EE480.

3 Digital Control Systems

Part 9. Frequency Response Method

- using the bilinear transformation

Kunio Takaya
Electrical and Computer Engineering

University of Saskatchewan

March 26, 2008

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1
Contents

1 CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN III 3

2 Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion 10

3 Phase Lead or Lag Compensator 17

4 DIGITAL CONTROLLER DESIGN 3 22

5 PID Controller Design 56

2
1 CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN III
Bilinear Transformation
Consider integration based on trapezoidal rule.
y(k)
y(k-1)

x(k)
x(k-1)
T

Let the integrated area to k be y(k). Then, using the area to k − 1

given by y(k − 1), the approximated area under the curve is
T
y(k) = y(k − 1) + [x(k) + x(k − 1)]
2

3
 T
y(k) = y(k − 1) + [x(k) + x(k − 1)]
2
Taking the z-transform,
T
Y (z) = z −1 Y (z) + [X(z) + z −1 X(z)]
2
−1 T
(1 − z )Y (z) = (1 + z −1 )X(z)
2
Y (z) T 1 + z −1
=
X(z) 2 1 − z −1
1
We let integration in the Laplace transform equal to the
s
integration in the z-domain.
1 T 1 + z −1
=
s 2 1 − z −1

4
Then, we define the bilinear transformation,
2 1 − z −1 2 z−1
s= −1
= .
T 1+z T z+1
Since this is a new mapping function between s-domain and
z-domain, we use w instead of s. The bilinear transformation
defines w-domain as
2 1 − z −1 2 z−1
w= −1
= ,
T 1+z T z+1
T
2 z−1 1+ 2w
w= ⇔ z= T
T z+1 1− 2w
whereas the Laplace s-domain relates to the z-domian by

z = esT

Both mapping functions make the stable system poles be jzj < 1.

5
MATLAB function for the bilinear transformation is bilinear and
corresponding impulse invariant transformation is impinvar. The
following program shows the transformation applied to
2
G(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 2)
% s-domain: s=2/(s+1)(s+2)
z=[];
p=[-1,-2];
T=0.1;
K=2;
csys=tf(K*poly(z),poly(p))
[numd,dend]=bilinear(K*poly(z),poly(p),1/T)
roots(numd)
pbl=roots(dend)
plot(pbl,[0,0],’rx’); axis([-1,1,-1,1]); axis square; hold on;
[numd,dend]=impinvar(K*poly(z),poly(p),1/T)
roots(numd)
piv=roots(dend)
plot(piv,[0,0],’bx’); axis([-1,1,-1,1]); axis square; hold on;

6
The impulse invariant transformation is
z
G(z) = 0.0172
(z − 0.9048)(z − 0.8187)
The bilinear transformation is
(z − 1)2
G(z) = 0.0043
(z − 0.9048)(z − 0.8182)
The poles are very close to each other, though the zeros are
dissimilar.

• Exercise: Transform the following continuous time system to

its Bilinear Transform. Sampling frequency is 10 samples per
sec, or T = 0.1.
1
E(s) =
s(s + 1)

7
Nonlinear frequency relationship
−1 
2 1 − e−jωT

2 1−z 
=
T 1 + z −1 z=ejωT T 1 + e−jωT
ωT ωT ωT
2 e−j 2 (ej 2 − e−j 2 )
=
T e−j ωT ωT ωT
2 (ej 2 + e−j 2 )

2 ωT
= j tan
T 2
= jωw

Thus, ωw has a nonlinear relation ship with ω given by

2 ωT
ωw = tan .
T 2

8
In the relationship between s-domain and z-domain, z = esT ,
analog frequency is defined by s = jω whereas digital (discrete
jωd jωT ωd
time) frequency ωd is defined by e =e . Therefore, ω = .
T

9
frequency range in ω, ωd and ωw

ωs 2πfs π
ω =⇒ 0≤ω≤ = =
2 2 T
ωd =⇒ 0 ≤ ωd = ωT ≤ π
T ωT T π
ωw =⇒ 0 ≤ ωw = tan ≤ tan = ∞
2 2 2 2
This means that one zone of periodic frequency axis produced by
π
sampling, ± in s-domain, corresponds to 0 ≤ ωw < ∞ in the
T
frequency axis of w-plane. The frequency axis is the imaginary axis
jω. Therefore, the inside of the unit circle in z-plane is mapped
into the entire LHP in the w-plane. Thus, we can see that the
Routh-Hurwitz stability criteion becomes applicable if bilinear
transformation is applied to a discrete time transfer function in
z-transform and converted to w-domain.

10
2 Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion

z+1
K
+ - z(z-1)

Test the stability of this closed loop system. Determine the range of
K that keeps the system stable. The open loop transfer function is
z+1
G(z) = K .
z(z − 1)
2 z−1 1 + T2 w
w= ⇔ z=
T z+1 1 − T2 w

z + 1 
G(w) = K
z(z − 1)  1+ T2 w
z=
1− T w
2

11
 1 + T2 w
T
+1
1− 2w
= K
1 + T2 w 1 + T2 w
T
( T
− 1)
1− 2w 1− 2w
T
1− w
= K 2
T T
(1 + w) w
2 2
The characteristic equation is
T
1−w
1 + G(w) = 1 + K 2 =0
T T
(1 + w) w
2 2
T T
( )2 w2 + (1 − K)w + K = 0
2 2

12
 
w  ( T2 )2
2
K

1  T
w  2 (1 − K) 0

0 
w K 0
Therefore, 0 < K < 1 is necessary for the system to be stable.

Routh Hurwitz stability criterion

When the characteristic equation is given by

bn wn + bn−1 wn−1 + · · · + b1 w + b0 = 0

13
 
wn 
 bn bn−2 bn−4 · · ·

wn−1 
 bn−1 bn−3 bn−5 · · ·
wn−2


 c1 c2 c3
wn−3

 d1 d2 d3

..  .. .. ..
.  . . .

bn−1 bn−2 − bn bn−3 bn−1 bn−4 − bn bn−5

c1 = c2 =
bn−1 bn−1
c1 bn−3 − c2 bn−1 c1 bn−5 − c3 bn−1
d1 = d2 =
c1 c1
The number of sign changes in the first column gives the number of
unstable poles.

14
Example
An open loop transfer function
z+1
G(z) = K
(z − 1)2
yields
2 − Tw
G(w) = K
(T w)2
The characteristic equation is

T 2 w2 − KT w + 2K = 0.

w2  T 2 2K

1 
w  −KT 0

0 
w 2K 0

15
Since the number of sign changes is 2, this system is always
unstable regardless of the value of K. This system is the same as
1
analog system, 2 . So, the unity gain feedback always results in
s
instability.

16
3 Phase Lead or Lag Compensator

A discrete time phase lead/lag compensator is designed by using

the bilinear transformation that maps the inside of the unit circle
in z-plane to the entire LHP of w-plane. The phase lead/lag
compensator is designed in w-domain utilizing the techniques
available for continuous time compensator design, then map it back
to the z-domain by the bilinear transformation.
The first order w-domain compensator is given by analogy to
s-domain as
w
1+
ωw0
D(w) = a0 w
1+
ωwp

17
A pole is at w = −ωwp and a zero is at w = −ωw0 .

18
• Phase lead compensator: ωwp > ωw0
• Phase lag compensator: ωw0 > ωwp

19
 2 z−1
Substituting w = for w in the compensator transfer
T z+1
function,

2z−1
T
1+ z+1
ωw0
D(z) = a0
2 z−1
T z+1
1+
ωwp
2 z−1
ωw0 ωwp + ωwp
= a0 T z+1
2 z−1
ωw0 ωwp + ωw0
T z+1
ωw0 ωwp T (z + 1) + 2ωwp (z − 1)
= a0
ωw0 ωwp T (z + 1) + 2ωw0 (z − 1)

20
 ωw0 T −2
z+
ωwp (ωw0 T + 2) ωw0 T +2
= a0 ×
ωw0 (ωwp T + 2) ωwp T −2
z+
ωwp T +2
z − z0
= Kd
z − zp
Thus,
2
ωwp (ωw0 T + 2) ωwp (ωw0 + T)
Kd = a0 = a0 2
ωw0 (ωwp T + 2) ωw0 (ωwp + T)
2
ωw0 T − 2 ω w0 −
z0 = − =− T
ωw0 T + 2 2
ωw0 +
T
2
ωwp T − 2 ωwp −
zp = − =− T
ωwp T + 2 2
ωwp +
T

21
4 DIGITAL CONTROLLER DESIGN 3

Frequency Response Method

+ z - z0
Kd ZOH G(s)
- T z - zp

Design a phase lead or phase lag compensator

z − z0
D(z) = Kd
z − zp
such that the (open loop) system satisfies a given phase margin of
φm ' 100ζ so that the (closed loop) system has damping ratio of ζ.

22
Since the frequency response method based on phase margin and
gain margin established in the Laplace domain (s-domain) is used
here, the frequency response of D(z) combined with a plant
transfer function G(z) with ZOH must be transformed into
w-domain by using the bilinear transformation. Because, the stable
region of the z-plane that is the inside of a unit circle, is mapped
into the entire LHP (Left Half Plane) of the w-plane.

The parameters Kd , z0 and zp of the first order phase lead/lag

compensator are determined in terms of a0 , ωw0 , ωwp defined in the
w-domain.

23
Calculations of Frequency Response in
w-domain
In order to obtain frequency response (Bode plot) in w-domain, do
the following steps.
1. Find the transfer function in the z-transform,
 ?
−1 G(s)
G(z) = (1 − z )Z
s

2. Calculate the frequency response G(ejωT ) for 0 ≤ ωT ≤ π with

a proper step size. Record the actual frequncy scale of
0 ≤ ω ≤ ωs = Tπ
3. Calculate corresponding frequency ωw to the frequencies used
to calculate G(ejωT ).
2 ωT
ωw = tan
T 2

24
4. Make a frequency response table to help drawing the Bode
diagram.

ω jG(ejωT )j 6 G(ejωT ) ωw
··· ··· ··· ···
··· ··· ··· ···
.. .. .. ..
. . . .

5. Draw the Bode Diagram, both for jG(ejωT )j and 6 G(ejωT )

using the frequency scale of ωw , not ω. This process is often
called as frequency pre-warping.

25
Design Approach

• Digital controller design to determine D(z) by the frequency

response method uses phase margin φm as a key parameter.

• Design is to make the phase margin of the open loop trnasfer

function D(w)G(w) have a specified phase margin φm at a
frequency ωw1 .

26
• Finding the new cross-over frequency ωw1 requires several
conditions to be met, and also requires “try and error” until a
satisfactory value is found.

• We are designing (determining)

w
1+
ωw0
D(w) = a0 w
1+
ωwp

where, a pole is at w = −ωwp and a zero is at w = −ωw0 .

27
Characteristic Equation of the Closed Loop
Systems
The only mathematical condition required at ωw1 is

D(jωw1 )G(jωw1 ) = 16 (−180◦ + φm ) = 16 (+180◦ + φm )

For magnitude,
1
jD(jωw1 )j jG(jωw1 )j = 1 ⇒ jD(jωw1 )j =
jG(jωw1 )j
For phase,

6 D(jωw1 ) + 6 G(jωw1 ) = ∓180◦ + φm

⇒ θ = 6 D(jωw1 ) = ∓180◦ + φm − 6 G(jωw1 )

28
Mathematical Design Formula for Phase
Lead/Lag Compesators

The phase margin of the open loop trnasfer function D(w)G(w)

satisfies a specified phase margin φm at a frequency ωw1 , if the
parameters a1 and b1 of
a1 w
1+ w 1 +
a1 w + a0 a0 ωw0
D(w) = = a0 = a0 w
b1 w + 1 1 + b1 w 1+
ωwp

a0 1
where, wω0 = and wωp =
a1 b1
are set to satisfy

29
 1 − a0 jG(jωw1 )j cos θ
a1 =
ωw1 jG(jωw1 )j sin θ
cos θ − a0 jG(jωw1 )j
b1 =
ωw1 sin θ

where, θ = 6 D(jωw1 ) = ∓180◦ + φm − 6 G(jωw1 ). The DC gain a0

must be known from other criteria such as steady state error ess or
DC gain.

30
Verification (check)

1 − a0 jG(jωw1 )j cos θ
j ωw1 + a0
ja1 ωw1 + a0 ωw1 jG(jωw1 )j sin θ
D(jωw1 ) = =
jb1 ωw1 + 1 cos θ − a0 jG(jωw1 )j
j ωw1 + 1
ωw1 sin θ
1 j(1 − a0 jGj cos θ) + a0 jGj sin θ
= ×
jG(jωw1 )j j(cos θ − a0 jGj) + sin θ
Thus,

2 1 (1 − a0 jGj cos θ)2 + (a0 jGj sin θ)2

D(jωw1 ) =
jGj2 (cos θ − a0 jGj)2 + sin2 θ
1 1 − 2a0 jGj cos θ + a20 jGj2
=
jGj2 1 − 2a0 jGj cos θ + a20 jGj2
1
=
jGj2

31
For phase angle,
a1
1 + j ωw1
6 6
a0
D(jωw1 ) =
1 + jb1 jωw1
−1 a1
= tan ωw1 − tan−1 b1 ωw1
a0
−1 a1
tan tan ωw1 − tan tan−1 b1 ωw1
a0
tan 6 D(jωw1 ) = a1
1 + tan tan−1 ωw1 × tan tan−1 b1 ωw1
a0
a1
ωw − b1 ωw1
a0 1
= a1
1 + ωw1 × b1 ωw1
a0

32
Substituting,
1 − a0 jGj cos θ cos θ − a0 jGj
a1 ωw1 = and b1 ωw1 =
jGj sin θ sin θ

sin θ(1 − 2a0 jGj cos θ + a20 jGj2 )

tan 6 D(jωw1 ) =
cos θ(1 − 2a0 jGj cos θ + a20 jGj2 )
= tan θ

Thus, the compensator D(jωw1 ) satisfies

1
jD(jωw1 )j = and 6 D(jωw1 ) = θ
jG(jωw1 )j

33
Range to choose ωw1 for Phase-Lead Case

This formula based method is straightforward and works well as

long as the choice of ωw1 is proper. The range of frequency ωw
from which ωw1 should be chosen is specified by the following
conditions for phase lead compensators.
1. θ = 6 D(jωw1 ) = ∓180◦ + φm − 6 G(jωw1 ) > 0 requires to
choose ωw1 to satisfy a phase condition
6 G(jωw1 ) < ∓180◦ + φm .

2. Since jD(jωw )j > a0 , jD(jωw1 )j > a0 . Then, ωw1 should satisfy

a gain condition,
1 1
jG(jωw1 )j = <
jD(jωw1 )j a0
3. In the transfer function D(w), a0 , a1 and b1 must be all

34
 a0 1
positive as ωw0 = and ωwp = . sin θ > 0 for phase lead
a1 b1
compensators.
Referring to
1 − a0 jGj cos θ cos θ − a0 jGj
a1 ωw1 = and b1 ωw1 = .
jGj sin θ sin θ
the numerators must be positive as well.

1 − a0 jGj cos θ > 0 and cos θ − a0 jGj > 0

1
> cos θ > a0 jG(jωw1 )j
a0 jG(jωw1 )j
This condition is written for jG(jωw1 )j as
cos θ 1
jG(jωw1 )j < <
a0 a0 cos θ

35
Thus,
cos θ
jG(jωw1 )j < ,
a0
which is more restrictive than the condition derived from the
1
gain, jG(jωw1 )j < .
a0

36
Range to choose ωw1 for Phase-Lag Case

The range of frequency ωw from which ωw1 should be chosen is

specified by the following conditions for phase lag compensators.
1. θ = 6 D(jωw1 ) = ∓180◦ + φm − 6 G(jωw1 ) < 0 requires to
choose ωw1 to satisfy a phase condition
6 G(jωw1 ) > ∓180◦ + φm .

2. Since jD(jωw )j < a0 , jD(jωw1 )j < a0 . Then, ωw1 should satisfy

a gain condition,
1 1
jG(jωw1 )j = >
jD(jωw1 )j a0
3. In the transfer function D(w), a0 , a1 and b1 must be all
a0 1
positive as ωw0 = and ωwp = . sin θ < 0 for phase lag
a1 b1

37
compensators.
Referring to
1 − a0 jGj cos θ cos θ − a0 jGj
a1 ωw1 = and b1 ωw1 = .
jGj sin θ sin θ
the numerators must be negative as well.

1 − a0 jGj cos θ < 0 and cos θ − a0 jGj < 0

1
< cos θ < a0 jG(jωw1 )j
a0 jG(jωw1 )j
This condition yields,
1 cos θ
jG(jωw1 )j > >
a0 cos θ a0
Thus,
1
jG(jωw1 )j > .
a0 cos θ

38
 1
This is more restrictive than jG(jωw1 )j > .
a0

39
Design specific to Phase lag Compensator

The first order phase lag compensator can be designed by the

formula similarly as in the case of phase lead compensator.
However, there is a basic difference in the principle of
compensating for a required phase margin.
• Phase lead compensators add a positive phase to increase the
phase margin without drastically changing the 0 dB crossover
frequency.
• A phase lag compensators is used to lower the overall gain to
shift the 0 dB crossover frequency to a much smaller value so
that a larger phase margin is obtained.
Since the 0 dB crossover frequency ωw1 is shifted to a lower
frequency where the phase response of the Bode diagram is not
affected by the compensator, selecting ωw1 can be done on the Bode

40
diagram of G(w) alone without being affected by the compensator.
First, find a new crossover frequency ωw1 where the condition,

6 G(jωw1 ) = −180◦ + φm + 5◦

is satisfied. 5◦ accounts for a slight phase angle derease by the

phase lag compensator. The rule of thumb to set ωw0 in the
compensator’s transfer function,
w
1+
ωw0 a1 w + a0
D(w) = a0 w = b1 w + 1
1+
ωwp

is to pick one decade lower than the ωw1 , i.e.

ωw0 = 0.1 × ωw1 .

41
For a phase lag compensator, ωwp < ωw0 .

 1 + j ωw1 
 

ωw0 
 ωwp 1
jD(ωw1 )j = a0   ' a0 =

 1 + j ωw1  ωw0 G(jωw1 )
 ωwp


Thus,
ωw0 0.1 ωw1
ωwp = =
a0 jG(jωw1 )j a0 jG(jωw1 )j

42
Example 8.1 page 294

The servo motor is to control the horizontal (azimuth) angle for

pointing a radar antenna. The transfer function is given by
1
G(s) =
s(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
The z-transform of this system combined with ZOH is

−5 (z + 3.5954)(z + 0.2580)
G(z) = 4.0140 × 10 .
(z − 1)(z − 0.9512)(z − 0.9048)
The Bode diagram drawn for w-domain with respect to the
frequency axis of ωw is shown.

43
 Magnitude Response
20

0
Magnitude in dB

−20

−40

−60
−1 0 1
10 10 10
frequency in rad/s
Phase Response
−50

−100
Phase in degrees

−150

−200

−250

−300
−1 0 1
10 10 10
frequency in rad/s

44
Design a phase lag compensator that achieves a phase margin of
φm = 55◦ for a0 = 1.

6 G(jωw1 ) = −180◦ + 55◦ + 5◦ = −120◦

By the Bode diagram, ωw1 ' 0.36. At this frequency

jG(jωw1 )j = 2.57 = 8.2dB. Therefore,

ωw0 = 0.1 ωw1 = 0.036

0.1 ωw1
ωwp = = 0.0140
a0 jG(jωw1 )j
Using these values of a0 , ωw0 and ωwp ,
z − 0.9982
D(z) = 0.3891 .
z − 0.9993
The frequency response after compensation is shown in the
frequency axis of ωw .

45
 Magnitude Response
20

Magnitude in dB 0

−20

−40

−60

−80
−1 0 1
10 10 10
frequency in rad/s
Phase Response
−50

−100
Phase in degrees

−150

−200

−250

−300
−1 0 1
10 10 10
frequency in rad/s

46
Example 8.2 page 302 Phase lead compensator
design

The servo motor is to control the horizontal (azimuth) angle for

pointing a radar antenna. (same system as Example 8.1) The
transfer function is given by
1
G(s) =
s(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
Try a phase lead compensator that satisfies the phase margin of
φm = 55◦ . We keep a0 = 1 as the previous phase lag case. We need
to select a ωw1 to use the formula that determine the compensator
coefficients a1 and b1 . Refer to the three conditions.
6 G(jωw1 ) < ∓180◦ + φm .
1 1
jG(jωw1 )j = <
D(jωw1 ) a0

47
 cos θ
jG(jωw1 )j < ,
a0
where, θ = 6 D(jωw1 ) = ∓180◦ + φm − 6 G(jωw1 ) > 0.
• The range that the first condition
6 G(jωw ) < ∓180◦ + φm = −125◦ , ωw > 0.45 according to the
1 1

Bode diagram (phase).

1
• The second condition jG(jωw1 )j < requres ωw1 > 0.75 from
a0
the Bode diagram (gain). So, try ωw1 > 1.2 to see if the third
condition is satisfied. θ = ∓180◦ + φm − 6 G(jωw1 ) > 0.
6 G(jωw ) = −172.8◦ . Therefore,
1

θ = −180◦ + 55 − (−172.8) = 47.8◦ .

• cos θ = 0.6709 and a0 jG(jωw1 )j = 0.4576. Thus, the third
condition is met.
Therefore, the choice of ωw1 ≥ 1.2 is acceptable for the use of the

48
formula. i.e. ωw1 = 1.2 Using the formula,
1 − a0 jGj cos θ cos θ − a0 jGj
a1 = and b1 =
ωw1 jGj sin θ ωw1 sin θ
We find,
a1 = 1.7016 and b1 = 0.2397
The parameters of the discrete time domain transfer function of the
compensator
z − z0
D(z) = Kd
z − zp
are
2
ωwp (ωw0 T + 2) ωwp (ωw0 + T)
Kd = a0 = a0 2 = 6.5230
ωw0 (ωwp T + 2) ωw0 (ωwp + T)
2
ωw0 T − 2 ωw0 − T
z0 = − =− 2 = 0.9710
ωw0 T + 2 ωw0 + T

49
 2
ωw T − 2 ωw − T
zp = − p =− p 2 = 0.8111
ωwp T + 2 ωwp + T

The frequency response of D(jωw )G(jωw ) in the w-domain is

shown below. This shows that the phase margin was increased.
The graph shows increased gain in a high frequency range caused
by the phase lead compensator.

50
 Magnitude Response
40

Magnitude in dB 20

−20

−40

−60
−1 0 1
10 10 10
frequency in rad/s
Phase Response
−50

−100
Phase in degrees

−150

−200

−250

−300
−1 0 1
10 10 10
frequency in rad/s

51
Matlab program to assist phase lead compensator design.
%
% Example 8.1 page 294
% G(s)=1/s(s+1)(0.5s+1)=2/s(s+1)(s+2)
%
%
num=2;
den=poly([0,-1,-2]);
sys=tf(num,den);
w=logspace(-1,1,100);
jw=j*w;
H=polyval(num,jw)./polyval(den,jw);
mag=20*log10(abs(H));
radians=angle(H);
phase=unwrap(radians)*180/pi;
subplot(211),semilogx(w,mag,’b’),grid
title(’Magnitude Response Analog’);
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Magnitude in dB’);
subplot(212),semilogx(w,phase,’b’),grid
title(’Phase Response Analog’);
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Phase in degrees’);

figure(2);
T=0.05;

52
zeroG=[];
poleG=[0, -1, -2];
gainG=2;
[zdG, pdG, kdG]=c2dzp(zeroG, poleG, gainG, T);
numdG=poly(zdG)*kdG;
dendG=poly(pdG);
[numW, denW]=z2w(numdG,dendG,T);
w=logspace(-1,1,100);
jw=j*w;
H=polyval(numW,jw)./polyval(denW,jw);
mag=20*log10(abs(H));
radians=angle(H);
phase=unwrap(radians)*180/pi;
subplot(211),semilogx(w,mag,’b’),grid
title(’Magnitude Response’);
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Magnitude in dB’);
subplot(212),semilogx(w,phase,’b’),grid
title(’Phase Response’);
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Phase in degrees’);
%bode(kdG*numW, denW, W);
print -dps exmpL8_1.ps

% Phase lead compensator design a1*w +a0 / b1 w + 1 = a0 (w/(a0/a1) + 1)/(w/(1/b1)+1)

Ww=input(’Select Omega_w_1=’);

53
Phmar=input(’Specify Phase margin(+ in degrees)=’);
a0=input(’compensator DC gain a0=’)
[G,GdB,Ph]=Gpha(numW,denW,Ww)
theta=-180+Phmar-Ph
theta=theta*pi/180;
a1=(1-a0*G*cos(theta))/(Ww*G*sin(theta))
b1=(cos(theta)-a0*G)/(Ww*sin(theta))
% check
disp(’angle G(j omega_w_1) < -180 + Phmar’);
Ph
-180+Phmar
disp(’gain G(j omega_w_1) < 1/a0’);
G
1/a0
disp(’cos theta > a0 * gain G(j omega_w_1)’);
cos(theta)
a0*G

pause;
figure(3);
sysW=tf(numW,denW);
w0=a0/a1;
wp=1/b1;
cmsW=tf(a1*[1, w0], b1*[1, wp]);

54
%cmsW=tf(0.014*[1,0.036],0.036*[1,0.014])
ttlW=sysW*cmsW;
ttWmin=minreal(ttlW);
[numW,denW]=tfdata(ttWmin,’v’);
[G,GdB,Ph]=Gpha(numW,denW,Ww);

w=logspace(-1,1,100);
jw=j*w;
H=polyval(numW,jw)./polyval(denW,jw);
mag2=20*log10(abs(H));
radians=angle(H);
phase2=unwrap(radians)*180/pi;
subplot(211),semilogx(w,mag,’k--’,w,mag2,’b’),grid
title(’Magnitude Response’);
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Magnitude in dB’);
subplot(212),semilogx(w,phase,’k--’,w,phase2,’b’),grid
title(’Phase Response’);
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Phase in degrees’);
print -dps exmpL8_1c.ps

disp(’discrete time, z-domain compensator Kd(z-z0)/(z-zp)’);

Kd=a0*(wp*(w0+2/T))/(w0*(wp+2/T))
z0=(2/T-w0)/(2/T+w0)
zp=(2/T-wp)/(2/T+wp)

55
5 PID Controller Design
A digital PID (Proportional, Integral and Differential) controller is
given by
T z+1 1
D(z) = KP + KI + KD (1 − z −1 ),
2 z−1 T
whereas an analog PID controller is
1
D(w) = KP + KI + KD w
w
KD w 2 + KP w + KI
=
w
w w
(1 + )(1 + )
wω1 wω2
= KI
w
From the last expression, we can obtain the frequency response
(Bode diagram) of D(w).

56
PID contoller is widely used as a compensator to stabilize
closed-loop systems by adjusting the phase margin and gain
margin. Here, we try to primarily adjust the phase margin to a
2 ωT
desired value. Since ωw = tan , due to the term KD w,
T 2
jD(jωw )j → ∞ when, ωT → π.

57
 2 z−1
We do not use w = for D-action. Instead we use
T z+1
1 z−1
(1 − z −1 ) = .
T Tz

z − 1  w w w
= = w = w
Tz  z=
1+ T w
2 T 1+ 1 + ωs
1− T w 1+ w 2
2
2 ( ) ( )
T π
Therefore, the corner frequency at
ωs ωs
ωw = <
π 2
prevents the gain of D-action from going to ∞. In another word,
the pole at z = −1 is unstable but not the pole at z = 0. We use
the following D(w) for the purpose of PID controller design with

58
 ωs ωs
an assumption that the actual frequency ω  < .
π 2
1
D(w) = KP + KI + KD w.
w

1
D(jωw ) = KP − jKI + jKD ωw
ωw
 
1
= KP + j KD ωw − KI
ωw
= jD(jωw )j6 θ
r
2 1 2
jD(jωw )j = KP + (KD ωw − KI )
ωw
1
K D ωw − K I ωw
θ = tan−1
KP

59
PID controller design

Determine KP , KI and KD such that the phase margin is φm at a

cross-over frequency ωw1 . This requirement is

D(jωw1 )G(jωw1 ) = 16 − 180◦ + φm

For gain,
1
jD(jωw1 )j =
jG(jωw1 )j
For phase,
6 D(jωw1 ) + 6 G(jωw1 ) = ∓180◦ + φm
6 D(jωw1 ) = ∓180◦ + φm − 6 G(jωw1 ).
Since
 
1
KP + j KD ωw1 − KI = jD(jωw1 )jejθ
ωw1

60
 = jD(jωw1 )j (cos θ + j sin θ)
1
= (cos θ + j sin θ)
jG(jωw1 )j

1
KP = cos θ
jG(jωw1 )j
1 1
KD ωw1 − KI = sin θ
ωw1 jG(jωw1 )j

phase lag: θ<0 sin θ < 0 KD ωw1 < KI ωw1

1

phase lead: θ>0 sin θ > 0 KD ωw1 > KI ωw1

1

Increasing KD increases bandwidth. Increasing KI decreases

steady state error ess provided that the system retains an
acceptable gain margin. If the above two conditions are staisfied,
varying KI and KD will change the gain margin, while the phase

61
margin remains unchanged. From the relationship,

6 D(jωw1 ) = ∓180◦ + φm − 6 G(jωw1 ) = θ

the cross-over frequency ωw1 must be chosen depending on whether

the PID controller should be of leading phase or lagging phase.

• ωw1 should be chosen where 6 G(jωw1 ) < ∓180◦ + φm , if

leading phase (more D-action than I-action).

• ωw1 should be chosen where 6 G(jωw1 ) > ∓180◦ + φm , if

lagging phase (more I-action than D-action).

62
PI and PD Controller

Referring to the Bode diagram of PID controller, PID controller

increases its gain both at low frequecy and at high frequency. A
large gain at low frequency decreases steady state error, ess . A
large gain at high frequency may shift the cross-over frequency to a
higher frequency causing the decrease of phase margin, but it adds

63
a leading phase up to 90◦ . A larger gain at high frequency makes
the bandwidth wider.

The previously described design method for PID controller does

not give a unique solution for KI and KD . The PI or PD controller
drops D-action or I-action, respectively. In the case where both
D-action and I action need not to be present, one can use PI or PD
controller for which the solution for KI or KD becomes uniquely
determinable. In PID case,
 
1 1
KP + j KD ωw1 − KI = (cos θ + j sin θ)
ωw1 jG(jωw1 )j

PI controller, θ < 0
1 1
KP − jKI = (cos θ + j sin θ)
ωw1 jG(jωw1 )j

64
 1
KP = cos θ
jG(jωw1 )j
1
KI = −ωw1 sin θ
jG(jωw1 )j

65
PD controller, θ > 0
1
KP + jKD ωw1 = (cos θ + j sin θ)
jG(jωw1 )j

1
KP = cos θ
jG(jωw1 )j
1
KD = sin θ
ωw1 jG(jωw1 )j
Exact Solutions
The digital PID controller
T z+1 1
D(z) = KP + KI + KD (1 − z −1 ),
2 z−1 T
is mapped to w-domain exactly as
1 w
D(w) = KP + KI + KD
w T
1+ w
2

66
The solutions derived from
1
D(w) = KP + KI + KD w
w
ωs ωs
provided for the actual frequency ω to be ω  < are
π 2
approximations. The frequency response is
1 jωw
D(jωw ) = KP − jKI + KD
ωw T
1 + jωw
2
At the cross-over frequency ωw1 ,
1 jωw1
D(jωw1 ) = KP − jKI + KD
ωw1 T
1 + jωw1
2
1
= (cos θ + j sin θ)
jG(jωw1 )j

67
The real part gives
2 2
KD ωw ( ) cos θ
KP +
1
T =
2 jG(jωw1 )j
( )2 + ωw2
T 1

The imaginary part gives

2 2
KD ωw ( ) sin θ
1
T − KI =
2 ωw1 jG(jωw1 )j
( )2 + ωw 2
T 1

For PI controller with KD = 0, the equations for KP and KI

remain the same as the approximated solutions. However, PD
controller gains KD and KP are given as follows.
2 2
 
2
sin θ  T( ) + ω w 1 
KD =  2
jG(jωw1 )j

( )2 ωw1
T

68
 2 2
cos θ KD ωw ( )
KP = −
1
T
jG(jωw1 )j 2
( )2 + ωw
2
T 1

69
PI controller for the servo-motor for a radar
antenna

For the same system of

1
G(s) = ,
s(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
design a PI controller to have phase margin of 55◦ at ωw1 = 0.4.
Using the design program below, Kp = 0.4392 and Ki = 0.0040
were found.

70
 Magnitude Response
20

Magnitude in dB 0

−20

−40

−60

−80
−1 0 1
10 10 10
frequency in rad/s
Phase Response
−50

−100
Phase in degrees

−150

−200

−250

−300
−1 0 1
10 10 10
frequency in rad/s

71
%
% Example 8.4 and 8.5 page 317 and 318
% G(s)=1/s(s+1)(0.5s+1)=2/s(s+1)(s+2)
%
num=2;
den=poly([0,-1,-2]);
sys=tf(num,den);
%------------------
dSys=c2d(sys,0.05,’zoh’);
[dSyszeros,dSyspoles,Ksys,ts]=zpkdata(dSys,’v’);
zeros=[dSyszeros’];
poles=[dSyspoles’];
num=poly(zeros);
den=poly(poles);
%------------------
w=logspace(-1,1,100);
jw=j*w;
H=polyval(num,jw)./polyval(den,jw);
mag=20*log10(abs(H));
radians=angle(H);
phase=unwrap(radians)*180/pi;
subplot(211),semilogx(w,mag,’b’),grid
title(’Magnitude Response’);
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Magnitude in dB’);

72
subplot(212),semilogx(w,phase,’b’),grid
title(’Phase Response’);
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Phase in degrees’);

figure(2);
T=0.05;
zeroG=[];
poleG=[0, -1, -2];
gainG=2;
[zdG, pdG, kdG]=c2dzp(zeroG, poleG, gainG, T);
numdG=poly(zdG)*kdG;
dendG=poly(pdG);
[numW, denW]=z2w(numdG,dendG,T);
w=logspace(-1,1,100);
jw=j*w;
H=polyval(numW,jw)./polyval(denW,jw);
mag=20*log10(abs(H));
radians=angle(H);
phase=unwrap(radians)*180/pi;
subplot(211),semilogx(w,mag,’b’),grid
title(’Magnitude Response’);
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Magnitude in dB’);
subplot(212),semilogx(w,phase,’b’),grid
title(’Phase Response’);

73
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Phase in degrees’);
print -dps exmpL8_5.ps

% PID controller design D(w)=Kp + Ki/w + Kd*w

Ww=input(’Select Omega_w_1=’);
Phmar=input(’Specify Phase margin(+ in degrees)=’);
[G,GdB,Ph]=Gpha(numW,denW,Ww)
theta=-180+Phmar-Ph
theta=theta*pi/180;
if theta>0
disp(’D action > I action’);
else
disp(’I action > D action’);
end
Kp=cos(theta)/G
type=input(’Which do you specify, Ki or Kd? ’,’s’);
notOK=1;
while(notOK)
if (type==’Ki’ | type==’ki’)
Ki=input(’Enter value of Ki =’);
notOK=0;
Kd=(sin(theta)/G+Ki/Ww)/Ww
else if (type==’Kd’ | type==’kd’)
Kd=input(’Enter value of Kd =’);

74
 notOK=0;
Ki=(Kd*Ww-sin(theta)/G)*Ww
end
end
end

figure(3);
sysW=tf(numW,denW);
pidW=tf([Kd,Kp,Ki],[0,1,0])
ttlW=sysW*pidW;
ttWmin=minreal(ttlW);
[numW,denW]=tfdata(ttWmin,’v’);

w=logspace(-1,1,100);
jw=j*w;
H=polyval(numW,jw)./polyval(denW,jw);
mag2=20*log10(abs(H));
radians=angle(H);
phase2=unwrap(radians)*180/pi;
subplot(211),semilogx(w,mag,’k--’,w,mag2,’b’),grid
title(’Magnitude Response’);
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Magnitude in dB’);
subplot(212),semilogx(w,phase,’k--’,w,phase2,’b’),grid
title(’Phase Response’);

75
xlabel(’frequency in rad/s’),ylabel(’Phase in degrees’);
print -dps exmpL8_5c.ps

76
PID controller for the servo-motor for a radar
antenna

For the same system of

1
G(s) = ,
s(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
design a PID controller to have phase margin of 55◦ at ωw1 = 1.2.
Specifying Ki = 0.004 in the PID design program, Kp = 1.4661 and
Kd = 1.3530 were found.

77
 Magnitude Response
40

Magnitude in dB 20

−20

−40

−60
−1 0 1
10 10 10
frequency in rad/s
Phase Response
−50

−100
Phase in degrees

−150

−200

−250

−300
−1 0 1
10 10 10
frequency in rad/s

78
Assignment No. 6

Work on a series of questions related to the same system in Figure

P8-2 (page 329).

1. 8-2 textbook page 328

2. 8-3 textbook page 329

3. 8-10 textbook page 330

4. 8-11 textbook page 330

79