation for a generator and in the opp
for a motor
4. Narrow width for the commutation bars.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
Codes :
(a) 1, 2, and 3 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (cf) 1, 2 and 4 the
43. In a dc generator operating on load with its brushes on the geometrical neutra
magnetic neutral axis (MNA) is shifted in the direction of rotation.
971
if the brushes are given a lead of 90° (electrical), then the MNA will
N - forward by 90° (6) shift forward by morethan 90r'
^ shift forward by less than 90° (d) coincide with the GNA II.A.S., 1996]
ml vnlt-ampere equation fora long-shunt compound motor is given by
* J ^ v ,= S . * I. r. (*) V, = + /„ (r„ +
(c) V, = Ea - I a ra (d)Vt = Ea + I ara + I L rs
Consider the following statements about commutating poles which are fitted on most large dc
shunt motors .
I The commutating poles are placed in the geometric neutral plane and their number is usually
equal to the number of main poles
2. The winding on the commutating poles is connected in series with the shunt-field winding
on the main poles
3. The polarity of the commutating pole must be that of the next pole further ahead
4. The commutating poles neutralize the reactance voltage produced in the coil undergoing
commutation.
ww
Of these statements,
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 2, 3 and 4 are correct
(b) 1 and 4are correct
(d) 1, 2 and 4 are correct
w.E
46. Consider the following statements :
Interpoles in dc machines
1.
2.
3. asy
reduce armature reaction effects in the interpolar region
have the same dimensions as main poles
have their windings connected inseries with the armature
4.
5.
En
have same number of turns asthe armature
have the polarity same as that of the main pole ahead in a motor
From these, the correct statements are
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (6) 1, 3 and 5 (c) 1, 2, 3 and 5gin (d) 1 and 3
47. Consider the following statements :
eer
1. Interpole windings are connected in series with armature winding
ing
2. Polarity of interpoles must be the same as that of the main poles in advance
3. Distortion of the main field under the pole shoes is not affected by the use of interpoles
.ne
From above, the correct answer is
(a) 1 and 2 (6) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 alone
t
48. The introduction of interpoles in between the main poles improves the performance of a dc
machine, because
(а) the interpoles produce additional flux to augment the developed torque
(б) the flux waveform is improved with reduction in harmonics
(c) the inequality of air-gap fluxon the top and bottom halves of the armature is removed
(d) a counter-emf is induced in the coil undergoing commutation (/.A.S., 1997]
49. In dc machines,
1- reactance voltage is proportional to armature current
2. reactance voltage is proportional to core length
3. reactance voltage is due to self-flux of the coil undergoing commutation
4. armature-cross flux is neutralized by interpolar flux
5. interpolar mmf is more than armature mmf in the interpolar zone
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (6) 1, 2, 5 (c) 2, 3, 4 (d) 1, 3, 5
The interpoles in dc machines have a tapering shape in order to
(а) reduce the overall weight
(б) reduce the saturation in the interpole
(c) economise on the material required for interpoles and their windings
(d) increase the acceleration of commutation
70. A 440 V dc shunt motor has a no-load (/„ = 0) speed of 2000 rpm. It is running at 1000 rpm at
full load torque, reduced armature voltage and full field, Ifload to^ u® " v a l u e s th e ^ 3^
value with armature voltage and field voltage held constan P armature r e n ^
increases to 1050 rpm. The armature voltage drop at full loa g ion
effect) is „v
(a) 16 V (6) 18 V (c) 20 V («) v
71. A dc series motor drawing an armature current of Ia is operating un er saturate magnetic
conditions. The torque developed in the motor is proportional to
ww
Find the ratio of stalling torque to the full-load torque when a resistance of 1 P. is connected in
series with the armature ,r . T„ fnrtoI
(a) 4 (6 ) 1 2 (c) 6 id) S [GATE, 1998|
w.E
74. If speed of a dc shunt motor is increased above its rated speed, then its counter emf
(a) increases
(c) remains unchanged
ib) decreases
id) first increases and then decreases
asy
75. A dc shunt motor drives a load torque at rated voltage and rated excitation. If the load torque
is doubled, the motor speed would
(a) increase slightly
(c) become half
En (6) decrease slightly
(d) become double
gin
76. A dc shunt motor is required to drive a constant power load at rated speed while drawing rated
armature current. Neglecting saturation and all machine losses, if both terminal voltage and the
field current of the machine are halved, then
eer
(а) the speed becomes 2 pu but armature current la remains at 1 pu
(б) the speed remains 1 pu but la becomes 2 pu
(c) both speed and la become 2 pu
(d) both speed and la remain at 1 pu ing
.ne
77. A dc shunt motor runs at a no-load speed of 1140 rpm. At full load, armature reaction weakens
the main flux by 5% whereas the armature circuit voltage drops by 10%. The motor full-load
speed in rpm is
(a) 1080
(c) 1000
(6) 1203
(d) 1200
t
78. A permanent-magnet dc commutator motor has a no-load speed of 6000 rpm when connected to
a 120 V dc supply. The armature resistance is 2.5 C2 and other losses may be neglected. The speed
of the motor with supply voltage of 60 V developing a torque 0.5 Nm is
(a) 3000 rpm (6) 2673 rpm
(c) 2836 rpm (d) 5346 rpm
79. A dc shunt motor has external resistance Ra and Rf in the armature and field circuits respec
tively. Armature current at starting can be reduced by keeping
(а) Rf maximum and Ra minimum
(б ) Ra maximum and Rf maximum
(c) Ra minimum and Rf minimum
(d) Ra maximum and Rf minimum
o u t f i n i e u u y u a m o u a i ii iei www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
Append* C_________________ __
ww
1, w « d -L e o n a r d ™ L o datin u ltobiegf lrdine the Sp8ed Contro1 of dc motors :
2. Ward-Leonard e for “ nstant-torque drives
w.E
asy
From these, the correct answer is constant-torque drives.
(a) 1 ,2 , 6 16) 1. 2 ,5
83. The lower limit of speed in a Ward Leonard En
(c) 1 , 4 ,6 Wl l n n
*1, a r ’ ’
.. .
U.E.S., 2001)
1. losses in both the machines
2. residual magnetism of the generator
gin
method of speed control is governed by
.ne
1. Normal voltage with no additional resistance in armature or field circuits
2. 50% normal voltage with no additional resistance in armature nr film • •
3. Normal voltage with a small external resistance in the armature circuit^f f
the armature resistance
1 t
rcuit ot a value equal to
4. Normal voltage with some additional resistance in the field circuit
Normal speed of the motor would increase in the sequence
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (5) 4t 3 ^ 2
(c) 2, 1 ,4 , 3 (d) 2, 3, 1 ,4
85. Consider the following statements :
To control the speed of a dc shunt motor above the base speed over a reasonahl m
motor m ust y Wlde ranSe- the
1. have compensating winding
2. have interpole winding
3. be started using a3-point starter
4. be started using a4-point starter
Of these statements
(a) 1, 2 and 4 are correct (6 ) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1 and 3 are correct (d) 2 and 4 are correct
A
L
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h www.EasyEngineering.net
86. A dc shunt motor delivers rated load power at rated speed. If motor terminal voltage is reduced
to half (neglect saturation and armature reaction), then
(a) speed oom, armature current la and motor torque Te remain constant
(6j co„, remains constant, both la and Te are doubled
(c) both u)m and Te remain constant, la is doubled
(d) both and Ia are doubled, Te remains constant
87. The field windings of a dc compound motor are connected in short-shunt configuration. If
series and shunt field windings are interchanged by mistake and the motor is connected to rated
voltage,
(a) series winding gets overloaded
lb) shunt winding gets overloaded
(c) both windings get overloaded
id) neither of the two windings gets overloaded
88. Read the following statements regarding dc motors :
1. Direction of rotation of a shunt motor can be reversed by interchanging its supply terminals
2. Additional resistance in the field circuit of a shunt motor decreases its speed
w.E
4. Direction of rotation of a shunt motor can also be reversed by interchanging its armature
terminals
5. A dc series motor should never be run at no load
ic) 3, 4, 5 asy
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 2, 3, 4 (6) 1, 3, 4, 5
(d) 1, 3, 4
En
89. A separately-excited dc generator feeds a dc shunt motor. If the load torque on the motor is
halved approximately
gin
[a) armature current of both motor and generator are halved
(b) armature current of motor is halved and that of generator is unaltered
eer
ic) armature current of generator is halved and that of motor is halved
(d) armature currents of both motor and generator are halved
ing
90. In a coal mine, Ward-Leonard method of speed control as shown in Fig. C.64 is used to lift the
coal from the pit through a crane and bucket arrangement. After lifting the coal to desired level
Z . T Z at
ne taken I Tthis ‘
I * 1stageduT nB gr0U"the
is to reverse d' the bucket has
.ne
be lowered into the pit. The action to
t
Fig. C.64.
(a) direction of current in F2 and slowly increase it
ib) current in F3 and slowly decrease it
ic) supply terminal of
id) direction of current in F x and slowly increase it
speed squared kpora'Tn motor *s unsaturated and the load torque is proportional to
limTcun-ent
line current will he
be P d ° f 4° ° ^ motor line current is 20 A. For a speed of 800 rpm, the
lix-
977
92. Take the normal values as unity, the approximate values of current and speed of a dc shunt
motor under the conditions of list 1 are given in list 2. Match the two lists and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists :
List 1 List 2
Armature Speed
Current
A. Terminal voltage halved, field current and load 1. 0.5 0.5
torque constant
B. Terminal voltage halved, field current and power 2. 1.0 0.5
output constant ‘
C. Field flux doubled, armature voltage and load 3. 2.0 0.5
torque constant
D. Field flux halved, armature voltage halved and 4. 2.0 1.0
power output constant
Codes:
ww (a)
A
1 3
B C
2
D
4 (b)
A
2
B
3
C
1
D
4
w.E
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 1 2 3 4
If the armature ot a ac motor is supplied from a constant current source, and its
constant voltage source, then the speed-torque characteristics of the motor will be
“s
“ r
asy "D
TD
Q>
/
/
T
3
a>
a
in
a
C
D
in
En d)
a / C
L
Torque Torque
gin /
Torque
(c)
1
T o rq u e
(d)
eer
(a) (b)
94. Match list I (dc motor) with List II (characteristics) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the lists :
List I ing List II
C-- •: .
96. The following lists relate to speed control of dc motors. Match List I and List II, and select a
correct answer using the codes given below the lists . ?
List I List 11
A. Armature voltage control 1- SPeeds above base sPeed
B. Field current control 2. Speeds below base speed
C. Use of diverter resistance 3. Poor motor efficiency
D. Rheostatic control 4- Speed control of series motor
Codes :
A B C D A B C D
1 2 3 4 (&) 2 1 4
(a) 3
(c) 4 1 3 2 (rf) 2 3 1 4
97. A 2-pole series motor with its two field coils connected in series runs at a speed of 500 rpm, if
the field coils are re-connected in parallel and assuming that the torque is constant and the
w.E
98. The function of a dc motor starter is to
(а) start the dc motor
(c) increase the starting torque
(6) limit the starting current
(rf) avoid dips in the supply voltage
En
(o) heavy sparking at all the studs as handle travels to OFF position
(б) dangerous sparking at the last stud as handle travels to OFF position
(c) dangerous to the operator due to heavy sparking
(rf) both (a) and (6).
gin
is required because
(а) the motor may stop at high speed eer
100. Three-point starter for dc shunt motor is not used where wide speed control above rated speed
979
^ d j* ^ . . ------------
^ -^ ^ ta rtin g torque is always more than the load torque
rthese statements
^ 1 2 3 and ® are correct
(o) 2’ 3 and 4 are correct
(M , ’and 4 are correct
j 3 and 4 are correct
(d) *’ “ 1/.A.S., 1995]
Which one of the figures given here best reorespnto - . • , ,
l04- ”^ e(J # with time during the starting of a dc shunt m to Vanatl° n m armature current 1 and
N ,
ww
w.E
asy
En
105. A dc shunt motor is started at no load a d >
After 5 hours of continuous no-load running
la) become somewhat more than 1000 mm gin
j
P“ 4
S n0ted 38 1000 rpm during winter,
d
(6) become somewhat less than 100 rpm
(c) remain 1000 rpm
eer
(d) reduce to 950 rpm
106 In dc machines, constant loss is composed of
ing
.ne
la) iron loss and mechanical loss
(6) friction, windage (FW) and iron loss and field circuit loss
(c) iron loss and field circuit loss
(d) FW and stray load loss
107. The efficiency of a dc shunt generator is maximum when
. ? af « t i c loss is equal to the mechanical loss
t
to) held ohmic loss is equal to the constant loss
(c) stray load loss is equal to the armature circuit loss
10R A )/ miatUre drCuit l0SS is e<*ual t0 the sum of no-load rotational loss and field circuit W
* rpRn gfenerat?r has an efficiency 90 % for an output voltage and current of 250 V a
spectwely. If this machine is made to operate at the same speed as a dc motor with 18 A
, ^ of 250 v and current of 18 A, the efficiency of the motor would be 30 mput
W y()% . Q, yy~
(C) 88.88% [d) 87.12%
• A 200 V dc shunt motor delivers an output of 17 kW with an input of 20 kW. The • a
resistance is 50 Q and the armature-circuit resistance is 0.04 £2. Maximum e ffic ie n c v '^ V ^
obtained when total armature ohmic losses are equal to 1
(a) 2632 W (b) 3000 W
(c) 3680 W (d) 5232 W
\ 980
- , , . ____ Qr,j their functions are given below :
110 The windings of a large dc series motor and tne
Functions
Winding
1. to avoid field distortion under the
A. series fieldwinding Pole
2. to avoid sparking
B. shunt fieldwinding
3. to generate working flux
C. commutating-pole winding
4. to avoid runaway speeds at no load
D. compensating winding
Select correct answer using the following code .
