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Oxidative Stress and Disuse Muscle Atrophy: Free Radical Biology in Skeletal Muscle
Oxidative Stress and Disuse Muscle Atrophy: Free Radical Biology in Skeletal Muscle
Powers SK, Kavazis AN, McClung JM. Oxidative stress and disuse muscle atrophy.
J Appl Physiol 102: 2389–2397, 2007; doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01202.2006.—Skeletal
muscle inactivity is associated with a loss of muscle protein and reduced force-
generating capacity. This disuse-induced muscle atrophy results from both increased
proteolysis and decreased protein synthesis. Investigations of the cell signaling
pathways that regulate disuse muscle atrophy have increased our understanding of
this complex process. Emerging evidence implicates oxidative stress as a key
regulator of cell signaling pathways, leading to increased proteolysis and muscle
atrophy during periods of prolonged disuse. This review will discuss the role of
reactive oxygen species in the regulation of inactivity-induced skeletal muscle
atrophy. The specific objectives of this article are to provide an overview of muscle
proteases, outline intracellular sources of reactive oxygen species, and summarize
the evidence that connects oxidative stress to signaling pathways contributing to
disuse muscle atrophy. Moreover, this review will also discuss the specific role that
oxidative stress plays in signaling pathways responsible for muscle proteolysis and
myonuclear apoptosis and highlight gaps in our knowledge of disuse muscle
atrophy. By presenting unresolved issues and suggesting topics for future research,
it is hoped that this review will serve as a stimulus for the expansion of knowledge
in this exciting field.
oxidants; proteasome; calpain; caspase-3; reactive oxygen species
EXTENDED PERIODS of skeletal muscle inactivity (e.g., limb im- disuse muscle atrophy. Next, we will outline the major path-
mobilization, chronic bed rest, or spaceflight) result in a loss of ways involved in skeletal muscle radical production followed
muscle mass and strength (1, 11, 83). Knowledge of the cell by a discussion of the signaling pathways linking oxidative
signaling pathways that regulate disuse muscle atrophy is stress to increased proteolysis and loss of myonuclei. The final
important in developing an anti-catabolic strategy to prevent or segment of this treatise will identify voids in our knowledge
retard protein loss and maintain physiological function (12). about oxidative stress and disuse muscle atrophy in hopes of
Ongoing research in cell signaling has led to an improved stimulating future research in this field.
understanding of those factors that contribute to muscle atro-
EXPERIMENTAL MODELS TO INVESTIGATE DISUSE
phy during both disuse and pathologies that promote muscle
MUSCLE ATROPHY
wasting. In particular, a large volume of research indicates that
oxidative stress is an important contributor to numerous cellu- Skeletal muscle atrophy can occur due to pathology (e.g.,
lar signaling pathways that modulate muscle atrophy during cancer, sepsis, or diabetes) and in the absence of disease during
prolonged inactivity. For example, exposure of skeletal muscle extended durations of inactivity (33, 39). For example, long
myotubes to oxidative stress (i.e., hydrogen peroxide) in- periods of bed rest, limb immobilization, spaceflight, or un-
creases the expression of important components of the protea- loading the diaphragm via mechanical ventilation is associated
some proteolytic system (58). Moreover, other signaling path- with skeletal muscle atrophy in humans and other animals. Due
ways exist to connect oxidative stress with cellular processes to the complexities involved in investigating the mechanisms
leading to a loss of cellular protein (44). responsible for disuse muscle atrophy in humans, numerous
The objective of this review is to provide a synopsis of our experimental animal models have evolved to simulate unload-
present knowledge regarding the link between reactive oxygen ing conditions that lead to disuse muscle atrophy (Fig. 1). For
species (ROS) and proteolytic components of disuse skeletal example, animal models of limb immobilization (i.e., casting)
muscle atrophy. The first segment of this article will introduce have been used to investigate the impact of muscle inactivity
experimental models to study muscle atrophy. We will then on muscle size and function (11). Moreover, rodent animal
present an overview of the biochemical events leading to the models using a tail suspension technique to unload the hind-
loss of myonuclei in atrophying muscle followed by a discus- limb locomotor muscles have been used to simulate prolonged
sion of the principal proteolytic pathways that contribute to spaceflight or bed rest in humans (1, 83).
An interesting and clinically relevant model of inactivity-
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: S. K. Powers, Dept. induced skeletal muscle atrophy is controlled mechanical ven-
of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, PO Box 118205, Univ. of Florida, tilation (i.e., ventilator delivers all of the breaths; Fig. 1). In
Gainesville, FL 32611 (e-mail: spowers@hhp.ufl.edu). human medicine, controlled mechanical ventilation is used to
http://www. jap.org 8750-7587/07 $8.00 Copyright © 2007 the American Physiological Society 2389
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Invited Review
2390 OXIDATIVE STRESS AND DISUSE MUSCLE ATROPHY
concentration of these two proteins may determine whether the In vivo calpain activity is regulated by several factors
cell undergoes apoptosis when faced with stimuli such as including cytosolic calcium levels and the concentration of the
oxidative stress or calcium overload (24, 66). endogenous calpain inhibitor, calpastatin (28). More specifi-
cally, calpain activity is increased by a sustained elevation in
PROTEOLYTIC PATHWAYS IN SKELETAL MUSCLE free calcium in the cytosol and/or a decrease in cytosolic
calpastatin levels (28). In regard to calpain’s contribution to
Numerous proteolytic systems contribute to the degradation disuse muscle atrophy, it is clear that skeletal muscle inactivity
of muscle proteins. The principal proteases in skeletal muscle is associated with an increase in both cytosolic calcium levels
can be classified into three major categories: 1) lysosomal and calpain activity (51). Although the mechanism responsible
proteases, 2) Ca2⫹-activated proteases (i.e., calpain), and 3) the for this inactivity-mediated calcium overload is unknown, it is
proteasome system. Furthermore, recent evidence reveals that possible that intracellular production of ROS could play a key
another protease, caspase-3, may also contribute to select role in disturbances in calcium homeostasis (42). A potential
forms of muscle atrophy (21, 61). A brief overview of each of biochemical mechanism to link oxidative stress with calcium
these major proteolytic systems follows. overload is that ROS-mediated formation of reactive aldehydes
Lysosomal proteases. Lysosomes are a component of the (i.e., 4-hydroxy-2,3-trans-nonenal) can inhibit plasma mem-
degradative machinery in many mammalian cells. Lysosomes brane Ca2⫹-ATPase activity (77). Hence, an oxidative stress-
are membrane-bound vesicles containing acid hydrolases that induced decrease in membrane Ca2⫹-ATPase activity would
include proteases, glycosidases, lipases, and phosphatases (8). impede Ca2⫹ removal from the cell and promote intracellular
Therefore, lysosomes are intracellular compartments dedicated Ca2⫹ accumulation. Nonetheless, it is currently unknown as to
to the degradation of macromolecules. whether this mechanism is the single explanation for inactivity-
The four major lysosomal proteases are cathepsins L, B, D, mediated calcium overload in muscle.
and H (8, 79). Although these cathepsins are ubiquitously Caspase-3 and muscle atrophy. Recent evidence suggests
expressed in all tissues, the concentrations of cathepsins in that the protease caspase-3 contributes to protein degradation
cells vary, with the greatest levels found in tissues containing and muscle atrophy (21, 61). In this regard, caspase-3 activa-
inherently high rates of protein turnover (i.e., kidney, liver, and tion promotes degradation of actomyosin complexes, and in-
spleen), whereas tissues with slow protein turnover (i.e., skel- hibition of caspase-3 activity suppresses the overall rate of
etal muscle) possess much lower levels (8). Moreover, cathep- proteolysis in diabetes-mediated cachexia and myofiber atro-
sin levels differ between skeletal muscle fiber types. Type I phy in mechanical ventilation disuse (21, 61).
(slow, oxidative) fibers exhibit higher levels of cathepsins As discussed previously, control of caspase-3 activity in the
compared with type IIb (fast, glycolytic) fibers (8). cell is complex and involves numerous interconnected signal-
Although some debate continues, it is generally agreed that ing pathways. In the case of diabetes-induced muscle atrophy,
lysosomal protease activity increases in disuse muscle atrophy it seems possible that caspase-3 is activated by caspase-12 (via
(8, 27, 79, 85). For instance, work by Taillandier et al. (79) a calcium release pathway) and/or activation of caspase-9 (via
a mitochondrial pathway). A potential interaction between
indicates that 9 days of hindlimb suspension promoted a 2.5-fold
these caspase-3 activation pathways is that both of these can be
increase in lysosomal protease activity in rat soleus muscle. In an
activated by ROS (Fig. 3; Ref. 66).
effort to determine the quantitative contribution of cathepsins to
Moreover, note that calpastatin is a substrate for both
muscle atrophy, these investigators inhibited cathepsin activity
caspase-3 and calpain. It follows that increases in caspase-3 or
during periods of muscle disuse and evaluated the rate of muscle
calpain activity lower calpastatin levels in cells and promote
atrophy. Their results revealed that inhibition of cathepsin activity calpain activation (21, 28, 88). Furthermore, increased calpain
resulted in only a small decrease (⬍18%) of the loss of muscle activity can lead to the activation of caspase-3 (15). Therefore,
protein associated with disuse muscle atrophy. Furthermore, be- cross-talk between the calpain and caspase-3 proteolytic sys-
cause lysosomal proteases are not involved in the degradation of tems could play a role in the regulation of myofilament release
myofibrillar proteins, it seems unlikely that cathepsins play a in skeletal muscle during periods of disuse.
dominant role in the proteolysis associated with inactivity in The proteolytic release of myofilaments during disuse mus-
skeletal muscles (79). cle atrophy is important because the bulk of muscle proteins
Calpain-mediated proteolysis. Calpains are Ca2⫹-dependent (50 –70%) exist in actomyosin complexes (84). Although the
cysteine proteases that are found in all vertebrate cells (28). proteasome system can degrade monomeric contractile pro-
Although numerous members of the calpain family of pro- teins (i.e., actin and myosin), it is unable to break down intact
teases exist, the two best-characterized calpains found in skel- actomyosin complexes (28). Hence, myofilaments must be
etal muscle are termed -calpain and m-calpain and refer to released from the sarcomere as monomeric proteins prior to
micromolar and millimolar amounts of calcium required to degradation by the proteasome system (84, 89). This fact
activate each respective calpain isoform (28). Although dictates that the release of myofilaments is potentially the
calpains are not at present known to directly degrade the rate-limiting step in muscle protein degradation. Again, evi-
contractile proteins actin and myosin, they participate in dence reveals that both calpain and caspase-3 are capable of
sarcomeric protein release by cleaving cytoskeletal proteins producing actomyosin disassociation (21, 28, 84). Hence, ac-
(e.g., titin, nebulin) that anchor contractile elements (43, tivation of one or both of these proteases is a requirement for
67). Moreover, calpain is known to degrade several kinases proteolytic degradation of myofilaments during conditions that
and phosphatases, including calcium/calmodulin-dependent result in muscle atrophy.
kinase (CaM kinase II), protein kinase C (PKC-␣, PKC-I, Proteasome-mediated proteolysis. The total proteasome
PKC-II, and PKC-␥), and calcineurin (28, 32, 81). complex (26S) is comprised of a core proteasome subunit
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Invited Review
OXIDATIVE STRESS AND DISUSE MUSCLE ATROPHY 2393
(20S) coupled with a regulatory complex (19S) connected to
each end of the 20S core (30, 31, 33, 84). Interestingly,
proteins can be degraded by either the 26S proteasome or the
20S protease core.
The 26S proteasome degrades ubiquitinated proteins. It
follows that the 26S proteasome degradation pathway is only
active after ubiquitin covalently binds to protein substrates and
marks them for degradation. The binding of ubiquitin to
protein substrates is often a three-step process that initially
requires the ubiquitin-activating enzyme (E1). Following acti-
vation, the ubiquitination of specific proteins is provided by Fig. 4. Simplified diagram illustrating pathways capable of producing super-
one of a variety of E2s and by specialized E3s that recognize oxide (O䡠2) and nitric oxide (NO䡠) in skeletal muscle during periods of disuse.
specific protein substrates. In this regard, numerous studies Candidates for the production of reactive oxygen include NADPH oxidase,
reveal that the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E214k is an im- xanthine oxidase, and muscle mitochondria. Nitric oxide is likely produced by
skeletal muscle nitric oxide synthase.
portant regulator of skeletal muscle ubiquitin-protein conjuga-
tion (58, 70, 80). Furthermore, E214k interacts with a specific
E3 ligase (i.e., E3␣) to promote muscle protein degradation in WHAT INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING PATHWAYS LINK
catabolic states. In addition, other unique ubiquitin E3 ligases OXIDATIVE STRESS TO MUSCLE ATROPHY?
(e.g., atrogin1/muscle atrophy F-box and muscle ring finger-1)
exist in skeletal muscle, and these ligases play essential roles in Recent studies reveal that ROS species can serve as second
skeletal muscle atrophy (10, 29, 70, 80). messengers in cellular signal transduction pathways that regu-
The process of ubiquinated protein degradation requires a late both normal physiological signaling and pathological sig-
coordinated effort of both the 19S regulatory complex and the naling leading to proteolysis and cell death via apoptosis. This
20S proteasome core. The 19S regulatory complex possesses seemingly contradictory signaling function of ROS is presum-
inherent ATPase activity and is a required participant in ATP- ably linked to the level of ROS and the overall redox state in
dependent degradation of ubiquitinated proteins (18). The the cell. That is, low levels of ROS promote cell adaptation and
ubiquitinated protein is recognized and bound by the 19S survival, whereas high levels of ROS modulate signaling
regulators of the 26S proteasome, and energy from ATP pathways that lead to proteolysis and cell death.
hydrolysis removes the polyubiquitin chain and unfolds the Abundant research demonstrates that oxidative stress con-
substrate protein. The unfolded protein then enters the 20S core tributes to disuse muscle atrophy. The first evidence that
proteasome and is degraded in a process that does not require oxidants played a key signaling role in the regulation of disuse
energy from ATP (31, 70). Also, note that evidence reveals that muscle atrophy was provided by Kondo et al. (46). The
the 20S core proteasome can degrade oxidized proteins without pioneering work of Kondo and colleagues revealed that immo-
ubiquitination (30, 31). Therefore, ROS-mediated oxidation of bilization of skeletal muscles is associated with increased
proteins can promote muscle protein breakdown via 20S core radical production, resulting in oxidative injury in inactive
proteasome alone. muscle fibers (46, 47, 50). Importantly, this work also demon-
strated that disuse muscle atrophy could be delayed by exog-
enous antioxidants. These early observations have subse-
PRODUCTION OF ROS IN QUIESCENT SKELETAL MUSCLES
quently been confirmed by others (6, 9, 60).
It is now clear that ROS are produced in both inactive and How does inactivity-induced oxidative stress in skeletal
contracting skeletal muscles (44, 69). When ROS production in muscle contribute to muscle atrophy? At present, a complete
cells exceeds the antioxidant capacity to eliminate these oxi- answer to this question is not available. Nonetheless, it appears
dants, oxidative stress occurs. A pro-oxidant state in cells can that oxidative stress could contribute to disuse muscle atrophy
alter the structure and function of proteins, lipids, and nucleic by influencing one or more of the following cell signaling
acids, resulting in cellular injury and, in extreme circum- pathways: 1) regulation of cytosolic calcium levels and subse-
stances, cell death. quent activation of calpain (as previously discussed); 2) control
Until the early 1990s it was widely believed that ROS of mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling; and
production was limited in noncontracting skeletal muscle and 3) activation of the nuclear factor (NF)-B pathway. A brief
that oxidative injury does not occur in inactive muscles. How- discussion of these possibilities follows.
ever, many studies indicate that oxidative injury occurs during OXIDATIVE STRESS ACTIVATES MAPK SIGNALING
periods of disuse in locomotor skeletal muscles (45, 47–50, 53)
and in the unloaded diaphragm during prolonged mechanical The redox regulation of MAPK provides another potential
ventilation (23, 75, 90). It is currently unknown which ROS link between oxidative stress and skeletal muscle atrophy. It is
producing pathways are dominant contributors to inactivity- well established that MAPKs play a key role in cell signaling
induced oxidative injury in skeletal muscles. Indeed, it is because control of numerous cellular signaling pathways is
possible that oxidative stress in inactive skeletal muscle may be achieved via activation or deactivation of regulatory proteins
due to the interaction of several major oxidant production through phosphorylation (16). Indeed, the highly conserved
pathways, including xanthine oxidase production of superox- MAPK family is one of the major kinase families that regulate
ide, nitric oxide synthase production of nitric oxide, NADPH the conversion of cell signals into cellular responses. These
oxidase-mediated production of superoxide, and mitochondrial protein kinases contribute to the regulation of life and death
production of superoxide (7, 23, 37, 38, 50, 86; Fig. 4). decisions made in response to various stress signals (e.g.,
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Invited Review
2394 OXIDATIVE STRESS AND DISUSE MUSCLE ATROPHY
oxidative stress), as the actions of both pro- and antiapoptotic stress, endotoxins, and oxidative stress (64). The link between
factors are often regulated by the phosphorylation status of key oxidative stress and p38 activation occurs via apoptosis stim-
elements in the execution of apoptosis or survival (59). ulating kinase 1 (ASK1; Ref. 59). ASK1 is a ubiquitously
All eurkaryotic cells possess multiple MAPK pathways. The expressed member of the MAPK family that activates both p38
three best characterized MAPK subfamilies are c-Jun NH2- and JNK by phosphorylating and activating respective MAPK
terminal kinase (JNK), p38 MAPK, and extracellular signal- kinases (Fig. 5). Five isoforms of p38 have been identified:
regulated kinase (ERK; Ref. 64). All three of these MAPK p38␣, p38, p382, p38␥, and p38␦ and expression of these
pathways are structurally similar, but functionally distinct. isoforms varies among tissues (16). For example, p38␣ is
Importantly, ERK, JNK, and p38 have all been shown to be highly expressed in bone morrow and leukocytes, p38 is
activated by oxidative stress and could potentially participate expressed in heart and brain, and p38␥ is predominantly
in pathways influencing muscle protein breakdown or myo- expressed in skeletal muscle (16).
nuclear apoptosis. The classic MAPK activation cascade con- Among the phosphorylation targets of p38 are several im-
sists of three sequential intracellular protein kinase activation portant transcription factors, including p53, NF-B, and ATF2.
steps leading to the activation of numerous protein kinases, Of particular importance to apoptosis is the fact that activation
nuclear proteins, and transcription factors, resulting in down- of the tumor suppressor protein p53 results in the expression of
stream signal transduction (16, 64). A brief overview of the the pro-apoptosis protein Bax. Moreover, p38 signaling has
functions of ERK, p38, and JNK follows. been shown to promote the expression of atrogin 1 in myotubes
ERK1/2. The first identified and best studied MAPK cascade (57). Collectively, these data suggest a potential role for
is the ERK pathway (16). ERK is composed of two isoforms, oxidative stress-induced activation of p38 in disuse muscle
ERK1 and ERK2, and are collectively referred to as ERK1/2 atrophy.
(16, 64). ERK1/2 can be activated by a number of mitogens, JNK. JNK (also known as stress-induced kinase) has three
including epidermal growth factor, platelet-derived growth isoforms (JNK1, JNK2, JNK3) that are encoded by three different
factor, transforming growth factor, and insulin. In addition, genes. JNK1 and JNK2 are ubiquitously expressed, whereas
ERK1/2 can be activated by endotoxin and oxidative stress JNK3 is only expressed in brain, heart, and testis (16). JNK can be
(16). The activation of ERK1/2 by oxidative stress is consistent activated in response to many of the same stimuli that activate
with the hypothesis that low and adequate levels of ROS are p38, such as osmotic stress, endotoxins, and oxidative stress.
mitogenic (64, 68). Activation of ERK1/2 regulates the tran- Moreover, similar to p38, oxidative stress-induced activation of
scriptional activity of AP-1, NF-B, c-Myc, and the cell JNK occurs via the ASK1 pathway (Fig. 5; Ref. 76).
survival protein Bcl-2 (68). Although it has been reported that The specific molecular targets of JNK include the transcrip-
ERK1/2 can promote apoptosis, ERK1/2 can also function as tional factors AP-1, p53, and c-Myc and many other nontran-
an anti-apoptotic factor following oxidative stress (64). To scriptional factors such as Bcl-2 family members. In this
date, however, there is little evidence to link ERK1/2 activation regard, there is growing evidence that JNK plays an important
with disuse muscle atrophy. role in oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis. Indeed, because
p38. p38 is an important MAPK member that is activated in ROS themselves are not able to activate caspases, ROS-
response to various physiological stresses such as osmotic mediated apoptosis requires another death-signaling pathway
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