BIOLOGY

 Biology Concepts

1. Biochemistry: the study of the material substances that make up living things
2. Botany: the study of plants, including agriculture
3. Cellular biology: the study of the basic cellular units of living things
4. Ecology: the study of how organisms interact with their environment
5. Evolutionary biology: the study of the origins and changes in the diversity of life over
time
6. Genetics: the study of heredity
7. Molecular biology: the study of biological molecules
8. Physiology: the study of the functions of organisms and their parts
9. Zoology: the study of animals, including animal behavior

 Biology Topics

1. Photosynthesis is a process by which phototrophs convert light energy into chemical

energy, which is later used to fuel cellular activities. The chemical energy is stored in
the form of sugars, which are created from water and carbon dioxide.
Equation: CO2 + H2O + energy → (CH2O)n +O2

2. The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among
the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth.
Process:
 Carbon enters the atmosphere as CO2
 CO2 is absorbed by autotrophs such as green plants
 Animals consume plants, thereby, incorporating carbon into their system
 Animals and plants die, their bodies decompose and carbon is reabsorbed back
into the atmosphere.

3. The atmosphere is comprised of layers; troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,

thermosphere, and exosphere.
4. Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process which transforms the inert nitrogen
present in the atmosphere to a more usable form for living organisms.
Process:
 Nitrogen fixation- atmospheric nitrogen (N2) which is primarily available in an
inert form, is converted into the usable form, ammonia (NH3).
 Nitrification- the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in
the soil. The process of nitrification is:
o 2NH4+ + 3O2 → 2NO2– + 4H+ + 2H2O
o 2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3–
 Assimilation- plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil with the help of
their roots, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions or
ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal proteins.
 Ammonification- when plants or animal die, the nitrogen present in the organic
matter is released back into the soil. The decomposers convert the organic
matter back into ammonium.
 Denitrification- nitrogen compounds makes its way back into the atmosphere by
converting nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen (N).
5. Flora refers to all plant life while fauna refers to all animal life.
6. The human digestive system
7. The human heart
Types of Circulation

 Pulmonary circulation is a portion of circulation responsible for carrying

deoxygenated blood away from the heart, to the lungs and then brings
oxygenated blood back to the heart.
 Systemic circulation is another portion of circulation where the oxygenated blood
is pumped from the heart to every organ and tissue in the body, and
deoxygenated blood comes back again to the heart.
 Coronary circulation is an essential portion of the circulation, where oxygenated
blood is supplied to the heart. This is important as the heart is responsible for
supplying blood throughout the body.

4 chambers of the heart

Two ventricles- chambers that pump blood

Two atria- chambers that receive blood

3 Structure of the Heart Wall

 Epicardium – outermost layer of the heart. It is composed of a thin-layered

membrane that serves to lubricate and protect the outer section.
  Myocardium – a layer of muscle tissue, and it constitutes the middle layer wall of
the heart. It contributes to the thickness and responsible for the pumping action.
 Endocardium – It is the innermost layer that lines the inner heart chambers and
covers the heart valves. Furthermore, it prevents the blood from sticking to the
inner walls, thereby preventing potentially fatal blood clots.

Blood Vessels

 Veins supply deoxygenated blood to the heart via inferior and superior vena
cava, and it eventually drains into the right atrium.
 Capillaries are tiny, tube-like vessels which form a network between the arteries
to veins.
 Arteries are muscular-walled tubes mainly involved in supplying oxygenated
blood away from the heart to all other parts of the body. Aorta is the largest of the
arteries, and it branches off into various smaller arteries throughout the body.

8. Five Sense Organs

 Eyes – Sight or Ophthalmoception

 Ears – Hearing or Audioception
 Tongue – Taste or Gustaoception
 Nose – Smell or Olfalcoception
 Skin – Touch or Tactioception

9. Parts of the Human Brain

a.) Forebrain – Largest part of the brain It is the anterior part of the brain. The forebrain
parts include: Cerebrum, Hypothalamus, and Thalamus. It controls the reproductive
functions, body temperature, emotions, hunger and sleep.

Fact: The largest among the forebrain parts is the cerebrum. It is also the largest part of
all vertebrate brains.

b.) Midbrain: Smallest and central part of the brain. The midbrain consists of: Tectum,
and Tegmentum

c.) Hindbrain: The lower part of the brain. The hindbrain is composed of: Cerebellum,
Medulla, and Pons. The three regions of the hindbrain coordinates all processes
necessary for survival. These induce breathing, heartbeat, sleep, wakefulness and
motor learning.
  Cerebrum- the largest part of the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex and
other subcortical structures. It is responsible for thinking, intelligence,
consciousness and memory; also responsible for interpreting touch, hearing and
vision.

4 lobes of cerebrum:

 Frontal lobe: It is associated with parts of speech, planning, reasoning, problem-

solving and movements.
 Parietal lobe: Help in movements, the perception of stimuli and orientation.
 Occipital lobe: It is related to visual processing.
 Temporal lobe: This region is related to perception and recognition of memory,
auditory stimuli, and speech.

2 types of brain tissues:

 Grey matter- mainly consists of various types of cells, which make up the bulk of
the brain.
 White matter- primarily composed of axons, which connect various grey matter
areas of the brain with each other.

 Thalamus- a small structure, located right above the brain stem responsible for
relaying sensory information from the sense organs. This limbic system is mainly
responsible for the formation of new memories and storing past experiences.
 Hypothalamus- a small and essential part of the brain, located precisely below
the thalamus. It is considered the primary region of the brain, as it is involved in
the following functions:
 Receives impulses
 Regulates body temperature
 Controls the mood and emotions
 Controls the sense of taste and smell
 Synthesises the body’s essential hormones
 Coordinates the messages from the autonomous nervous system
 Controls appetite, peristalsis, the rate of heartbeat, and blood pressure
 Forms an axis with the pituitary gland which is the main link between the nervous
and the endocrine systems.

 Tectum- a small portion of the brain, specifically the dorsal part of the midbrain.
It serves as a relay centre for the sensory information from the ears to the
cerebrum. It also controls the reflex movements of the head, eye and neck
muscles. It provides a passage for the different neurons moving in and out of the
cerebrum.

 Tegmentum- a region within the brainstem. It is a complex structure with various

components, which is mainly involved in body movements, sleep, arousal,
attention, and different necessary reflexes. It forms the platform for the midbrain
and connects with the thalamus, cerebral cortex, and the spinal cord.

 Cerebellum- the second largest part of the brain, located in the posterior portion
of the medulla and pons. The cerebellum and cerebrum are separated by
cerebellar tentorium and transverse fissure. Cortex is the outer surface of the
cerebellum, and its parallel ridges are called the folia. Apart from this, the
cerebellum has the cerebellar peduncles, cerebellar nuclei, anterior and posterior
lobes. The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres, the outer grey cortex and
the inner white medulla. It is mainly responsible for coordinating and maintaining
the body balance during walking, running, riding, swimming, and precision control
of the voluntary movements. The main functions of the cerebellum include:

 It senses equilibrium.
  Transfers information.
 Coordinates eye movement.
 It enables precision control of the voluntary body movements.
 Predicts the future position of the body during a particular movement.
 Both anterior and posterior lobes are concerned with the skeletal movements.
 The cerebellum is also essential for making fine adjustments to motor actions.
 Coordinates and maintains body balance and posture during walking, running,
riding, swimming.

 Medulla Oblongata- a small structure present in the lowest region of the brain. It
mainly controls the body’s autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and
digestion. It plays a primary role in connecting the spinal cord, pons and the
cerebral cortex. Also, it helps us in maintaining our posture and controlling our
reflexes.

 Pons- the primary structure of the brain stem present between the midbrain and
medulla oblongata. It serves as a relay signals between the lower cerebellum,
spinal cord, the midbrain, cerebrum and other higher parts of the brain. The main
functions of the pons include:

 Controlling sleep cycles.

 Regulating the magnitude and frequency of the respiration.
 Transfers information between the cerebellum and motor cortex.
 Pons is also involved in sensations, such as the sense of taste, hearing, and
balance.

10. Blood is a fluid connective tissue that consists of plasma, blood cells and platelets. It
makes up 8% of our body weight.

2 Types of Blood Cells

 Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)- contain the iron-rich protein called hemoglobin;
give blood its red color. RBCs are the most copious blood cell produced in bone
marrows. Their main function is to transport oxygen from and to various tissues
and organs.
 White blood cells (Leucocytes)- colourless blood cells. They are colourless
because it is devoid of hemoglobin. They are further classified as granulocytes
and agranulocytes. WBCs mainly contribute to immunity and defence
mechanism.