A B C
A B C D D
0b) 2 3 4
{a) 1 2 3 4 1
id) 3 4 2 1
(c) 3 4 1 2
111. A dc series motor fed from rated supply vo\tege f characteristic
its magnetic circuit is saturated. The speed- orq curve
ww
of this motor will be approximately represented y
of Fig. C.65.
(a) curve A (6) curve B
w.E
(c) curve C «*)
112. Consider the followingstatements :
curve D
asy
Torque
1. magnets on stator and armature on the rotor Fig. C.65.
2. magnets on rotor and armature on the stator
En
3. electronic commutation and no brushes
4. mechanical commutation and brushes
gin
5. automatic speed governors
Of these statements
(a) 1. 3 and 5 are correct w y ““ .
(c) 2, 3 and 5 are correct
eer «*) 1and 4 are correct
113. In Swinburne’s method of testing dc machines, the shunt machine is run as a
ing
(а) motor at no load at rated speed and rated voltage
(б) generator at no load at near rated speed andrated voltage
(c) generator at full load at rated speed and ratedvoltage
(d) generator at no load at rated speed and rated terminal voltage
.ne
t
114. In Hopkinson’s method of testing dc machines, the power taken from the mains has to supply
(a) the losses in the motor only
(b) the losses in both the machines
(c) the input to both the machines
(d) the input to motor and not to the generator
115. Two dc shunt machines are coupled mechanically and electrically. One dc machine is run
motor and the other as a generator. Their no-load rotational losses are equal because
1. their speeds are equal
2. their speeds and excitations are equal
3. generator iron losses are more than the motor iron losses
4. motor armature current is less than the generator armature current
5. motor has more stray load losses than those in the generator
From the above, the correctanswer is
(a) 1, 2, 3, 5 (b) 1, 2, 4,5 (c) 1, 2, 5 id) 1, 3, 5
116. In Hopkinson’s test on two dc shunt machines
1. armature currents of both the machines are equal
2. generator armature current is less than that in the motor
3. their speeds are equal
4. their field currents are equal
Appendix— C
981
5. stray load losses in motor are more than those in the generator
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 2, 3, 5 (i>) ! 3 g (c) 2 3 4 (</) j 3 4 5
117’ as^a penp" ? 8 m™ ? ines are mechanically coupled. One machine is run as a motor and the other
, . .,f\ r- ™ne iron and friction loss will be identical when
(a) their speeds are identical
ty.6'1" speeds ant* excitations are identical
td\ th *r spe^ sare eciual and back emfs are half of the supply voltage
e,r exatat-»°ns are equal and back emfs are half of the supply voltage
118. In Field's test on two series machines
generator field current is more than motor field current //„,
lfg = lfm
4 V ma*are v° ' taKe of generator Vtg is more than armature voltage of motor V,(lt
tg< fm
From these, the correct statements are
1, “
ww (e)2 ,4 (d) 2 ,3
MatCh LlSt 1 and Ust 11 and select the correct answer from the codes :
A. w.E List I
Voltage-drop test 1.
List 11
Efficiency
B.
C.
asy
Hopkinson’s test
Swinburne’s test
2. Separation of iron and friction losses
3 . Open and short-circuited armature coils
D.
Codes
Retardation test
En 4 Temperature rise
(a)
A
3
B
1
u
4
D
gin A B C n
eer
2 ib) 2 4 1 3
(c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 2 1 4 3
ing
A rotating am
(a) metadyne (6) amplidyne (c) regulax (d) rototrol
122. The polarity of the output voltage in a cross-field generator can be altered by
(а) reversing the direction of rotation
(б) reversing both the direction of rotation and field current
t
(c) reversing the direction of field current
(d) reversing either the direction of rotation or the field current
123. In a 2-pole cross-field generator,
1. there are 4-polar projections
2. there are only 2-polar projection
3. there are four interpoles
4. there are only two interpoles
5. the number of brushes = 4
6. the number of brushes may be 2 or 4
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 3’ 5 2 ! ? ’ 1’ r
ic) 1, 4, 5 4’ 6
124. Typical characteristics of a dc series motor ° ^ ratinf
under loaded condition, are shown in g. • • ®
gives the identification of these characteristics, while
982
, . T, . ‘™UCll
1S f,r|VCS 110 t,C8cnPtion of important load characteristics of dc motor working on l0ad
List I
List II
(see figure, curves labelled)
A.
A ... 1.
B. Efficiency Vs load
B ... 2.
C. Torque Vs load
C... 3. Current Vs load
,, 4.
*• Speed Vs load
Codes -J,S WlL 1 lKt 11 and SCl0Cl th° correct ansvver usinB the codes given below
A II C A B
(«) 4 C
2 3 ib) 2 3
(c) 3 1
2 1 id) 4 1 2
125. In a dc machine, reactance voltage
ww
2 is th e tm n o f on f° hcl,f' incluct'anco o f thc coil undergoing commutation
finldnf n fs !nduced^ sulf and mutual fluxes
w.E
linking the coil undergoing commutation +j,
3. causes delayed commutation
asy
5. can be compensated by voltage commutation
From these, the correct statements are
S 2 3 \
( ) 2’ 3' 5 En
(b) 2) 3>4
(d) 2, 3, 4, 5 r -
126. Commutation characteristics of dc machines are shown
in Tig C.67. Match List I with List II and select the gin Commutation
time
Fig. C.67.
correct answer by using the codes given below :
List I eer List II
A.
B.
Resistance commutation
Delayed commutation ing
1. straight line 1
.ne
2. curve 2
C. Linear commutation 3. curve 3
D.
C odes:
Accelerated commutation
A B C D
4. curve 4
A B
t C D
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 3 2 4 1
ic) 4 1 3 2 0d) 4
2 3 1
127. The speed-torque regimes in a dc mot
respectively in Group II and Group I
Group / Group II
P. Field control 1. Below base speed
Q. Armature control 2. Above base speed
3. Above base torque
4.
4. Below
oeiow base
Dase torque
torque
The match between the control method and the speed/torque regime is as follows : .
(a) P-l ; Q-3 (b) P-2 ; Q -l (c) P-2 ; Q-3 (d) P-l ; Q-4 [GATE, 20031
ipdix— 983
AP|*
l2g. To eondhLic1; load test on a dc shunt motor, it is coupled to a generator which is identical to the
^ ^ tu r e of the ° ^enerator is also connected to the same supply source as the motor. The
Armature reaction*161? 1* * is connected to a load resistance. The armature resistance is 0.02 pu.
the load resistance3 mechanical losses can be neglected. With rated voltage across the motor,
motor and generatorTT|SS the generator is adjusted to obtain rated armature current in both
jo <5 /0 qq p u- value of this load resistance is
129. A dc series motor drivi “ , « 096 <d> 0 94 IGATE. 2003\
speed and rated voltage If th ctnc train ^aces a constant power load. It is running at rated
be approximately broueht a speed has to be brought down to 0.25, the supply voltage has to
(a) 0.75 p.u. (fe)0g5 p uOWnto, '
(c) 0.25 p.u. (d) 0.125 p.u. bGATE, 2003]
1. c) a n sw e r s
2. c)
6. b) 7. 3. (c) 4. (a)
d) 5. {d)
ww
11. b) 12. 8. (c)
c) 9- (a) 10. (6 )
16. c) 17. 13. (6)
d) 14. (6) 15, (a)
21. b) 18. (c)
22. d) 19. (c) 20. (c)
26.
31.
36.
d)
c)
d) w.E
27.
32.
37.
a)
d)
a)
23. (b)
28. (c)
33. (d)
38. (c)
24. (b)
29. (c)
34. (c)
25. (a)
30. (a)
35. (a)
asy
41. c) 42. 39. (a)
b) 43. (d) 40. (c)
46. d) 47. 44. (6)
c) 48. (d) 45. (b)
51. d) 52. 49. (fc)
a)
En
56. 53. (a) 50. (b)
a) 57. b) 54. (6)
61. 58. (c) 55. (d)
c) 62. a) 59. (C)
63. (d) 60. (d)
gin
66. a) 67. 64. (c)
b) 68. (d) 65. (6)
71. d) 72. 69. (d)
b) 73. (a) 70. (d)
76. b) 77. 74. (c)
eer
a) 78. lb) 75. (6)
81. c) 82. 79. (d)
a) 83. (c) 80. (b)
86. C) 87. 84. (d)
d) 88. (c) 8 5 .(a)
ing
91. C) 92. 89. (a)
b) 93. (b) 90. (a)
96. b) 97. 94. (6)
d) 98. (a) 95. (c)
101. d) 99. (b)
102.
.ne
a) 103. (a) 100. (a)
106. b) 107. 104. (6)
d) 108. (c) 10 5 .(a)
111. b) 109, (a)
112. d) 113. (d) HO. (d)
t
116. a) 114. (6)
117. b) 118. (c) 115. (d)
121. c) 119. (c) 120. (a)
122. c) 123. (a)
126. d) 124. (rf) 125. (c)
127. b) 128. (c) 129. (6)
i b
I .i '
✓
VTSUM l
(a) 2, 5
w.E
5. rotating at Ns in the direction ofrotor rotation
From these, the correct answer is
(b) 1, 4, 5 (c)2, 3, 4 (<d) 2, 4 ,5
asy
3. The maximum possible speeds in rpm at which an alternator can be driven to generate voltages
at 60 Hz and 50 Hz are respectively:
(a) 2000, 2400 (b) 3000, 3600
En
(c)2400, 2000 (d)3600, 3000
4. Two mechanically-coupled alternators deliver power at 50 Hz and 60 Hz respectively. 'Hie
highest speed ofthe alternators is
(a) 3600 rpm (6 ) 3000 rpm (c)600 rpm gin
(d) 500 rpm
_ .
List I
-
eer
5. Match List Iwith List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
r 7 T
List II
ing
[Parts of a turbogenerator used in [ Materials from which these parts are made ]
thermal power plants ]
A. Stator core 1. Copper
B.
C.
Rotor core
Stator windings
2.
3.
Copper alloy
Silicon steel .ne
D.
Codes:
Slip rings 4.
5.
Mild steel
Aluminium t
A B C D
A B c D
ib) 4 5 1 2
(a) 3 5 2 1
id) 3 4 1 2
(c) 4 3 1 2
6. Consider the following statements :
The synchronous generators used in thermal power stations have
1. cylindrical rotors 2. slip rings and brushes
3. laminated rotor 4. stator slots in multip e o
5. 3-phase star-connected stator windings
Which of these statements are correct ?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (&) 2>3 and 5
(c) 3 ,4 and 5 id) 1 ,2 ,4 and 5 .pow er
7. The most appropriate speeds in rpm of generators used in thermal, nuclear an y
plants would respectively be
(a) 3000, 300 and 150 (b) 3000, 3000 and 300
(c) 1500, 1500 and 3000 {d) 1000, 900 and 750
g in a synchronous generator operating at zero power factor lagging, the effect of armature reaction
is
(o) magnetizing (6) demagnetizing
(C) cross-magnetizing (d) both magnetizing and cross-magnetizing
[I.AS., 1995]
9. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists :
List I List II
(Load pf) (Nature of armature flux in an alternator)
A. Zero leading
1. Demagnetizing
B. Unity
2. Magnetizing
C. Zero lagging
3. Cross-magnetizing
D. Zero with armature terminals suddenly 4. Initially constant, demagnetizing
short-circuited ’
C odes:
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w.E
A B c D A B C D
(o) 1 2 4 3 ib) 2 3 1 4
(c) 4 3 1 2 (d) 2 1 3 4
asy
10. Open circuit (oc) and short-circuit (sc) tests on an AC generator are conducted under which of
[I.A.S., 1996]
gin
2. oc test at reduced flux and sc test at reduced current
3. oc test at zero armature current and sc test at reduced flux
4. oc test at zero current and sc test at nominal flux
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
eer
C o d e s:
(a) 1 and 3 (6 ) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 4
ing
(d) 2 and 4
11. The zero-power-factor characteristic for the Potier diagram can be obtained by loading the
alternator using
.ne
t
(a) lamp load (6) synchronous motor
(c) water load (d) dc motor
12. Match List I (methods of full-load regulation of 25 MVA alternator at 0.8 pf lagging) with List
II (% regulation) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I List II
A. emf 1. 13%
B. mmf 2. 18%
C. zpf 3. 32%
C o d e s:
B C A B
A
(a) 1 2 (b) 1 3
3
1 1(d) 2
(c) 2 3
13. Read the following statements about a cylindrical-rotor alternator .
1. Emf generated by armature reaction mmf lags armature current by
2. Armature reaction -due to intermediate lagging pf is partly cross-magnetizing and partly
magnetizing
3. Air-gap voltage leads terminal voltage
4. Air-gap voltage lags the field flux by 90° ^
5. Armature reaction mmf lags the field flux by (90 internal pf angle)
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»1
From these, the correct answer is „ . c
(a) 1, 2, 3, 5 (6) 1, 3, 5 (c) 2, 3, 5 («) '
14. The power factor of an alternator under short circuit conditions is almost near
(а) zero leading
(б) zero lagging
(d) zero leading or zero lagging depending upon the type of alternator
15. Consider the following statements regarding synchronous machines .
1. In an alternator, armature mmf leads the field flux
2. In an alternator, airogap flux lags the field flux
3. In a synchronous motor, armature mmf leads the field flux
4. In a synchronous motor, air-gap mmf lags the armature m m f
5. In an alternator, field flux lags the armature current.
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 2, 3, 4 ib) 1, 3, 4 (c) 2, 3, 4, 5 (d) 1, 3, 4, 5
ww
16. In a 3-phase cylindrical-rotor alternator,
(а) field mmf leads the air-gap flux and air-gap flux leads the armature
(б) the armature mmf leads the air-gap flux and the air-gap flux leads the field flux
w.E
(c) the armature mmf leads the air-gap flux and the air-gap flux lags the field flux
(d) field m m f leads the air-gap flux and air-gap flux lags the armature mmf.
