Atmospheric Entry Plasmas: F Isica Dos Plasmas

Introduction
Correlations & High-Fidelity Sims.

Case Studies
Atmospheric Entry Plasmas

Fı́sica dos Plasmas
Mário Lino da Silva, Bruno Lopez, Vasco Guerra and Jorge

Loureiro
Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear

Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisboa, Portugal
March 10, 2014
M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Introduction
Case Studies
What are Atmospheric (Re)-Entry Plasmas
Typical Earth reentry profile Spacecraft entry in Mars Atmosphere (Artist Illustration)
Formation of a strong shockwave upstream of a spacecraft crossing

the upper atmospheric layers at hypersonic speeds.

Introduction
Case Studies
Shockwaves as Plasma Precursors

Introduction
Case Studies
Comparison Between Entry and Laboratory Discharge

Plasmas
Reentry Plasma
Gas Discharge Plasma
1/2mv 2 ' 7/2kB Ttr

Tel = 1 − 3eV
v = [7 − 10km/s] ⇒
Ttr = [25, 000K − 60, 000K] V–e processes dominant
Ttr Tvib Ttr Tvib

Introduction
Case Studies
Plasma Radiation as a Spacecraft Design Driver
Radiative heating can be a major design driver for

large or high-speed (≥ 10km/s) entry vehicles
For lower entry speeds, radiative heating may
mandate additional thermal protections (e.g. base
heating for Martian entries)
Convective heating mostly depends on ground
species, radiative heating depends on excited species.
Larger uncertainties
Accounting for an additional spectral dimension with
grids with over 106 points. Very computationally
intensive CFRD simulations.

Introduction
Case Studies
Main Drivers
Do we need to take radiation into account?

Optically thin or thick?
Coupling between flow and radiation?
Equilibrium or non-equilibrium radiation?
Selection of an appropriate radiative database
Other issues (precursor, photo-chemistry, photo-ionisation
processes)

Introduction
Case Studies
Aerothermodynamics of Entry Vehicles

Introduction
Case Studies
Aerothermodynamics of Entry Vehicles

Introduction
Engineering Correlations
Large-Scale CFRD Simulations
Case Studies
Engineering Correlations for Radiation
Engineering Correlations useful when exploring different EDL

scenarios
Exploratory parameters: Spacecraft sizing, atmospheric
profiles and composition, entry path and angle, aerodymamic
coefficients, etc...
Correlations then complemented with detailed CFRD
calculations for pre-selected Flight paths, at specific
representative entry points (∼5)

Introduction
Case Studies
Blackbody radiation limit
spectral emissivity of a gas has a

theoretical limit given by Planck’s
law
−1
2hν 3

hν
Bν (T ) = 2 exp −1
c kB T
The spectral integration yields the

Stefan–Boltzmann Law:
The Sun’s emissivity is close to a blackbody
Z
Bν (T ) = σT 4
ν
Engineering correlations are based on this upper theoretical limit for the
emitted radiation

Introduction
Case Studies
Stagnation Streamline flux dependence on cone radius
Convective fluxes
Sutton and
hqGraves,iFay and Riddel correlations:
du
w

qconv =f dx s
q
2p−p∞
from Newtonian theory: du 1

dx s = R ρ
w
qconv ∝ √1
R
Radiative Fluxes
Eδ a R
w

Optically Thin shock layer: qrad = 2 with δ w ρs /ρ∞
w
qrad ∝R
Requirements for minimizing convective and radiative
heat fluxes are mutually exclusive
a
E: radiated power, half goes upstream, half to the wall. δ is the shock standoff. s: shock

Introduction
Case Studies
Stagnation Streamline flux dependence on entry speed
Convective fluxes
w 3
qconv ≈ 1/2ρ∞ u∞ Sta
w 3
qconv ∝ u∞
Radiative Fluxes
2
u∞
Ts = 2Cps ;
8
w u∞
qrad = σTs4 = (2Cps )4
w 8
qrad ∝ u∞
Radiation dominates above

