Prestressing is the deliberate creation of permanent internal stresses in a structure or

system in order to improve its performance. counteract those induced by external loadings.

Prestressing the concrete produces compressive stresses, either uniform or nonuniform, which will
counteract tensile stresses induced by external loadings.

during service. However, it has since evolved to counteract only in part externally- induced tensile
stresses, thus allowing tension and controlled cracking in a way similar to reinforced concrete. This has
led to what is called partial prestressing.

resulting stress remains a compressive stress throughout the member.

Pretension

In pretensioning the prestressing tendons (wires, strands) are stretched to a predetermined tension and
anchored to fixed bulkheads or molds. The concrete is poured around the tendons, cured, and upon
hardening the tendons are released. As the bond between the tendons and the concrete resists the
shortening of the tendons, the concrete is compressed. The prefix "pre" in pretensioning refers to the
fact that the tendons are put in tension prior to hardening of the concrete.

In order to stretch the tendons, hydraulic jacks are generally used. Once the predetermined elongation
is reached, the tendons are anchored to the bulkhead using anchors similar to those described for
posttensioning. Anchors for individual strands are also called chucks. A typical chuck anchor is shown in
Fig. 1.7.
Another technique for stretching the tendons is electrothermal or electrical prestressing, where high-
strength deformed bars are heated by means of an electric current between 250° C and 450° C, then
placed and anchored at the ends of the molds or a pretensioning bed. After pouring and hardening of
the conerete matrix, the current is cut off and the composite cooled. Upon cooling, the reinforcement
shortens, inducing compressive stresses in the matrix.

Electrochemical prestressing is not used in the United States but has been used in the Soviet Union and
Eastern Europe. Its application was limited because it requires extra safety precautions and only leads
to relatively low levels of prestress. Depending on the pretensioned structural elements produced, the
profile of the tendons is either straight (Fig. 1.8), such as in hollow-cored slabs, or allows for one or two
deflection points (also called draping or hold-down points) such as in bridge girders (Fig. 1.9). Draping is
generally achieved by pulling or pushing down part of the tendons to the desired position. A sketch of
the "hold-down" procedure and typical draping devices is shown in Fig. 1.10. Whenever technically
possible and for economy, contractors prefer single draping point to double-draping points.
Small-diameter tendons are generally used in pretensioning to allow for the bond between steel and
concrete to develop over a short distance. The most popular sizes in the United States are the 3/8-in
(9.5-mm-), the 1/2-in (12.5-mm-), and the 0.6-in (15.24 mm) diameter strands.

USES

Pretensioning is the method most often used for the production of precast prestressed concrete
elements in the United States, because it offers great potential for mechanization. lengths of up to 600 ft
(182 m), where individual elements are cast end to end, are preferred, because they require a single
tensioning operation standardized cross sections are mass produced yet customized by varying the
length of each element and by placing inserts, holes, or blackouts for the mechanical or electrical
distribution systems. Accelerated curing often permits early removal of the elements and daily reuse of
the forms (24-hour production cycle). Excellent quality control and optimum use of labor and materials
are achieved. Efficient long-line production techniques with casting bed Elements of

. Spans of up to 150 ft (46 m) are not uncommon and are mostly limited by transportation and erection
constraints
Post-tensioning:

In post-tensioning the tendons are stressed and anchored at the ends of the concrete member after the
member has been cast and has attained sufficient strength.

Commonly, a mortar-tight metal pipe or duct (also called sheath) is placed along the member before
concrete casting. The tendons could be preplaced loose inside the sheath prior to casting or could be
placed after hardening of the concrete. After stressing and anchoring, the void between each tendon
and its duct is filled with a mortar grout which subsequently hardens. Grouting ensures bonding of the
tendon to the surrounding concrete, improves the resistance of the member to cracking and reduces
the risks of corrosion for the steel tendons. Figure 1.13 gives a perspective of some typical post-
tensioning operations.

The above post-tensioning technique implies using what are commonly called "bonded tendons." If the
duct is filled with grease instead of grout, the bond would be destroyed throughout the length of the
tendon, and the tendon force would apply to the concrete member only at the anchorages. This leads
to "unbonded tendons." Unbonded tendons are generally coated with grease or bituminous material,
wrapped with waterproof paper or placed inside a flexible plastic hose, and positioned in the forms
prior to concrete casting. When the concrete gains sufficient strength, the tendons are stressed and
anchored. They remain unbonded throughout their length and during service life of the structure. This
technique is widely used in slab systems of residential and parking structures with several bays,
because of its extreme efficiency and economy. The tendons are put in tension at the periphery of the
slab and can span up to 10 consecutive bays. applications (see Section 1.6.1) the tendons are unbonded
but placed outside (i.e., are not in contact with) the concrete section. In external prestressing

The tendons generally used in post-tensioning are made out of wires, strands, or bars. Bars are
tensioned one at a time, wires and strands can be tensioned singly or in groups. In one of the
Freyssinet systems, 12 wires or strands forming a tendon can be pulled simultaneously. Up to 170 wires
with 0.25 in (6.35-mm) diameter, can form a single tendon in the BBRV system and up to 31 strands with
0.6-in (15.2 mm) diameter can form a single tendon in the VSL system. These tendons carry very large
forces. Tendons with a capacity of up to 1000 tons are commonly used in nuclear vessels. They often
need specialized jacking and anchoring equipment. Typical anchorages based on different approaches
are shown in Fig. 1.14 (see also Section 1.5). The proper construction, protection, and tensioning of a
tendon with a large number of strands, such as in cable-stayed bridges is, by itself, a special technology.
Hydraulic jacks are normally used and, along with tendons and anchorages, they are often an integral
part of the posttensioning system selected. These systems are reviewed in Sec. 1.5.
Although post-tensioning can be used in precast prestressed operations, it is most useful in cast-in-place
construction where building and bridge girders are too large to be transported, and for customized
structures which need tensioning on the job site. Its application in large scale projects, such as nuclear
power vessels, TV towers, and offshore structures has become common and will certainly continue to
expand.
Pre-tensioning and posttensioning represent two groups to which most prestressing techniques belong.
Three other known methods of prestressing use the concept of self-stressing to minimize labor cost.
They are: electrical or electrothermal prestressing, expansive cement prestressing, and the use of
special prestressing materials with deformation-controlled recovery properties such as shape memory
alloys (SMA). As mentioned above electrothermal prestressing could be considered a pre-tensioning
method as well. In expansive cement prestressing, the matrix is responsible for activating self-
stressing, while in the case of SMAS, it is the reinforcement. Both also could be used simultaneously.

Chemical Prestressing. pretensioning or the posttensioning methods. In chemical prestressing

the tendons are preplaced untensioned in the forms before the concrete is poured. Due to the special
expansive cement used, the concrete, instead of shrinking, expands after curing and during hardening.
As the steel is bonded or anchored to the concrete, it stretches with it, thus undergoing tension and
inducing compression in the concrete. The tensile force must be balanced by the compression force in
the matrix leading to a state of equilibrium. The resulting compressive stresses in the matrix creates the
benefits of prestress. Chemical prestressing, is not part of either the

The first modern development of expansive cement and its potential application to prestressing is
credited to the French engineer, Henri Lossier [Ref. 1.7, 1946]. The idea was further developed in the
Soviet Union [Ref. 1.11] and in the United States, mainly at the University of California, Berkeley [Ref.
1.13]. It was believed that chemical prestressing can be applied to elements with low levels of
prestress, such as pavements and slabs. However, due to the difficulty of controlling the expansion of
the concrete, which occurs in all directions, chemical prestressing did not develop beyond the research
field in the United States. Also the effective prestress induced was limited to less than about 200 psi (1.4
MPa), which except in pavement systems is considered insufficient for most structural applications.
Nevertheless, expansive cement is being applied to shrinkage-compensating concretes used in long
slabs to reduce or eliminate shrinkage joints.

Shape Memory Materials. Today there are smart materials that allow us to envision self-
stressing with effective prestress levels that can be controlled much more accurately, and can be of much
larger magnitude than achieved with expansive cement matrices or electrical prestressing. Shape
memory alloys (SMAS) and some special polymeric fibers possess the unique property of being able to
be frozen temporarily in a particular state, then, with proper heat or radiation treatment, go back to a
prior equilibrium state. The temperature dependent shape change (expansion-contraction) of SMAS,
such as nitinol (Ni-Ti), is based on the crystalline phase change known as martensitic transformation,
which occurs over a range of temperatures during which the alloy structure changes from martensitic
form to austenitic form and vice-versa. In particular, SMAS can be pre-stretched and remain stable in this
state at room temperature; then they can be used as reinforcement as in conventional reinforced
concrete; however, after hardening of the concrete matrix, they can be heated to recover their
deformation hence inducing prestressing. Compared to electrical prestressing, these materials do not
need costly specialized
1.5 PRESTRESSING SYSTEMS
As mentioned above tensioning the tendons can be achieved in several ways. The most common
tensioning systems are mechanical. They are generally protected by patents. It is helpful to be familiar
with the system used when detailing the steel reinforcement and positioning the end anchorages. The
basic principles used in these systems are few and essentially similar, but the details vary.

Patents have been taken on the method of applying the prestress, the type of jack used, the method or
device used to anchor the tendons, the number and diameter of wires or strands forming a tendon,
tendon coating or protection, and so on.

Typical anchorage systems are shown in Fig. 1.14. Some are based on the principle of direct bearing.
These include threaded bars anchored with nut and plate, such as for the Dywidag system, or wires
with preformed end buttons bearing on a plate through an anchor head such as the BBRV system. In
the buttoned wires system, sufficient accuracy is needed in estimating the exact length of the tendons
before and after tensioning. This is not critical if an anchor system based on wedge action or wedge and
grip action is used. simultaneously, several wires or strands on its outer periphery, as in the Freyssinet
system, or it may grip in sandwich a single bar or strand, as in the typical chuck of the Cona system.
Several wedges holding one strand each can have the same anchor head, as in the VSL system. Dead
anchors are also available. They are encased directly in the concrete and are generally used in short
members, when tensioning from one end only is sufficient. Some of these prestressing systems are
described in more detail in Appendix: C. Additional information, technical data, and even design aids are
usually available from the various manufacturers of these systems. The wedge may accommodate,

1.6.1 External Prestressing

Contrary to internal prestressing which implies that the tendons are in contact with the concrete,
external prestressing refers to prestressing in which the force is externally applied. This can be achieved
in two ways: by using jacks, primarily in temporary construction applications, or for permanent
construction, by using external prestressing tendons placed outside the concrete member.

In the first case, the force is applied through hydraulic or flat jacks placed between the abutments and
the ends of a concrete member (Fig. 1.16a). Flat jacks are thin steel or neoprene bags which, when
inflated, exert a very high force over a very small distance (Fig. 1.16b). Several of these can be
superimposed to obtain greater movement. Inflation of the jack is achieved using water or grout under
pressure. When the desired movement is reached, the grout is allowed to harden. Flat jacks are very
efficient and economical. However, over time, creep losses in the concrete and movements due to
temperature differentials hinder their effectiveness. Thus, they cannot be reliably used as a permanent
solution for prestressing.
In the second case, external unbonded prestressing tendons are placed outside the section of a
structural member and anchored mostly at its ends. These tendons are primarily designed to represent
only a portion of the total reinforcement of the structure (Fig. 1.17a). Typical applications of external
prestressing include new structures, particularly bridges, and in strengthening, repair and
rehabilitation of existing structures. Besides bridges, external prestressing has been used in building
members, roofing structures, and circular structures such as silos, reservoirs, large concrete pipes, and
water tanks. Although the external prestressing of interest hereapplies to concrete members, the
concept of external prestressing applies to steel, wood, masonry or other structures as well.

External prestressing has been proven cost effective and technically attractive worldwide, because it
leads to substantial cost savings and a dramatic decrease in construction time. Typically, to improve the
load-carrying capacity of existing bridges, external tendons are placed outside the bridge girders,
tensioned, and anchored at their ends (Fig. 1.17) Indeed, in a time where our infrastructure is in need of
renewal, external prestressing provides one of the most efficient solutions to increase the rating capacity
of existing bridges made from all structural materials (concrete, steel or timber). Note also that external
prestressing tendons can be made out of steel or other reinforcing materials such as fiber reinforced
polymeric (FRP) reinforcements.

1.6.2 Circular Prestressing

Whereas the term linear prestressing generally refers to elongated elements such as beams, bridges,
and piles, the term circular prestressing applies to pipes, pressure vessels, and tanks. Although no
analytical difficulty exists in designing circular structures, some particular techniques were developed to
prestress them efficiently. The most common one is the wire-wound technique in which the
unreinforced concrete core of a pipe or tank is wrapped with a wire under tension, thus creating the
uniform radial compression needed for prestressing the core. Upon completion the steel wire is
protected with a layer of mortar usually applied by "shotcreting" or "guniting." To rapidly and
economically place the wire under tension, it is drawn through a die (the preload method), or a special
differential winding system is used.

1.6.3 Stage Stressing

Stage stressing refers to the application of the prestressing force in stages. This is often done to avoid
overstressing the concrete in its early age or when dead loads are applied in stages and their effect
must be counteracted in steps. Stage stressing is generally achieved by fully stressing part of the
tendons at each stage.

1.6.4 Partial Prestressing

Partial prestressing is a design concept that allows one or a combination of the following design
solutions:
1. a concrete member reinforced with a combination of prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement,
the non-prestressed reinforcement being either ordinary reinforcing steel or non-stressed prestressing
steel;

2. a prestressed concrete member designed to crack in tension-flexure under service load, and,

3. a prestressed concrete member in which the effective prestress in the steel is purposely kept lower
than its maximum permissible value.

Partial prestressing as used in this text, mostly implies a combination of prestressed and non-
prestressed reinforcement (solution 1 above), both contributing to the resistance of the member. The
aim is to allow tension and cracking under full service load while ensuring adequate ultimate strength.
According to solution (3), partial prestressing can also be achieved without non -prestressed
reinforcement by using a relatively low effective prestress in the prestressing tendons. Better control of
camber and deflection, increased ductility, and cost savings are some of its advantages. Partial
prestressing is covered in detail in Ref.[1.48]. Note that as far as reinforced concrete is concerned, partial
prestressing could be termed partial reinforcing, especially when it comes to solution (1) above. This may
explain why, in an attempt to provide a general terminology, the term "structural concrete" is also used
to imply the whole spectrum of reinforcing and/or prestressing schemes.

1.7 PRESTRESSED VERSUS REINFORCED CONCRETE

In its earliest development prestressed concrete used to be mostly compared to reinforced concrete. The
currently increasing awareness and use of partially prestressed concrete (or partially reinforced concrete,
or structural concrete) renders such comparison somewhat inappropriate. Prestressed concrete and
reinforced concrete are in effect the two extreme boundaries of the same system, and partially
prestressed concrete can represent anything in between. Figure 1.20 provides a visual illustration of
how these three structural materials are used in practical design.

Reinforced and prestressed concrete cannot be considered competitors because they complement each
other in function and in application. Since prestressed concrete has become in part a manufactured
product (by the precast prestressed industry) and since it permits increasingly longer spans, it is mostly
competing with steel construction rather than with reinforced concrete. In all cases the use of concrete
offers inherent advantages, such as fire resistance, high insulation qualities, low maintenance, low
energy requirement, versatility, etc., which are common to both reinforced and prestressed concrete.

Advantages of prestressed concrete compared to reinforced concrete:

1. Prestressed concrete uses high-strength steel and concrete. Thus, it takes advantage of materials
with superior qualities, and everything else being equal, needs smaller quantities of materials than
reinforced concrete. At present, steel strengths of up to 300 ksi (2100 MPa) and concrete
 strengths of up to 15 ksi (105 MPa) are being used in the United States. Note that doubling the
concrete strength, say from 5 to 10 ksi (35 to 70 MPa), will increase the cost of the concrete matrix
by only about 30 percent, but this represents only a small percentage of the cost of the structure.

2. In prestressed concrete, the entire concrete section is generally active in resisting the load, while
in reinforced concrete only the uncracked part of the section is active (Figs. 1.19 and 1.20). 3.
Because of 1 and 2 above, prestressed concrete members are lighter, more slender, and
frequently aesthetically more appealing than their reinforced concrete counterparts. Their lighter
weight is particularly important in long-span girders and bridges where the dead load is a
dominant design factor.

3. Because of 1 and 2 above, prestressed concrete members are lighter, more slender, and frequently
aesthetically more appealing than their reinforced concrete counterparts. Their lighter weight is
particularly important in long-span girders and bridges where the dead load is a dominant design factor.

4. Since prestressed concrete is crackless, it provides better protection than reinforced concrete
against corrosion of the steel in aggressive environments, and it is more suitable for fluid-retaining
structures such as tanks and nuclear vessels.

5. Prestressed concrete (fully or partially) provides the means for effective deflection control, especially
under long-term sustained loading.

6. Prestressed concrete has better shear resistance than reinforced concrete, due to the slope of the
tendons near the supports and to the precompression which reduces diagonal tension. Thus it will
require fewer stirrups.

7. It is often claimed that prestressed concrete structures have an inherent safety since they undergo the
most severe loading during initial tensioning of the steel. In effect they are pretested. If they pass this
first test, they are likely to perform well under future service loads .

A priori, one cannot make a general statement on whether prestressed concrete is more or less
economical than reinforced concrete. Prestressed concrete requires a higher level of technology, and
often such technology is simply not available where the structure is to be built. Prestressed concrete
uses less materials, but of a higher quality, than reinforced concrete and, at least in posttensioning,
needs relatively expensive anchorages. Assuming the technology is available, its comparative cost
depends very much on the type of structure and the design criteria. There are applications such as long-
span bridges in which reinforced concrete cannot compete with prestressed concrete. But there are
also areas where their range of applicability overlaps, and the choice for either one should be based not
only on initial cost but also on other costs and performance criteria. The initial cost of the structure is no
longer an all-important factor. It is the author's experience that for structural applications which fall
within the capabilities of both reinforced and prestressed concrete, the initial cost difference using either
material is often less than 10 percent. For instance, savings in total construction time may render a
precast prestressed structure substantially more economical than its reinforced counterpart. Many
tradeoffs must be considered before making a decision since some of the advantages of prestressed
concrete may not always be needed.
. Although smooth bars can be obtained, at present they are mostly deformed to improve their bonding
properties. Welded wire fabrics and meshes are being increasingly used as main reinforcement in
reinforced concrete slabs or supplemental reinforcement in prestressed slabs. They improve
substantially the cracking performance of slabs prestressed with unbonded tendons. Typical sizes of
wires, smooth or deformed, used separately or in welded meshes, are given in Table 2.2. Many sizes in
between those shown are also available. In practice, welded meshes having any reasonable size opening
of square or rectangular shape are manufactured as standard product or, on request, for a particular
design. Common wire spacing in one of the two principal directions of the mesh are 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, and
12 inches (50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300 mm). More details can be obtained from local suppliers or the
Wire Reinforcement Institute.

The minimum tensile properties of reinforcing bars and wires are summarized in Table 2.3. Also shown is
the corresponding ASTM standard designation. Although several grades are available, the most common
grade in the United States is the A615 grade 60 deformed steel, which gives a minimum yield strength
of 60 ksi (414 MPa). The A706 steel with the same minimum yield as the A615 has a higher strain to
failure and is more ductile; it is most suitable in applications where ductility (seismic construction),
weldability and bendability are important.

Grade 75 steel, which has a minimum yield strength of 75 ksi (517 Mpa) and a minimum tensile
strength of 100 ksi (690 MPa), is recommended mostly for use in large reinforced concrete columns.