17. Read the following statements about a cylindrical-rotor alternator .
asy
1. Armature reaction mmf due to 0.8 lagging pf current is partly cross-magnetizing and partly
demagnetizing
En
2. the field poles lead the resultant air-gap flux
gin
3. the field poles have a tendency to go away from the resultant air-gap flux
4. terminal voltage lags the field flux by 90+ 5.
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 2, 4 (b) 1, 2, 3, 4 (c) 2, 3, 4 eer (d ) 1, 3, 4
18. Potier reactance of an alternator is almost the same as
(a) Field winding reactance ing
(6) total armature reactance
(c) leakage reactance of field winding (d) armature leakage reactance
19. Which one of the following methods would give a higher than actual value of regulation of an .ne
alternator:
(a) zpf method
(c) E m f method
(b) m m f method
(d ) A SA method
t
20. The four methods of calculating voltage regulation of a 3-phase alternator are :
1. E m f method
2. Saturated synchronous reactance method
3. New ASA method
4. M m f method
The correct sequence of the ascending order o f the values of regulation obtained by these methods
is
(a) 3, 4, 2 ,1 ( 6 ) 4 ,3 , 1 ,2 (c) 3, 4, 1, 2 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1
21. The flux per pole in a synchronous motor with the field circuit O N and the stator d i s c o n n e c t e d
* ,e 8uPPly is found to be 25 mWb. W hen the stator is connected to the rated supply w1
motor ic excit? tlon unchanged, the flux per pole in the machine is found to be 20 mWb w bie v
the motor^ronTthe^up ‘^ssum *n£ no*load losses to be zero, the no-load current drawn
(a) lags the supply voltaee f
.
. I■
(0 is in phase with the supply voltage ?2 ^ SUPPly ^
V ‘ r j vuiLage (d) 1S zero
P p ; ii iL/U
OCui ■ uy wui i ixJL-ui ii iVyi ’ "
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ht www.EasyEngineering.net
:-C
APF(cndix
- --------------------------------— - - vt
22 . A 3-phase alternator d e W ™ ! ~ ' ~
is observed that the open- ' ^.ower t° a balanced 3-phase load of power factor 0.707 lagging. It
15°. Neglecting the e f f ^e nc? 1^
effect t c mf Phasor
cm^ P^asor leads the corresponding terminal voltage phasor by
f? -.!a
the axis of armature m m r...M ,rmon^cs» the angle between the axis of the main-field m m f and
,,rmonics>
(o) 30° electrical W,U be
(c) 90° electrical (fe) 60° electrical
ww
(d) cannot be predicted due to in*, «- •
25. In a 3-phase cylindrical-,- * nsufricieat data.
1. effect of armature r e a c U o n T "?^ 0110113 machiae :
..........
ATE’ 1993]
w.E
2. synchronous reactance is ^ ° f by ma^ t i z i n g reactance
(c) 3’ 4
En (fe) 2, 3
(rf) 1,
1, 3,
3, 4
gin
26. The full-load voltage regulation r i (rf) 4
- - e d speed o f
(a) less than 6%
^ 6% eer(&) more than 6%
(assuming negligible
» ) load S &
(c) load angle
= S^ h t o ~ S S » ace L i e
= 90°er Power'Pacl ° r angle
m“ m“ m ^ r
.ne
output when
$ o f PU (6) 0.20 pu
3D ' pu (d) 0.24 pu
98 8 Metrical
resistance. With the machine initially running at rated speed and terminal voltage of i .q _
3-phase short circuit is applied. The sustained armature curren wi e »a
(a) 1.25 pu (b) 1.11 pu (c) 1.0 pu W 0 9 Pu
32. A synchronous generator with synchronous reactance of 1.3 pu is connected to an infinite bo*
whose voltage is 1 pu, through an equivalent reactance o . pu. or maximum output of
pu, the alternator emf must be _
(a) 1.5 pu (b) 1.56 pu (c) 1.8 pu W) 2 5 Pu
33. Consider the following statements for a 3-phase alternator designed to operate at pf 0.85 :
1. For pf > 0.85 lag, armature heating is the limiting factor.
2. For pf > 0.85 lag, rotor-field heating is the limiting factor.
3. For pf < 0.85 lag, armature heating is the limiting factor.
4. For pf < 0.85 lag, rotor-field heating is the limiting factor.
From these, the correct statements are
(a) 1 ,3 ( 6 ) 1 ,4 (0 2 ,3 (d) 2>4
ww
34. Consider the following statements :
Modern alternators are designed for large air gap to have
w.E
1. large inherent regulation
2. very stable parallel operation
asy
3. higher stability limit
4. sinusoidal mmf distribution
(b) 2, 3 and 4
En
Which of these statements are correct ?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 id) 1, 3 and 4
gin
35. A single-phase, 2000 V alternator has armature resistance and reactance of 0.8 £2 and 4 94Q
respectively. The voltage regulation of the alternator at 100 A load at 0.8 leading power factor
h
3. In a SPSM, (j)a is in phase with Ia
4. In a CRSM, «(>a lags Ia
5. In a SPSM, <|>a lags Fa
From these, the correct statements are
(o) 1 ,2 and 3 . ( « 2>4 an<J J
(c) 1, 2 and 4 W 1, 2 and 5 leakage
38. A 3-phase cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator, with its armature r e s is t a n c e ^ ^ kept
reactance being neglected, is synchronized to an infinite bus and its e ghaft®0
constant thereafter. New the machine ia loaded by supplying mechanical mp uid be
that the load angle 8 reaches a value of 60°. Under this condtion, the opera ing P
(a) 0.866 leading (6) 0.866 lagging
(c) 0.5 leading (d ) 0.5 lagging
f %' JIHAMByaunM^ u ... ________________ _ • -• ii■ niiiwn —i. ■i i « .tern: »■".. 'ii
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-------------- — _ 989
*9. A 100 MW water-turbiiip i«,„ i j .. . . ~ ..... .........
operation. The losses of the ° ? to 12^ MVA, 3-phase alternator rated for 0.8 lagging power-factor
factor lagging, consider ttha
h er ^no n)a^or
l f ^ ^ are negligible.
negligil For delivering a load of 90 MW at 0.5 power
, Lne following statement-?
efoUoW,"Bstatem ent,:• '
1. The set cannot deliver the load '
ww
(d) motor and operating at a lagging pf
41. A star-connected svnrhmnn, Terminal vo ltage
pedance of 0 + j
w.E
201A at 400 V. Its excitation emf is&
(а) 400 + j ^3 x 100
haS ^nchronous im-
pf leading of
Fig. C.69.
^
(б) mt
(h\ t t ; f" a vcc dna^, stator
rotor Stat” =mmfr wave
“ -nf wave
En
achine op6ratins &oma “ v°,tase tus' is usu°uy
to stator1mz " : z a: n
« ) stator mmf wave and
^ i T dr ity wave
gin
41 a o u w**ve ana resultant mmf wave
A o-phase synchronous motor with neeliribl. i„ •
eer KATE, 1
of
of
tho
o7thC
the
the
™ b
e°m
motor
J motor
•rT inal ™Ultage
tantis designated
n , .s UCblgnatea
ltage
aa Bf
designated as
v«- Tae induced emf
V-
t? if 4-v.
Ef. If,he
.
If the motor is now ,
ing
mVS C0“ neCted t0 SU» ^
,
- t e d frequency
"
(
I eater than V, phasor and also lead Vr phasor
less than Vr phasor and also lag ^-phasor
ai
o
o
□ 10
> O
>
0 c
t
c o
^ eater than Vf-phasor
't andcuso
ailu alsomg
lag vr
Vrphasor
phasor E
a
. Ffcr P nn j *» _ <u
*-* u
* S te d 9 7°bdepiCf S the bad characteristics of an iso- X
D (U
Mat,h Th asr alternator’ " “ “ k g at constant speed. Cl
V
O
withTh sete of operating conditions
™ the given characteristics. Disregard the effects
i saliency, saturation and stator resistance 1-0
P o stator current
M ^ ° nstant excitation and non-zero leading pf
{ p 0nstant excitation and zero pf, leading Fig. C.70.
ic Constant terminal voltage and zero pf, leading
} Lonstant terminal voltage and non-zero leading pf
Ans. a ,b , d->
[GATE, 1992]
^C£
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w.E
which is the phase angle between the excitation omf end the curront jn the l.ime-plianor diagram,
is vj/, then the air-gap excitation mmf lags tlic armature mini >y
(a)V (6 )| + V (e)f-v ‘b m w m s j
asy
50. A 3-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz, synchronous motor is operating with a load angle 25", If load on the
En
motor is doubled, keeping other parameters constant, the now load angle will be
(a) 50° (b) 51.5° (c) 53.4° (cl) 57.7°
Appendix-C
54 it ^i^operatea^ (as1116 ^ fl° ating ° n an infinite bus at no load- If its excitation is varied, then
ww
Prom these, the correct answer is
<« Er ™ * - £
w.E
faHSreinfi - ad aagle’ 6 ™ f 4 g i r aCnhj"a ‘Si , '! liVen" g 3 C° nStant load' When its agitation is
£ ? and '• aia 9 = ™ S f Ure C,rCmt tba"
(r) E f cos 5 = constant ""n
asy 008 0 = “ oMant
eer
M) 90 - ip
ing
^ " ' t ^ ? , ~ r 81 “ l0ad “ “ " U" i t y ^ — ion
fa) 4, 4, 6
Fromthese, the correct answer is
(6)1, 2, 5 fa) 2 , c .ne
’ ab8° rber »f reactive power
-
59. Which of the following limit th„
1. Armature current
3. Load angle
: ' Wl 3' “ ■6
1 the reactive power output.of a synchronous generat ,
2. Field current erator ?
t
Select the correct answer using the codes given below 4' Plim<!" ’MVer inPu‘
Codes:
V . , ■"
I
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Electrical Machl
992 ------------------------
ww
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 2, 4 (b) 3, 4, 5 (O 2, 4, 5
. „
<tf> 1. 2, 4, 6
w.E
64. Consider the following statements : i&Qj i riCT ro n rtW nnwer to the hn<?
1. A grid-connected induction generator always supplies leading reactive power to the bus
2. An overexcited synchronous motor draws current at a laggmg p .
asy
3. An underexcited synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus works at a leading pf
4. The torque angle of a synchronous machine is the angle between the excitation voltage and
En
the gap voltage •
O f these statements :
(a) 1 and 2 are correct
Ic) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
gin «>> 3 and 4 are c0Irect
(d) 1. 2, 3 and 4 are correct \
eer
65. A cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine operates as a
1. generator at lagging pf if (Ef cos 5 + 70 r0 cos 0) > V*
ing
2. generator at leading pf if (Ef cos 5 - l a ra cos 0) < Vt
3. motor at leading pf if (EfCos 8 + Iara cos 0) > Vt
4. motor at unity pf if (EfCos 8 - I a ra cos 0) = Vt
.ne
5. generator and also generating reactive power if {Ef cos 8 - I a ra cos 0) > Vt
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 3, 4 {b) 2, 3, 5 (c) 2, 3, 4 {d) 1, 3, 5.
t
66. The two-reaction phasor diagram of a salient-pole synchronous generator is considered, where
7a = armature current per phase,
= armature leakage reactance per phase
Xd = cf-axis synchronous reactance, _
Xg = q-axis synchronous reactance ,
Vt = generator terminal voltage, taken as reference
The voltage in phase with quadrature axis will be the phasor sum of
ww
m°nic terms, because"80^
w.E
harmonics harm° niC C° mp° nent
71. In salient-pole machin el^ tan°e of air gap in the direct and quadrature axes.
t\ 3 3 : : i asy
b K P * is not kept constant s° - to
En
72 *^ 1 1 1
gin
eer
3 Are" 4
4i A ^ " S e 7 i r ge r e X ^ d i0n
V f
"F ™
ing
age reaCtanCe and armatUre reaCti0n mmf Ca“ be C0mputed from « *
"y * " pf ’— «*
oni
5. M
armature w
° n f PfC ■
f a i ”
• 6 rCaCt,° ” mmf C“ ^ ° btained
.ne
“ » and tw.
* * 1 r“ted armat“ re <wrent during short-circuit test ia equal t
■£ £ £ * * *
Electrical M
994 _____________________
(b) delivering reactive power to the bus at laS f ^ pf f
(c) absorbing reactive power from the bus a pf
(,d) absorbing reactive power from the u ^^ working at half-full load. Ifan
76. Asyncnronous
synchronousggenerator,
e n e connected
i arinatuIe current, then the generator is
- ~toan, armature
. •
in i.ts f
/i
-e ____ ______
iltd current _
causes a ro^nrhnn
n reduction 1m11Xil6
thes clfixi
(аa) delivering
deliveringreactive
reactivepower
poweruto
u Lithe
i<= bus iaffging. pff
(б )delivering reactive power to the bus S f
(c) absorbing reactive power from the bu pf
(cf) absorbing reactive power from e ^ angle 0f 2 0 = and with excitation voltage
77. A 3-phase synchronous motor is operatinga din terms 0fexcitation voltage willbe
' equal to applied voltage. The reactance d^p ^
s y n c h r o n o u s
ww
(c) 5 increases but 6 decreases
(d) 8 decreases but 0 increases infinite bus is overexcited. Considering only the
79. A synchronous generator connected svstem the machine acts as
, w.E
reactive power, from the point ofview ofthe sys
(a) a capacitor (fe) an inductor (c) a resistor
U
,
W as tu, cire
inad anele 5 can be obtained from a knowiedge of[0 = pf
80. In a salient-pole synchronous machine, load ang
j
angle and ra = 0]
( \ \T J Y
(a) VitIa,X d,Q
A
asy j? T X B
<c> V„ Xd, Xq,0
En W)«’
81. A salient-pole synchronous generator delivers about 20% ofrated power to an infinite bus. IfUs
I
84. Under the conditions ofmaximum active power output, in a round-rotor alternator, the reactive
power output is
3 V ,E f 3 Ef 3Vf , 3 V?
As (M -V
As- W - VA s- .A5
85. Under the conditions of maximum load on a cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor, the reach?
power input to the motor is
3 Vt Ef 3Ef 3 V? , , 3 if
(a ) f t (fe )--/ , {d)-==±-
86. In modern large sized synchronous machines, the synchronous impedance and operating
angle are respectively -
. (a) 0 .2,40° (fe) 0.6, 30° (c) 1 ,4 0 ° (d) 0 .5 ,4 0 ° . . ^
Appendix-C
" ” I ‘ 995
87. Lists I and II pertain to th :----------------- --------------------------- -—
the two lists using the c o d w ^ e n ™ fa w a T u ste 16 aynChr°n0US machine at rated sP“ d- Match
List 1 - -
(from the phasor diagram) List 11
A. Vt cos 8 < Ef (Operating as)
3. generator at leading pf
Codes : 4. motor at leading pf
112 3,4 A B
(C) 2’ 3 1, 4 1, 3 2, 4
88. A cylindrical-rotor svnchrnnA, {d) 2- 4 2 3
ww
to) no“ S eS' U 18 SWitChed 0n 10 the its field windings shorted
*r i S t “
asyr suUd ^ p o s i^
eer
ing
(c) torque aiding the developed torque
92. Damper winding is provided in a polyphase svnch
S eddy' current torque
“° * * * * .ne
1. dampen out the noise of the machine
2. prevent hunting
3. provide a starting torque
m0t° r “ ordBr *°
t
4. provide a cylindrical stmctnre to reduce wind friction
rom these, the correct answer is
(a) 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (<f) 2 and 3
• synchronous motor is running from an infinite bus of voltage V, in + *
of its rated load with a power angle 8Xbetween Vx and
ecreased to 25%. ^ a tta in s its new steady-state power angle 83 with Vx by initially “
(a) falling behind and making a complete rotation
Co) advancing and making a complete rotation
(c) falling behind, followed by oscillation about 82
(d) advancing, followed by oscillation about 82
®4. A 3-phase synchronous motor connected to an infinite bus is operating at half full-load with
normal excitation. When the load on synchronous motor is suddenly increased
(a) its speed will first decrease and then become synchronous
(b) its speed will first increase and then becom e syn ^ en become synchronous
(c) its speed will fluctuate around synchronous sP
(d) its speed will remain unchanged ^ ^
95. In synchronous machines, damper windings are ^ run it as an induction motor
1. help in starting the motor 4 increase efficiency
3. help in reducing the hunting ^ subsynchronous speed
5. provide induction motor torque „ OT.SVnchronous speed
6. provide induction motor torque at sup
From these, the correct statements are (6) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
(a) 1, 3, 5, 6 (d) 1, 3, 5
(c) 2’ 3- 6 v • fn
96. Function of damper bars in a s^ chf f a0Ul ^ C Jg gpeed 'Stator
(а) prevent rotor from running at subsyn speed
(б ) prevent rotor from running at supersynchronous , speea
(c) prevent rotor from running at sync^ n0US£fP®® noint
(d) reduce the rotor oscillations about the operating p Rotor
ww
97. A synchronous motor h a v i n g ^
slows down to 1490 rpm ----------------- bar<? fz
w.E
Assuming a south pole on the stator near the damper Da
labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4 aa shown in Fig. C.71, the dtreotion of ■F3
\ J
induced force on conductor 3 is
i.d)FA
(a) F x (b) F2
asy (c) Fs
98. A salient-pole synchronous motor is running with normal ex Fig. C.71.
En
citation. If the excitation is reduced to zero . .
(a) it becomes an induction motor & »t becomes a reluctance motor
(c) it remains a synchronous motor (d) the motor would stop [I.A.S., 1995]
ing
100. A salient-pole synchronous motor is running clockwise at no load. I f its field current is reduced
to zero and then reversed, then
(a) the motor would stop
(&) the motor would run in the reversed direction
.ne
(c) the rotor slips by one pole-pitch and continues running at synchronous speed
(d) the rotor slips by one pole-pitch and speed would be less than synchronous speed
t
101. A salient-pole synchronous motor runs under steady-state conditions at no load with armature
current Ia. If the field circuit gets open-circuited, then
(а) the motor stops and Ia becomes very high
(б) it continues to run at the same speed and Ia increases
(c) it continues to run at the same speed and Ia decreases
(d) it runs at a slower speed as an induction motor and I„ increases.
102. A single-3-phase alternator in the laboratory is not run at synchronous speed. It would produce
no effect on its
(a) occ ,, v
/vi „ . (o) see
<c) occ and see , .v „ -
, oq ... W) z Pic
and the tranffn ? ° wf r MW 0.8 pf, ratings of alternator, its prime-mover, boiler
(I) inn Mu, f o rmershouIdresPectivelybe
(b) m 1? ^ MVA> 125 MA, 125 MVA
(o) 125 MVA, 100 MW, 100 M W 125 MVA
A P £2!!i£----------------_ _ _ _ _ _ 997
t 04. An isolated 3-phase altamof j ,■
a field current of 20 A. ^ 8^ Pf rated load at terminal voltaf?e Vf = 11 kV for
0.8 pf lag and 0 8 nf la r mamta:n*RE constant Vt, the field current required for rated loads of
(a) > 20 A, < 20 A WOuld resPectively be
(c) < 20 A, < 20 A (b) > 20 A, > 20 A
105. The name plate of an alte t * ^ < 2° A> > 20 A
(a) lagging so that exdtatio™emfFndir tea 3n °Perating Pf of 0.85. The nature of this pf is
(b) lagging so that £,-> v Q j . ^ Hninal voltage Vt and alternator absorbs reactive power Q
(0 leading a„ that fi'< V “ a ? ™ t° tdelivere «
fa) leading s0 that E, < v and ai*ernator absorbs Q
106. A synchronous motor and an ^ 9
Pfl If these machines are loaded trrJlwr1* arf delivering about 5% of their rated power at unity
fa decrease, motor operates a U CP acit* tiea armature currents
(W.increase, motor operates at a W P C r e a to r at leading pf
ww
W) £ £ £ 2 , r° r atet at
>»’ ■ £ alterar : ;
S ' ^ a“ emat0r St laBgi" B Pf
pf a"d - - a t o r at .ending pf
w.E
fa)6/ MtCsatIOn em f£f ' 3 respectively givenbv sallent‘Pole *yPe are operating at leading pfs.
asy
(ci v . “ 9 XdId, Vt cos 8 + Inr + y , /
VO V , COS 8 - r / _ V r T, «. *ara +Ad 7d
17
V
WJ V,
VjcosS
cP* 9 yd
9 d w COS
cos 8o_ + r 77«7++ Ad/
+ r Y
V Tr
cos 8 + r 7/ _- X r rr
\r * ° 1q+JLdid d
... „ ° <? Ad 4cf> V, cos 8 - r 7 -t- y r
fa)PC U to determine * ‘
En
S P7 Wv^ ’ aaare reec^ro Md n T T iS raMtance
W) sub-transient reactance negatlve sequence reactance gin
109. While conducting a ‘slin’ test f
eer
i ng
(a) sf, sf, sf and f
s is k s - —
.n—e
fc> /» s/i 7 and 7
110. Squirrel-cage bars placed in th* mtn
hunting B P
. r
ther°torp0lefaCesofa 3 ^
W s/i 7, s/and f
W) f' (1 ~ S) f’ (2 ~ s) f and f
alternator h e l p i n g , • .
t
1. above synchronous speed onlv 2 hain , Clng tke
3. at synchronous speed only W synchronous speed only
From above, the correct answer is
(a) 1 and 2 „
(c) 2 and 3 6) 1 and3
ii, . , . W) only 3
ww
(a) an over-excited synchronous motor driving a mechanical load
(b ) an ordinary capacitor bank
(c) an over-excited synchronous motor with no shaft extension
w.E
(d } an over-excited synchronous motor without mechanical load
115. A 3-phase overexcited synchronous motor is installed near a 3-phase induction motor (IM) with
asy
a view to improve the power factor. With this installation,
(а) IM p f improves and its current decreases
(б) IM p f does not change but its current decreases
En
(c) IM p f improves but its current does not change
(d) IM p f and its current do not change, p f o f the combination improves.
gin
116. A 3-phase induction motor draws 1000 kVA at a p f o f 0.8
connected in parallel to draw an additional 750 kVA at 0.6
lag. A synchronous condenser i
p f lead.The p f o f thetotalload
supplied by the mains is
(a) unity (6) 0.707 lag (c) 0.707 lead eer
id) zero
ing
117. A synchronous motor operating at rated voltage draws 1.0 pu current at 1.0 pf. The machine
param eters are : synchronous reactance 1.0 pu ; armature resistance, negligible.
Apart from supplying this rated power, i f the motor has to supply an additional leading reactive
power o f 0.8 pu, then the field current has to be increased by .ne
(a) 42%
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Appeodii£_
ww
2 k wUl h e l f u l0Wer ^ '* eUU*
w.E
3- of the ^ s ib U tvno?°mPre8S0r Pressure faster
4 the sta^Hnl y f ° peratin^ a* better pf
e starting torque requirement is low
y t these statements
} a„nd 2 are correct
1, 2 and 3 are correct
125. Match List I with I ;<=«■ it asy .
^ 2 and 3 are correct
(d) 3 and 4 are correct
Codes :
En
80 “ GCt the “ n *61 answer using the codes given below the lists :
List I
gin List II
(Synchronous machines)
eer
(Phasor diagrams)
ing
.ne
A. Underexcited alternator
List 11
List I (Phasor diagrams)
(Synchronous machine Operation)
B. As an alternator
ww
w.E
C. As a synchronous motor
D. asy
At the moment of losing synchronism
En 4.
C o d es gin A B C D
(a)
A
4
B
3
C
2
D
1
eer (tb) 4 1
1
2
3
3
2
(c) 3 4 1 2
ing (d) 4
U 7 . Consider the M o w in g statements regarding the operation o f 3-phase synchronous mach.nes
depicted in Fig. C.72 (a), (b) and (c).
.ne
t
(c)
(6)
Fig. C.72.
o f Fig. (a) is operating as a synchronous motor at som e load
1. Machine
o f Fig. (a) is operating as an alternator at some load
2. Machine
o f Fig. (b) is operating as a synchronous m otor at som e load
3. Machine
4. Machine o f Fig. (b ) is operating as an alternator at some load
5. Machine o f Fig. (c) is operating as a synchronous motor at no loan
6. Machine o f Fig. (c) is operating as an alternator at no load
________ tool
j«8. A stand alone engine driven e,™ u . .
now connected across the nous generator is feeding a partly inductive load. A capacitor is
(a) the field current . ^^Pletely nullify the inductive current. For this operating condition
it) the
(b) the field
field current
S “ e f5,,!i
and * input
“ P“ ‘ ,have to be
ve to be reduced
reduced
(c) the field current has to he18PUt to be increased
(d) the field current ho* tn i> lnc^eased and fuel input left unaltered
^ p„ y
v ,. e UCed and 1
u “Ha fuel input left
1161 mput unaltered
lelt ui [GATE, 2003)
Curves a and Y
129. CurvesXand in Fie n 7n .,
Fin
zero power factor (z Dn rh e open circuit and full-load
generator. Q is a point L t h l of a synchronous
vo tage. The vertical d i s ^ ; & characte*stic at 1.0 p.u.
voltage drop across ln *6' C.73 gives the
(a) synchronous reactance (M . .
' “ °her reactance . jnagnetizing reactance
W) leakage reactance
130. A round-rotor generator ■. ,GATS- 20031
® d X = 1,1 pu is co d to”. ™ ' V° ltae<> S l “ 2 0 pu
ww
">°tor with internal velta» £ ° - l 7 “ " d T j Wohronous
reactance of the line eon™ . 2 " V8 pu and * = 12 pu. The
w.E
* 0.5 pu. When the generatogs,.uer enn at0r to the motor
rotor angle difference between tv, .. P-u- power, the
(a) 57.42° between the machines will be Field current
(c) 32.58° (6) 1° " Fig. C.73.
1- (6)
6 .(d)
2. (d)
En
an sw er
3. (d)
11. (6)
16. (a)
7.
12.
17.
(6)
(“ )
(a)
8. (6)
13. (b) gin 4. (c)
9. {b)
14. (6)
5- (d)
10. (a)
eer
21 . (6) 18. (d) 15. (a)
22. (d) 19. (c) 20. (d)
26. (c) 23. (a)
27. (a) 24. (a)
31. (C) 28. (6) 25. (d)
36. (a)
41. (c)
32.
37.
42.
(c)
(d)
(6)
33. (6)
38. (a) ing
29. (a)
34. (6)
39. (6)
30. (6)
35. (6)
.ne
43. {d) 40. (6)
46. (c) 47. 44. (d)
(6) 48. (a) 45. (6)
51. (a) 52. 49, (6)
(d) 53. (6) 50. (d)
56. (d)
61. (d)
66. (c)
71. (a)
57.
62.
67.
72.
(d)
(a)
(d)
(6)
58. (c)
63. {b)
68. (6)
73. (d)
54. (b)
59>- (a)
64. (6)
69. (d)
55. (a)
60. (d)
65_(6)
70.-(d)
t
76. (c) 74. (c)
77. (6) 78. (d) ?5. (d)
81. (c) 79. (a)
82. (c) 83. (a) 80. (6)
86. (c) 84. (c) 85. (d)
87. (d) 88 . ( 6)
91. (d) 89. (c) 90. (6)
92. (d) 93. (d)
96. (d) 94. (c) 95. (d)
97. (a) 98. (6) 99. (c) 100. (c)
101. (6 ) 102. (6) 103. (6) 104. (a)
106.(d) 10 5 .(fe)
107. (d) 108. (6) 109. (a)
111. (a) 110. (a)
112. (d) 113. (a) 114. (c)
116. (a) 115. {d)
117. (6) 118. (6) 119. (c) 120 . ( 6 )
121. (d) 122. (c) 1 2 3 .(d) 124. (c) 125.(b)
126. (d) 127. 128. (d) 129.(a)
(d) 130. (c)
____________________ H e c t r i c a l MachiInc,.
1002 .
POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
• j 3-ohase balanced supply is given to the rotor and stator
1. In a 3-phase slip-nng induction motor, 3 p
winding is short-circuited. The rotor would ^ in t^ e direction of rotating fie]d
(a) not run . ~ ,j (d) run at half the synchronous speed
(c) run against the direction of:rotat.nlj M Btator and 2-pole rotor. With it, stator
2. A 3-phase slip-ring induction motor (bKl ) a no_ioad speed
energised from 50 Hz source, the rotor wo ^ SOmewhat less than 3000 rpm
(a) somewhat less than 1500 rpm ^ 0f zero rpm
somewhat less than 2000 rpm
( c ) . - hase induction motor (IM) is to
3. The effect of increasing the air-gap lengtn h v ^ improve the power factor
1. reduce the pulsation loss ^ worsen the power factor
3. reduce the air-gap flux q increase the efficiency
5. reduce the torque
From these, the correct statements^are g g g 1; 3, 4, 5
ww
4. The rotor of an IM cannot run at synchronous speed,
1. rotor emf would be zero
would be zero
4 rotor pf would be unity
w.E
3. rotor torque would be zero
5. stator core loss would be zero
From these, the correct statements are
g ro^or core loss would bezero
*
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
asy
(6) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 (c) 1, 2, 3, 5 (d) 1, 2, , ,
5. A 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor (SCIM) has its statorrewound for 6 poles without any
alteration in the rotor. The motor would now run at a speed
I
(a) < 1000 rpm
(c) < 1200 rpm En < 15UU rpm
zer0 rpm .
gin
6. A 3-phase SCIM, designed to operate with stator in star, requires W k g of copper for its stator
winding. If this motor is rewound with stator in delta, with current and flux densities, kW and
eer
voltage ratings remaining the same, then weight of stator copper would be
(a) V3 W kg
< » ;§ • Wkg
(c) Wkg ing
(id) more or less than W kg depending upon other design parameters
.ne
7. If the rotor of a 3-phase IM is assumed purely resistive, then electromagnetic torque in the motor
is '
(a) minimum with load angle 0°
(c) optimum with load angle 90°
1
(6) minimum with load angle 90°
(d) optimum with load angle 0°
t
8. If the rotor of a 3-phase IM is assumed purely inductive, then the electromagnetic torque
developed in the motor is
(a) optimum with load angle 5 = 0° (b) optimum with 5 = 90°
(c) optimum with 8 = 0° (d) zero with 8 = 180°
9. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 50 Hz IM runs at a speed of 1440 rpm
1. Its slip is 0.04
2. Its rotor field rotates at 60 rpm with respect to rotor
3. Its rotor field rotates at 60 rpm with respect to stator field
4. Its rotor runs at a speed of 60 rpm with respect to stator field
5. Its rotor field rotates at a speed of 1500 rpm with respect to stator
From these, the correct statements are
(“ ) J. 2. 4, 5 (6) i , 2 , 3, 4, 5
M L 2. 5 (d) 1, 2, 4
ww
(d) rotates at synchronous speed with respect to rotor
13. If the rotor pf of a 3-phase IM is 0.866, then spatial displacement between the stator magnetic
(6 ) 90°
w.E
field and rotor magnetic field will be
(a) 30° (c)120°
14. The stator o f a 6-pole. 3-phase IM is fed from a 3-phase, 50 Hz supply which
(d) 150°
En
IS A 6 nole 50 Hz wound-rotor induction motor (WRIM) when supplied at the rated voltage and
s eer
(d) 200 Hz
i s in t h e ^ e
S S T n r r T I p u f r r n t m m t h e n the «
ing of the etator v o it a , w„, he
ves 120 oscillations per minute when c o n n e d to the mtnr of an IM. Urn stainr
t[I.E.S., 19961
r o to r o h m ic lo s s (1 + s ) ^
g
to) s Pg
tpg
ib) (1 - S ) P g
(1 ~S)Pg
ic) Sp
g
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www.EasyEngineering.net
C
rf) * pe P. /( l - s )
21. The variable resistance representing the mechanical load in the equivalent circuit of a 3-phaSe
IM ia given by
(a) r2 (s - 1) (b) r2 ( -1- 1 N (c) r2 1 - (d) r2 (1 - s)
s ' ' - $
22. If tos ss synchronous speed in mechanical rad/s, then torque in a 3-phase IM is given by
3 l\ r2 3 JS 3 / 2 r2 3 l\r2
(«) (6) ■(c) id) 2 2
P s- to. co*
*■ 2 ' ® -*
23. If stator impedance of a 3-phase IM is neglected, then the maximum torque (Vx = stator phase
voltage) is given by
V\ 3 Vf
(a) 3 * („MJ L . ¥t -t . 3_______
(c)
<0* * v“ y cos r2 us 2 r2 cos z x2
ww
24. At low values of slips, the torque in a 3-phase IM is given by (V^ = stator phase voltage)
V?
(a) r e a — s (b) Te a
t/2 „ &
r2
w.E
(c) Te a v f r2 (1 _ s) (d) Te a
.
asy r<1
25. In a 3-phase SRIM, Tem = maximum torque, smT = slip at maximum torque and Te ,st = starting
torque. The following statements are made for this IM, when resistance is added in the rotor
Lircuiii a
En
1. Tem remains constant, smT > 1, Test < Tem
2. Tem remains constant, smT < 1, Test < Tem
3. Tem remains constant, smT= 1, Tcst = Tem
gin
4. Tcm remains constant, smT> 1, Tcst > Tem
From these, the correct answer is eer
(a) all are correct
(c) 2, 3
ing
(6) 1, 2, 3
id) 2, 3, 4
26. Three-phase induction motors with open slots have
1. more starting torque Test, more starting current Ist and improved pf
.ne
t
2. more Test, more Ist and worsened,pf
3. more Test, more breakdown torque and improved pf
4. more Testl more breakdown torque and worsened pf
5. more Test, more slip at which maximum torque occurs
From these, the correct answer is
*’ 3 (6 )1 ,3 , 5 (C) 2 ,4 ( d ) 2 ,4, 5
27. A SCIM drives a constant-torque load. If supply voltage reduces to times its previous stator
voltage, then slip and current get modified by factors of
$^P current
ia)
2 2
ib) <2 2
(c) 2 V2
(d) Vi2 l/<2
Appendix*C
-------- 1005
28. In a 3-phase IM if0tn- • , . ,
by keeping V/fm ne* * 1^ p€ ince 18 n^ected. If supply voltage and frequency are decreased
occurs « nnu v ’ maximum torque Tem and the slip smT at which maximum torque
" 7 ™ would change as under :
Ic\ T * ! " ^ eases and smT decreases (5) Tem decreases and emT increases
«m s constant and smT increases (<f) Tem remains constant and $mT decreases
29. In case of 3-nhaso m * .
the rotor ohmic losses’ are P° W6r “ 2700 W and mechanical losses are 180 W. At a slip of 4%,
” ■ ^ u rb T W' r OUtPUt 0f3‘Ph“ e IM “ 15 kW and the corresponding slip is 4%. The rotor ohmic
to) 800 W (6) 625 W (c) 6 5 0 w (d) 700w U.B. S . , m n
ww
motor supply mains. When connected in delta, the
(a) 20 Vjf A
.
1 R I
asy 3. oc -L
x2
i
4. « x2
2 x2 6 “ 7
En
T .-i 8
ing
List I
List II
A. Power factor L Increase
®'
C, Effective rotor resistance
2. Decrease
.ne
D.
Codes:
Magnetizing current
A B C D
t
A B C D
(a) 1 1 1 2 (6) 2 2 2 1
(c) 1 1 1 — id) — 1 1 -
35. A 3-phase SRIM is fed from the rotor side with stator winding short circuited. The frequency of
the currents flowing in the short-circuited stator is
(a) slip frequency (&) supply frequency
(c) zero (d) frequency corresponding to rotor speed
36. A 3-phase IM has rotor resistance R2, standstill rotor induced e m f# 2 and stator to rotor effective
turns ratio of m. In an equivalent circuit of this machine, the rotor circuit resistance is shown
a sm 2 - R 2/ s, where s is the slip. This implies that the value of the equivalent rotor circuit voltage
will be
ta)E2 (b)sE2 (c ) m E 2 {d )m sE 2 [I.E.S., 1993]
1006 Electrical M a c W r}
A. 3-phase IM on load
B. Synchronous generator
ww 'a
-'WvV -W -
w.E
C. Single-phase transformer on load 3.
asy s.x,
gin
eer
Codes :
5.
ing
-+ o- -AVW
(a)
A
1 2
B C
3 4
D 6
.ne
e»
(b)
(c)
2
6
3
3
1
1
5
5 6.
- o-
r1 X,
■m a a ,------- Tnnp- t
r2/S *'2
■'VWV-----Tftnp-
(d) 6 3 4 2
'm
1 pu at 6% siip- k has ^ °f
operation of the motor the minimum S^ T ” 6 1S assume^ to be linear. For the stable
W 0.25 “ ^ 5 0 m,mT ) 0.70S 7UPPly
A prime-mover drives a 6 nnlo o v. • j
Hz, 3;phaae supply £ , t L £ ^ ” 1 ^ I^ ^ ™ Terter- ^ in v e r te r is connected
W 12OPHzS160 H z'1” 118 fr° m the inverter are me' mover speed is 3000 rpm, the frequencies
. (C) 176 Hz’ 86 Hz (&) 90 Hz, 210 Hz
. . (d) 180 Hz, 210 Hz
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hi-.I-,d r • / / 1. . mp / abrifipl p n t r i ria 1
www.EasyEngineering.net
AftpewtivC 1007
40. I ho torque-si ip characteristics of a polyphase induction motor becomes almost linear at small
values oi slips, because in this range of slips,
in) the effective rotor-circuit resistance is very large compared to the rotor reactance
(ft) the rotor resistance is equal to the stator resistance
(c) the rotor resistance is equal to the rotorreactance
(tI) the rotor reactance is equal to the stator reactance
41. The speed of a 3-phase IM is controlled by controlling its supply frequency. If the speed of the
machine is reduced by reducing the frequency by 50% of the rated frequency ; to keep the flux
in the machine constant, the motor voltage compared to rated voltage must be
(a) increased by 25% (ft) increased by50%
(c) decreased by 50% (rf) decreased by 25%
42. 1 ho effect of adding external resistance in the rotor circuit of 3-phase SRIM is to
1. increase the starting torque
2. decrease or increase the starting torque 3. reduce the starting current
4. reduce the maximum torque 5. improve the pf at starting
From these, the correct statements are
ww
(a) 1, 3, 4. 5 (ft) 2, 3, 5 (C)2,3, 4, 5 (rf) 2, 4, 5
43. A 6-pole, 3-phase IM develops maximum torque at 1000 rpm when operated from a 60 Hz supply.
asy
44. A 6-pole, 3-phase IM develops the maximum starting torque at 1000 rpm when operated from a
60 Hz supply. Rotor resistance per phase is 1.2 Q. Neglect stator impedance. The external
resistance to be connected in series with each rotor phase, for developing maximum starting
torque on 50 Hz supply is
(a) 6 £3 (ft) 4.8 Q
En
(c) 7.2 £2 (rf) 5 £1
gin
45. A SCIM having a rated slip of 4% on full load has a starting torque the same as full-load torque.
The starting current is
(a) equal to full-load current
(c) four times full-load current
eer(ft) twice the full-load current
(d) five times full-load current
ing
46. Approximate phasor diagrams of a 3-phase induction machines for different operating conditions
are indicated in List I (with usual notations). Match List I with the operating conditions given
in List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists :
List I List II
.ne
1. Full-load generating t
2. Blocked rotor
3. Full-load motoring
4. No-load
Codes A B C /J
A B C D 2 3 4
(b) 1
2 4 1 3 4 2 3
(a) (d) 1
2 4 3 1
(c)
47. The slip of a 3-phase IM can be measured by
1.actually measuring the rotor speed
2 .stroboscopic method .^nries
3 .comparing rotor and stator supply frequenc ^
4. connecting a centre-zero galvanomet
From these, the correct statements are 2 3 ,4
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 1, 2, 3 (c)-1,3, 4 ^ ’
48. Consider the following statements .
As a 3-phase IM is loaded from no-load to rated load
1 .there is an improvement in the power factor
2 .the torque increases almost in proportion to slip
w.E
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 2 and 3 are correct w
, ^ ancj3 are correct
L
[I-A. S., 1997]
,
49. A 3-phase IM is connected to a 3 -phase supply. One ofthe line fuses is blown out when the motor
asy
is running. Consequently,
1 the motor will come to a standstill ,
2 *the motor will continue to run at the same speed with line current unchanged
.
3.
En
'the motor will continue to run at a slightly reduced speed with an increased current
4 .the rotor current will have both sf and (2 - s)/ component frequencies, where s is slip and f
is the supply frequency.
From these, the correct answer is gin
(a) 1 alone (b) 2, 4 (c) 3, 4
eer ([d)3 alone
50. Consider the following statements about the operation ofa three-phase IM running at hill load :
ing
Ifone of the supply line fuses blows off, the motor will
1.stall
2 .continue to run with increased slip
3 .continue to run with normal supply current
4 .continue to run with excessive supply current .ne
Of these statements
(a) 1 alone is correct
(c) 2 and 3 are correct
(b) 3 alone is correct
id) 2 and 4 are correct
t [LA.S., 1996J
51. The chart given below indicates four different conditions under which an IM may be called upon
to operate, with a constant shaft load.
Applied voltage Frequency Rotor resistance
1 Normal Normal Normal
2 80% Normal Normal
3 80% 80% Normal
4 Normal Normal 80% !
The operating conditions which lead to increasing values o f running slips will be in the sequence
(a) 1, 4, 3, 2 (6) 1, 4, 2, 3 (c) 4, 1, 3, 2 (d) 4, 1, 2, 3 U-A S -’ V ?
52. Which one of the following can be obtained by the equivalent circuit o f an electrical machine .
(a) Temperature rise in the cores
(h) Complete performance characteristic o f the machine
Appendix-C___________ 1009
(°) — (h\ =
** ^rf + (x1 + x 2f
3-phas^ff/Hs^ Stat° r *mPe^ance> the condition for the development of maximum power in a
ww
(o )—
r2 ( l - s )
s
, v ^*2 ~ s)
~ r2
z
r~v jt
(b) :
_ /i'
„
.
= x2
( c )— 7 —
t° ique T* at any sUp s and maximum torque Temat slip smTare related
gin
W T ~ 2 2 (d) — — = m
Tem S + S I t W Tem s2 + s2 mT
57. A 3-phase SCIM is running at slip s with synchronous speed Ns clockwise and rotor speed Nr.
eer
If its two supply leads are interchanged, then at that instant
1. slip is (2 - s)
ing
2. speed of air-gap field with respect to stator is (Ns +N r) clockwise
3. speed of air-gap field with respect to rotor is (Ns +Nr) anticlockwise
4. speed of air-gap field with respect to stator is Ns anticlockwise
5. effective rotor resistance increases
.ne
t
6. stator current decreases
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 (6) 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (c) 1, 3, 4, 5 (d) 1, 2, 4, 5
58. No-load current of a 3-phase IM in terms of its rated current is
(a) 10 to 20% (b) 2 to 6% (c) 20 to 30% (d) 30 to 50%
59. No-load and full-load pfe of a 3-phase IM are respectively of the order of
(a) 0.2, 0.85 (b) 0.5, 0.8 (c) 0.7, 0.9 (d) 0.3, 0.95
60. Two 3-phase SCIM shave efficiencies of 82% and 92% and their no-load pfs of 0.1 and 0.3. These
two motors A and B have the following values for their pfs and efficiencies :
(a) Big motor (BM) A : 0.1, 82% ; smaller motor (S M )B : 0.3, 92%
(b) B M A : 0 .1 ,9 2 % ; S M B : 0.3,82%
(c) B M A : 0.3, 9 2 % ; S M B : 0.1,82%
<d) B M A : 0 .3 ,8 2 % ; S M B : 0.1,92%
61. Motor A has deeper and narrow slots, whereas motor B has shallow and wider slots. Induction
motor A, as compared to motor B, has
1. less pull-out torque 2- ,le3s sturtmg torque
3. less operating speed er °Pera p
Electrical Machine.,
1010 _ _ _ ---------------------— — “ ' — — I
ww
65. A 3-phase, 50 Hz IM takes a power input of30 kW at itsxun i
losses are 1 kW. The slip and rotor ohmic losses at fu 1 oao a
S o w m ow
w.E
(c) 0.04, 1160 W
would be more
asy
(a) starting torque T„, and maximum torque Tm would be same, sl.p »„r at maximum torque
eer
Generating region Motoring region Braking region
(a) (- 1) to0 0to 1 1 to 2
(b)
(c)
2 to 1
0 to- 1
ing
1 to 0
0 to I
0 to (- 1)
0 to (- 1)
id) (- 1)to 0 1 to 0
68. A 3-phase SRIM with negligible stator impedance operates on a balanced 3-phase ac supply. .ne0 to 1
Appeadix-C_______ ■ |Q13
86. A 3-phase delta-connected SCIM has a starting current ld and a starting torque Td at rated
voltage. If the starting current and starting torque while the motor is started through star-delta
a er and auto-transformer (with 60% voltage) starter alternatively are ly, 7 , and T^.
rrape«i«ly. tho. i : :J .: ^ ^ w
ld ld *d
( a ) ^ : 0.6 ; ^ ; 0.6 (6) | : 0.6 : | : 0.36
(a) 1.33
w.E y
(61 0.813 (c) 1.5 (tf) 0.75
89. A 3-phase, 12 pole. 50 Hz wound-rotor induction motor (WRIM i is to be used as a frequency
92. The diameter of the circle diagram for a 3-0 IM is given by (Vt = stator phase voltage
t
Vi Vj Vi „ Vj
(a )— ( 6 ) ------- — (c) ----- — ■ id) —
*i ri + r2 * i +*2 x2
Electrical M achine
1014_____________________________ ______ -— ---------------------------
ww 2 .voltage
3. slip
applied to the stator
(a) 1 w.E
of these statements
, 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 2 and 3 are correct
^ an(j 2 ai-c correct
■ . . j g are correct
(a)
asy
100 .A 3-phase IM requires a starter , _^ qtarHmr
(а) because there is no back emf induced in the stator winding dunng starting
En
(б )because the motor does not possess an inherent starting torque
(c) because the induced secondary voltage and hence the currents in the windings are abnormally
high during starting
(d) to increase the starting torque.
gin
eer
101. To improve the power factor ofa 3 -phase IM, the capacitor bank should be connected in deltato
rnstk.6
( a ) capacitance calculation easy (6 ) capacitance value small
(c) the connection elegant
ingM) the pf correction more effective.
102. For the improvement ofpf in a 3-phase IM, the star-connected capacitor bank has a capacitance
.ne
ofCs and VA rating of VAS. Ifthe capacitor bank is delta-connected, then its capacitance Cd and
VA rating VAd will respectively be
106. A S-phaae induction motor draws active power ‘F and reactive power ‘Q' from the glid. If it is
operated as a generator, P and Q will respectively be
(6) positive and negative (&) negative and negative
(c) positive and positive (d) negative and positive
107. Consider the following statements :
If a 3-phase SCIM operates at a slipof - 0.05 (i.e. minus 0.05), then the machine will
1. draw electrical powerfrom the mains
2. draw mechanical power through the shaft
3. deliver electrical power to the mains
Of these statements
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (b) 1 and 2 are correct
(c) 2 and 3 are correct (d) 1 and 3 are correct
108. A 3-phase induction machine operates on 3-phase fixed frequency ac mains at a per unit slip of
1.5. Consider the following statements regarding the operating conditions of the machine .
1. It draws electrical power from the mains.
2. It draws mechanical power through the shaft
ww
3. It delivers electrical power to the mains
4. It delivers mechanical power through the shaft
w.E
Of these statements
(a) 1 and 2 are correct
(c) 2 and 3 are correct
(6) 1 and 4 are correct
(d) 3 and 4 are correct. [7.A.S., 1994]
asy
109. A 2.3 kV, 3-phase, 50 HzSCIM hasstarting current of 600 A and startingtorque of 640Nm.
The per unit tappingof auto-transformer to reduce the starting currentfrommains to150 A
and the corresponding starting torque would respectively be
(a) 0.5, 160 Nm
(c) 0.6, 230.4 Nm
En (6)0.25, 40 Nm
(d)0.4, 102.4 Nm
gin
110. A 3-phase SCIM with an applied voltage of 40% gives a blocked-rotor current of 240%. Its full-load
slip is 0.05. Per unit starting torques with direct-on-starter and auto-transformer with 50%
tapping are respectively given by
(a) 0.9, 0.45 (6) 0.9, 0.225 (c) 1.8, 0.9
eer
(d) 1.8, 0.45
111. The power factor of a delta-connected 3-phase, 50 kW, IM is 0.4 when delivering 35% of its rated
load. If its stator is reconnected in star, than its
(а) pf is improved, stator current decreases ing
(б) pf is improved, stator current increases
(c) pf is worsened, stator current increases
(d) pf remains unchanged, stator current decreases
.
.ne
112. No-load test on a 3-phase IM was
power versus voltage was drawn.
intersection point yields
t
conducted at different supply voltages and a plot of input
This curve was extrapolated to intersect the y-axis. This
Electrical Machinery
im
. .i . . , ■. „ . . . . . . . \ ...i,,,., star! ad hv direct switching. If an nuto-trans-
114. A d-phmte. SCIM taka# a linn current ol 100 A * / '‘ ” (.urr<mt and tho supply-line current would
limner with 50% tapping la used, the motor’ lino <■
respectively he {(i) 25 A, SO A
(<il SO A, 25 . ^ ^ 5Q j\
i?) no a, no H a w ’ 4 . . „
, . « ,aa v r.o My source. Stator to rotor oliective turns
115. A 3-ph jw , star-connected SIMM i* fed from 400 V * Qmf or phaso WQUid i,0 *
ratio ia 2, At a rotor speed o f 1>M0 rpm, tho retoi indi l
(in 3V
U (M JO.2 V (0) 8.0 V (<*> l)'2'1 V
118. Tnmun devotoiwl iK.., I j, co* Oj ore rotor circuit pnrmnotora nnd n>, = sync oonous spec ) m „
3-phaso IM is given hy
3 ,2 1- *
1 . n\
4 K'J•t*h•* Oa
4 ^ M •
_3
a, 4 - 4 3 4. s
to.
V ra
rj + — + (.Vj + .y2)
ww <iv
V? £a
a
w.E
*’a
r, + -7 t tv |+ v*)
asy
(c) 1, 2, 4 (d) 3, 5
117. With stator impedance neglected, starling torque of a 3-phaso IM is proportional to
En
ra -Vo
1. 3. 4. V”,
ra+o-a r’
J+t.ra
ra v2 /•a + ,1'o
2
5, V3
1 6. J . 7. a).
gin
Prom t hese, the correct answer is
(0 ) 1, 4, 7 (/0 I, 5, (i (c) 3, 5, 7
eer (d) 2, 5, 6
118. An increase in the number of poles of a 3-phaso IM results in
(0 ) decrease in maximum pf
tb) increase in maximum pf
ing
(e) no-chnnge in mnximum p f
(d) cannot ho depicted .ne
H 9, Wlien the supply voltage to a 3-phase SCIM is reduced by 20%, the maximum torque will decrease
1017
123. In » 3-phase SCIM, applied voltage is reduced to x times its rated value. Then, its starting line
current from mains and starting torque by auto-transformer starting would reduce respectively
from their corresponding direct switching values by a factor of
(a) x, x (b) x, x2
[C)x2,x 2 od )x2,x
124. Out of the several characteristics shown in Fig.
C.74, identify the appropriate ones to match
the following for a 3-phase induction motor :
x-axis y-axis
ww (T) curve V
w.E
C o d e s:
A B C A B C
(a) R R P P R
asy
0b) Q
(c) P Q T (d) Q P s
En [GATE, 1996\
125. A 3-phase IM with stator in star draws a line current of 10 A, When connected in delta, it would
draw a line current of
(a) 10 A (c) 30 A gino o f A
eer
126. The most common application of 3-phase induction generator can be in a
(а) steam-power station
(б) hydro-power station
(c) wind-power station ing
(id) nuclear-power station
.ne
127. Two 3-phase SCIMs are identical in every respect except that the slot depths in machine A are
more than those in machine B. However, slot areas in both the machines are the same. Machine
B, as compared to machine A will have
(а) more pull-out torque but poor pf
(б) more pull-out torque and better pf
t
(c) less pull-out torque and poor pf
(rf) less pull-out torque but better pf
128. A 3-phase, 20 kW, 400 V, 1470 rpm, 50 Hz SCIM develops a torque of 100 Nm at a speed of 1400
rpm. If the motor is connected to a 30-Hz supply ; for keeping the same air-gap flux, the supply
voltage and the speed for the same load torque would respectively be
(a) 240 V, 840 rpm (6) 240 V, 800 rpm
(c) 240 V, 780 rpm (rf) 240 V, 750 rpm
129. A 3-phase SCIM has full-load efficiency of 0.8 and a maximum efficiency of 0.9. It is operated at
a slip of 0.6 by applying a reduced voltage. The efficiency of the motor at this operating point is
(o) less than 0.4 (6) greater than 0.6
(c) in the range o f 0,8 ± 0 .1 (rf) none o f the above [GATE, 19981
1 0 0 .
111.(a)
( /> )
{ r /j
w.E
102. (cj
107. fc)
112. «/)
103. (cj
108. ib)
113. ib)
104. ib)
109. (a)
114. ia)
105. ia)
110. id)
115. ia)
asy
110. (b) 117. (d) 118. (a) 119. ic) 120. (6)
121. id) 1 22. (c) 123. ic) 124. ib) 125. (a)
120. ic) 127. in) 128. ib) 129. (a)
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
ARMATURE WINDINGS
j. Closed windings are used for
1. ac machines 2. dc machines
3. ac commutator machines 4. dc commutator machines
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 3 (6) 2, 4 (c) 1, 4 id) 3, 4
2. A multi-turn coil has
(a) multi-coil-sides ib) one-coil-side
(c) two coil-sides id) four coil-sides
3. Open windings are used for
1. dc machines 2. ac machines
3. ac commutator machines 4. dc commutator machines
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1 alone (6) 2 alone (c) 2, 4 (d) 3 alone
ww
4. Closed windings may be
1. single-layer winding 2. double-layer winding 3. triple-layer winding
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 2 alone
w.E (6) 3 alone
5. Open windings may be
1. single-layer winding
(c) 1 alone (d) 2, 3
(6) - 2 (c) ± 1
gin
7. For a simplex-lap winding, the winding pitch is equal to
(a) + 2 id) ± 2
(6) ± 1 (c) - 1
eer
8. For a simplex-lap winding, the commutator pitch is equal to
(a) + 1 id) ± 2
(6) 37 (c) 48
ing
9. A dc machine has 6 coil-sides per slot. The number given to the first coil-side in 8th slot is
ia) 43 (d) 47
.ne
10. If y b is the back pitch and u is the number of coil-sides per slot, then split coils can be avoided
if the following quantity is an integer
(a)
Vb + 1
u
. , C± 1
ib) iyb + 1) u
C+l
ic)
M c - i
u
id) (yb - 1) u
11. For C coils and P poles, the commutator pitch for simplex-wave winding is
... C ± 2
t
(«) -r t t t ib) P /2 (c) i P
t /2
tt id) P /2
P /2
12. For C coils and P poles, the winding pitch for simplex-wave winding is
, , 2C + 2 2C±2 /.n 2 C - 2 , 2 C± 1
(a) -77777“ ib) vO id)
P /2 v_/ P /2 P /2 v ' P /2
13. For simplex wave and lap windings, the back pitch y b and front pitch yf are as follows
(a) y b is odd, y f is even ib) y b is even, yf is odd
(c) both y b andy^ are odd id) bothy6 andy^ are even
Electrical Machinery
1020
(a) S /P (6) P ±X
(C) —
** . ,
(d)f ±2
, . „ ti.pn following should be an integer ;
ww
18. I f equalizer rings are to be provided in dc machine-,
w *£ ± ! ® T T . . , nnR
w.E
19. A 6-pole lap-connected dc generator has 480
ohm. If the conductors are reconnected to form wave wmding, otner
tbe value of the armature drcuit r e .s t a n c e ^ be ^ ^
things remaining unchanged,
5
asy
20. A 4-pole lap-wound dc generator has a d e v e l o p e d S p m v e r ^ o f P m a c h i n e operates
En - - " - -
machine are
(c) £ , P (6) P /2 , P /2
n .
(c) P, P /4
gin . r p /9
(d) E,
eer
21. The dummy coil in a dc machine is used to
(a) eliminated reactance voltage
(b) reduce armature reaction
(cj provide mechanical balance to the armature
{1d) reduce harmonics generated in armature
ing
22. In ac machine, double-layer winding is preferred over single-layer windings because
1. it needs less copper .ne
2. it gives high induced emf for the same amount of copper
3. it requires one size of the coils
4. it is economical
t
5. it possesses lower leakage reactance
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 3, 5 (6) 2, 4, 5 (c) 3, 4, 5 (d) 1, 4, 5
23. For C coils and P poles, the winding pitch for the two types of dc armature windings are :
Simplex-lap winding Simplex-wave winding
(а) +2 2 C± 2
P/2
(б) -2 2C+2
P/2
(c) ±2 4C± 4
P
id) ±2 2 C -2
P/2
^ppendi*£__ ------------------------------------------
24. For C coils and P poles, the commutator pitch for the two types of dc armature windings are :
Simplex-lap winding Simplex-wave winding
ia) ±1 2C±2
P
(b) +1 C± 1
P
ic) -1 2 C +2
P
id) ±1 C ±1
25. For C coils and P poles, the distance between the coils connected by an equalizer ring is
ia )C /P (6) C /2 (c) 2 C /P (d) C /2 P
26. In a P-pole dc machine with armature current Ia, the current per brush arm for a lap-connected
winding is
ww
<0) P * > ir
w.E
27. An 8-pole dc machine has simplex-lap connected 1000 armature conductors, 4 turns per coil and
2 coil-sides per slot. The number of slots in this machine are
ia) 125, equalizers not possible (6) 125, equalizers possible
asy
(c) 250, equalizers possible (£f) 250, equalizers not possible
28. Armature of an 8-pole dc machine has 15 slots with 4 coil-sides per slot. This machine
1. will have dummy coil/s if wave winding is used
En
2. will have equalizer rings if lap winding is used
gin
3. has y b = 7 andjy= 5 for lap winding with no split coils
4. has y b = 9 and 7 for lap winding with no split coils
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 2, 4 {b) 1, 2, 3 (c) 2, 3
eer
(d) 1, 4
ing
29' v o lt ^ O n e ^ n T o ^ l * g*nerator has ^developed power of P watts and brush voltage of £
volts. One brush of the machine is removed as it is worn out. If the machine operates with the
t e ) T p ng
ia) E, r ib) E /2 , P /2 ic) E, P /4 (d) E, P /2
3°. A 6-pole lap wound dc generator has a developed power of P watts and brush voltage of E volts .ne
! ^ 9eVp/°9Ped V0ltage and power that can be obtained from the machine are
S h * !’ adjacent brushes of the machine are removed as they are worn out. If the machine operates
machine are” 81" 1" 8
ia )E ,P i b ) E ,^ f
6S’ developed voltage and power that can be obtained from the
(C) | id) E, P /3
t
31. A 6-pole lap-wound dc generator has a developed power ofP watts and brush voltage of £ volts
rwo adjacent brushes of the machine are removed as they are worn out. If the machine operates
with the remaining brushes, the developed voltage and power that can be obtained from the
machine are
32* ^ 6'p.°le laP wound dc generator has a developed power of P watts and brush voltage of E volts,
'■me brush of the machine is taken out as it is worn out. If the machine operates with the
remaining brushes, the developed voltage and power that can be obtained from the machine are
WE,P ( c) f ’ ^ id) E, P/ 3
Electrical Machinery
ww
( o) P (b) 2 P (OP/2 (rf) none of these
36. For a 3-phnsc machine with P poles, consider the following statement
w.E
1. The number of parallel paths for integral-slot winding is P / 2
2. The number of parallel paths for integral-slot chorded winding is P/2,
3. The number of parallel paths for 54 slots and 10 poles is 2
^
asy
4. The number of parallel path for 54 slots and 8 poles is 4.
From these, the correct statements are
(a) 1, 2, 4 (6) 1. 3 (0 1, 2, 3
En (d) 1. 4
gin
37. Fractional-slot winding is used in . . .
(a) turbogenerators W hydrogenerators
(e) fractional-kW motors «*) sqmrrel-cage induction motoi-s
eer
38. A 3-phase, 10-pole low-speed water-turbine alternator has 144 slots. The spacing between the
starting of phase A and that of phase B, in terms of slot-pitches, are
(a) 15 (6) 24 (c) 48 (d) 14
ing
39. A 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has 84 slots. Polarity of the starting of phase-belt of phase B with
.ne
respect to phase A and its displacement from phase-A starting are
(a) same polarity, 7 pitches (b) opposite polarity, 14 slot-pitches
(c) opposite polarity, 7 slot pitches (d) same polarity, 14 slot-pitches
40. For a 3-phase machine having double-layer winding, mark the correct statement
(а)
Full-pitched winding
Each slot has coil-sides belonging to the sam e
Chorded winding
Each slot has coil-sides belon gin g to the same
t
phase phase
(б) Some slots have coil-sides belonging to different Each slot has coil-sides belonging to different
phases phases
(c) Each slot has coil-sides belonging to different Som e slots have coil-sides o f different phases
phases and som e from the sam e phase
(d) Each slot has coil-sides belonging to the sam e Som e slots have coil-sides o f the sam e phase
phase and som e from different phases
41. In single-layer and double-layer windings, the number of coils C is related to the number of slots
S by the following relations respectively
(a) C = S, 2 C s=S ( b ) 2 C = S, C = S
(c) 2 G = 3 S , C = S (d) 2 C = S, 3 C = S
42. For the use of mush windings in 3-phase induction motors,
1. the slots should be open
2. coil-pitch, in terms of slots, must be odd
1023
ww
45. Match List-I (type of winding) with List II (feature) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists :
(a)
(b)
Fractional-slot windings
w.E
Chorded and distributed windings
List-I
1.
2.
List’ll
En
4. Additional asynchronous torque capability in projected
pole motors
gin
Codes
A B C D A B C D
(a)
ic) 3
2 3
2
4
1
1
4 eer
1
ib)
id)
2
3
3
2
1
4
4
ing
46. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists
List I (Windings)
.ne
List II (Associated terms)
A. Closed windings 1. Dummy coil
B. Open windings 2.
3.
4.
Fractional-slot winding
Mush winding
Split coils
t
5. Phase spread 180°
6. Parallel paths
Codes :
A B A B
<“) 1, 4, 5, 6 2, 3 ,6 ib) 1, 4,6 2,3, 5
ic) 1, 4 , 6 2, 3, 6 id) 1, 4,5 2, 3, 6
m r X-------------------- J m w w u w u w u i X V I M il Y V lb U
S0° phase spread. Coil span is 7 slot pitches. Number of slots in which top and bottom layers
belong to different phases is
*a> 24 (6) 18 (c) 12 id) 0 {GATE, 2003)
48. A 3-phase ac machine, with 54 stator slots and 10 poles, has t e 9 cmU, , ..n a m in g U. phase A
distributed under 5 adjacent poles as under (take double-layer windmg and phase spread
= 60°):
ww 5 5
ib) 6 5 6
6 6
ic) 5 5 5
6 6
w.E
id) 5 6 5
50. A 4-pole, 3-phase, double player winding is housed in a 36-slot stator for an ac machine with
60° phase spread. Coil span is 8 slot pitches. Number of slots m which top and bottom coil-sides
(b) 18 asy
belong to different phases is
(a) 24 (c) 12 id) 0
En ANSWERS
1. id)
6. (c)
2. ic)
7. id)
3. ib)
8. (6)
gin 4. ia)
9. (a)
14. (d)
5.
10.
15.
ic)
ic)
(c)
eer
11. (a) 12. ib) 13. ic)
16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. id) 20. ic)
21. ic) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (a) 25. (c)
26. (c)
31. {b)
27. (a)
32. ib)
28. id)
33. (a)
ing29. id)
34. (d)
30.
35.
40.
id)
id)
id)
.ne
36. (c) 37. (6) 38. (b) 39. id)
41. ib) 42. ia) 43. (a) 44. (c) 45. (a)
46. ia) 47. (a) 48. (d) 49. ib) 50. (c)
1025
Appendix-C
t h r e e -p h a s e c ir c u it s a n d m a g n e t ic c ir c u it s
!• A mild steel ringwith mean diameter of20 cm has core area of10 cm2.Fora relative permeability
of 500, the reluctance of the ring in AT/Wb is
(a) 1 x 106 (6 )0.1 x 106 (c) 0.01 x 105 (d) 10 x 106
2 . Magnetic flux, flux density and magnetic field intensity have the following units respectively .
(a) Wb, Wb/m2,Wb/m (&) Wb, Wb/m, Amp. turns
(c) Lines, Wb/m2,Amp.tums/m (d) Wb, Wb/m2,Amp.turns/m
3* A • • 2 j
•A magnetic circuit with relative permeability of 100 has a core cross-section of 5 cm and mean
core length of 25 cm. The coil has 120 turns withan mmf of 1000AT. The magnetic core flux is
(a) 0.5 m W b (6 )0.25 m W b (c) 0.75 m W b (d) 1 m W b
4. The magnetic flux in a homogeneous toroidal core excited by a coil with a given number ofturns
carrying a fixed current is
1.proportional to cross-sectional area ofthe toroid
ww
2 .proportional to the diameter ofthe toroid
3. inversely proportional to cross-sectional area ofthe toroid
4. inversely proportional to diameter ofthe toroid
w.E
From these, the correct answer is
(°) L 3 (b) 2, 3 (c) 1, 4 (d) 2, 4
5. A toroidal ferromagnetic ring is uniformly woundwith copper wire ofcertain turns. A dc voltage
asy
Vi is applied across the winding to cause a uniform flux density in the ring. If the linear
dimensions ofthe ring, number ofturns and length of mean turn are doubled without changing
® gauge of the wire, the dc-voltage required to be applied across the new winding to produce
the same flux density will be
(a) 2 w(6) viVi En
(c) 2 Vx (d) 4 Vj
'
6 . In
gin
the magnetic circuitshown in Fig. C.75, the areasof cross-section of limbs B and C are,
eer
respectively, 0.01m2 and 0.02 m 2.Air gaps of
lengths 1.0 m m and 2.00 mm, respectively, are
cut in limbs B and C.
Ifthe magnetic medium can be assumed to have
infinite permeability and the flux in limb B is
ing
.ne
1.0 Wb, the flux in the limb A is 2 mm
(at) 3 Wb (b) 1.5 Wb
(c) 2 W b (d) 4 Wb [GATE, 1990]
7. The current in a coil wound over a ferromagnetic
core is gradually increased to 2 A and then
reduced to 1 A and then the current in its is Fig. c.75.
t
1026 Electrical M
fo)P|
“ n2U")awa"eC"th“‘ P
stHe cum at'
x
w
d
o
r - ^Faraday
ic) Flemings la w of induction (tfi Ampere’s law u rn
8. The laws of electromagnetic induction (Faraday’s and lama's law) are summamad .n the follow,
ing equation ;
(a) e = iR <*)c = i f (r )r » -f (d, none of above. (GATE, ,993]
■fft A
10. A coil
-1 rotates at a constant speed m a uniform mnpnetic
niagnec field that
nfis oriented
fbp mil along the x-axis
Induced emf in the coii will be maximum when the axis o ro
(a) coincide s with the x-axis , * c
(b) lies in the x -y plane making an angle of 45' with hot x- an y
(c) lies in the z-x plane making an angle of 45' with both z- an x 3
{d) lies in tbey-z plane
11. Consider the following statements relating to a circular disc rotating
w.E
1. angular velocity
3. radios of the disc
Of these statements
2. flux density
4. square of the radius of the disc
En
12. Iron-core is inserted in the air-cored coil so that now the coil becomes iron-cored coil. Inductance
of this iron-cored coil will
gin
(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) remain the same
eer
(d) increase or decrease depending upon the coil configuration
13. A coil with GO turns w'ound over a ferromagnetic core having relative permeability 400 has an
18. An iron-cored choke, with 1 mm air-gap length, takes 1 A when fed from a constant-voltage
source o f230 V. If its air-gap length is increased to 10 mm, then the magnetic flux produced by
the choke would
(o)^decrease and the current would also decrease
Appendlx-C_____________— _ _ _ _ _ 1027
etch List I with List II and give the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists
List I
List II
(Motion of permanent magnet)
Motion qa
(Direction of emf in stationary coil)
A- fs"~ ”
JO 1. No emf in the coil
Motion
M otion
asy
En
D. i n (i" "Z D
E B
Codes:
(o)
A
1
B C D
gin A B C D
eer
2 3 3 (b) 2 3
(C) 2 3 3 1
1 3 (d) 2 3 1
ing
1
21. Match List I with List II and select the correct
answer by using the codes given below the lis
List I
.ne
(Magnetic circuit) List II
(Electric circuit)
A Magnetic flux density
1. current
B.
C,
D-
Magnetic field intensity
Permeability
Magnetic flux
2.
3.
4.
Conductivity
Electric field intensity
Current density
t
C o d e s:
A B C D A B C I)
(a) 4 3 2 1 ib) 1 2 3 4
tc) 4 2 1 3 id)
3 1 9 4
88. The iiutantansous value of currents in both pha.ee k and c of a 3-pha.e balanced system
7 *,n a pha0e 8equence abc’ the instantaneous value of current in phase ‘a’ is
W 1 7 .3 2 A (4)10 A (c) 20 A (rf) 34.64 A
38. The power in a 3-phaae ejretem is given by i/3V, /, cos 8. Here 8 is the pf angle between
(a) line voltage and line current (6) line voltage and phase current
(e) phase voltage and line current (d) phase voltage and phase current
Three equal resistances connected in star take a line current of 5 A when fed from 400 V 50
«M»ce. If the load resistances are reconnected in delta, the line current would now be
(®) 5 A (6) 5 VjTA (c) A (d) 15
ea Dy u a m ^c a n n e r www.EasyEngineering.net
1028
www.EasyEngineering.net
w.E
(b) Wj - 866 W and W2 = 866 W
(c) Wx = 1154.72 W and W2 = 577.36 W
(d) Wx = 577.36 W and W2 = 1154.72 W
asy
28. In a two-wattmeter method ofmeasuring power, one of
the wattmeters reading iszero watts. The power factor
Fig. C.79.
of the circuit is
(a) zei'o (b) 1
En
(c) 0.5 (d) 0.866
ing
(d) three-phase load is connected to the source through four wires
30. The minimum number of wattmeters required to measure the real power in an n-phase system
with unbalanced load is
(a) n (b) n - 1 (c) n + 1 (d) n - 2
.ne
31. Three-phase power can be measured by two-wattmeter method in case of
1. balanced load and balanced source
2. balanced source with 3-phase, 3-wire unbalanced load
t
3. unbalanced source with 3-phase, 3-wire balanced load
4. balanced source with 3-phase, 4-wire unbalanced load
5. unbalanced load and unbalanced source
From these, the correct answer is
(a) A only (b) 2, 3 and 5
(c) I, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 5
32. Measurement of power and power factor of a 3-phase system by two-wattmeter method can be
obtained in case of
1. balanced load and balanced source
2. balanced source with 3-phase, 3-wire unbalanced load
3. unbalanced source with 3-phase, 3-wire balanced load
4. balanced source with 3-phase, 4-wire unbalanced load
5. unbalanced load and unbalanced source .
Appendlx-C
1029
£(*) °2 3 a
2, 3, , 5
4 and (6)
(d) 2'
1, 32,and 5 5
3 and
T ^ „ ? r „ rt r in * 080 * ,ure
£ ! SS* v v (6) 115475 v
3d 11 {d) 284 23 v [GATE<199® 400 V /3 -p h a s e
b a la n ce d source
’ nected ina? ? Cit0rS’ 08Ch ° f 10yP‘ are con‘ Fig. C.80.
sunnlv 1 aCr08S B 3'phase’ 400 V, 50 Hz
by two xvatt power consumed is measured
oy two-wattmeter method. Under the condition
ne of the wattmeters reads zero
both the wattmeters read zero
ww
3. neither of the wattmeter reads zero
4. the total power consumed is zero
w ° ” f " * 1the X
w.E C f atCmentS(ca)r 3 4 d 2
a pure inductive
eer
(6) W1 - W2
ANSWERS ing
(d) V3 (Wx - W2)
1. (a)
.
6 (c)
2. (d)
7. (6)
3. (6)
8. (a)
4. (c) 5. (d) .ne
11. (6)
t
12. (a) (c) 10. (d)
13.(6) 14. (6)
16. (6) 17. (a) 15. (c)
18. (d) 19. (d)
21. (a) 22. (c) 20. (d)
23. (d) 24. (d)
26. (c) 27. (d) 25. (6)
28. (c) 29. (c)
31. (d) 32. (a) 33.(6) 30. (6)
36. (d) 34. (c) 35. (a)
A p p e«d *£___ —
ww
motor 'B\ then
(а) the no-load pf of A will be better than that of B
(б) the no-load pf of A will be poorer than that of B
w.E
(c) the core losses of A will be more than those of B
(d) the operating flux of A will be smaller than that of B. [/.A.S., 1997]
74. Consider the following statements regarding the equivalent circuit parameters of an IM :
asy
1. Leakage reactance is dependent on supply current
2. Magnetizing reactance is dependent on the air-gap flux
En
3. Core loss is dependent on the input voltage and frequency
4. Rotor resistance is dependent on the speed
Of these statements
(a) 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct gin(6) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
(d) 1, 2 and 4 are correct [7.A.S., J993]
eer
75. The rotor of a 4-pole 3-phase SCIM is replaced by a 3-phase, 4-pole wound rotor. When fed with
normal supply, the machine will
(а) not run
(б) run at very low speed ing
(c) run at slightly lower than normal speed
(id) run at slightly higher than normal speed
.ne
t
76. A 3-phase stator winding of a SCIM is fed by 3-phase ac supply at a frequency f. If the rotor
speed is Nr and synchronous speed is Ns, then the absolute speed of resultant flux in space is
(a) Ns, irrespective of rotor speed Nr
(b) (Ns + Nr) if the flux rotates in the same direction as the rotor
(c) (Ns - Nr) if the flux rotates in the same direction as the rotor
(d) Nn irrespective of Ns.
77. Rotor of a 3-phase SRIM is fed from 3-phase balanced supply with its stator winding short-cir
cuited. If Ns = synchronous speed, Nr = rotor speed, f = supply frequency and s is the slip, then
1. frequency of stator currents is s f
2. frequency of stator currents is (2 - s ) f
3. speed of stator field with respect to stator is Ns
4. speed of rotor field with respect to rotor is Ns
5. speed of rotor field with respect to rotor is + Nr)
6. speed of air-gap field with respect to stator is {Ns - Nr)
Prom these, the correct answer is
( « ) 2 . 5 .6 (6) 1 , 4 , 6 (0 1, 3, 5 (<(>1, 5, 6
78. Rotor of a 3-phase SRIM is fed from 3-phase balanced supply with its stator *'"ldinp ‘sh° 11 Ci‘‘
cuited. Synchronous speed isNs and ifrotor rotates clockwise at a speec r,^
1. speed of air-gap field with respect to (w.r.t.) stator is (Ns - Nr) a n t ic lo c k
2 .speed of air-gap field w.r.t. stator is (Ns - N r) clockwise
3. speed of air-gap field w.r.t. rotor isNs anticlockwise
4. speed of rotor-produced field w.r.t. rotor is (Ns + Nr) anticlockwise
5. speed of air-gap field w.r.t. rotor isNs clockwise
From these, the correct statements are r
(a) 1, 3, 4 (6) 1, 2, 4 (c) 2, 3, 5 id) 1, 4 ,a
79. For SCIM, reactor starting is preferred over resistor starting because leac ors
1.improve the pf at starting 2 . increase starting toique voltaee
o. -incur
3 i lower energy1loss 4. are more
A
more e f.
emfi
e-cit.iivve
t in reducing the voltage
From these, the correct answer is
(a) 1, 3, 4 (6 ) 2, 3, 4 (c) 1, 3 id) 3, 4
ww
80. Consider the following statements :
Star-delta starter is used in 3-pliase IM because it
1.mitigates (lessens) heating of the motor winding
w.E
2 .ensures permissible minimum starting current
3 .is regulated by electricity authority
4. ensures smooth run up to full load
Of these statements
asy
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1,3 and 4 are correct
0) 2, 3 and 4 are correct
id) 1 and 2 are correct
En
81. As compared to DOL starting, a cage IM with star-delta starting shall have
gin
(a) more starting torque (b) more starting current
(c) reduced starting current (d) smooth acceleration
82. A 3-phase SCIM is started with a star-delta starter. The ratios
^
eer
Line current at start with star-delta starter
- Line current at start with directswitching in delta
'u ing
Starting torque with star-delta starter
Starting torque with directswitching in delta
are respectively,
1 .1 1 1 .ne
W 3 W
m|, |
.{ b) l 3 ' 3
«) f e , t ic
83. Ifthe auto-transformer tapping K is less than 1, then the starting torque in a 3 -phase SCIM
. when started with this auto-transformer starter would he
(a) K x starting torque Test withdirect switching (6 )K2 x Tc s)
scanned Dy u a m ^c a n n e r www.EasyEngineering.net
www.EasyEngineering.net
51. If two 8-pole dc machines of identical armatures are wound, one with lap winding and lhe ^
with wave winding, then rurrent and more voltage
(а) wave-wound machine will have more ratedc ^ mQre current
(б) lap-wound machine will have more rated vo g ^ ^ current
(c) lap-wound machine will have more ratedI volt g CUrrent
(rf) wave-wound machine will have more rated voltage aim
, machine
52. If the applied voltage to a dc i ■ is
■ 230
oun v then the back emf, tor maximum power devnin
V, ti elopcc|>
w.E
(id) both are of the same size for the same current rating
55. A 10 kW, 230 V, dc shunt machine has four terminals brought out through four leads. For this
machine
asy
(а) both the windings have thin leads
(б) both the windings have thick leads
(c) armature winding has thin leads whereas field winding has thick Je£ms
En
(rf) armature winding has thick leads whereas field winding has thin leads
56. There are two 2-pole dc machines. Main field axis of machine A is horizontal andthat of Bis
vertical. It is preferable to purchase
(a) machine A gin machineB
(c) any of the two machines
ing
sengs-field winding gets short circuited. If its terminal voltage
1. becomes more than 230 V, it is overcompounded generator
2. becomes more than 230 V, it is differentially compounded generator
3. becomes less
4. becomes less
than230 V, itis overcompounded generator
than230 V, itis differentially compounded generator .ne
5. becomes less
(a) 1, 4, 5
than230 V, itis level compounded generator
From these, the correct answer is
(6) 2, 3, 5 (c) 1, 4 (d) 2, 3
t
58. DC generators are usually designed to develop armature voltages not exceeding 650 V because
of the limitations imposed by
(a) field winding (b) armature winding
(c) commutator (d) starters
59. In a dc series generator, the terminal voltage with increase in load will
(a) decrease
(b) increase gradually and then stay at rated voltage
(cj increase to rated voltage and then may decrease
(d) remain nearly constant
60. Consider the following statements : ^ muSt
For a level compounded dc generator to run at constant voltage, the series field m
effectively compensate
1. armature reaction mmf 2. armature resistance drop
3.. brush contact voltage drop
7- - - -J 2 ?
^hich of these statements is/arc correct ?
ta) 2 alone (6 ) 1 and 2 (c) 1 and 3 «/) 1,2 and 3
0 j; A soparutely-excited dc machine, having nn armature resistance of 2 ohms was working on a
220 V supply and drawing 10 A armature current from the source when the supply voltage
guddcnly dropped to 200 V. Assuming that the field circuit source voltage remained unaffected,
how will the armature current of tho machine react to the change V 1
(a)it will initially rise to 11 A and then settle down to 10 A
(b, Itwill fall momentarily to 9.09 A und then slowly attain 10 A
fCjIt will reduce to 7.ero first and then settle back to 10 A
(£i) Itwill remain unaffected by the change und continue to be 10 A [I.A.S., 1094J
§2. U n d er which ofthe following conditions isa dc motor provided with compensating winding used ?
1,Wide range of speed control above normal
2 ,Wide range of steady load variation with no speed control
3 ,Wide range of rapid variation in load
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
Codes:
ww
(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 «/) 1 and 3 U.A.S., 7.9931
63. The following statements relate to compensating winding (CW) and interpole winding (/W) of a
dc machine :
w.E
1.C W neutralizes the armature reaction under a pole pitch
2. /W is connected in series with armature circuit
asy
3 .IW produces mmf in the commutating zone only
4 .C W mmf is directed along the brush axis
5.Mmf produced by /W is equul to armature mmf
From these, the correct statements are
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 En (b) 1, 3, 4, 5
(c) 2, 3, 4, 5
gin
(d) 2, 3, 4
64. Ifthe speed of a dc motor increases with load torque, then it is a
(a) series motor
(c) differentially compounded motor eer
{b) permanent magnet motor
[d) comulatively compounded motor
ing
65. Ifthe field of a dc shunt motor gets opened while the motor is running, then the
(a) speed of motor will be reduced
.ne
(b) motor will attain dangerously high speed
(c) armature current will drop
(d) armature will oscillate about original speed as the mean speed
(c) increase and decrease respectively (d) decrease and increase respectively.
[I.A.S., 1094]
67. A cumulatively compounded dc motor delivers rated load power at rated speed. Ifthe series field
isshort-circuited, then
(а) both armature current Ia and speed (0m increase
(б)Ia remains constant but com increase
(c) Ia increases and wm decreases
{d) both decrease
68.A 240 V dc series motor takes 40 A when giving its rated output at 1500 rpm. Us resistance is
0.3 £1.The value of resistance which must be added to obtain rated torque at 1000 rpm is
(a) 6 Q (b)5.7 £1 (c) 2.2 O (d) 1.9 £1
69. A dc shunt motor is running at 1200 rpm when excited with 220 V dc. Neglecting the losses and
saturation, the speed of the motor when connected to a 175 V dc supply is
(a) 750 rpm (b) 900 rpm (c) 1050 rpm (d) 1200 rpm