10km/s
a
St: Stanton number

Introduction
Case Studies
Boltzmann and Goulard Numbers
Boltzmann number Bo−1 , Radiation/Convection ratio:
qrad σT 4
Bo−1 = =
qconv ρuCp T
Infinite slab approximationa . We also have Cp T w u∞ /2.
Goulard Number Γ, Radiative cooling parameter

w w
2qrad 2qrad
Γ= w
= 3
qconv 1/2ρ∞ u∞
σ: Stefan-Boltzmann constant
a
half the radiated power goes upstream, half to the wall

Introduction
Case Studies
Optically Thin and Optically Thick Limiting Cases
4σTs4 αδ
Optically Thin: Γn = ρ ∞ u∞ hs
16σTs4 α
Optically Thicka : Γk = 3ρ∞ u∞ hs
Γ < 10−3 : radiation is not important

10−3 < Γ < 10−2 : radiation is important but coupling is
not necessary
Γ > 10−2 : coupling of the radiation to the flowfield is
necessary
The absorption coefficient is related to the optical
transmissivity such that T = exp(−αδ). Transmissivity
goes from 100% (optically thin) to 0% (optically thick).
a
known as the Rosseland limit

Introduction
Case Studies
Radiative Transfer Regimes

Introduction
Case Studies
Computational Fluid Radiative Dynamics Simulations
Development of radiative databases

providing the spectral-dependent emission
εν and absorption α(ν) coefficients for
any arbitrary state of the plasma
Accounting for bound, bound–free
(photodissociation, photoionization,
photodetachment) and free-free
(Bremstrahlung) transitions
bound-bound transitions include atomic,
diatomic and polyatomic transitions
Radiative transfer equation is then solved
over the computational domain

Introduction
Case Studies
Development of Spectral Databases
atomic and polyatomic transitions

typically simulated from external
radiative databases (NIST, TopBase,
HITRAN)
diatomic transitions databases are
explicitely obtained using appropriate
quantum-mechanics models
continuum radiation calculated from
published absorption cross-sections
(e.g. TopBase for atomic
photoionization), or from Absorption Coefficient for a 97%CO2 –3%N2 Plasma in
Thermochemical Equilibrium at 5000K and 1bar
semi-empirical to exact cross-sections
for molecular continuum cross-sections

Introduction
Case Studies
Line-by-Line Models
“Collection” of lines which correspond to the overall quantum-allowed

radiative transitions between the internal levels of an atom/molecule.
Selection rules define the quantum-allowed transitions, which must respect
angular and spin momentum conservation for atoms and molecules.
Three key parameters:
1) Line position considering Planck’s Law: ν = Eu − El /hc;
2) Line intensity: Iν = Nu Aul ∆Eul ;
3) Line profile: F (ν − nu0 ), Voigt (sum of a Lorentz & Gaussian profile).
Radiative spectra obtained through the superposition of these overall lines.

Introduction
Case Studies
Line-by-Line Models


Introduction
Case Studies
Line-by-Line Models


Introduction
Case Studies
Line-by-Line Models


Introduction
Case Studies
Key Parameters
The fundamental equation for intensity
Iν = Nu Aul ∆Eul F (ν − ν0 )
can be decoupled in the following variables :
Nu : Level populations :
Either a Boltzmann equilibrium distribution, either through Collisional-Radiative
nonequilibrium models
Aul : Transition probabilities (Einstein Coefficients):

From ”ab-initio” or measured transition moments
∆Eul : Level energies:

Fitting and extrapolation of experimentally determined data
F (ν − ν0 ) : Line profile:
Voigt profiles accounting for Doppler and Collisional broadening (depends on the local
conditions of the plasma)

Introduction
Case Studies
Key Parameters
The fundamental equation for intensity
Iν = Nu Aul ∆Eul F (ν − ν0 )
can be decoupled in the following variables :
Nu : Level populations :
Either a Boltzmann equilibrium distribution, either through Collisional-Radiative
nonequilibrium models
Aul : Transition probabilities (Einstein Coefficients):

From ”ab-initio” or measured transition moments
∆Eul : Level energies:

Fitting and extrapolation of experimentally determined data
F (ν − ν0 ) : Line profile:
Voigt profiles accounting for Doppler and Collisional broadening (depends on the local
conditions of the plasma)

Introduction
Case Studies
The SPARTAN Code
SPARTAN: Simulation of PlasmA Radiation in

ThermodynAmic Nonequilibrium
Simulation of Earth, Mars and Titan plasma radiation
63 atomic and molecular bound-bond, bound-free
(Photodissociation, Photoionization, Photodetachment),
and free-free transitions
SPARTAN Code Logo
Simulated species: C, C+ , C− , N, N+ , N− , O, O+ , O− ,
Ar, Ar+ , C2 , H2 , N2 , N+ +
2 , O2 , CN, CH, CO, CO , NH,
NO, OH, CO2
Code freely distributed under a Gnu Public License, see
http://esther.ist.utl.pt/

Introduction
Case Studies
Elementary Radiative Processes
Eu
6
hν -
hν - hν - hν -
hν -
? ?
El
spontaneous emission induced emission absorption
∂Nu ∂Nu ∂Nl
= −Nu Aul = −Nu Bul uν = −Nu Bul uν
∂t ∂t ∂t
Introduction
Case Studies
Derivation of the Radiative Transfer Equation (RTE) (1/2)

Summing the three processes we have
∂Nu
= −Nu Aul + [Nu Bul − Nu Bul ]uν
∂t
In Radiative equilibrium the net variation is 0, and radiation is given by
the Planck Blackbody Law
−1
8πhν 3

hν
uνo (T ) = exp − − 1
c3 kB T
we have
gl Blu = gu Bul
Aul 8πhν 3
=
Bul c3

Introduction
Case Studies
Derivation of the Radiative Transfer Equation (RTE) (2/2)

Integrating the expressions of the previous slide in volume from we obtain
the classical RTE equation:
dLν
cos θ = εν − αν Lν
dz
with
nu Aul hν
εν =
4π
gu hν
α(ν) = nu − nl Bul
gl c
which becomes the Beer-Lambert Law in 1D coordinates:
dIν
= ε − α(ν)Iν
dl
and after integration:
ε
Iν = [1 − exp(−α(ν)l)]
α(ν)
Introduction
Case Studies
Ray-Tracing Methods for Space-Related Heat Transfer

Analysis
Ray-Tracing: An exact
method for determining the
quantities of photons which
irradiate a surface.
Z π/2 Z π
qν = Iν (θ, φ)cosθ sin θdθdφ
−π/2 0
ε
Iν = [1 − exp(−αl(θ))]
α0
Ray-tracing considers full 3D geometries, with the possibility of simpler

2D/1D slab geometries.

Introduction
Case Studies

Analysis
Z π/2 Z π
−π/2 0
ε
Iν = [1 − exp(−αl(θ))]
α0


Introduction
Case Studies

Analysis
Z π/2 Z π
−π/2 0
ε
Iν = [1 − exp(−αl(θ))]
α0


Introduction
Case Studies

Analysis
T (K)
8
4500
7
4000
6
3500
5
3000
Y(m)
4 2500
3 2000
1500
2
1000
1
500
0
0 5 10 15
X(m)
Complex flow geometries with millions of molecular spectral lines

Introduction Titan Entry: Huygens
Correlations & High-Fidelity Sims. Mars Entry: PHOENIX and EXOMARS
Case Studies The ESTHER Shock Tube
Case Studies

IST-IPFN Participation is Space Exploration Programmes
Since 2004, IPFN has supported all the major European

planetary exploration Missions
Support to the Huygens Titan entry mission in 2004
Support to the Mars EXPRESS Observation of the PHOENIX
entry in 2008
Support to the upcoming Mars robotic exploration Mission
EXOMARS in 2016 and 2018
IPFN is developing a new generation European shock-tube
(ESTHER) for the support of planetary exploration missions
on a total funding of 2M Euros

Huygens Titan Entry (2005)
60 half angle blunted cone

Base diameter: 2.7 m
Nose radius: 1.25 m
Entry module mass: 318.62 kg
Aerodynamic databases
developed by EADS between
1991 and 1995.