Reinforcing steels exhibit good resistance to fatigue. Typical stress range versus number of cycles to
failure curves are shown in Fig. 2.2. It can be generally observed that an endurance limit to fatigue seems
to exist. On the basis of an extensive series of tests on North American bars [Ref. 2.34], the following
conclusions were drawn: the fatigue strength that is the acceptable stress range for more than two
million loading cycles is practically independent of the grade of steel but depends on the minimum
applied stress and the degree of stress concentration induced in deformed bars during the deformation
process. Other factors were also found to influence the fatigue strength, such as the nominal diameter
and the yield strength, but to a lesser extent. The following relationship was proposed for use in
design:
2.2 PRESTRESSING STEELS
The importance of using, in prestressed concrete, high-strength steels that permit high elongations
was mentioned in Chapter 1. Otherwise, the steel stress will decrease substantially or vanish with
time due to prestress losses. As prestress losses in the steel (not including friction) can often
approach 60 ksi (414 MPa), that is about equal to the typical yield strength of common reinforcing
bars, it is clear that minimum tensile strengths substantially higher than this value are needed to
achieve effective prestressing. Other desirable properties are also needed. Ideally a tendon material
should not only have high strength but also (1) remain elastic up to relatively high stresses, (2) show
sufficient ductility before failure, (3) have good bonding properties, low relaxation, good resistance to
fatigue and corrosion, and (4) be economical and easy to handle. Clearly a tradeoff should be made,
and high- strength steels offer a good compromise.

The high tensile strength and adequate ductility of prestressing steels are generally obtained by using
(1) high carbon hot rolled alloy steel, (2) cold drawn or deformed carbon steel, preferably tempered,
and (3) hot rolled and heat-treated carbon steel. Some of these treatments are clarified in the
following section and in Fig. 2.5. When alloys are used, they comprise manganese, silicon, chromium,
and, to a lesser extent, nickel. Most prestressing wires are produced by the cold working (drawing or
rolling) process. Wires are manufactured with different cross-sectional shapes and surface conditions:
round or oval, smooth or indented, ribbed, twisted, or crimped. When cut to size, round wires used in
some posttensioning systems can have button heads formed at their ends (Fig. 2.4). Typical
characteristics of prestressing wires most frequently used in the United States are shown in Table 2.4.
Prestressing strands are produced from several wires. In the seven-wire strand, six peripheral wires
are wound helically over a central wire, which has a slightly higher diameter than the others. Because
strands are made with relatively small diameter wires, they are much easier to handle (more flexible)
than a single bar of the same nominal diameter and they achieve superior properties due to better
quality control (Table 2.4). Most popular is the 1/2-inch diameter strand with a minimum tensile
strength of 270 ksi (1860 MPa). One variety of seven-wire strand is the die- formed or drawn strand
(Fig. 2.4). Drawing tightens the wires against each other and leads to a smoother outside surface.

Mechanical properties such as strength and relaxation are enhanced. Common upper and lower
tolerance limits on strand area and mass are +4 and -2 percent. The equivalent area is generally
obtained from weighing, assuming a density of 490 Ib/ft3 (7850 kg/m3). Prestressing bars are
manufactured with a smooth or ribbed surface. Smooth bars can be end-threaded mechanically to be
used with anchoring systems based on nut and plate. The ribs in a ribbed bar are formed during the
drawing process and act as a thread such as in the Dywidag system. Thus the bar can be anchored
anywhere along its length. Prestressing bars are generally made with alloy steel heat treated to
2.2 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE OF CONCRETE

Knowledge of the stress-strain relationship of concrete is essential for developing all the analysis and
design terms and procedures in concrete structures. Figure 2.2 shows a typi- cal stress-strain curve
obtained from tests using cylindrical concrete specimens loaded in uniaxial compression over several
minutes. The first portion of the curve, to about 40 percent of the ultimate strength f, can essentially be
considered linear for all practical purposes. After approximately 70 percent of the failure stress, the
material loses a large portion of its stiffness, thereby increasing the curvilinearity of the diagram. At
ultimate load, cracks parallel to the direction of loading become distinctly visible, and most con- crete
cylinders (except those with very low strengths) suddenly fail shortly thereafter. Figure 2.3 shows the
stress-strain curves of concrete of various strengths reported by the Portland Cement Association. It
can be observed that (1) the lower the strength of con- crete, the higher the failure strain; (2) the
length of the initial relatively linear portion in- creases with the increase in the compressive strength of
concrete; and (3) there is an apparent reduction in ductility with increased strength.
2.3 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND CHANGE IN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH WITH TIME

Since the stress-strain curve shown in Figure 2.4 is curvilinear at a very early stage of its loading
history, Young's modulus of elasticity can be applied only to the tangent of the curve at the
origin. The initial slope of the tangent to the curve is defined as the initial tangent modulus, and
it is also possible to construct a tangent modulus at any point of the curve. The slope of the
straight line that connects the origin to a given stress (about 0.4 f') determines the secant
modulus of elasticity of concrete. This value, termed in de- sign calculation the modulus of
elasticity, satisfies the practical assumption that strains oc- curring during loading can be
considered basically elastic (completely recoverable on unloading), and that any subsequent
strain due to the load is regarded as creep. The ACI building code gives the following expressions
for calculating the secant modulus of elasticity of concrete, E. E = 33w5 Vf. for 90 < w. < 155 Ilb/ft
(2.2a) where w, is the density of concrete in pounds per cubic foot (1 lb/ft = 16.02 kg/m) and f is
the compressive cylinder strength in psi. For normal-weight concrete,
2.2.4 Relaxation
Relaxation is the loss of tension over time in a stressed tendon maintained at constant length and
temperature. Similarly to creep, which describes the change of strain with time at a constant
stress, relaxation results from the adaptation of material to an externally applied constraint. The
relaxation losses of prestressing steels are generally negligible for stresses smaller than 50 percent
of ultimate strength. However, they increase rapidly with an increase in stress and temperature.
Typical variations of relaxation loss with time at various levels of initial stress and at various
temperatures are shown in Figs. 2.7 and 2.8. It can be generally observed that relaxation continues
over time but at a decreasing rate. However there is evidence [Ref. 2.53] that the relative influence
of temperature within the ambient range diminishes over time while the influence of initial stress
remains the same. In practice the long-term relaxation of prestressing steels is determined from
short-term tests. Most commonly, the relaxation loss is experimentally determined at 1000 hours
and a multiplier is used to estimate the relaxation at the end of life of the structure.

Relaxation depends on the type and grade of steel. However, for the purpose of design,
prestressing steels are divided into two groups, having either normal or low relaxation properties.
A standard stress-relieved strand has normal relaxation. Low relaxation is about 25 percent of
normal relaxation. Strands with low relaxation properties can be obtained by a process described
as stabilization; in that process the strand is subjected to a temperature regime ranging from 20°C
to 100°C for an extended period of time, while under a stress close to 70 percent of ultimate
strength. In comparison to stress-relieved strand, this one is often identifiedin practice as "low-
lax." Typical relaxation losses at 1000 hours recommended by the FIP Commission of Prestressing
Steels [Ref. 2.26] are given in Table 2.7 in percent of initial stress. Note that the higher the initial
stress, the higher the relaxation loss. A multiplier of three is suggested to estimate normal life
relaxation after 50 years. The corresponding relaxation loss can be very significant.

However, one must realize that in a prestressed concrete element the steel stress decreases over
time not only because of relaxation but also because the concrete shortens due to creep and
shrinkage. The tendon will shorten an equal amount and its initial stress level will decrease. As a
result, the apparent relaxation loss is smaller than the pure relaxation otherwise obtained from a
reference tendon maintained at constant length. The effect of creep and/or relaxation with time on
the state of stress and strain in the material is illustrated in Fig. 2.9 and applies to steel, concrete, or
their combination. A detailed treatment of this interaction can be found in Chapter 8 where
prestress losses are covered.

When a high tensile steel wire is stretch and maintained at a constant strain the initially force in
the wire does not remain constant but decrease with time. The decrease of stress in steel at
constant strain is termed relaxation of steel.
 Elastic Shortening

in prestressed concrete, the shortening of a member that occurs immediately on the application
of forces induced by prestressing.

Elastic Shortening Loss ;

Secondy, reinforced concrete member will shorten due to initial compression supplied by
presstressing. As reinforced concrete member shortens, strands also shortens and stress
on strands decreases. In other words, as strands shortens some of the initial presstressing
force applied on concrete is lost. Calculation of elastic shortening loss needs an iterative
procedure. Furthermore, elastic shortening loss formula includes  fcgp which is the increase
in concrete stresses. Reason for this increasing is, applied prestressing immediately after
transfer and maximum moment due to self-weight of  element. Also,  it is dependent on
elastic shortening loss. It is adjacent to the center of  gravity of strands.
Furthermore, to calculate elastic shortening loss first assume a loss between 5 and 10
percent. Then calculate fcgp and compare with initial assumption and repeat this procedure
until initial assumption and calculated loss is same.
Flexural members are slender members that deform primarily by bending moments
caused by concentrated couples or transverse forces. In modern construction, these
members may be joists, beams, girders, spandrels, lintels, and other specially named
elements. But their behavior in every case is essentially the same. Unless otherwise
specified in a problem, flexural members will be referred to as beams here. In the following
sections, the ACI 318 provisions for the strength, ductility, serviceability, and
constructability of beams are summarized and illustrated.

A fundamental difference exists between analysis and design. In dealing with civil engineering
structures, design implies an unknown product, at least in part, while analysis implies investigating
or reviewing a finished or proposed product. The analysis process, also called investigation or
review process, is concerned with assessing the response of the structure to the application of
loadings. It deals in part with the determination of stresses and stress or force resultants and in
part with checking if the structure satisfies acceptable design criteria. This is often done by
comparing actual findings with corresponding limits and ranges recommended in prevailing codes.
To analyze is also to compare with what engineering judgment or the state of the art considers
acceptable. Since it generally involves no unknown, the analysis process is easier than the design
process.

In civil engineering structures, design involves the selection of many particulars among a large array
of possibilities, such as the structural layout, the shape of a member, the structural material, and
even the construction process. Within each step the design deals with the actual versus the ideal
and at different levels of details. Although design does not necessarily imply finding the optimum
solution, it certainly aims at being within an appropriate range of the optimum. Because of its
inherent nature of dealing with unknowns and because infinite combinations of possibilities exist,
design is mostly an iterative process. An efficient design process is one in which the number of
iterations is reduced to a minimum. This often depends on the experience and skill of the
designer. A distinction is made between preliminary design or designs in which many alternatives
can be explored quickly (using engineering judgment, rule of thumb, etc.), and final design which is
a more

3.3 DESIGN OBJECTIVES feasibility constructability • safety • serviceability economy functionality

aesthetics.

environmental impact, sustainability and maintainability ease of future demolition replacement.

Limit states are generally classified in two categories, namely, serviceability limit states, and
ultimate strength limit states. However, a special category of limit states due to abnormal and rare
conditions, such as a nuclear explosion or a 2000 years earthquake, can also be added.

An allowable stress, or a maximum crack width, or a limit value of deflection belong to the category
of serviceability limit states.
Collapse of a structure due to excessive bending or shear belongs to the category of ultimate
strength limit states. Fatigue falls somewhere in between. Since fatigue occurs generally under
repeated service loads (elastic stresses), it can be considered a serviceability limit state; however,
it can be also argued that since fatigue leads to failure, it should be considered an ultimate limit
state. Either way it is accommodated by the limit state design philosophy. To accommodate a limit
state, a design criterion is set. For instance, a crack width limit state implies that the crack width is
less than or equal to a code specified value. It is then said in design that the structure must satisfy
the maximum crack width limit state when subjected to service loads. Typically a design criterion
takes on the following logical form:

The working stress design (WSD) or allowable stress design (ASD), sometimes also called
permissible stress design (PSD), are different terminologies for the same approach in which
maximum stress criteria are specified; that is, some allowable stresses are not to be exceeded
under service loads [Ref. 3.1, 3.7]. The ultimate strength design (USD), and the load and resistance
factor design (LRFD) imply essentially the same philosophy where in strength limit states and
possible collapse are considered under factored loads [Refs. 3.2, 3.4, 3.8]. The limit state design
(LSD), described in the previous section, is a general approach where all limit states such as stresses
as well as collapse can be considered simultaneously. LSD is the general modern approach to follow
(Fig. 3.1) and encompasses all the other approaches. The reasons for which a subset approach,
such as WSD, is used, are: 1) either because WSD was used historically first, or 2) because, WSD
was found from experience to be generally most critical (controlling) for a design with a typical
material or structure.
WSD

In this approach the stresses under working loads are limited to permissible values or allowable
stresses and the structure is analyzed assuming linear elastic materials and thus linear elastic
behavior. Safety is ensured by selecting allowable stresses as relatively small fractions of the
characteristic strengths of the component materials. Allowable stresses are specified in various
codes and may vary from one code to another. Typical values for prestressed concrete are
described in Section 3.7. For instance, the maximum permissible compressive stress on concrete
flexural members may be taken as 0.45 f'c. This implies a safety factor of (1/0.45) = 2.22 against
concrete compressive failure under short term loading. Note that in the working stress design all
types of loads are treated the same, no matter how different their variability is. This is less realistic
than in the USD approach where each load is treated according to its degree of uncertainty. The
design of prestressed concrete beams using the working stress design approach is covered in detail
in Chapter 4. When the WSD (or ASD) approach is used, the following general formulation
(criterion) applies:

3.5.2 USD, SD, or LRFD

In this approach, the design working loads are multiplied by load factors and the structure is
designed to resist the factored loads, at its ultimate capacity. The load factors are different for
each type of load and are adjusted to reflect the degree of variability and uncertainty of that load.
This is more realistic than in the WSD approach, where all loads are treated the same.

3.8 ALLOWABLE STRESSES

In the working stress design approach a number of stress limits, called allowable stresses or
permissible stresses, are needed. These allowable stresses are not to be exceeded by actual
stresses under application of service loads. They are in general prescribed by the code adopted for
the design. Typical values of allowable stresses imposed by the ACI code are summarized in Tables
3.3 to 3.8 for concrete, prestressing steel, and reinforcing steel, respectively.

Concrete

Allowable stresses for concrete (Table 3.3) are separated into two groups: the first one
corresponds to initial stresses at time of transfer of prestress (before prestress losses), and the
second one corresponds to final or service load stresses (after allowance for prestress losses).
The subscript i such as in f'ci is associated with the first group. Tension in concrete has been given a
negative sign in accordance with the sign convention adopted in this text. Also given in Table 3.3
are the stresses in the equivalent SI system. Note that a tension of -6/f is generally allowed during
service on the concrete precompressed fiber. A fictitious value of -12Jf. is allowed to
accommodate partial prestressing.

Two allowable values of extreme fiber compressive stress in service due to prestress and total load
are given to reflect the nature of the service load and its effect on long term properties, particularly
creep, deflections, and fatigue. Thus, when the sustained dead load and live load are a substantial
portion of total service load, the 0.45f, allowable stress limit may control. On the other hand when
a large portion of the total service load consists of a transient temporary service load, the stress
limit of 0.6fe may control. Most frequently the stress in compression under service load does not
control the design of prestressed concrete flexural members. or more

used for reinforced concrete (Fig. 3.3). The design of prestressed concrete members is primarily
controlled by allowable stresses (serviceability criteria), while the design of reinforced concrete
members is controlled primarily by ultimate strength criteria. Typically the design of prestressed
concrete starts by working stress design procedures (WSD) to help dimension the member; then
ultimate strength design (USD) criteria are checked, and adjustments are made should a design
criterion be violated. In comparison, the design of reinforced concrete members starts directly by
USD procedures; generally allowable stresses are not of concern and serviceability criteria such as
crack width and deflections can be accommodated by proper dimensioning and detailing. Thus, for
all practical purposes, the design of reinforced concrete is primarily controlled by USD, while that
of prestressed concrete is primarily controlled by WSD; however, in addition, USD criteria must
also be used in prestressed concrete.

The design of prestressed concrete members is primarily controlled by allowable stresses

(serviceability eriteria), while the design of reinforced concrete members is controlled primarily
by ultimate strength criteria.

Typically the design of prestressed concrete starts by working stress design procedures (WSD) to
help dimension the member; then ultimate strength design (USD) criteria are checked, and
adjustments are made should a design criterion be violated. In comparison, the design of
reinforced concrete members starts directly by USD procedures; generally allowable stresses are
not of concern and serviceability criteria such as crack width and deflections can be accommodated
by proper dimensioning and detailing. Thus, for all practical purposes, the design of reinforced
concrete is primarily controlled by USD, while that of prestressed concrete is primarily controlled
by WSD; however, in addition, USD criteria must also be used in prestressed concrete.

The initial loading refers primarily to the stage where the prestressing force is transferred to the
concrete and no external loads are present except the weight of the member. At this time the
prestressing force is maximum since prestress losses have not yet taken place and the concrete
strength is minimum since the concrete is still young; consequently, the stresses in the concrete
can be critical. In pretensioned members, in order to speed production, the prestressing tendons
are released simultaneously at a time when the strength of the concrete has reached 60 to 80
percent of its specified 28 days strength. temperatures, these strengths can be achieved in less
than 24 hours after the concrete is poured. tensioned all at the same time but rather in two or
three steps to allow the concrete to reach its specified strength before the prestressing force is
fully applied. For example, 20 percent of the tendons may be tensioned about three days after
the concrete is poured to compensate shrinkage stresses, an additional 40 to 50 percent at about
seven days in order to remove the molds, etc., and the rest at 28 days. This approach has also the
advantage of distributing more uniformly the work of the posttensioning crew in the field. In
most cases the initial loading leads to critical stresses and its effect must be carefully assessed. By
curing the concrete at higher In posttensioned members, often the prestressing tendons are not
The final loading stage refers here to the most severe loading under service conditions; it is then
assumed that all prestress losses have occurred, i.e., the prestressing force has its final and
smallest value, and that the most critical combination of external loadings is applied; such a
combination includes the weight of the member, superimposed dead load, live load, impact, and
the like. Load combinations are generally specified in various codes and specifications (Chapter 3).
Although the initial and final loadings are often the two most critical loadings, some intermediate
loadings may become critical in the design. For example, special conditions during handling,
transportation, and erection of precast prestressed members may lead to stresses more critical
than those induced by the initial and final loadings. Every particular case must be studied with care
and if necessary integrated in the design.

ALLOWABLE STRESSES
Allowable stresses on the concrete section as well as in the steel are generally provided by the
codes of practice or specifications considered for a particular study. Typical values of allowable
stresses are given in Section 3.8. Since generally two extreme loading conditions (Fig. 4.12)
provide bounds to all others, at least four allowable stresses on the concrete section must be
considered in the design, namely two (tension and compression) for the initial loading and two
(tension and compression) for the most severe final loading. Without specifically referring to any
particular numerical value of allowable stresses, the following notation will be used in describing
them:
This is equivalent to saying that both the stress and strain diagrams along the section of concrete
under bending are linear, and that the changes in strains in the steel and in the concrete at the level
of the steel are identical. Also the load- deflection or moment-curvature curves are assumed linear
for the loadings considered. Typical stress diagrams for the two extreme initial and final loadings
have been described in Fig. 4.12. Note that the highest stresses in the section occur at the
extreme top and bottom fibers.
Since two extreme loadings are generally critical and since for each, two allowable stresses must be
specified, at least four allowable stresses must be considered in the analysis. Since under flexural
loading maximum stresses occur on the two extreme fibers (top and bottom), eight inequality
equations comparing actual stresses with allowable stresses can be derived (Fig. 4.13). They are of
the form: