Sccoud Edition Power System Analysis Operation and Control Abhijit Chakrabarti Sunita Halder =Rs, 525.00 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS: Operation and Control, 2nd Ed. © 2008 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. Al rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-209-3585-1 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher Fourth Printing (Second Edition) = Pe October, 2008 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Privat Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Jay Print Pack Private Limited, New Delhi-110015.1__ Structure of a Power system. .2___ The Necessity of Control of a Power System 1.2.1 Control Methods 1.2.2 Advantages of Computer Control. 1.2.3 Types of Computer Control System. 1.3 __ Power System Representation .. 1.4 Power System at Normal Operating State .. 1.5 Operating Problems in Power Systems 1,5.1__Loadability of Transmission Lines 1,5.2_ Frequency Dynamics of Transmission Line 15.3 Overload and Frequency Decay Rate ... 1,5.4 Transient Stability Problem ... TS Poet et a acacia en cattnaseaneinnccnensitiaiinsieinnsi Lb 1,5.6 Reactive Power Limitations and Voltage Control Problems 12 1.6 _ Security Analysis and Contingency Evaluation .. 12 L2_Automatic Contral 14 1.7.1 Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) 14 1.7.2 Automatic Voltage Control (AVC! ig 1.7.3 Control Components in Power System. 18 Use of Computers and Future Trends... viivili__ CONTENTS 1.9 Application of Computer Methods in Power System Analysis... 1.9.4 Eigenvalues and its Properties 5 Triangular Factorization 2.1__Introduction 2.2 Modelling of Synchronous Generator (Alternator) Modelling of a Synchronous Generator in a Network Modelling of Generator Components. woul 2.4.1 Governor Modelling .. 2.4.2 Turbine Modelling "2.4.3 Modelling of Exciter 2.5 Modelling of Regulating Transformers ( 2.6 Three-Phase Modellin, 2.7 Modelling of Three-phase Single Circuit Transmission Line . 2.8 Modelling of Pair of Three-phase Mutually Coupled Transmission Lines 2.9 Modelling of a Shunt Coxtin/iaker 2.10 Modelling of a Series Cay 2.11 Modelling of Static VAR ‘Gaiguaae (SVO 2.12 Modelling of an Induction Motor 2.13 Power Network Modelling 2.14 Modelling of Load .. Exercises Introduction to [¥,,,] Formulation 32__Nodal Method for Development of [Y,,. 33_ Modification of [¥,,,] Due to Inclusion of Regulating Transformer ‘Between Two Buses - 3.4 _ Formation of [¥,,,] with Transformer Present in the Line Development of (Y,,,] Using Singular Transformation 3.6 Development of [Y,,.] Matrix Using Coefficient Matrix.. 36.1 _ Steps of Algorithm to Develop [¥,,.] When there is no ‘Mutual Coupling between Branches (Using Coefficient Matrix) 3.7_ Formulation of Complete [¥,,,] for a General Network .. 38 _ Modification of 1Y,,,,] for Branch Addition/Deletion. 3.8.1 Development of [¥,,,] by Step by Step [y] Array Formati 3.9 _ [¥,,.] Formation with Consideration of Mutually Coupled Lines ‘Using Step by Siep [y] Formation 3.10 Secptiaotal Aspects of Waal Formation REPELS sass 01 CopyrightedCONTENTS _ix 4. COMPLEX POWER i 2 4.1 Introduction. 42 _ Analytical Formulation of Complex Power Flow Solution 43 Gauss-Seidal (G-S) Method of Power Flow 43.1 Calculation of Line Power Flow 4.4 Newton-Raphson (N-R) Meth 4.4.1 Review of Newton-Raphson Meth 442 Application Procedure of N-R Method of Solution for ‘Two Non-linear Equations with Two Unknowns .. 44.3 Application Procedure of N-R Method for Solving 2n Equations . 4.5 Application of N-R Method in Power Flow Studie: 45.1 Application of N-R Method to Solve Power Flow Equati Rectangular Form... 4.6 Algorithm for Solving the Power Flow Problem Using N-R Method in Rectangular Form .. 4.7__ Application of N-R Method to Solve Power Flow Equation in Polar Form. 4.8__ Algorithm for Solving the Power Flow Problem Using N-R Method in’ "Polar Foc 192 4.10 Application Aspect of N-R Method in Multi-bus System .. 4.11 Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF)...... 12 aad Be a Exercises. 253 Input-Output Operational Characteristics of Thermal Power Plants .. 5.3 Input-Output Operational Characteristics of Hyde! Power Plants .. ‘S.4__Incremental Fuel Rate (IFR) Curve 5.5 Incremental Fuel Cost (IFC) Curve 5.6 Constraints in Economic Operation of Power System 5.6.1 Primary Constraints 5.6.2 Secondary Constraints. Dynamic Constraints ‘Spare Capacity Constr nts. 5.6.6 Bus Voltage and Angle Constraints... 5.6.7 _ Operational Constraint $.7__Cost Function Contour for Economic Operation of a Two-Area Power System 5.8 Analytical Approach to Determine the Economic Operation of Thermal Units (Without Considering Line Loss)... . eee 5.9 _ Computer Solution of the Economic Operation Problem 5.10 ‘Thermal Plant Load Scheduling .. CopyrigCONTENTS Sail eee sine : ¢ System Considering System Transmission Loss (Economic Dispatch) 282 5.12_A Simple Computer Approach to Solve Transmission Loss Problem 289 5:14 The Tranamission Loss Formula, 293 5.14 Use of Loss Formula in Economic Operation 5.14.1 Algorithm for Determination of Optimal Generation Using An? SAAR ans enna asmnnescntencldniits BOS 5.15 A Method of Determining Economic Operation Criterion Using 5.16 Economic Operation with Limited Fuel Supply... 3.16.1 Algorithm for Scheduling of Units for Economic Operation when Fuel Supply is Limited 5.17 Optimum Scheduling of Hydro-Thermal System .. 5.18 Aspects of Hydro Scheduling 510 (Coat OF WHE sir ccccicteeia deere ceeaaeta calc cnicmatacamae eT 5.20 Long Term Energy Scheduling in a Hydro-Thermal System 5.21 Short-term Hydro-Thermal Scheduling .... 5.22 Computer Approach to Solve the Short Term Hydro-Thermal Scheduling Problem 5.23 Hydro-Thermal Scheduling with Network Loss Considered 5.24 A Modern Approach in Short Term Hydro-Thermal Scheduling. 5.25 Scheduling of Hydraulically Coupled Units (Hydro-units in Series) 5.26 Hydro-thermal Scheduling of Pumped Storage Plants... 5.27 Short-Term Fixed Head Hydro-Thermal Scheduling Considering Transmission Line Loss and Involving Multiple Thermal and Hydro Generators (Classical Method) 5.28 Short-Term Fixed Head Hydro-Thermal Scheduling Considering Transmission Line Loss and Involving Multiple Thermal and Hydro Generator (Newton-Raphson Method) ... Exercise 384 Economic Load Dispatch by Newton-Raphson Method .... Economic Load Dispatch by Approximate Newton—Raphson Metho Economic Load Dispatch Using Exact Loss Formula . 6.41 Formation of Exact Loss Formula 4 6.4.2 Economic Load Dispatch .. 6.5 Economic Load Dispatch Using I 6.5.2 Economic Load Dispatch Using Loss Formula (Function of Real and Reactive Power) si ait7 6.9 Exercises POWER SYSTEM CONTROL CENTRES... WW 12 13 14 5 16 17 718 19 7.10 Emergency control Exercises AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL .. 81 8.2 83 84 8.5 8.6 a7 88 89 8.10 Steady State Performance of the Speed Governing System . CONTENTS Xi Economic Load Dispatch for Real and Reactive Power Balance Optimal Power Flow Using Classical Methods ... Modern Approach to Optimal Power Flow Solution .. 68.1 Newton-Raphson (N-R) Method . 68.2 Fast Decoupled Method Gradient Method Introduction. Aim of Control Centres Planning Objective Functions of Control Centre: 526 74,1 Planning 526 7.4.2. Monitoring 521 7.4.3. Data Acquisition and System Control. 521 Set-uy Locations Central Facilities 71.1 Civil Facilities.. 7.1.2. Facilities in Control Room... Communication . 7.8.1 Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) 7.8.2. Leased Telephone Lines 7.8.3. Microwave Channel..... 7.8.4 Fibre Optic Communication 532 7.8.5 Satellite Communication Channel Telemetry... Introduction... ‘Types of Alternator Exciters 82.1 Primitive Type Exciters .. 82.2 Modern Exciters Exciter Modelling Modelling of Altemator (Synchronous Generator)... Static Performance of AVR Loop... Dynamic Performance of the AVR Loop . Compensation in AVR Loop . Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) ‘Types of Turbine Representationxii__ CONTENTS 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 Complete Structure of Primary ALFC dts Responses of Primary ALFC Loop 7 555 8.12.1 Steady State Response .. 555 8.12.2 Transient Response Secondary ALFC Loop $13.1 “About the Controtfer oc sssssssastsuissssstsnsssnssssassenesasssssnsnsssentasnnnarses 560 8.13.2. Modelling of Secondary ALFC Loop Performance of Secondary ALFC Loop Extension of ALFC Loop to Multi-area Systems... Tie-line Power Flow Model ... Static Response of Two-Area System 8.18. 8.19) 8.20 Transient Response of a Two-Area System ‘Application Aspects of Primary ALFC Loop .. Application Aspect of Secondary ALFC Loop... 8.21 8.22 Interfacing of AGC with Economic Dispatch . ‘Application of Optimal Control Concepts in ALEC .. 8.23 Fundamental Aspects of Optimal Linear Regulator ( Exercise 8.23.1 Significance of Q and X in the State Regulator Problem 9. STUDY OF POWER SYSTI 668 od 9.2 Introduction 38: Types of Stability 9.3 9.4 95 96 97 98 Mathematical Concept of Stability Transient Stability 9.4.1 Representation of Transmission Lines, Loads and Generators in ‘Transient Stability 9.4.2 ‘Assumptions for Transient Stability Sudy 9.4.3 Derivation of Swing Equation ..... . 9.44 Swing Equation for Synchronous Machine Connected to Infinite Bus 9.4.5 Swing Equation for a Two Machine System 9.4.6 Linearization of Swing Equation. 9.4.7 Swing Equation of Non-coherent and Coherent Machines Equal Area Criterion Interpretation of Equal Area Criterion Critical Clearing Angle and its Expression. 9.8 Application of Equal Area Criterion to Transient Stability of Synchronous Motor 9.9 Application of Equal Area Criterion in the Method for Improving 610 610 610 sans O12 613 Transient Stability 9.9.1 Effect of Reducing Fault Clearance Time 9.9.2 Differential Protection for Improving Transient Stability . 9.9.3 Automatic Reclosing 5 9.9.4 Single Phase Autoreclosing ..11. CONTENTS _ xiii 9.10 Other Methods of Improving Transient Stability 613 9.10.1 Electrical Braking... 9.10.2 Effect of Voltage Regulators 19103 Pait Governor Action i acca iil 9.11 Small Oscillation of Synchronous Machine 9.11.1 Effect of Damper Winding on Oscillation 9.12 Solution of Swing Equation... 9.12.1 Step By Step Method 9.12.2. Modified Euler's Method . 9.12.3. Runge-Kutta Method ... 9.13. Swing Equation for a Multi-machine System 9.14 Multi-machine Stability—Computer Algorith 9.15 Steady State Stability .. Exercise 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Symmetrical Component Analysis 10.3. Determination of Symmetrical Fault Current Using Z,,, Inversion 10.3.1 Determination of Fault Current by Formulating the Impedance Matrix Using Network Theory 10.4_Generalised Fault Analysis Using Z,,, Building Algorithm. 10.4.1 Sequence Network Modelling 10.4.2. Three-phase Balanced Fault. 10.4.3, Single Line to Ground Fault WGA Eel $0 T fone Piatt iicccsssccscssactacisseasacsastncsicantascusccicasasciaisiscanisasssasinnsaiasisini TR TARAS: Waa janes tes ermal inde enemy GRD 10.5 Determination of Line Current During Fault Condition .. 10.6 Utility of Fault Studies : 10.7 Flowchart for Short Circwit Studies te O84 10.8 Open Conductor Faults .. 10.9 Effect of Neutral Grounding on Fault Current 10.10 Star-Delta Transformers 10.11 Three Phase Power in Terms of Symmetrical Components Exercise CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS AND POWER SYSTEM SECURITY 11.1 The Bus Impedance Matrix (Zp,.)----» 11.2 Relationship between Thevenin’s Theorem and Bus Impedance Matrix (Z,, 11.3 [Zp] Building by Step-by-Step Method 11.3.1 Adding a Branch (or Link) Z, from a New Bus to the Reference Bus (Type | Modification) .. 11.3.2. Addition of a Branch (or Link) Z, from a New Bus to an. Old Bus (Type 2 Modification “724xiv CONTENTS: 114 15, 113.3 Addition of a Branch (or Link) Z, from an Old Bus to the Reference Bus (Type 3 Modification) 11.3.4 Addition of a Branch (or Link) Z, between Two Old Buses (Type 4 Modification) 113.5 Addition of Two Branches (Z, and Z,) with Mutual Impedance (Z,.) between Four Buses (Type 5 Modification) Direct Building of (Z,,,] Determination of {Z,,,] from Power Invariant Transformations 16 17. 11.8 19 11.10 Single Line Contingency... 11.11 Algorithm for Calculation of New Line Currents in Healthy Lines Foll 11.12 Multiple Line Contingency Contingency Analysis ‘Addition and Removal of Lines in Power System Algorithm to Calculate Bus Voltage with Addition of z, and z, between Bus i-j and kel Concepts of Current Injection Distribution Factor (C) and Line Outage Distribution Factor (@).. a Single Line Outage ....... 11.13 Algorithm for Calculation of New Line Currents in Healthy Lines Following 11.14 Contingency Analysis of Interconnectors ‘Two Lines Outage 11.15 Algorithm to Compute Steady State Currents in the Tie Lines as well as 11.16 Contingency Analysis Using DC Power Flow Model 11.17 Power System Security New Voltages in the Buses of Area-A and Area-B when the Tie Lines are Simultaneously Closed 11.18 Algorithm to Determine System Security following Contingency Analysis 11.19 Security Assessment Using AC Power Flow Model .. 11.20 Security Analysis Using Concept of Performance Index 11.21 Concept of Equivalencing ... 11.22 General Network Equivalent for Power Systems Procedure ... Exercises . 12. REACTIVE POWER L_AND VOLT) TABI 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Power Flow in a Two-Bus System. 12.3 Voltage Regulation in a Transmission System and its Relation with 124 125 12.6 12.7 12.8 Uncompensated Transmission Line-Review of Basic Concepts Uncompensated Radial Transmission Line on Open Circuit Uncompensated Radial Transmission Line under Heavy Loading Condition Expression of Midpoint Voltage in a Line in terms of Real Power Flow and Line Length ss Reactive Power Requirement of an Uncompensated LineCONTENTS XV 12.9 Reactive Power and Voltage Collapse 12.10 Changes in Power System Contributing to Voltage Collapse . 12.11 Concept of Stability of Transmission System . 12.12 Definition and Classification of Voltage Stability 12.13 Mechanism of Voltage Collapse . 12.14 Analytical Concept of Voltage Stability for a Two-bus System 12.15 Expression for Critical Receiving End Voltage and Critical Power Angle at Voltage Stability Limit for a Two-Bus Power System 12.16 Relation of Voltage Stability and Rotor Angle Stability . 12.17 Factors Affecting Voltage Stability... 12.17.1 Reactive Power Capability of Synchronous Generator .. 12.17.2 Automatic Voltage Control of Synchronous Generator 12.18 Voltage Stability of Non-linear Power System .. 12.18.1 Static and Dynamic Analys 12.18.2 Stability of Non-linear System .. 12.18.3 Bifureation Analysis... 12.19 Computation of Voltage Collapse Point 12.19.1 Minimum Singular Value Method 12.19.2 Point of Collapse Method 12.19.3 Optimisation Method. 12.194 Continuation Load Flow Method .. 12.19.5 Comparison of Computation Methods .. 12.20 Role of Transformer on Voltage Control of a Power System 2 12.20.1 Method of Voltage Control by Tap-changing Transformers .. 1220.2 Effect of On-load Tap Changer Transformer on Voltage Stability .. 12.21 Reactive Compensation Methods for Heavily Loaded and Voltage Stressed Power Systems to Enhance Voltage Stability 1221.1 Line Series Compensation .. 1221.2 Shunt Compensation 1221.3 Static VAR Compensators 1221.4 Synchronous Condenser at the Load Bus 12.22 Determination of Voltage Stability Using Sensitivity Indicator. 12.23 A Voltage Security Indicator (VSI) Combining Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF) and Newton-Raphson Load Flow Methods 12.24 Determination of Voltage Stability by Q-V Modal Analysis . 12.25 Determination of Voltage Stability Using Optimal Power Flow Technique Exercises 13._POWER SYSTEM COMPENSATION USING PASSIVE 13.1_Introduction 13.2_ Objectives of Load Compensation . 13.2.2 Improving Voltage Regulation 13.2.3 Balancing of LoadXvi__ CONTENTS 13.3 Transmission Line Compensation 13.4. Passive Compensators 13.4.1 Static Shunt Reactor. 13.42 Uniformly Distributed Shunt Compensation 13.4.3 Shunt Compensation at Middle of the Line using Dynamic Compensator . 13.4.4 Series Capacitor Compensation . 13.4.5 Comparison between Series and Shunt Compensation 13.5 FACTS Devices... 13.6. Classification of FACTS Controllers 13.6.1 Series Controllers .. 13.62 Shunt Controllers... a 3.6.3 Series-Series Ci . 3 13.7 Advantages of FACTS Devices Exercises . 14.1 Historical Background. 14.2 Stability of a Dynamic System 14.3 Various Modes of OscHMOt008 i innainnnninnnnnannnnane 245 14.5_ Nature of Oscillations and its Study Procedure 14.6 Small Signal Stability of a Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) System 14.7 Modelling of Small Signal Stability of SMIB System (Hefiron-Philips Model) ... 14.8 Computational Steps to Find k, to k, Parameters 14.9 Effect of Exciter on Small Signal Stability Oscillations . 14.10 Small Signal Stability Determination using Transfer Functions .. 14.11 Small Signal Stability and Load Flow 14.12 Computational Steps to Check Small Sign: Connected to_a Multibus Network using Load Flow Methods .. 14.13 Small Signal Stability of a Multi Area System and with Presence of Dynamic 14.14 Power System Stabilizers ..... 14.14.1 Basic Conceptual Model. 14.14.2 Design Approach .. Exercises .. 15. STATE E! 15.1_Introduction.. 904 15.2 Basie Methods of State Estimation 904 15.2.1__Least Square Estimation (LSE) ... 15.2.2 Weighted Least Square Estimation sigCONTENTS __XVii 15.3 State Estimation from Non-linear Measurements . 15.4 Static State Estimation for Power Systems 15.4.1 Algorithm for State Estimation with Only Active and Injections Considered in Measurement Vector... 15.4.2. The Line Flows Only Algorithm for State Estimation 15.5. State Estimation Process in Power Systems 15.6 Consideration of Computational Aspects 15.6.1 Il Conditioning ... 15.7 External System Equivalencing .. 15.8 Bad Data in Measurement Vector 15.8.1 Bad Data Detection... 15.8.2. Identification of Bad Data 15.8.3 Suppression of Bad D: 15.9 Network Observability..... 15.10 Application of Power System State Esti 15.11 Load Forecasting .. 15.12 Load Forecasting Techniques 15.12.1 Method of Extrapolation 15.12.2 Method of Correlation .. 15.13 Estimation of Average and Trend Terms of Determini 15.13. Limitation of the Method oir ad iction \inistis * _ i - 7 15.13.3 Generalised Load Modelling ....... 15.13.4 Estimation of Periodic Components 15.14 Estimation of Stochastic Part of Load .. 15.14.1 Time Series Approach 15.14.2 Kalman Filtering Approach ... 15.14.3 Innovation Model Approach .. Exercises 1025-1030 1031-1034 Appendix A: Unit Commitment Appendix B: Load Flow Calculation Using Bus Impedance Matrix Appendix C: The Decoupling of Real and Reactive Power in Terms of Load Angle and Voltage 1035-1040 Bibliography ... se 1041-1042 DAN isiascncssnsnisnsns stern ctcurenninbsnansnaeibdeneeaieaaeansinestseceednianioioie, 1043-1046PREFACE The book, now in its Second Edition, has been thoroughly revised mainly to reorient the chapters and to include new topics as per university syllabi requirements. The chapters included in this edition are power system stability, contingency analysis and power system security, power system compensation, small signal stability, and state estimation and load forecasting. Some of the chapters, namely, power system matrix operations, complex power flows, economic operation, optimal power flow, reactive power control and voltage stability, have been rewritten and new topics have been included in those chapters. The appendices have also been reoriented and a number of solved examples have been included at appropriate places in the text. We appreciate the patience and support of our spouses and children during the long period we devoted in revising the book. We hope the Second Edition will be more helpful to the students, practising engineers and researchers. Any constructive criticism of the text is most welcome. Abhijit Chakrabarti Sunita HalderPREFACE TO THE First EDITION ‘The fundamental aim of this text is to present a number of engineering and economic matters in power system planning operation and control in a comprehensive way. The topics substantiated by a number of illustrations and computer programs describe analytical methods of power system and their operation and control. To understand the text, some acquaintance with the basic concepts in power system as well as advanced calculus methods is needed. The chapters have been methodically arranged, starting with the basic aspects of power engineering problems. In each chapter, the relevant methods have been dealt with the help of suitable computer-based examples. In a few sections, while dealing with operational problems, optimization methods have been preferred as they can be used without extensive mathematical proofs and are useful in solving practical problems. The text begins with an introductory discussion on common operating problems and basic aspects of power system operation, including structures of power system, power system representation, and representation of power system elements. Different conventional models are briefly described and analytical treatments are presented to show the modeling concepts of power apparatus like synchronous generator, transformer, transmission lines, motors, etc. Matrix operational methods applicable to power network also get proper attention. Exhaustive analytical treatments are presented for the conventional load flow methods. All the conventional methods of optimization are explained with the help of suitable examples. Some practical and applicational aspects of basic philosophy of ALFC also form part of the discussion. Fundamental aspects of reactive power control and voltage problems in transmission network followed by modern developments in this field including advanced treatments have been detailed. Computerized methods for the analysis of faulted power system have been furnished as well. ‘The text is self-contained and thorough. It is intended for a one-semester course for postgraduate students as well as a one-year course for senior undergraduate students in electrical engineering. Practising engineers and researchers will also find the book suitable for their use.xxii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION The authors acknowledge the constant encouragement they received from the respected Vice-Chancellors Prof. N.R. Banerjea of Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur and Prof. A.N. Basu of Jadavpur University for this project. They also express their gratitude to the respective Deans, Registrars, and Heads of the Departments of both these universities for offering all facilities in course of preparation of the manuscript. The authors cordially invite any constructive criticism of or comment about the book. Abhijit Chakrabarti Sunita HalderC hapter INTRODUCTION 1.1 STRUCTURE OF A POWER SYSTEM Electricity is the only form of energy used in the industrial, domestic, commercial, and transportation sectors. Itis a coveted form of energy, since it can be generated in bulk and transmitted economically over long distances. Electric power system deals with the generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy associated with the unique feature of control of the flow or demand of energy at desired nodes throughout the power network, Figure 1.1 represents the fundamental structure of a power network where generators produce electric energy, transformers transform this energy into one voltage level from another voltage level, and transmission lines whee! the power from the generating stations to the load centres for the final distribution of electrical energy to different loads. Tie-lines interconnect one system with the neighbouring electric system belonging to the same grid. The circuit breakers isolate a faulty part of the network (the fault being sensed by the relays) while static/rotary compensators may be used for voltage control at load or remote buses. Conventionally, loads are represented in a lumped or composite form. ‘The best location of a generating station being at a place very close to electrical load centre the region where the major energy demand exists), the practical location of the primary conventional energy sources does not necessarily coincide with the urban centres. The location of a power plant is frequently governed by its closeness to the energy resource and transportation facility of the fuel as well as availability of nearest load centre. Environmental aspects are also key factors in determining the site of the plant. Mostly, a generating plant consists of generating units complete with necessary accessories. Control elements like different valves, exciters, regulators etc.,also step up transformers, and instrument transformers along with breakers are intended in the station switchyard for the transmission of power and protection of the system. Sources of input to the generating system are conventionally fossil fuels (c.g., coal, oil and gas), hydrosource and nuclear fuel. However, non-conventional sources such as wind power, solar energy, tidal power, geothermal power ete. are also being used for stand-alone systems. An electric power system, even a small one, usually constitutes an electric network of vast complexity. The diversity of the system magnitude being great, there is no general rule regarding the structure of the system that applies to any power system. However, any power system could be categorised bya combination of generation, transmission and distribution networks. After generation, transmission 12 __POWERSYSTEM ANALYSIS: OPERATION AND CONTROL plays a vital role in transporting power from the generating station to load centres, Transmission of power is usually done at HV / EHV / UHV range due to the known fact that it reduces the power loss in the line as well as improves stability. The common transmission voltages across the globe are 33 kV/66 KV/114 KV/132 KV/138 KV/161 KV/220 kV/230 kV/345 kV/400 kV/500 kV in the HV and EHV ranges and 765 kV/300 kV/1100 kV/1500 kV in the UHV ranges in most parts of the world while the generation voltages have commonly been 6 KV/I1 KV/12.47 kW/13.2 KV/13.8 KV/ 15 kW/16 kV/22 kV (all are line-to-line voltage). Generating system Neighbouring system Step up transformers — — Circuit breakers a ™ Bus Bus To other To other system system x x Step up Sub transmision level S| System study >| study of definition ‘comp. cont. ‘Step-1 Step-2 ‘Step-3 fri Simulation Sporting: |. — implementation study and software objective Step-7, ‘Step-6 ‘Step-5 ‘Step-4 Fig, 1.3 Steps of planning of a computer control. 1.3. POWER SYSTEM REPRESENTATION As a complete diagram of a practical power system presenting all the three phases (generation, transmission and distribution) is too complicated, it is a normal practice to represent a power system by means of simple systems for each component resulting in single-line diagram, as shown in Fig. 1.4, Bus? Genbus 7S T x5 ex ©). a To the neighbouring WA system tie-lines ~ re F Interconneetion Gen, auxiliary tie-line/sub-transmission Load (auxiliary) toad system for distribution Fig. 1.4 Single-line representation of a simple two-bus system. Any particular component may or may not be shown in the diagram depending on the information required in a system study, e.g. circuit breakers need not be shown in alload flow analysis diagram but are to be shown for a protection study. Different generator and transformer connections are indicated by proper symbols, Equivalent circuits of power circuit components can be represented in the diagrams. 1.4 POWER SYSTEM AT NORMAL OPERATING STATE ‘A power system operates in a normal state if the following conditions are satisfied: (a) There is a perfect balance between power generation and demand; consequently, the load flow equations are satisfied.INTRODUCTION 7 (b) The frequency, f; is constant throughout the system, (c) The bus voltage magnitude IV} is within the prescribed limit, ic. Wirin < VIS Mas au) (This is required as all the power equipment and apparatuses are supposed to be operated at a specified voltage.) (d) No power system component is to be overloaded. However, the load is mostly a constantly varying parameter and in order to meet this slow change of the load demand, the normal operating state drifts with time (the load is mostly met by optimal generation scheduling). Change in frequency causes change in the speed of the drives in the consumer's plant. Further, it is necessary to maintain network frequency constant so that the power stations run satisfactorily in parallel, the various motors operating on the system run at the desired speed and other devices function properly. However, the most important reason for keeping frequency of the clectrical system constant is that its constancy indicates power balance of the total system. Overloading of any power system component results in higher temperature of operation and the component is likely to be damaged. Sysiem stability, given by the maximum power that can be transmitted, also indicates the power system operating at normal state. This steady state stability limit (also known as static transmission capacity) is given by Ren, Oy a2) fi In an attempt to transmit more power than this limit, synchronism is lost and the transmission system collapses. For short lines (less than 100 km), the thermal limit capability fixes the loading of line whereas for medium or long line, the static transmission capacity becomes the limiting factor. Voltage stability is another operating parameter that needs to be considered. 1.5 OPERATING PROBLEMS IN POWER SYSTEMS ‘An insight into the operation of any electric power system reveals that frequency and voltage are the prime and main indicators of proper system operation. Any disturbance in the system operation causes variation in these two parameters separately or jointly and in cases of severe system disturbances, the frequency and/or voltage variations may be abnormally high indicating the loss of system stability. Frequency variation being the cause of real power mismatch, voltage is the sole indicator of the reactive power imbalances in the system, Common operating problems that are inherent in EHV power lines have been classified and briefly described below. Major areas of study in the relevant area consist of loadability, frequency dynamics, transient stability, power line oscillations and voltage stability problem, in addition to the conventional steady state and transient state power stability. 1.5.1 Loadability of Transmission Lines Loadability of transmission lines is defined as the optimum power transfer capability of an EHV line under a specified set of operating criteria. In an EHV power system, the power transfer capability of a transmission line is substantially affected by nodal power injections and topological changes. It has been generally accepted that the nodal strength, ic. capability of a transmission line, is substantially affected by nodal power injections and topological changes. It has been generally accepted that nodal strength, ¢. the short circuit capability (S.C.C.) of the system, is the inverse of the positive sequence equivalent impedance in per unit and it indicates the robustness of the power network concerned. This impedance, also consisting of the source reactance, is usually dictated by the series reactance of the line when8 _POWERSYSTEM ANALYSIS: OPERATION AND CONTROL analysed in a loss-less frame. The most conventional form of representing the loadability being in terms of surge impedance loading (SIL), where SIL = (V/Z,) in p.u., the basic expression of power transfer is given by P sind (3) (assuming equal sending and receiving end voltage, the power angle being Sand transfer reactance being X, X = xl, x being the reactance per unit length and L, the length of the line). Also, Kes ott eat] Vie = [E avie-t or, X = Z,BL = 2,6 = Zysind aa) where Z, = surge impedance = & £ and ¢ being the line inductance and shunt capacitance per unit c length, respectively, 8 = phase constant of the wave of propagation (= afc, « being the angular frequency), @electrical line length of the line in radian and 6 (= BL) being small, sin 0= @ Substituting equation (1.4) into equation (1.3) 2 . p= xd sing = (si) 22 sind” Zy sind P_sind ,. 7% : J u., SIL = (Vz, as ° Sit” sing “"P™ ea Y Equation (1.5) indicates that the power transfer capability can be represented in terms of SIL. Figure 1.5 represents the loadability of a typical EHV single circuit line assuming various line lengths, Loadability (p.u.) —> 6 & 8 & 0 100-200-300 400500 Line length (km) —> Fig. 1.6 Profile of ino loadabilty High source reactance plays a vital role in limiting the line loadability. Loadability can be improved by reducing the reactance of overhead wires and placing series capacitor in fine as well as relaxing the voltage drop constraint.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.10 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS: OPERATION AND CONTROL ‘As the machine consists of heavy rotational mass, the speed change cannot be instantaneous, and is governed by the following equation, or, or, (1.8) As, P, the electrical power output. Also, M=Jq@ then, ie, where M = (2H/,,), ©, being the synchronous speed of alternator rotor. Thus, dQnf)_2xf a aH *) st or, Se gglF-#) a9) In. a50 Hz system from equation (1.9), the initial frequency decay rate fora system to encounter a sudden load demand can then be represented by df 25 a= (A.-P, a al +P) (1.10) The initial frequency decay rate for different types of loads for a typical radial system for varying attempted overloads has been graphically represented in Fig. 1.7. Zone of Froauency mixed load dependent load hes 2 (Hzisec) Frequency independent load Attempted overload (p.u.) Fig. 1.7 Initial frequency rate for varying attempted overloads of static and frequency-dependent loads.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.12 _ POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS: OPERATION AND CONTROL Low frequency oscillations exist particularly during heavy loading conditions and if not damped properly, they may cause instability. Damping of oscillations can be enhanced by eliminating the non- linear loads in the distribution system. Installation of HVDC line between two regional EHV grids in addition 0 EHV AC link can eliminate the problem of low frequency oscillations provided the line power flows in AC and DC links are carefully monitored during heavy loading periods. 1.5.6 Reactive Power Limitations and Voltage Control Problems In an EHV power system, the reactive power flow may be incoherent and the limits of reactive power availability may be restricted, leading to the system voltage collapse in case the line is reactive power constrained. A sudden increase in reactive power demand in a reactive power constrained line is generally due to the contingency in transmission network (e.g., the tipping of a heavily loaded EHV line causing ‘an increase of the load burden of the adjacent line(s) for maintenance of the constant system Joad). The additional reactive demand caused by the disturbance is generally compensated by the system reactive reserve, if available, allowing the system to settle down at a reduced level of transmission voltage. On the other hand, where the reactive reserve cannot cope with the sudden rise of reactive demand, system voltage instability results. This collapse may occur even though the real power requirements of the system are met and the frequency is stabilised. In case of a contingency in a transmission system, the series reactive loss (Q,,) increases. When the remaining healthy line(s) loading surpasses the S/L (surge impedance loading), the rising rate of series reactive losses is substantial showing a steep increase in the rate of series reactive loss against SIL loading at its higher magnitudes. This, in turn, depresses the system voltage in the lines. As the SIL is directly proportional to the square of the system voltage (SIL = V7/Z,), it starts to drop as the voltage decreases causing further series reactive loss. In addition to this effect, reactive charging capabili being proportional to the square of the transmission voltage, decreases with decaying voltage causing further deterioration of the system voltage stable state. In extreme cases, all these effects may add to create high magnitude of the line reactive loss for each extra unit of rise in real load, This enormous rise indemand of reactive power invites severe voltage control problems, and in case of weak systems, there may be spontaneous voltage instability. Ina reactive power constrained system, the condition of voltage instability is always governed by the limitation of reactive power availability. The magnitude of the limiting value of the reactive power at any operating condition can be determined analytically and it reveals that the stable voltage state can only be maintained if the system possesses the corresponding limiting value of the reactive power transfer capability. 1.6 SECURITY ANALYSIS AND CONTINGENCY EVALUATION Under normal operating conditions a power system may face a contingency condition such as outage (complete or partial) of a generating unit or of a line, a sudden increase or decrease of the power demand on the system. A system operator has to analyse the effect of such highly probable contingencies so that the operator may take corrective action in the event of their occurrence. Thus, the analysis of some of the most probable contingencies helps in enhancing system security. The security assessment and its enhancement form an important part of planning and operation of power systems that are continuously expanding. ‘The main operating states of a power system may be classified as (a) Normal (b) Emergency (c) Restorative