Huygens Heat Fluxes: Nominal Yelle Atmospheric Profile
Titan Composition: 95% N2 –5% CH4

Important Radiator species CN produced in the shock layer.
correlations do not work anymore.

Validation of Aerothermodynamic Databases: Shock-Tubes

Experiments
TCM2 Shock-Tube at Marseilles, France, was utilized for validating

the CFRD models used for Huygen’s Entry

Acquisition Results: CN spectral time-resolved picture
Shot conditions :
Shock Tube
Classical mixture
pshock =200 Pa
Shock velocity
vshock =5680 m/s

40 Pa test rebuilding, Boltzmann
Non-equilibrium zone, 1s integration Temporal evolution
Validation of Aerothermal databases against simpler (1D,

time-dependent) representative flow conditions

Coupled CFD-Radiative Simulations of Huygens Entry

Influence of Radiation and Radiation Coupling

Mars EXPRESS Observation of the PHOENIX Entry
ESA Mars EXPRESS Orbiter

provided support for PHOENIX
2008 Mars Entry
Mars EXPRESS Tracked
PHOENIX Entry with his onboard
instrumentation (First Attempt at
tracking an Entry from an
Onboard Satellite).
CFRD simulations prior to entry predicted the IR trail to be the most

emissive.
SPICAM VUV Camera and HRSC Visible Camera tracked the Entry.
IR Fourier Spectrometer could not be turned on due to power budget
constraints.

CFRD Simulations of PHOENIX Entry
PHOENIX Temperature Profiles, t=203s Sample spectrum of the PHOENIX Plume

HRSC Observation in # 5647 during Phoenix EDL :
Nadir Context of Limb
195°° E, 81.5°° N: HRSC

SC ND, spatial resolution 12.5 m/pixel,
/ image width 18 km
SOWG 38, ESAC, Villafranca: HRSC Future Planning Hoffmann and Hauber 04 June 2008
HRSC Observation in # 5647 during Phoenix EDL :
Pointing during 144 SRC Frames
Phoenix always in center off frame

f based on latest available Kernel from
f 25 May
HRSC in # 5647 during Phoenix EDL : SRC 076
Uppermost limb haze

layers
y (detached
( haze
layer) enter FOV
Upper limb within FOV
Optically thick limb at

edge
g of FOV
•No hints for flash or

brightening
•Pointing and timing
seem to be correct
Î Phoenix not detected:

•Upper limit for energy
release
•Consistent with
continuous telemetry link
ExoMars Programme Mission Architecture
ExoMars Programme: two missions launched in 2016 and 2018.
• The 2016 mission consists of the Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) and the EDL Demonstrator Module (EDM)
• The 2018 mission consists of the Rover, accommodated inside a Descent Module (DM) and carried
to Mars by a Carrier Module (CM)
• Large international cooperation with Roscosmos and some contributions from NASA
2016 Mission 2018 Mission
Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO)

+
Carrier Module & Descent Module
Proton EDL Demonstrator Module (EDM) Proton Rover + Landed Platform

ESA UNCLASSIFIED – For Official Use
Radiative Transfer Towards Mars EXPRESS
Optical path Transmissivity Raddiation collected by one pixel of the Mars EXPRESS
instrumentation
Radiation in the VUV-Visible region was not detected, IR radiation was

predicted to be detected if the instrument had been switched on

Spectral Database for CO2 –N2 Mixtures
CO2 Infrared
O2 Sch.–Runge
CO Infrared
O2 Sch.–Runge Cont. O Atomic
CO 4+
N2 1+ O Photoionization
CO 3+
N2 2+ C− Photodetachment
CO Angstrom
NO Gamma N− Photodetachment
CO Triplet
NO Beta O− Photodetachment
CN Violet
NO Delta CO2 Photoionization
CN Red
NO Epsilon N2 Photoionization
C2 Swan
NO Beta O2 Photoionization
C2 Phillips
C Atomic CN Photoionization
C2 Mulliken
C Photoionization CO Photoionization
C2 Deslandres–
D’Azambuja N Atomic NO Photoionization
C2 Ballik–Ramsay N Photoionization

Radiative Power for CO2 –N2 Mixtures: Comparison With

Other Spectral Databases
12
10
10
10
8 CO2 IR
Radiative Power (W/m3)
10 Other Systems
6
10
4
10
2
10
0
10
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Temperature (K)
Comparison of the overall temperature dependent radiative power of CO2 IR radiation (red) and for the other
radiative systems (black) for an atmospheric pressure, Martian-type CO2 –N2 plasma. Comparison is carried for the
SPARTAN code database (full lines) and the EM2C database (dotted lines).

Example of a Ray Departing from the Afterbody Plume;

PH (1/2)
Intensity at ray departure

0 Intensity at ray arrival
10
−5
Intensity (W/m /cm )
10
−1
2
−10
10
−15
10
3 4 5
10 10 10
Wavelength (A)

Example of a Ray Departing from the Afterbody Plume;

PH (2/2)
1 Intensity at ray departure

10
Intensity at ray arrival
Intensity (W/m /cm )
−1
0
10
2
−1
10
4.17 4.1705 4.171 4.1715 4.172 4.1725

Wavelength (A) x 10
4

Comparison of Stagnation Streamline and Backcover

Shoulder Spectra; PH
VUV-Visible radiation higher for the stagnation streamline

points
For both points, CO2 radiation spectral intensity is several
orders of magnitude above Visible-VUV radiation

Contribution of Radiative Fluxes above 1µm to the Overall

Radiative Power; Large Spacecraft Configuration
100
99.98
99.96
IR Radiation Contribution (%)
99.94
99.92
99.9
99.88
99.86
99.84 PH
PP
P28
99.82 P23
SHA
99.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Wall Point
Values for the smaller spacecraft configuration are similar. Other studies in the scope
of the ESA TC3 testcase confirm such findings for CO2 –N2 mixtures (CN and C2
radiation less than 3% overall in the stagnation streamline point.

The ESTHER Shock-Tube Project
European Shock Tube for High Enthalpy Research
European Space Agency project

International consortium, led by Instituto Superior Técnico, for the
development and comissioning of a shock-tube facility for planetary
exploration research in the high speed regime
Consortium partners include:
Fluid Gravity Eng. (Ermsworth, UK),
Université de Provence (Marseille, France),
Ingénieurie Systèmes Avancés (Bordeaux, France),
Moscow Institute for Physics and Technology (Moscow, Russia),
Instituto de Soldadura e Qualidade (Lisboa, Portugal),
Shock-Waves Laboratory (Aachen, Germany),
University of Manchester (Manchester, UK),
Université Blaise Pascal (Clermont–Ferrand, France),
Université Paris VI (Paris, France)

Shock-Tube Characteristics
Facility capable of reproducing shock waves for gas mixtures simulating

the atmosphere of Earth, Mars and Venus (CO2 –N2 ), Titan (N2 –CH4 ).
High pressure reached in the driver section through the deflagration of a
high-pressure H2 –O2 mixture. This allows a quick-rise in pressure,
enabling 3–4 shots per day, but needs special precautions related to the
presence of explosive gases.
Shock velocities of v '4–12km/s, allowing the simulation of orbital (slow
speed) and interplanetary superorbital entry plasma flows.
High-speed automated diagnostics (MHz) for control, acquisition, and
collecting light emitted by the plasma.

