The Meaning and Importance of Architecture

Architecture is defined as the art and science of designing and erecting buildings. The term also
connotes the style and method of design and construction that reflect the cultural and religious temper of
the era. Design is further influenced by the functional demands that arise from nature and man alike as
well as the medium of construction available.

Styles and construction designs of buildings depends on the prevailing climate. If the climate is
cool, the design of the building should be on how to keep it warm, if the climate is warm, the emphasis of
the design is to keep it cool. If the place is frequently visited by typhoons, the houses in such places are
low and sturdy. If the place is in the earthquake belt, the construction and style are likewise made to
consider the condition. In Japan, for example, which is situated in the earthquake belt and. tremors are
expected, architectures have devised foundations with rollers so that the buildings sway during the
tremors instead of crumble. In warm countries like the Philippines and other countries in the torrid zone,
buildings have wide windows to let in the light and the breeze. In countries where winter or cold spells
are felt, the windows are small and tightly secured to prevent the cold air from entering.

The design includes heating provisions like fireplace which is not present in homes in warm
countries. In dry, warm countries like Egypt and Greece and also in the Philippines, a flat roof or a
veranda can be used as an extra sitting room or a bedroom during warm, sultry nights. However, in
countries where there is much rain, sloping roofs are preferred. For countries with heavy snow, the roofs
are steeply pitched to allow snow to slide off easily.

The Eskimos in Alaska have home whose style is unique because of the climatic conditions
prevailing in the state. The igloo, the eskimos home' is made of very thick mud with massive walls.
There are barely no window openings except

the entrance and exit doors. The style of this home architecture fits the harsh, snowy weather. In Batanes,
Philippines, a place frequented by typhoons, the style of the homes of the inhabitants is different in looks
from those of homes in other provinces of the country. For countries where there is strong winds,
windbreakers are provided for and living rooms are not on the wind's path. In warm climate with
temperate places, the houses take in the breeze.

Massive materials are used for cold climate countries but light materials are used for warm climate
countries.

More verandas are evident on colonial types of architecture for the Southern States of USA while
less verandas can be found in the Northern States.

Different constructions are presented pictorially in Figures 1-6, to visualize why styles and
construction are different for various countries.
 A keystone supports both sides of ah arch. An arch must also fee supported at its base.

barrel vault is a series of arches.

The cross vault is the result of the intersection

of two barrel vaults.

Figure 1

These are other geometric shapes. The arches can be seen

in big buildings and churches.

Figure 2.
 Post and lintel construction. This is prevalent in many
Philippine middle-income and high-income homes.

This can be seen in high-rise buildings like condominiums

Figure 4.

This geometric shape can be seen at the Post Office.building

 Figure 5. This typical dpme can be found in churches.

Hybrid Materials-tiles, bricks, adobe

 THE HI-TECH STEEL

Metal Material
Synthetic Materials
(glass, plastic)

Fig.7-B. Other Structural Materials

<^StructuraI Materials

The designer and architect takes into account at least three different basic materials for a
buildipg. These are
materials for the roof, the walls and the floors. He has to think of appropriate blending of materials
considering strength and aesthetic appeal.

The three main qualities to be considered are the following:

’Structure. This determine how the structure reacts to the wind, floods, water, movement and the
like. This is reaction to stress. The Structural design and form are directly part of these considerations.

Texture.This has to do- with the roughness or smoothness of the material. It directs the choice of
tools to use. This should blend with the internal structure of the building.

Aspect. This refers to particular colors and outside skin after tooling. This is an apparent feature to the
layman. Every materials intrinsic qualities are looked into. This is important to achieve consistency in
design.

Structure is the most important quality of design. Some materials used are rock materials like stone and
clay; organic material like wood; metal and synthetic materials like glass and plastic; and hybrid
materials like adobe and bricks. These are shown in Figure 7. .

Evolution and Type of Architecture

Ancient relics and old castles and temples show the richness and beauty of ancient civilization and
culture. Their architectural designs and styles are the forerunners of the 19th and 20th century
architecture. The historical past depicts the religious as well as traditions which are vividly in the
architectural artistiy and design inherent to the country or era of origin.

Egyptian Architecture. The Egyptian architecture which dates back 4,000 to 2,280 B. C. is
characterized by enormous pyramidal structures: This is evident in many Egyptian
temples. A huge gateway covers the entire front of the building called pylon and rows of columns support
the-huge structure. Egyptian columnsare two types: the flower columns with wide, bellshaped capital;
and the bred columns of which- the uppermost part of the capital is smaller than the lower like a bud of a
flower.
 ^Mesopotamian Architecture. The Mesopotamian architecture is characterized by a Brisk tower called
ziggurat_ built at
successive level having the form of a pyramid of successively receding stories. The Assyrians
developed the arch and its multiple, the canopy-shaped vault-the most important and influential
architectural design.

Greek Architecture.； Greek architecture in 1100 to 100 BC uses the post-and lintel construction as in the
Egyptian temples but at lower height and of smaller proportion. There are 3 styles or orders—of
Greek architecture namely: the
Doric (e. g. Temple of Apollo at Old Crintz and in the Parthenon), the Ionic (e. g., Altena Nike); and the
Corinthian (e. g., The Temple of Zeus at Athens).

In Corinthian style, the column is taller than the Ionic and its capital shows two rows of acanthus
leaves with volutes. It has an ornamented horizontal band or strip on the wall, with a face, forehead or
frontal surface. It also has a square slab having 2 vertical groves or gliphs in the middle and a half grove
at each end.

Roman Architecture. Roman architecture which dates from 1000 B. C. to 400 A. D. is similar to that of
the Greeks with some innovations. They built not only temples but also buildings, baths, law courts,
amphitheaters, aqueducts and bridges. They Utilize the arch and the first round dome as illustrated in the
Patheon.
Eastern Byzantine architecture started from 200 A. D. up to the 6th century after Christ. It is
characterized by a great central dome supported by curved triangles (pendentives) and fitted to a square
area. This type of architecture is used in Russian churches' Mohamedan Mosque, Jewish synagogues and
Istanbul structure.

Architectural development in the West in the Middle Ages (400-1500 A. D.) passed
through these stages known as early Christian, the Romanesque and Gothic. The basic plan of
these two styles are a Roman Basilica, a rectangular building divided by pillars into a central
nave and aisles on both sides. The nave is higher than the aisle and the window gives adequate
lighting. In between the windows and the column are triforium spods.
In the early Christian church (400-700 A. D.), the highest story of the nave and choir is
heavy and the windows are small. The columns have round arches between the round interiors
and are decorated with mosaics. The roof is flat under and is simple.

Romanesque Architecture. This developed in the 11th to 12th century. The structure is
characterized with very heavy walls with small window opening stone arch or inverted roof
window. They have a wide'nave and narrow and lower side aids with tranusepts. This
resembles the Russian style.
France, Germany, Spain and all of Europe adopted the Romanesque style (like Notre Dame
la Grande, Poetries). Italy, however, adopted the Early Christian style-light basilica style typical
of which is its cathedral.
Gothic Architecture. This developed from 1194 to 1500. The structure is —characterized
with pointed arch rnaking the building larger and taller, and buttresses to support the building.
Decorations are more elaborate. Sculpture forms the decoration on the three postals which are
heavy with religious depictions and relics. Gothic cathedrals usually have two towers.
^^Renaissance Architecture. It developed in the 15th and 16th century. It was influenced by
Greek and Roman styles comes to the fore but with a difference. These are the over-hanging
cornice the string course, the pilaster and the ornamental pediment. The dome is made much
steeper and is adopted in smaller buildings and symmetrical structures of great simplicity and
beauty apparent in England and is known as the Georgian style and in the.U. S. as the American
colonial style.

Baroque Architecture. This developed in the 17th century and in the early 18th century. It is
characterized by elaborate sculptural ornamentation.Columns and entablaturates were decorated with
garlands of flowers and fruits' shells and water.
Nineteenth century, Architechture is a period of eclecticism' which means freedom to use the styles
of the past. At this period, churches go gothic, thentus, baroque. Government buildings, go renaissance,
thus, different styles of architecture could be seen in many structures.
Modem Architecture. This characterized the 20th century structure which developed two new materials:
structural steel and reinforced steel which gave rise to skeleton and cantilever construction of modern
skyscrapers and buildings of any shape: semi-circular, round or square. The cantilever was used by Frank
Lloyd Wright, an American architect to. supplement columnars or pillars for verandas.

Twelfth century buildings are categorized into two styles: (1) international style and (2) the
organic style. The International style has severe horizontal and vertical lines, white walls and flat roofs
with simple designs and no ornaments. It gives a cool and forbidding facade like that of the Seagram
Building. The building is "a bronze and glass shafts and every dimension, from the biggest to the smallest
level, determined by an arbitrary modular system." The organic style has organic unity in plann ing.
structure materials, and site; it is designed to meet exact needs of. factories, typical office buildings,
laboratories, national state schools, hospitals, airports, theaters, etc. Examples are Johnson Wax Company
of Rheene, Wisconsin, USA and Stephens Colleges chapel by Eeno Snariven. Organic architecture is a
"natural architecture' the architecture of nature for nature".

European Architecture

European architechture is rich with old and medieval architectural

design such as Byzantine, Greek Roman, Gothic, Baroque and Renaissance. These are evident in the old
temples, cathedrals, and amphitheaters and civic buildings；
Ancient Greek architecture left marks in the ruins of its Greek temples like the Temples of Apollo
at Old Crintz and the Temple of Zeus at Athens with Corinthian style.
/^Roman architecture is still evident in the ruins of amphitheaters such as the Oasthem and the Coliseum.
Romanesque style of Basilica are adopted in France, Germany and other European centers. Notre Dame la
Grande is a typical example.

/ Gothic architecture with flying buttresses are seen at the Amiens Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris.
Renaissance architecture with strong course and the comic surrounded by a balustrade are
exemplified by Michelangelo's Palace of the Senate of Rome. St. Peter's Cathedral's apse and dome is
renaissance. This structural beauty is adopted in England and is known as the Georgian style.
 Baroque architecture is shown in Modern St. Peters Cathedral facade.

/ American Architecture

American home design evolved from the log cabins. When one hears of log cabin, he relates it to
the early American settlers* homes in the prairies. To date, there are still log cabins which are now
generally used as vacation houses in the mountains or in the prairies. Log cabin homes, as the term
represents, is made out of logs and stones. Generally, the walls are made of logs. The porch too is made
of wood. The flooring could be made of stones put together by cement or it could even be made of wood.
The roofs are made of wood shafts or grass or galvanized iron. /

Then came the American colonial designs- concrete and wooden homes. The roofing is generally
made of wood that are better-shaped.
In the 19th century, there was no definite Americans architectural design that could be called purely
American ifi style. The taste of the time was eclectic. This means a

/ Philippine architecture. The architectural structure and design^of the Filipino~Homes evolved from the
nipa hut which is commonly found in the countryside. It is made of a combination of different materials
like nipa, palm leaves, wood and bamboo. The climate, rainfall, weather conditions, and the availability
of materials are the factors that influenced the structure and design of the Filipino nipa hut. An example
can be seen in Figure 10.

Figure 10.
 A typical Philippine nipa hut in the countryside.

Other types of houses in the Philippines are made of stronger materials like stones, cement, bricks,
wood and tiles. They°show influence of Spanish architecture. The windows are wide for free circulation
of air. These are made of wood and Capiz shells. The roof are steep and made of tiles. An example of
another type of Filipino house that can be found in towns and provinces can be seen in Figure 11.

Figure 11.
Another example of a house in the Philippines which depicts Spanish architectural influence.
Sculpture
Sculpture puts together into a beautiful' meaningful shape such materials as jstone' wood,metal and
other hard materials- Stone, natural or man-made, is bountiful in the Philippines. There are several colort
of stones, and these stones differ likewise in shapes in our Philippine rivers and streams and in our
mountains and plains. Marble a favorite material used in sculpture, is abundant in the provinces of
Romblon and Bulacan. Natural colors come in white, jade or greenish, gray, pink, reddish and brownish.
This stone is hard' and when polished, it has a pretty luster in its natural colon It looks beautiful even
without any polish. However, skilled hands generally polish these stones to give them a smooth, shinny or
glossy finish. Greece and Italy also use marble for their sculpture because of its abundance in said places
in Europe. The intricate stone sculptures are chiseled by hand or by machine or a combination of these.
For its beginnings to the present, sculpture has been largely monumental. Monuments of Biblical
heroes were built on the streets of Italian cities during the 15th century, and in the 20th century, a
monument to a song writer was built in the heart of New York. Great fountains with sculpture in the
center are as commonplace beside modern skyscrapers as they were in the courts of old palaces. The
participants of World War II used sculpture to pay tribute to their soldiers.

The sculpture is thought of as a creative, sensitive and original thinker.

Seldom, however do people think of the physical demands that the art of
sculpture makes on the artist. A sculpto/s work can be backbreaking. Marble
must be moved and cut. Wood must be curved and sandpapered. Clay must
be pounded and kept in condition with day-to- day care. The Sculptor must
have a great deal of technical knowledge. He must know a good piece of
stone from a bad and just how much force that stone can take before it cracks.
He must judge the quality of wood. He must learn how much water different
kinds of clay need to stay Workable. If he casts his own models,©he must
know the chemistry of metals and their melting point. And the modern
sculptor is frequently a competent welder, riverter' and machinist as well as
an artist.
Sculpture may be the oldest of the arts. The earliest drawings were
probably carved on rocks or scratched on the earth surface. Therefore, these
drawings were as much forerunners of relief sculpture as of painting. From
the few surviving primitive sculpture pieces, it can be deduced that
prehistoric sculpture was always made to be used in rituals. In his constant,
fight for survival, the early man made sculpture to provide spiritual support.
Figures of men, women' and animals and combination of all these served
to honor the strange and sometimes frightening forces of nature, which were
worshiped as evil or good spirits. Oddly shaded figures must have
represented prayers for strong sons' good crops and abundant fish. Sculpture
in the form of masks was worn by priests or medicine men in dances
designed to drive away evil spirits or beg favors from good ones.
Before a sculptor begins to work, he must decide what material he will
use. He may choose something as rare and costly as ivory, which comes from
elephant7s tusks. Or he may want to use common clay. Good clay is highly
prized, and almost anyone can afford it, since it is found all over the world.
The sculptor may decide between a material that is permanent and one that
must be made permanent. Each kind has its advantages and disadvantages. A
stone like marble, is of course'very hard. Carving must be done with great
strength and at the sametime with great delicacy. Mistakes are difficult to
repair, and too much force can cause breakage. But when a marble statue is
carved and polished, the sculptor's work is "great. Clay, in contrast is very
soft. The artist can experiment a great deal, adding pieces and remodelling
sections. If he makes a mistake, he can remove the error quickly. However'
clay must be kept workable. Everyday, the sculptor must cover his work with
damp rags, and from time to time he must add water to the unused day in the
bin and pound it. Moreover, when the modeling is finished, the statue is by
no means ready for exhibition for clay does not last long.
 Therefore, the statue must be converted to another kind of material. A number of systems may be
used, each requiring additional work.
Perhaps because they are permanent, stone and metal have always been important materials for the
sculptor. Other materials that were used include wood, ivory, jade, bone, glass and plaster. For a sculpture
some materials, are converted to other material, clay is by far the most frequently used substance, but
various kinds of wax have also been employed. ,
{
In modern times the sculptor has turned to new materials such as plastics, fiber glass, stainless
steeL and aluminum.
Bronze is a metal that is one favorite in the art of sculpture. Generally, the sculptor makes a clay
model, builds a furnace around it, and pours the molten metal around the model. Scraps of iron or steel
are also utilized to form beautiful sculptures. These materials are chiseled into shapes, straightened or
bent, circled or squared to form a pleasing sculptural piece. Sculptured monuments are ways by which
heroes and historical figures are immortalized. Symbolic sculptures like the Bonifacio Statue in the Cry of
Balintawak in Caloocan, City is a reminder of a very significant historical event in the Philippines. The
Pieta symbolizes a mother's love for her son. Other sculptured figures in buildings like the Insular Life
Building in Makati, "Metro Manila depicts advanced technology.
Junks made of copper, tin, combinations of lin and shell, wood and others are also used by creative
sculptors. Aside from those mentioned, they also use glass, plastic, combination of these materials to form
figures and shapes that depict meaningful situations or objects to the artists' views. One example of
sculpture done in bronze is shown.

Figure I Our Lady of Peace at EDSA

Features of a sculpture
-—------------------- ■--------------- ■
Characteristics or features to look for in a piece of sculpture, as in other forms of art, are the
following:
 LINE- Line features are the shape of piece of arts. This lines could be horizontal, vertical
and diagonal. These lines lead the viewers eyes full perspective of the subject of the sculpture. The
horizontal lines generally connotes peace and tranquility while the vertical lines are forceful and
dynamic. They allow the subject to "stand". The diagonal lines meanwhile, are generally called the
action lines. These show movement.

勾COLOR. Color is generally referred to as to its property hua and value. This means the amount of white
and black in the hue and intensity or brightness. Color is the decorative element put into the art piece.
Generally in sculpture, the piece of art remains natural in color but in some cases color is added especially
when glass or plastic is combined with the main material, be it metaL wood or stone.
TEXTURE. Texture refers to the way the objects feel to the touch. This is a feature of sculpture
that is important

because these are pieces which could be felt. The materials like stone, marble, wood, glass, plastic, and
steel and other scraps used feel different as we touch them. The material coUld be smooth, rough, rugged
or fine textured.
VOLUME. Volume means solidity or thickness. The Sculpture is'concerned with volume because a
sculpture occupies space. This is viewed from any direction where one stands. It could be in front, at the
back, at its side, above or under it.
PERSPECTIVE^ Perspective refers lo depth or '^distance. This could be gleaned from statues.The
two Feature of perspective are linear and aerial. Linear perspective means that the figures begome
smaller as they recede into the distance.The parallel horizontal lines below eye level seem to rise, tapering
smaller into the horizon. On the other hand, those lines above eye level seem to descend to the vanishing
point. Aerial perspective means that a figures becomes fainter or less visible in the distance. This is due to
the atmosphere effect. Another • characteristic of linear perspective is foreshortening. This applies to the
human body. Thus, the arms, limb or body is at right angles to the viewers to look shorter than their
normal length. These are tendencies brought about by perspective viewing.
fORM. ， When one talks of form of art pieces it means the over-all design. Artists" favorite
designs are triangles, circles and rectangles. There are two kinds_ of forms: .the closed- form and the
open form. These generally apply to paintings but could also be applied to sculpture. Closed form shows
the elements of the pieces cf art as contained within-the frame which focuses the eye to the picture. Qpen
form extends the viewing outside the piece of art and the outside becomes a part of it -

STYLE. Artists show individuality in their art style- They show differences in likes and dislikes, temper,
outlooks in life and background as a child, adolescent' or adult. It expresses their feelings and emotions.
Often, they select their style according to their taste although sometimes influenced by great artists,
friends and their creative mind. They also fit their style to their subjects, their life styles, theenvironment
where they move, the time and place in where the artist live. .

Greek Sculpture
The Greeks believed in "man as the measure of all things" hence, their fondness of the human form.
The head is always seen in profile, the torso in frontal view and the feet, again, in profile. This is similar
to the Egyptian style. In Athens during the archaic period, the artists took nature as their model and the
anatomy of man (bones and muscles) was prominent. They think that not every part of inan should be
shown. The Greeks, too, used free standing figures during the archaic period.
In Athens, Polyclitus championed the use of mathematical proportions. They believe that the human
body could be best depicted if the height of man is seven times the height of the head.
Movement is depicted in sculpture easily because the materials are attached to a background in
general.
 Parthenon is worth mentioning here. Phideas was sculptor of jail the figures of the Parthenon. This
was believed to be the highest expression of the Greek spirit The figures were described as depicting
gravity and grace, harmony and balance. The figures are generally God's conceived as heroic men and
women. The Parthenon contains three hundred fifty human figures and two hundred horses and sacrificial
animals. These were presented in rhythmic pattern. There were ninety-two metopes which connote
mythological incidents. Prxiteles was the first sculptor who portrayed the feminine body nude. To his
name is Venus de Meduci. All other aphrodites were derived from him like the Venus de Milo and Apollo
Belvedere.
Lysippus is another Greek sculptor. His works show faces that look animated and express
personality. One of his great sculptures is the head of Alexander the Great.
Renaissance Sculpture
In the fifteenth century, Italy's sculpture was on the lead extending for the next two hundred years.
One of the most prominent sculptors of his period is Lorenzo Ghiberti. He was the sculptor of the bronze
doors of the Baptistry of Florence. This depicts twenty-eight scenes from the life of Christ each in a
geometrical frame. Michelangelo called them the Gates of Paradise. The best Florentine sculptor was
Donatello. His figures are described as utterly natural and yet idealized, poised and full of vigor. One of
his works made of bronze is named David. Two other Davids were done by Verrocchio and the other by
Michelangelo. Andrea del Verrocchio's work is a master of Anatomy and is very realistic in form.
Leonardo De vinci got his start from Verrocchio's studio.

Baroque-Rococo Sculpture

Baroque sculpture generally used every conceivable type of ornamentation. The characters are
generally religious figures. These are saints, angels, Cherubs, animals, metal sunbursts with garlands of
flowers leaves, shells ane scrolls. These are usually painted in gold on wood or carved stones. Space is
hollowed out by the sculptor who uses curves and twisted lines. These are similar to the old Vigan beds of
Ilocos Sur in the Philippines. There exist carvings that connect the four columns of the bed and
sometimes canopies are present.
In the Philippines, churches, some as old as four centuries are citadels of faith. True to the Filipino
tradition of eclecticism, they showcase stunning frescoes and stained glass windows, quaint relief
sculpture of Caucasian saints amidst oriental folliage, oddly mismatched towers, belfries cum
watchtowers built well away from the main chapel, and lateral buttresses that gave birth to the term:
"earthquake baroque".
 Fig. 2-A
Old Churches in the Philippines with Outstanding Sculptures

Molo
The 18th century Gothic-Renaissance church of Molo, 〜 Iloilo seems straight out of Disney's Magic
Kingdom

Literary types of literature and Their elements

Literature is generally classified into prose narrative and poetry. Prose fiction includes the novel,
short story and drama while narrative poetry includes the epics, romances and ballad. Basically, literature
is divided into fiction and non-fiction. Fiction is something the writer makes up using his imagination.
The writer of non-fiction meanwhile, tries to stick to facts as she knows them. Examples of these are
biographies, essays, autobiographies and diaries.

In this chapter, the literacy types are discussed. The literacy types of writing include the novels,
short stories, essays, poetry and drama. They are artistic writings ' characterized by the beauty of
expression and intellectual and emotional appeal and narrate the write/s personal and vicarious
experiences and imagination. By the beautiful expressions used, the writer creates pictures and moods. He
expresses his thoughts, opinions, ambitions, values and feelings in a language that appeals to the emotions
and intellect of the readers.
The artist uses medium and elements as the materials in creating a work of art. In literature, the medium is
language. A literary artist is considered great and skillful when he possesses a keen sensory impression
profound thoughts and powerful emotions to convey, In prose, thoughts and reasons
predominate, while in poetry, emotion does.
The Short Story
A short story is a prose fiction which had its early beginnings in parables, fables, tales,
allegory and folklores. It is a work of fiction short enough to be read in a single setting. A story
becomes an interpretative story when it makes us aware of and understand ourselves and others.
The story is an escape literature when it is written for entertainment purposes. It enables us to
temporarily forget our worries and troubles.
Elements of the Short Story
The literary artist uses the following elements to create a short story: plot, character, setting,
point of view and theme.
A. Plot or Action. This element of the story is the artistic arrangement of actions-sequence
of beginning, middle, and an end. The basis of the plot is a struggle or conflict with an opposing
force. The struggle may be mental or spiritual with emphasis on the falling of a casualty.
The plot or the emergence of a situation may be of any kind such as: falling in love, an
adventure at sea, a detective story, or a serious happening that takes place to disrupt the activity
or the established order. Situation refers to the group of circumstances in which the character
finds himself. It also refers to the conditions under which a work of fiction begins its activity.
Parts of a fully developed plot. According to Villanueva and others, 1 a fully developed plot
has the following parts: exposition, development turning point, climax, and denouement.
/i. The exposition. It provides the background or the information about the situation that gives rise to
the problem. It introduces the character, the setting and the point of view.

/2. The development. It consists of a number of incidents showing movement such as a series of
changes in position and of time or a series of complications . pointing to a solution of the problem
and preparing the reader to understand and accept the turning point.

/ 3. The turning point. It may be an accident, a speech or a gesture which may mean the difference
between a favorable or an unfavorable solution. It is a,point in the story where a logical solution is
reached and no other solution is possible.

The climax. It is the highest point of the story which arouses the greatest interest and
evokes the most intense feelings. The exposition and development have been building up to the
climax when the forces come together in maximum concentration.

j 5. the denouement. It refers to the "unraveling7' of the plot, the action or intrigue ends in success
or failure, the mystery is solved or the misunderstanding is cleared away. The denouement
sometimes involves discovery or disclosure of an important fact which was unknown to a principal
character. It may also include the reversal of the hero's fortunes, whether to his success or
destruction. The denouement ends the story.

'6. Conclusion. It refers to the ending of the story depending on the outcome of the actions. The plot
of the story is more concerned with the '"How 7' and '"Why" of the events. Thus, when the struggle is
over, the story must end quickly.

B. The character. The second important element of a story is the character. They may be persons
who act and talk as men and women do and display moral, emotional and intellectual qualities and react
with one another. The writer makes them respond as in real life to the world in which
they live. They answer the question: Why do people do what they do? • ’
According to Arroyo and David2 (1985) the characters are the participants in the action of the short
story. They may be persons, abstract ideas or other natural objects. The characters are endowed with
specific moral and dispositional qualities who carry on the action. The principal character is called the
protagonist. The antagonist or villain is the one who opposes him. The protagonist undergoes the conflict
and meets with the antagonist. Another character that may be found in a short story is a confidant, to
whom the protagonist or hero and/or other inajor characters reveal their secrets or innermost feelings. The
foil is a character closely related to the protagonist His acts contrast with that of the protagonist or any
other character of the story. Stock characters change or grow into new awareness as the plot moves on.

The characters are characterized by the writer as good and bad as in real life, who break moral code
deliberately or because they cannot help themselves. The writer creates the images of imaginary persons
in short stories, novels and dramas. As in real life, the characters can change as a result of. circumstances
he experienced

The writer reveals the characters through their personal appearance, speech and actions. He
describes the "round" character fully well so that the reader comes to know them. He describes the "flat 7'
characters or the minor participants fully. Through description； the writer appeals to the readers sense of
touch, smell, taste or hearing.

The writer uses certain techniques to characterize the character to make the readers know the
participants of the story, the most common of which is through description. The writer uses this tool to
make his characters credible and consistent and to describe the personal appearance of the characters
such as their personality by illustrating their speech and action, their sense and moral values,
and their relations with others.

C. Setting- Setting refers to the place and time of the short story it may be used to create
an atmosphere that is symbolic to enhance the meaning of the story. It may be given in detail
to give a semblance of reality. The environment or setting is also described to tell something
about the characters like the place where one lives whether in fhe slums of Tondo or in a
mansion in Forbes Park, Makati. Describing the inner thoughts of the characters in different
settings or environment is another-way of revealing the kind of characters portrayed in the
story. The writer makes the setting fit the people and their actions. We understand better the
story when we know the setting of the story.
) D. Theme. The theme sums up the meaning of the story. Oftentimes the theme is. not directly
stated, but rather revealed in the totality of the literary piece. It is a vision of life conveyed to
the reader by the elements that make up the story. •

R Point of View. The fifth element is the point of view of the writer. When the writer uses
the personal pronoun I, he takes the first person point of view. When the narrator tells the story
from his point of view in his particular area of participation, he takes the all knowing point of
view which implies that the narrator acts as if he knows everything that happens in the story,
including the thoughts of the character.
The narrator may comment on the actions and tell its significance and evaluate the behavior
of the characters. He may use the editorial omniscient point of view. When the omniscient
narrator refrains from commenting on the action, his point of view is said to be objective
omniscient. This means the factual presentation of events and characters.
The point of view in a story affects in varying degrees the readers feeling of involvement in the
action. It contributes to the significance and to the meaning of the story. A writer, therefore, chooses a
specific point of view or shifs points of view according to the effects he wishes to achieve
Narrative Poetry

Poetry is another form of literary art which expresses the poet's heart and mind. Written in metrical
form or patterned language/ poetry is the art of rhythmic composition written or spoken. It is intended to
provide pleasure through beautiful, elevated, imaginative expression of strong feelings and the
spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in tranquility. The primary purpose of poetry is not
to teach, but to give pleasure by appealing to the readers feelings.
A poem, therefore, is a poetic composition in verse that is characterized by highly developed artistic
form, the use of rhythm, and the employment of heightened language to express an imaginative
interpretation of a situation or idea. Poetry is divided into epic, lyric, ballad, and dramatic poetry.
The Epic. An epic or a heroic poem is a long dignified poem in lofty style. The hero is more than an
ordinary person. His strength and deeds are useful to the entire place. The epic is the product of an age of
heroes wherein their deeds seemed superhuman.

The literary epic is designed to arouse the people's reverence to god, country and family. Examples
of local epics are "Bantugan, Lam-ang" and "Ibalon".

Art epic refers to a long narrative poem somewhat more sophisticated, idealized and consciously
more artistic than folk or popular epic.

Art Lyric. Art lyric is a delicate, highly polished short poem noted for triviality.

Ballad. A ballad is a story in verse told in a song. It has a more common place ，tone than the epic. A
folk ballad is the story of one important event told dramatically and intended

For popular singing. The subject may be any conspicuous event like birth, marriage, death, or
adventure. Like in folk songs, the author is not important, hence it is usually uknown.

DramaticbPoetry- Dramatic poems like dramas, tell their stories through the speech of the
characters. A poem in which only one of the characters speak is called a dramatic Monologue.
Drama , written in poetry, is intended to be performed on stage.
The task of the playwright is primarily to present people in action Hence his main concern
is with the plot and all speeches and episodes bear on the development of the action. The
situation, motives and personalities must be explained by the character themselves in the
speech，actions, authors idea or purpose.
To appreciate and enjoy poetry, let us know its elements and how they contribute to the
meaning and totality of the poem.

Elements of Poetry
<
The poet uses certain elements or qualities that produce aesthetic feelings. He produces
images from his sense impressions through the words he uses" He creates images of touch, taste,
smell and temperature. He uses expressions called figures of speech to achieve aesthetic effect
such as connotation and denotation, imagery, figurative language, rhythm and meter, meaning
and idea. These figures of speech are illustrated as follows:
拉.
/I. Denotation and Connotation
The poet uses words that denote the exact literal dictionary meaning. He also uses
words that connote or give the associated or related meaning.
/z
Examples: We need not feel ship-wrecked
When Jesus is at the helm."
/ 2. Imagery
This means the representation of sense experience through language. Images are
formed as we see, hear， taste, smell and touch. The image is the mental
3. Figurative language

4.rhythm and meter

5.meaning and idea

and make decisions that are true in their nature and when it gives a complete picture of the characters.
The important elements of novel are setting, plot, characters, theme and a moral lesson.
Plot. It is the skeleton or framework of the noveL It can be the story itself, the actual event or
happenings in the novel. The conflict is an important element of the plot which may be caused by
customs, traditions that exist, the physical environment like hostile nature, a physical, emotional and
mental handicaps in the main character.

The plot may be better understood when we determine the ideals, motives, ambitions or aspirations
of the main characters.

Setting. This element of a novel means the time, place and background of the story. It includes
geography and the beliefsz habits and values of a particular place.

Theme. It refers to the main idea or topic and it is the universal truth found in the novel. It differs
from the moral lesson that teaches the readers.

Characters. This refers to the people who act and show the moral, emotional and intellectual
qualities endowed to them by the author. The characters personality includes speech, hairstyle, hobby,
attitude toward work and feelings that define the person. We discover the characters interesting when we
know their personalities.

The moral lesson. This is the part of the story that tells whether they are bad or good. The character
traits of the persons in the story should be consistent. However, a change for the better from materialism
and selfishness to kindness may be portrayed at the end of the novel.

The novel which places major emphasis in the development and appreciation of the characters
rather than the exciting episode is referred to as novel of character. The novel which emphasizes the
actions or the unrelated episodes which dominates the plot and the characters is called a novel of incident.
The novel that gives emphasis on the dominant

forces such as social customs, manners, more conventions and habits of a definite social class
at a particular place and time is called a novel of manners. A novel of sensitivity meanwhile,
portrays the characters with highly response to events, actions and sentiments which can
produce heightened emotional response. The novel of the soil portrays the lives of people
struggling for existence in remote rural sections. A novel has important elements or qualities that
makes it a work of art.
The Writers' Style in Narratives.
Another element of a narrative is the writer's style which refers to the way the writer uses
words to create literature. It is his typical way or technique of expression. Thus, when the writer
composes a literary work, he expresses himself which reveals or reflects his personality. He has
his own point of emphasis.
The writers' style may be realistic, naturalistic, romantic, expressionistic, comical or tragic.
The writers style is classical when his work is characterized by such qualities as clarity/
simplicity, restraint, objectivity，and balance. A classic written work of art is concerned with the
ideals of everyday life. It is objective and goes direct to the point.
The writers" style is romantic when the subjects are unreal. It does not lead directly to the
point, but leads away from it. The style is realistic when the work is real, practical and
commonplace. The style is naturalistic when the work deals with natural happenings and events.
The style is expressionistic when the work expresses strong emotions. The style is comical when
the work is humorous, funny or amusing. The style is tragic when the work deals with the
adverse, sad, miserable, wretched or the desolate.
P210

sense, literature may be about a subject or period of time like literature in architecture, painting,
sculpture, music and dance from 1900-1991
On the other hand, literature refers to a French phrase, belles-lettres ' meaning beautiful writing. In this
sense, literature is any written or spoken language which possesses aesthetic quality. The aesthetic aspect
of literature is focused on the beautiful experiences which are derived from the written or spoken words.
In this sense, literature means more than the printed words. The aesthetic study of literature is focused on
the beautiful, moral, social and practical consideration. Hence, we speak of a piece of writing as literary
type of literature when it possesses artistic merit or aesthetic quality. Included as literary types of writing
are poetry, novels, short stories, dramas and essays. Pieces of literature that express beautifully the
writers'* thoughts and feelings last long surviving through generations, sometimes for centuries.
Why We Read and Study Literature
We read literature for a variety of reasons. We read for information and knowledge about people,
places and events. We also read for pleasure, entertainment and enlightenment, We read poetry because
the beautifully expressed thoughts appeal to our feelings. We also read stories and novels to meet
characters who teach us moral values and serve as role models. •
' According to Romero and Romero,1 there are many important things that reading does for us such as:
1. Reading literature makes us well-informed about various areas of knowledge that have
accumulated through the years. It informs us about man's progress as well as the mistakes and successes
of human endeavors.
2. Reading is a worthwhile form of literature
 3- Reading good pieces of literature provides a source of inspiration. It encourages and
motivates us to improve our present lot to attain our ambitions in life.
4. Reading is a.form of therapy. The books we read can provide a substitute object for draining-
off our bad or unpleasant emotions like anger and hatred, grievances and frustrations. Shouting at or
sympathizing with the villain in the story is one way of releasing our tension.

Functions and Values of Literature

Beautiful pieces of literature supply two of our basic needs namely; (1) the need for entertainment
and escape and (2) the need to satisfy our craving for a key to the meaning of life. Reading a work of
literature is not merely recognizing the words on a page. It is experiencing the writers artistic efforts
expressed in various forms. Reading literature is not for eye appeal, but for its usefulness as "fillers".

By reading, we experience joy and pleasure,, as well as learn the desirable values about the
beautiful, the noble, the distinguished, the lonely and the unusual which can influence our lives.

Reading literature can be fun when we are able to capture the beauty of the passages of the literary
works by:
reacting and responding to the authors thoughts, emotions and beliefs; and by

relating the writer's experiences in life to our own.

The inspiration we derive from reading, listening or seeing a literary masterpiece can mend or
improve our ways. It can influence our philosophy of life. We can become more humane in our thoughts
and behavior through constant reading and study of literary works of art.