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Connector Theory and Application: Experience. Technology. Answers
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P R O D U C T S P R O D U C T S
Connector Theory and Application
A Guide to Connection Design and Specification
Authored by:
GARY DI TROIA
IEEE MEMBER
FCI USA, Inc.
47 East Industrial Park Drive / P.O. Box 9507
Manchester, NH 03109 USA
KENNETH WOO
FCI USA, Inc.
47 East Industrial Park Drive / P.O. Box 9507
Manchester, NH 03109 USA
GAYLORD ZAHLMAN
FCI USA, Inc.
47 East Industrial Park Drive / P.O. Box 9507
Manchester, NH 03109 USA
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.0 THEORY OF CONNECTOR TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.1 Grounding and Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
1.1.1 Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
1.1.2 Fault Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
1.1.3 Special Ground Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
1.1.4 Ground Connection Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
1.2 Substation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
1.2.1 Distribution Substations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.2.2 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.2.3 Substation Connector Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.3 Underground Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
1.3.1 Design Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
1.3.2 Underground Secondary Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
1.3.3 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
1.3.4 Network Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
1.4 Overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
1.4.1 Thermal Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
1.4.2 Mechanical Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
1.4.3 Dielectric Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
1.4.4 Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
1.4.5 Performance Testing (ANSI C119.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
1.5 Service Entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
1.5.1 Secondary Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
1.5.2 Service Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
1.6 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
1.6.1 Tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
1.6.2 Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
1.6.3 Splice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
1.7 Types of Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
1.7.1 Mechanical Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
1.7.1.1 Connector Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
1.7.1.2 The Clamping Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
1.7.1.3 Advantages of Mechanical Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
1.7.1.4 Disadvantages of Mechanical Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
1.7.2 Wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
1.7.2.1 Advantages of Wedge Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
1.7.2.2 Disadvantages of Wedge Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
1.7.3 Automatic Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
1.7.3.1 Advantages of Automatic Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
1.7.3.2 Disadvantages of Automatic Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
1.7.4 Insulation Piercing Connectors (IPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
1.7.4.1 Advantages of Insulation Piercing Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
1.7.4.2 Disadvantages of Insulation Piercing Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
1.7.5 Compression Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
1.7.5.1 Advantages of Compression Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
1.7.5.2 Disadvantages of Compression Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
1.7.6 Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
1.7.6.1 Advantages of Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
1.7.6.2 Disadvantages of Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
1.7.7 Exothermic Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
1.7.7.1 Advantages of Exothermic Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
1.7.7.2 Disadvantages of Exothermic Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
1.7.8 Split Solder Sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
1.7.8.1 Advantages of Split Solder Sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
1.7.8.2 Disadvantages of Split Solder Sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
2.0 PRACTICAL CONNECTOR CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
2.1 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
2.1.1 General Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
2.1.1.1 Contact Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
2.1.1.2 Insulation Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
2.1.1.3 Oxide Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
2.1.1.4 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
2.1.1.5 Aluminum Above Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
2.1.1.6 Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
2.1.1.7 DTS Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
2.1.1.8 Standard Wall and Heavy Wall Compression Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
2.1.2 Wedge Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
2.1.3 Compression Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
2.1.3.1 Cable Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
2.1.3.2 Bias Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
2.1.3.3 Compression Installation Tooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
2.1.3.4 Bowing (“bananaing”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
2.1.3.5 Bird-caging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
2.1.3.6 Spaced and Overlapping Crimps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
2.1.3.7 Crimp Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
2.1.3.8 Concentric, Compressed & Compact Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
2.2 Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
2.2.1 Total Cost of Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
2.2.1.1 Up-front Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
2.2.1.2 Installation Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
2.2.1.3 Maintenance Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
2.2.1.4 Cost of Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
2.3 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
2.3.1 Installation Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
2.3.1.1 Industry Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
2.3.1.2 Manufacturer’s Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
2.3.1.3 Internal Safety Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
2.3.2 Improper Handling and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
2.3.2.1 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
2.3.2.2 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
2.3.2.3 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
2.3.2.4 Tool Selection and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
2.3.2.5 Improper Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
4.0 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Table of Figures
Table of Tables
Connection -
CATHODE copper
1.2 Substation
A substation that is centrally located within the 1.2.3 Substation Connector Design
load area is called a distribution substation.
Distribution substations may be as close as two The challenge for substation connector designs is
miles from each other in densely populated areas. to meet both the dimensional and electrical
These substations may also be located near a constraints. Mechanical connectors are often
large manufacturing facility or inside a high-rise used for substation connections due to their
building to supply immediate, high-load customer adaptability to sizing. With these connectors,
needs. fastening hardware is usually located as close to
and on opposing sides of the conductor to provide
uniform clamping forces. (See Figure 1.2-2)
How secure must a connection be is the key There are two general types of corrosion that are
question to mechanical integrity. For the of concern in overhead distribution connections.
overhead distribution system, connections will Oxidation and galvanic corrosion affect both the
require a full range of mechanical secureness; initial contact and the long-term performance of an
from full tension applications (95% of the ASTM electrical connection.
rated breaking strength of the conductor) to strain
relieved applications where little mechanical Oxidation can develop on both the connector and
stress or vibration will occur. the conductor to be joined. Copper oxide forms
on copper and copper alloy surfaces and is low in
Pullout tests and secureness tests are used to conductivity. Evidence of copper oxide can be
determine the adequacy of a connector’s seen as a black or green surface discoloration.
mechanical integrity. Pullout testing is used to Copper oxide layers will reduce the number of
establish the connector’s minimum performance contacting points in a connection, thus increasing
level for overhead lines in tension. Secureness the contact resistance. The conductors should be
tests involve rotating a hanging weight from the cleaned prior to making a connection.
conductor held by the connector to simulate
mechanical disturbances. Vibration testing is also Aluminum oxide, however, is a fast forming, hard,
necessary for checking for metal fatigue over the non-conductive coating that develops on the
spectrum of oscillations anticipated in service. surface of aluminum conductors exposed to air.
Unlike copper oxides, aluminum oxide is not
An additional requirement for mechanical visually obvious and should be assumed to exist
connectors is the ability to withstand in all cases of bare aluminum. Aluminum oxide
approximately 50% more than the recommended must be removed from a conductor’s surface prior
torque. These connectors are tested in this to making a connection. Wire brushing and the
manner to account for error in installation. immediate application of an oxide inhibitor are
recommended to prevent the reformation of the
1.4.3 Dielectric Fundamentals non-conductive coating prior to connector
installation. (See section 2.1.1.1 Contact Surface
High voltage connector applications require Preparation for further details on preparing
special considerations due to high voltage stress conductor surfaces for connection.) An alternate
concentrations. Sharp edges and non-smooth method that is used to achieve low contact
conductive surfaces produce concentrated resistance is for the connection methodology to
voltage gradients that can become sources of physically break through the aluminum oxide layer
corona (ionization of air due to voltage stress). as the connection is being made. Even with these
Connectors for high voltage applications are types of connections, however, cleaning is still
available in uninsulated and preinsulated forms. recommended prior to installation.
Uninsulated connectors for high voltage
applications are designed with smooth, tapered An additional problem with aluminum cable is the
surfaces. The smooth design reduces the oxide layers that develop on each inner strand of
likelihood of voltage stress and facilitates the use a cable. These layers can cause high inter-strand
of semi-conductive tape to further reduce voltage resistance and are not easily removed. This
stress. Field covering may also be used for problem is accentuated in compact conductor that
dielectric insulation or as a shield in preventing restricts the movement of the strands during the
excessive voltage stresses. Preinsulated, high- application of force applied during connector
voltage connectors are designed to minimize installation. In these cases, the use of a contact
corona that deteriorates insulation. aid with particle additives helps in breaking
The size of the service wire used is determined by Covers are often provided for service connectors
the size of the anticipated electrical load. and should not be confused with insulation.
Underground services require large enough Covers are intended to protect against brush
conductors to avoid replacement if the customer's contact, and normally will have holes to allow
load increases. Overhead services can be moisture to drain, preventing premature failure
matched to the customer's present needs as they due to corrosion.
are readily accessible for replacement, and close
matching reduces the initial investment. Regardless of the type of connector used, one of
the most important features of the service
1.5.1 Secondary Conductor connector is easy installation. In many cases, the
installer will be on a ladder and/or in an awkward
Economy and appearance dictate the use of situation. Ease of installation reduces the chance
several separate wires twisted into a cable for use of injury by minimizing time spent in a precarious
as secondary mains and for service connections position. In the case of the service compression
to buildings. These twisted wires, called "triplex," splice, specific mechanical compression tools are
consist of two insulated phase wires and a bare, available to assist the installer with the connection
uninsulated neutral conductor that may also act as installation. New battery powered tool technology
the supporting wire for the bundle. The twisted can further support ease and reliability of
combination is strung from pole-to-pole as a installation.
secondary main or from pole-to-building as a
service drop connection. Other bundle 1.6 Function
combinations exist; for example two wire bundles
(duplex), and four wire bundles (quadruplex). The The three fundamental connector functions are
individual wires are usually aluminum or ACSR, tap, terminal, and splice. In order to categorize
sized from #6 AWG to as large as 336.4 kcmil connectors based on function, a clear
depending on service requirements. understanding of these terms is necessary. The
definitions and examples that follow will begin to
1.5.2 Service Connectors differentiate the three main functions.
Mechanical aluminum connectors must be made Stainless steel bolts are recommended for
from alloys impervious to stress corrosion. In their application in highly corrosive environments
heat treated state, aluminum alloys have high and must be used in conjunction with proper
strength and may be used for both current selection of the connector.
carrying and clamping elements. Anodized
aluminum alloy bolts are typically used for The addition of Belleville spring washers is
mechanical aluminum connectors. Bolts made generally recommended in place of flat
from these materials provide the best combination washers when using different connection
of strength and resistance to galling and material combinations. Belleville washers
corrosion. In addition, their thermal coefficient of enhance the connection resilience to different
expansion is most suitable for aluminum. thermal expansion and contraction (aluminum
has twice the coefficient of expansion as
1.7.1.2 The Clamping Element steel!). Note, however, that Belleville washers
cannot completely compensate for inadequate
The clamping element of a mechanical connector contact area, incorrect torque, or poor design.
provides the mechanical strength, as well as the (See section 2.1.1.4 Hardware for specific
current paths, of the connection. The following recommendations.)
general rules are basic to the design of the
clamping element, regardless of material used for 3. Place the bolts as close to the conductor as
construction: possible to reduce the effective length of the
moment arm. Reduction in moment reduces
1. Minimize conductor distortion and abrasion in stress within the connector. High internal
order to prevent conductor fatigue (especially stress can lead to cracking and will thus
in applications where vibration or stress require larger connector elements than is
concentration is present). Screws that apply otherwise necessary.
direct pressure to the conductor are not
© 2007 Copyright FCI USA Inc. All rights reserved.
Abstracting is permitted with credit to the source. Page 17
4. Accessibility with one wrench installation and
suitable wrench clearance. Mechanical
connectors often allow for one wrench
installation to facilitate hot-line work and to
simplify the installation process. In addition,
bolt heads are all placed on the same side of
the connector to allow for accessibility.
Automatic line connectors are a unique subset of Although the actual installation is relatively simple,
mechanical connectors. Automatics provide a care must be taken to properly prepare the
permanent splice connection in spans where the conductor for the resulting connection. Cable
installed tension exceeds 15 percent of the rated ends must be squared and surfaces thoroughly
breaking strength of the conductor. These cleaned by wire brushing prior to installation.
connectors are used almost exclusively in These connectors are also extremely sensitive to
distribution applications and are one of the fastest dirt and other contaminants getting into the
methods of splicing two overhead conductors. contact area, even after installation.
The “automatic” principle utilizes tapered serrated As discussed in section 1.4, electrical resistance
jaws inside the connector sleeve which grip the will vary with contact pressure. For automatic
conductor when tension is applied. When an connectors, this fact becomes very important. It is
attempt is made to withdraw the conductor, the critical that there is constant tension on automatic
jaws clamp further down on the conductor due to connections. Line sag and wind vibration may
the taper in the connector. This wedge action adversely affect contact resistance, and ultimately
increases with the pull applied to the conductor. the integrity of the connection, over time.
Obviously, automatic connections must be used
Insulation piercing connectors are another Insulation piercing connectors are limited in their
particular subset of mechanical connectors. scope of application. Specifically, they are
These connectors are designed for indoor and recommended for low voltage (600 V and below)
outdoor non-tension tap and splice applications secondary distribution applications where
on insulated secondary distribution lines. IPCs insulated conductors are employed. The nature of
are recommended for use on combinations of the connection device limits these connectors to
insulated copper and aluminum conductors. function mainly as taps, although some parallel
splices can also be made. IPCs are for use in
non-tension applications only.
A very important advantage for compression When using manually operated tools, it must be
connectors is the removal of the human element realized that some compression connections
during installation with the use of recommended require greater physical exertion to install. When
tools and/or dies. Consistent and repeatable installing numerous connections, installers can
forces are imparted with each and every crimp. become fatigued and possibly not complete the
The compression system may have color coded specified number of crimps.
dies to match the color coding on the connector. If
color is not present, an index number is included
with the stamped markings on the connector, and
should match the die index number. Some dies
will also emboss their index number on the
Key:
NR Not Required GS Galvanized Steel
SB Silicon Bronze * Tin Plated
AL Aluminum ** Alternate recommendation in
SS Stainless Steel place of lock washer.
Torque (lb-in)
DURIUM™ (silicon bronze)
Bolt Size* Stainless steel Aluminum
Galvanized steel
1/4 - 20 80 -
5/16 - 18 180 -
3/8 - 16 240 168
1/2 - 13 480 300
5/8 - 11 660 480
3/4 - 10 960 650
A critical aspect when installing hardware is the connection materials may undergo relaxation
torque used to tighten the components. Every resulting in a contact force of F2. As seen in
field termination, from a low voltage screw Figure 2.1-2, however, the relaxation curve differs
terminal to the largest lug, has an optimum value from the tightening curve. Although the materials
of torque that produces the most reliable, low relax to a contact force of F2, the contact
resistance joint. resistance remains relatively constant, indicating
a stable connection throughout the contact force
Torque is the result of a force applied to a lever range from F1 to F2.
arm multiplied by the distance measured from the
pivot point to the point along the arm where the
force is applied (F x d). In the English system of
units, where force is in pounds and distance is in
inches, torque has the units of pound-inches, or
lb-in.
2. With the Belleville washer captured between Two-hole terminals have longer pads and require
the flat washer and the bolt head, fit the two bolts for installation. The longer pad offers
assembly into its hole. When the washers are increased electrical performance due to a larger
fitted in position, there should be no contact surface area. Also, employing two bolts in
interference with washers of adjacent bolts the connection completely eliminates the problem
and no overhang over surface edges. of rotational forces from loosening the connection.
3. Tighten the nut on to the bolt (with a washer of Four-hole terminals will further increase both
its own) until a sudden, noticeable increase in mechanical and electrical performance. More
torque is required to continue. The Belleville contact surface area is available with the larger
washer is now flat. It is not necessary to “back pad, and the even pressure applied by using four
off” the nut after tightening to this point. bolts takes advantage of the increased surface
area for electrical conductivity.
2.1.1.4.1 Terminal Hardware Considerations
When selecting between terminal types for
Within limits, the resistance of a bolted joint will connection installation, consider the following list
decrease and its mechanical strength will of criteria:
increase with an increase in the size and number
of bolts employed. Utilizing this fact, bolted 1. Preparation of interface surfaces.
terminal connectors are commonly available in (See 2.1.1.1)
one-hole, two-hole, and four-hole configurations. 2. Provisions for the effects of thermal expansion
A further increase in the number of bolts beyond of the bus and terminal.
four produces little appreciable increase in joint (See 1.4.2 and 2.1.1.4)
Thus, a 1/4 in thick pad must be 4 in wide to safely As briefly mentioned in section 1.4 Overhead, in
conduct 1000 Amps. outdoor installations where mixed metals are
used, aluminum conductors must be installed
(b) Amps per bolt. above copper conductors whenever possible.
Moisture on copper conductor surfaces will
Bolt Diameter Amps per Bolt* accumulate copper ions. If positioned above
(inch) aluminum, these copper salts will wash onto the
<1/2 225 aluminum and cause galvanic corrosion.
1/2 300
5/8 375 In the event the aluminum conductor is located
3/4 450 below the copper, a “drip loop” should be provided
on the copper conductor. The drip loop redirects
*NOTE: These current values represent the the copper conductor around and below the
current flow enabled by the bolt due to its applied aluminum conductor for attachment. The loop
contact pressure, and NOT the current capacity of formed allows corrosive moisture to drip from the
the bolt itself. copper conductor safely below the aluminum.
2.1.1.6 Plating
Plating
Objective Electro-tin Hot tin dip Nickel Silver*
Reduce galvanic corrosion X X - -
(bimetallic)
Resist corrosive elements X X - -
Increase conductivity/lower - - - X
contact resistance
Provide high, continuous - - X X
service temperatures (maximum) (650°F/343°C) (500°F/260°C)
*Note: Never connect an aluminum surface to a silver plated surface. Aluminum in contact with silver
results in a highly corrosive joint, which will further result in a high resistance connection.
CURRENT CYCLE
UL486A Cu-Cu x
UL486B Al-Al, Al-Cu x
ANSI C119.4 Class A, 500 cycles x
Class B, 250 cycles x
Class C, 125 cycles x
2.2.1 Total Cost of Ownership The cost of the tooling may be depreciated over
the number of installations made. This
Total cost of ownership of an electrical connection consideration is often included in the original tool
system involves several components; up-front purchase justification. However, the tool’s cost
costs, installation costs, maintenance costs, and may be factored directly into the cost per
the cost of failure. connection to accurately capture all of the costs
associated with a connector installation.
2.2.1.1 Up-front Costs
The time required to complete an installation
Up-front cost, or initial cost of acquisition, will directly affects labor costs, and may indirectly
include many or all of the following items: affect the company’s profitability, especially when
considering the costs of lost opportunity.
• Purchasing the specific connector. Installation time is dependent on the connection
• Adapting or modifying a connector to be type itself, the type of tooling (if required), the
compatible with an existing system. proficiency of the installer, and the environment in
• Acquiring a connector/tool system. which the installation is being made.
• Appropriating new tool technology for existing
connector selections. Regardless of the accounting methodology used,
• Adding relevant training for new installation it is important to understand how the connector
and maintenance procedures. selection process relates to the total installed cost.
Capturing this information can affect future
Evaluation of a connector can not be based solely decisions regarding connector systems within the
on the connector’s acquisition cost. The specific organization’s infrastructure. Making sound
application may dictate the choices available, estimates of these costs and documenting the
regardless of cost issues. decision process helps to avoid revisiting
previously made decisions.
© 2007 Copyright FCI USA Inc. All rights reserved.
Page 38 Abstracting is permitted with credit to the source.
2.2.1.3 Maintenance Costs practices within the organization for a specific
application all encompass the safety issue as a
Specialized installation tooling requires prime concern.
maintenance. Calibrated tooling and equipment
must be maintained to ensure proper connector 2.3.1 Installation Safety
installation. Generally, the company will institute a
tool repair and maintenance program to maintain By far the most important aspect of connector
the satisfactory condition of installation tools. safety is installation practices. Anytime work is
Part, or all of this program may entail utilization of performed near (or on) energized or potentially
the original tool manufacturer’s warranty and energized conductors, an element of danger is
expertise in servicing tools. Either way, there is present. Due to the hazards associated with
cost involved with any maintenance program electrical work, many industry standards have
which contributes to the total cost of connection evolved for the safety of the worker. In addition,
selection and installation. where the means of connection involves
potentially hazardous installation tooling or
2.2.1.4 Cost of Failure materials, the manufacturer will include specific
information for safe work practices.
The total cost of an electrical connection failure is
difficult to fully realize as the impact is usually far- 2.3.1.1 Industry Standards
reaching. Lost revenue, cost of replacement and
retrofit, and other direct external damages are Many industry standards are available for
quantifiable. The costs of property damage claims reference concerning work on or near electrical
alone can be significant in comparison to the costs equipment. These standards go into great detail
of re-tooling to eliminate future failures. However, for performing electrical work safely due to the
the costs of ill will, miscellaneous claims, recalls, hazards involved.
and other internal reaction to prevent repeat
failures can not be easily or accurately captured. The federal government produces general work
safety standards through the Occupational Safety
Therefore, the importance of selecting the proper and Health Administration (OSHA), which
electrical connection system for the application is publishes the CFR 29 Federal Code of
critical in minimizing failure costs. Costs Regulations. Contained within CFR 29 are
associated with initial installation may be higher numerous references to safe electrical work
than alternative means, but the potential cost practices, as well as other industry safety
savings can be significant if the correct connector requirements.
is originally installed. The theoretical and practical
knowledge relating to the various electrical IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic
connection systems cited in this paper is targeted Engineers) also publishes numerous safety work
towards assisting the connection selection standards. The National Electrical Safety Code
process to decrease and eliminate avoidable (NESC) specifically relates to work practices for
costs. electrical workers and utility operators. The color
book series details numerous topics related to
2.3 Safety electrical safety, both in work practices and
system requirements.
Connection safety issues center around two main
areas; installation and improper handling and use. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Installation safety involves more factors than publishes electrical industry safety standards as
connector selection. How the connector is well, the National Electrical Code (NEC) being the
applied, the installation tooling and operational most well known. NFPA 70E Standard for
[2] Bolden, G., Duffy, J., “A Study of the EUA System Secondary Networks,” Eastern Utilities
Associates Service Corp., presented at The Electric Council of New England Transmission
and Distribution Committee Meeting No. 82, September 17, 1982.
[4] “Basic Crimping Technology,” Product Manual, Sec. 16A, BURNDY Power Group, 1973.
[5] Equipment for Underground Systems, Catalog Z47, BURNDY Engineering Co., 1947.
[7] Di Troia, G. W., “Principles of Connections Used for Grounding,” FCI-BURNDY Electrical,
unpublished, 1995.
[8] Dupree, H. P., “The Problems Involved in Designing Connectors for Aluminum Cable,” AIEE
Paper 51-325, 1951.
[9] Dupree, H. P., Rogoff, J., “Splicing and Terminating Aluminum Conductors,” BURNDY
Corporation, 1952.
[10] Connectors and Interconnections Handbook, The Electronics Connector Study Group, Fort
Washington, PA, 1977.
[11] Transmission Line Reference Book, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1979.
[12] “1993 National Electrical Safety Code,” Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.,
New York, 1992.
[13] IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding, Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, Inc., New York, 1986.
[14] IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems,
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc., New York, 1992.
[15] Kurtz, Shoemaker, The Lineman’s and Cableman’s Handbook, McGraw Hill, 1981.
[16] Leland, M. A., “Bolted and Welded Substation Connections,” Proc. AIEE, 1958.
[17] Matthysee, I. F., “Basic Connection Principles,” Second edition, BURNDY Corporation, 1965.
[18] Matthysee, I. F., “Is It Necessary to Retighten Clamp Connectors?,” Electrical World, May,
1951.
[20] McPartland, J. F., “All Electrical Terminals Must Be Torqued!,” Electrical Construction and
Maintenance, 1983.
[21] McPartland, J. F., “Torquing Electrical Terminals Will Soon Be Mandatory!,” Electrical
Construction and Maintenance, 1985.
[23] Monashkin, M. R., “Preparation of Aluminum Conductors for Stable Electrical Connections,”
AIEE Paper 58-1288, 1958.
[24] Military Handbook MIL-HDBK 419A, Vol. 1, Department of Defense, Washington, 1987.
[25] “NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety Requirements for Employee Workplaces,” National
Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1995.
[26] The National Electrical Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1996.
[27] Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1900 to 1910, Office of the Federal Register National
Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC, 1994.
[28] Pansini, A., Basic Electrical Power Distribution, Long Island Lighting Co., Vol. 1 and 2, 2nd
Edition, 1971.
[30] Shackman, N., “Belleville Washers, Who Needs Them?,” CEE, 1975.
[31] “UL467 Standard for Grounding and Bonding,” Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Northbrook, IL,
1993.
[32] Zahlman, G., “Report to Dow Chemical Company,” FCI-BURNDY® Electrical, internal
document, 1996.
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