Shock-Tube Design (1/4)
High Pressure Driver Section
600 bar maxium working pressure High pressure ignition and safety
900 bar design limit system
Internal diameter 200mm Combustion gas preparation system

and induction system including
Outer diameter 360mm mixing, storage, valves, probes and
Internal length 1.5m gauges
Nominal mixture Gasket system with rupture pressures
70%He,20%H2,10%O2 60 to 600 bar
Initial pressure 10 to 50 bar

Compression Tube (or second stage)

Internal diameter 130mm
Outer diameter 150mm, length 6.5m
Initial pressure 0.1-0.5 bar (optimized for each run)
Gasket system with rupture pressures 5 to 25 bar

Working Section
Internal diameter: 80mm Pumping system: minimum pressure

outer diameter: 150mm of 10-8 mbar during cleaning
procedures, ensure known initial test
length from diaphragm to window: gas composition.
4m
Working gas preparation and
total internal length to the dump induction system including probes
tank: 5.4m and gauges.
Initial pressure 10 to 1000Pa Windows (UV/VUV transparent)
and window mounting system.
Shock speed / pressure measurement
M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN
system.
Reentry Plasmas
Dump Tank
Post window section lead in tube to dump tank
Pressure range, vacuum to 2bar pressure post shot.
Diameter: 1 m
Length: 3 m

Hypersonic Plasmas Laboratory
European Shock-Tube for High Enthalphy Research

Shock-Tube: A facility for reproducing the conditions of an atmospheric entry

Support to planetary exploration missions and meteoroids planetary protection research

2M€ total funding, 1,75M€ funding from the European Space Agency

First facility of its class to be built in the last 30 years in Europe, located at IST-IPFN

World class facility capable of reaching superorbital shock-speeds in excess of 10km/s
Facility Specifications
Length: 16m
Test-section diameter: 80mm
Shock Velocities: 4-12+ km/s
Pre-shock pressures: 0.1-100+

mbar
Planetary compositions: Air (Earth),

Outside view of the laboratory and view of the experimental hall
CO2-N2 (Venus, Mars), N2-CH4
(Titan)
ESTHER shock-tube
Example of a shock-induced plasma

Atmospheric Entry Plasmas: F Isica Dos Plasmas

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Introduction

Correlations & High-Fidelity Sims.

Atmospheric Entry Plasmas

Mário Lino da Silva, Bruno Lopez, Vasco Guerra and Jorge

Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear

March 10, 2014

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

What are Atmospheric (Re)-Entry Plasmas

Formation of a strong shockwave upstream of a spacecraft crossing

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Shockwaves as Plasma Precursors

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Comparison Between Entry and Laboratory Discharge

1/2mv 2 ' 7/2kB Ttr

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Plasma Radiation as a Spacecraft Design Driver

Radiative heating can be a major design driver for

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Do we need to take radiation into account?

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Aerothermodynamics of Entry Vehicles

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Aerothermodynamics of Entry Vehicles

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Engineering Correlations for Radiation

Engineering Correlations useful when exploring different EDL

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Blackbody radiation limit

spectral emissivity of a gas has a

The spectral integration yields the

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Stagnation Streamline flux dependence on cone radius

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Stagnation Streamline flux dependence on entry speed

Radiation dominates above

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Boltzmann and Goulard Numbers

Boltzmann number Bo−1 , Radiation/Convection ratio:

Infinite slab approximationa . We also have Cp T w u∞ /2.

Goulard Number Γ, Radiative cooling parameter

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Optically Thin and Optically Thick Limiting Cases

Γ < 10−3 : radiation is not important

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Radiative Transfer Regimes

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Computational Fluid Radiative Dynamics Simulations

Development of radiative databases

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

Development of Spectral Databases

atomic and polyatomic transitions

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

“Collection” of lines which correspond to the overall quantum-allowed

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

“Collection” of lines which correspond to the overall quantum-allowed

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

“Collection” of lines which correspond to the overall quantum-allowed

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

“Collection” of lines which correspond to the overall quantum-allowed

M. Lino da Silva, B. Lopez, V. Guerra and J. Loureiro, IPFN Reentry Plasmas

can be decoupled in the following variables :

Aul : Transition probabilities (Einstein Coefficients):

∆Eul : Level energies: