Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Review of energy storage systems for electric vehicle applications: Issues

and challenges
crossmark
⁎ ⁎
M.A. Hannana, , M.M. Hoqueb,c, , A. Mohamedb, A. Ayobb
a
Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, 43000 Kajang Malaysia
b
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, 43000 Malaysia
c
Department of Applied Physics, Electronics and Communication Engineering, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: The electric vehicle (EV) technology addresses the issue of the reduction of carbon and greenhouse gas
Energy storage systems emissions. The concept of EVs focuses on the utilization of alternative energy resources. However, EV systems
Power electronics currently face challenges in energy storage systems (ESSs) with regard to their safety, size, cost, and overall
Hybridization management issues. In addition, hybridization of ESSs with advanced power electronic technologies has a
Electric vehicle
significant influence on optimal power utilization to lead advanced EV technologies. This paper comprehen-
sively reviews technologies of ESSs, its classifications, characteristics, constructions, electricity conversion, and
evaluation processes with advantages and disadvantages for EV applications. Moreover, this paper discusses
various classifications of ESS according to their energy formations, composition materials, and techniques on
average power delivery over its capacity and overall efficiencies exhibited within their life expectancies. The
rigorous review indicates that existing technologies for ESS can be used for EVs, but the optimum use of ESSs
for efficient EV energy storage applications has not yet been achieved. This review highlights many factors,
challenges, and problems for sustainable development of ESS technologies in next-generation EV applications.
Thus, this review will widen the effort toward the development of economic and efficient ESSs with a longer
lifetime for future EV uses.

1. Introduction
The world is moving toward development by ensuring proper
utilization of advanced technologies. Many developing and under-
developed countries are competing to achieve the technological ad-
vancement of developed countries. Addressing the transportation
needs of citizens symbolizes the furtherance of technology and
economic growth. Global mobility and development of many cities
have significantly increased the number of vehicles on roads. According
to Ref [1], approximately 295.57 million vehicle were sold from 1990 to
2014, and 31.70% of the total sales were reported in 2014. An increase
of 3% in vehicle sales is anticipated in 2015 [1].
The increase of vehicles on roads has caused two major problems,
namely, traffic jams and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Generally, a
conventional vehicle dissipates heat during consumption of approxi-
mately 85% of total fuel energy [2,3] in terms of CO2, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbon, water, and other greenhouse
gases (GHGs); 83.7% of total gas emissions are CO2 [4]. CO2 emission
by transport has increased dramatically from 22.7 billion metric tons in
1990 to 35.27 billion metric tons in 2013 [5], as shown in Fig. 1. While
a slow rise of CO2 emission in 1990 to the next decade is seen in Fig. 1,
the growth rate increased faster from 2003 to 2008. In 2013, the
emission rate reduced from 3.80–2.00%. Carbon dioxide is one of the
GHGs that contribute to global warming, which is a serious global
environmental problem.
Decarbonization plays an important role in reducing the CO2
emissions of the transport sector. Improvement of internal combustion
engines for fossil fuel-driven vehicles is still far from achieving CO2
emission targets. Thus, advanced technologies are required to reach
long-term and higher emission targets. Reduction of CO2 and other
GHG emissions is a vital concern of many countries and researchers.
Many action plans have been approved by governments individually
and collectively to reduce CO2 emission by replacing the conventional
internal combustion engine-run vehicle with electric vehicle (EV) [6,7].
Hence, a significant reduction of GHG emissions is projected in the
next few decades [4]. Electric-driven vehicles are attracting attention
because of their low emission and efficient reduction of CO2 emission.
The EV is a system with higher engine efficiency and does not emit
pollutants through tailpipe emission, fuel evaporation, or fuel refining.
Thus, it is known as a zero-emission vehicle [8].

⁎
Corresponding authors at: Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia.
E-mail addresses: hannan@uniten.edu.my (M.A. Hannan), m.hoque@cu.ac.bd (M.M. Hoque).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.171
Received 29 September 2015; Received in revised form 2 August 2016; Accepted 12 November 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.A. Hannan et al.
(billion tonnes)
CO2 emission
Fig. 1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission by transport [5].
The EV operates with electricity stored in batteries, fuel cells (FCs),
and ultracapacitors (UCs), where the ultimate source of electricity
includes generating plants and renewable energy resources, which
means that a plug-in charged storage is used. Depending on the source
of power, EVs are of several types, such as hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs), battery-powered electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles, photovoltaic electric vehicles, and fuel cell electric
vehicles [9,10]. Unlike conventional vehicles, EV uses a more efficient
power source and electrical motor than the powertrain of power
combustion engines [10,11]. Regenerative braking and thermoelectric
generators are used in EVs to reduce energy waste. The braking process
of the vehicle absorbs its energy, converts it back to electrical energy,
and returns the energy to the batteries, while the thermoelectric
generator converts heat from the engine and machine systems to
electricity automatically [3,11,12]. EVs normally do not need a gearbox
as used by electric motors and have high torque at a wide range of
speed. Moreover, the EV does not consume any power when it is
stationary [13] and consumes more than 75% of energy during run
time. At present, EVs could cross a mean of 4–8 miles using only a kWh
capacity [3].
EVs are highly dependent on available energy storage technologies,
such as battery cell, FC, and UCs [3,14–16] for power. Thus, EVs need
to be charged from the power grid. The additional energy demand for
EVs is the new challenge to common power grids. To meet the extra
demand of electricity, most countries are investing in renewable
energies, such as solar and wind energy [16]. Moreover, renewable
energy resources contribute to the power grid during peak load demand
consumption period. The renewable and stored energy in the vehicles
are transferred to the utility power grid as a vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
system at peak hours or back to restore energy [17–19]. The electric
energy stored in the battery systems and other storage systems is used
to operate the electrical motor and accessories, as well as basic systems
of the vehicle to function [20]. The driving range and performance of
the electric vehicle supplied by the storage cells must be appropriate
with sufficient energy and power density without exceeding the limits
of their specifications [3,14–16].
Many requirements are considered for electric energy storage in
EVs. The management system, power electronics interface, power
conversion, safety, and protection are the significant requirements for
efficient energy storage and distribution management of EV applica-
tions [21–25]. EVs are manufactured with high technology features to
assure long and efficient runs. The selection and management of energy
Fig. 2. EV architectures: a) battery powered EV and b) series-parallel full HEV.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
resources, energy storage, and storage management system are crucial
for future EV technologies [23]. Providing advanced facilities in an EV
requires managing energy resources, choosing energy storage systems
(ESSs), balancing the charge of the storage cell, and preventing
anomalies. The objectives of the review present the current scenario
of ESSs, updated features of the ESSs, evaluations, issues, and
challenges of existing systems, and recommendations for the future
development of ESSs. Moreover, the study highlights hybridization
technologies of ESSs in EV application. This study focuses on environ-
mental and safety issues during manufacturing, utilization, recycling,
and disposal of ESSs.
In this paper, available energy storage technologies of different
types are explained along with their formations, electricity generation
process, characteristics, and features concerning EV applications. A
tabular comparison is analyzed among the existing electrochemical
ESSs and their features. The review focuses on hybridization technol-
ogies of the ESSs for their efficient deployments in EV applications.
Thus, the contribution of this study is the improvement of future ESSs
for sustainable development of the EVs.
2. Energy storage systems for electric vehicles
Energy storage systems (ESSs) are becoming essential in power
markets to increase the use of renewable energy, reduce CO2 emission
[4,5,8], and define the smart grid technology concept [26–29]. ESS has
an important effect on overall electric systems; it provides continuous
and flexible power supply to maintain and to enhance power as a result
of congestion and interruption of transmission line for excessive
demand. In addition, an ESS ensures reliable services for consumers
during power crises due to natural disasters, as well as lessens the
prices of electricity to support the peak demand by storing energy
during off-peak hours at low cost [30].
During the past decades, renewable energy has been contributing to
off-grid power consumers with ESSs. In that sense, EVs are growing
technologies with ESS as a substitute for fossil fuels, where energy
resources come from renewable energy technologies [26]. EVs are
utilized to discourage the use of fossil fuels and reduce CO2. Hence,
high-performance ESSs are necessary to power EVs. To meet some
requisites of EVs, ESSs are utilized in combination to provide high
discharge time with reliability [30]. Fig. 2 shows the drive train
architectures of EVs [3]. Fig. 2(a) and (b) present a BEV drive system
and a series-parallel full HEV, respectively.
3. Classification of ESS systems
The classification of ESS systems is determined with the use of
energy in a specific form. ESS is classified into mechanical, electro-
chemical, chemical, electrical, thermal, and hybrid [30]. These systems
are classified into various types according to their formations and
composition materials [14,30]. Fig. 3 presents the classification of ESS
in detail, where the common ESSs for EV application are boxed in gray.
Flywheel, secondary electrochemical batteries, FCs, UCs, supercon-
ducting magnetic coils, and hybrid ESSs are commonly used in EV
powering applications [9,10,14–16,23,30–33].
M.A. Hannan et al.
Fig. 3. Classification of energy storage systems (ESS) according to their energy formations and composition materials.
4. Details on energy storage systems
The classification of ESSs is presented in Section 3. This section
discusses and reviews all EES types with their constructions, electricity
conversion, characteristics, and applications with merits and demerits.
4.1. Mechanical storage systems
Mechanical storage systems (MSSs) are commonly used to produce
electricity throughout the world. Three MSSs are pumped hydro
storage (PHS), compressed air energy storage (CAES), and flywheel
energy storage (FES). The most popular MSS is PHS, which is used in
pumped hydroelectric power plants. Reserved water of high head is
used and pumped to a power turbine with a generator to produce
electricity. This storage system contributes approximately 99% of the
world electric storage capacity, which is around 3% of the capacity of
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
global electricity generation [34]. In CAES, compressed air is mixed
with natural gas, expanded, and further converted into modified gas to
feed to a gas turbine shafted with a generator to produce electricity
[35]. The isothermal, adiabatic, and diabatic storage systems are
considered to implement CAES [33]. CAES is applicable for large-
capacity electricity production. FES is explained below.
4.1.1. Flywheel energy storage
Flywheel energy storage (FES) systems are suitable for the applica-
tion of EVs and power systems because of advances in power electro-
nics and material engineering [36]. The efficiency and rated power of
FESs fall within the range of 90–95% and 0–50 MW, respectively [36–
43]. The flywheel comprises a rotating cylindrical body in a chamber,
coupled bearings, and energy transmission device, i.e., generator/
motor together mounted with a common shaft [15,30,36,37]. The
energy maintained by the constantly rotating flywheel is converted to
M.A. Hannan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789

Power Power
Power Power Power Power
Converter Converter
Source Sink Converter Source/
(AC-AC) (AC-AC)
(AC-AC) Sink
Motor Generator
EnergyFlow EnergyFlow
Flywheel Motor /Generator
Flywheel EnergyFlow

(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Basic FES system structures: (a) two-machine system and (b) one-machine system with bidirectional energy flow [30,33].

electrical energy by means of a transmission device. Fig. 4 shows the

basic FES system structures of bidirectional energy flow with a two-
and one-machine system [30,33]. Energy from the flywheel is in the
form of rotational kinetic energy, which could be defined by Eq. (1)
1 1
E= I × ω2 and I= m × r2
2 2 (1)

where E is the kinetic energy, I is the moment of inertia, ω, m, and r are

the speed, mass, and radius of the flywheel, respectively.
The energy could be increased by increasing the moment of inertia
or speed of the flywheel, which is squarely proportional with the energy
or size of the flywheel by Eq. (1). The main advantages of the FES
systems are high energy and power density, theoretically infinite charge
and discharge cycles, low cost, long life, and no depth of discharge
(DOD) effect [33,36,37]. However, FES has high self-discharging
features because of windage and bearing friction losses. FES could be
classified into high- and low-speed FES systems [36–39]. High-speed
FES system transmits energy to drive the load via a generator, whereas
low-speed FES system receives energy to be charged from the power
source via a motor. With advanced technologies of materials, designs,
geometry to build the advanced ultra-high speed flywheel (UHSF), and
frictionless bearings [36–39], FES systems are applied for long service
periods in hybrid combination for energy storage application of EVs
Fig. 5. Vanadium redox flow battery system [47].
[40–43].
electrolytes with dissolved metal ions are pumped to the reverse sides
4.2. Electrochemical storage systems of the cell. The porous electrodes, namely, catholyte and anolyte, pass
opposite each other through membrane separation. For the electron
All conventional rechargeable batteries are under electrochemical transfer process, the membrane considers protons to pass through. At
storage systems (EcSSs) [44]. Particularly, flow batteries (FBs) and the time of charging, current flows over the electrodes where the
secondary rechargeable batteries are EcSSs. In EcSSs, energy is dissolved active masses are supplied from the tanks to the electrodes
transformed from electrical to chemical energy and vice versa through during discharging [30]. Typical examples of RFBs are Fe- Ti, Fe-Cr,
a reversible process with energy efficiency and low physical changes and poly S-Br systems [48–50]. Several RFB models are presented by
[44]. However, chemical reaction may reduce cell life and energy [45]. Ref. [48–50].
These types of batteries have the dual function of storing and releasing The HFB has two active masses; one is stored in the cell, and the
electrical energy by changing the charge and discharge phases with no other stays in liquid electrolyte in a tank. The HFB cell is the
harmful emission and little maintenance [46]. combination of a secondary battery (SB) and RFB. As in RFB, the
capacity is defined by the size of the electrochemical cell. HFBs follow
4.2.1. Flow batteries (FB) Zn-Ce and Zn-Br systems. At the time of charging, Zn is deposited at
FBs are rechargeable, and in FBs, energy is stored in electroactive the electrode, and during discharging, Zn-ion flows back into the
species. The electroactive species are dissolved in liquid electrolyte in solution [30]. FBs have a life expectancy of 15–20 years, 4–10 h
tanks, and the liquid is pumped via electrochemical cell to convert discharge range, and 60–70% efficiency [51]. Nowadays, RFBs and
chemical energy into electric energy. Redox flow (RFB) and hybrid flow HFBs are being designed for large-scale power storage for community
(HFB) are examples of FBs [30]. The total size of the tank of RFB energy storage and utility-scale application for enhancing power
defines the total energy of the battery [30]. quality, UPSs, peak shaving, increasing security of supply, and integra-
RFBs exhibit high life cycle stability, high efficiency, flexibility in tion with renewable energy systems [52,53].
power, and capacity demand, which make RFBs attractive in any
autonomous and standalone grid systems [47]. Fig. 5 shows the 4.2.2. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries
structure of vanadium RFB (VRFB) [47]. In VRFBs, two liquid SBs dominate the market for portable energy storage devices for

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M.A. Hannan et al.
EVs and other electric and electronic applications. These batteries store
electricity in the form of chemical energy and produce electricity
through a electrochemical reaction process [30]. Generally, SB consists
of two electrodes, namely, anode and cathode; electrolyte; a separator;
and a case [24,32,53]. SB possesses good characteristics, such as high
specific energy, high power density, flat discharge profile, low resis-
tance, negligible memory effect, and wide range of temperature
performance [24]. However, most batteries contain toxic materials.
Hence, the ecological impact during battery disposal has to be
considered [54]. In major EV applications, high energy density with
high specific power of electricity storage systems or energy sources is
provided by SBs because of advances in battery technologies and
reasonable costs [55–58]. The various types of EVs mainly include
lead-acid (LA), nickel-based (Ni-Fe, Ni-Zn, Ni-Cd, Ni-MH, Ni-H2),
zinc-halogen-based (Zn-Cl2, Zn-Br2), metal-air-based (Fe-Air, Al-Air,
Zn-Air), sodium-beta (Na-S, Na-NiCl2), high-temperature lithium (Li-
Al-FeS, Li-Al-FeS2), and ambient temperature lithium [lithium-poly-
mer (Li-poly), lithium-ion (Li-ion)] batteries [14,30,45].
4.2.2.1. Lead-acid batteries. LA batteries have been used as energy
sources commercially since 1860 [45]. LA batteries are used in every
internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle as a starter and typically
applied for emergency power supply, renewable energy storage, and
grid storage because of their ruggedness, safe operation, temperature
tolerance, and low cost [15,30]. The battery consists of Pb as negative
electrode, PbO2 as positive electrode, and H2SO4 solution as electrolyte
[14,58]. The electrochemical reaction takes place in LA battery as
shown in Eq. (2).
Pb + 2PbO2 + 2H2 SO4 ⇌ 2PbSO4 + 2H2 O
Fig. 6 shows the LA chemistry features during discharging and
charging. During discharging, PbSO4 is produced, and water is released
at the time of charging. The battery operates for 6–15 years with a
maximum of 2000 life cycles at 80% DOD and provides 70–90%
efficiency [14,30]. Starting-lighting-ignition (SLI) batteries and UPS
batteries are LA batteries with a small rating and voltages of 6, 8, and
12 V [58,59]. Recently, valve-regulated LA (VRLA) has become a
popular battery for powering EVs because of its high specific power,
low initial cost, and quick charge capability, and no maintenance
requirement [14]. Present research investigates minimization of the
size and weight of materials of advanced VRLA battery and maintaining
high energy density [60,61]. Common VRLA batteries include adsorbed
glass material (AGM) and GEL batteries.
AGM batteries are composed of electrolyte made of fiberglass,
which is a solid material, to absorb and contain acid without leakage.
These types of batteries have a compact volume and occupy minimal
Fig. 6. Lead-acid battery chemistry: (a) during discharging, (b) during charging, and (c) LA battery prototype [14,30].
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
space such that vibration resistance is higher than that of standard
batteries. The special feature of this battery type is that it recombines
hydrogen and oxygen into water inside the unit during charging,
thereby limiting the loss of water [45,58]. GEL batteries are manu-
factured with gel-state electrolyte, which is a gelatinous mass that is not
fully solid to contain acid and has no leakage. GEL batteries need
slower and controlled charging compared with other batteries.
However, gas bubbles could be produced inside the gel electrolyte,
which could damage the battery permanently [58–61].
4.2.2.2. Nickel-based batteries. Nickel-based batteries utilize nickel
hydroxide as positive electrode and different negative electrode
materials. Depending on negative electrode materials, nickel-based
batteries are classified into Ni-Fe, Ni-Cd, Ni-Zn, Ni-MH, and Ni-H2
[3,14,30,45,62]. Generally, in nickel-based batteries, the active
materials comprise nickel oxyhydroxide as positive electrode,
potassium hydroxide solution as electrolyte, and any metal Fe/Cd/
Zn, MH, or H2 material as negative electrode [14]. The overall
electrochemical reaction that takes place in the nickel-based battery
is indicated in Eq. (3).
X + 2NiO (OH ) + 2H2 O ⇌ 2Ni (OH )2 + X (OH )2 ; X = Fe/Cd/Zn
(M ) H + 2 NiO(OH ) ⇌ M + Ni (OH )2
H2 + NiO (OH ) ⇌ Ni (OH )2
(3)
Fig. 7 shows the nickel-based battery chemistry during discharging
and charging. At the time of discharging and charging, Ni(OH)2 and
(2) Fe/Cd/Zn(OH)2, M are formed. Nickel-iron and zinc batteries are less
attractive in EV application because of their low specific power, high
cost, low life cycle, and high maintenance requirement [14]. Ni-Fe and
Ni-Zn batteries provide 75% energy efficiency. Nickel-cadmium and
metal hydride are currently used to power EVs because they have a
high number of life cycles (2000 or more) and energy density. However,
Ni-Cd has a high memory effect and price, which is more than 10 times
the price of LA battery [14,62–67]. Recycling issues and toxic effects
[64–67] are considered, although this type employs the most advanced
technology among all nickel-based batteries. By contrast, Ni-MH has
low memory effect, negligible environmental effect, and a large
operating temperature range [14,30,45,62]. Environmental friendli-
ness and its maintenance-free nature ensure that Ni-MH is more
applicable than Ni-Cd for powering EVs [14] although it generates heat
during operation and needs a complex algorithm and a costly charger
[3,68]. Ni-H2 has a high capacity rate, a long life cycle, and tolerance to
overcharging or overdischarging without damage. However, this bat-
tery type is expensive, has self-discharge that is proportional to H2
pressure, has low volumetric energy density, and is specially produced
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Fig. 7. Nickel-based battery chemistry. (a) during discharging, (b) during charging, and (c) nickel-based battery prototype [14,30,45,62].

for space power [45,62].
4.2.2.3. Zinc-halogen batteries. Zinc-halogen batteries include Zn-Cl2
and Zn-Br2, which are feasible as EV energy storages. Zn-Cl2 was
developed in 1970 for EV and static energy storages [14]. Zn-Cl2 has a
high energy density of 90 Wh/L and a low specific power of 60 W/kg.
Later, Zn-Cl2 became applicable for power utility because of
development changes for plumbing operation and maintenance [14].
Zn-Br2 batteries are suitable for EV energy storage because of their
high specific energy (70 Wh/kg), fast charging capability, and low
material cost [14,45,70,71]. However, this battery type has recently
become slower in EV applications because of their low specific power
(90 W/kg), high reactivity of bromine, and large size for electrolyte
circulation and temperature control [14,45,70]. R & D is advancing for
the improvement and development of Zn-Br2 batteries for vehicular
applications [71]. The overall electrochemical reaction in the Zi-Br2
battery is expressed in Eq. (4).
ZnBr2 (aq ) ⇌ Zn0 + Br (aq )
In Zn-Br2 battery, energy is stored and released by electrochemical
reactions in a system that consists of electrodes of zinc and bromine,
electrolyte of zinc bromine aqueous solution, and electrolyte storage
reserves and separators of microporous plastic film. Fig. 8 shows the
Zn-Br2 battery system [14,45]. In the system, the electrolyte of the zinc
bromine solution is circulated by pumps past both electrodes. The
reactions deposit zinc at the negative electrode and bromine at the
positive electrode at the time of charging, while zinc and bromide ions
are formed at their respective electrodes during discharging.
4.2.2.4. Metal-air batteries. Metal-air electrochemical
Negative Electrolyte Loop
Positive Electrolyte Loop
Separator - +
Br2 -Active
Electrode
Reservoir Reservoir
Heat
Exchanger
Terminal
Electrode Br2-Complex
Bipolar Carbon
Storage
Plastic Electrode Zn Deposit Pump
Fig. 8. Zn-Br2 battery system [14,45].
consist of electrodes of metal as anode and oxygen from
inexhaustible air supply as cathode [30,45,72–76]. In metal air
batteries, Li, Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, and Zn are used as anode metal [72–
76]. Among these elements, lithium-air (Li-Air) battery is most
applicable for EV applications because of its high theoretical specific
energy of 11.14 kW h/kg, excluding air, which is 100 times more than
that of other batteries [30,74,77–80]. However, this battery type has a
high fire risk that could result from the combination of air and
humidity [30]. Other lithium-water and lithium-O2 with polymer
batteries of high energy density are used as SB storage systems
[74,77–80].
Calcium-air (Ca-Air) battery has high energy density, but it suffers
in capacity fading and is comparatively expensive [72]. In most cases,
Ca is used as alloy material in battery electrodes to ensure high
efficiency [72]. Generally, magnesium-air (Mg-Air) battery with a high
specific energy of 700 W h/kg is designed with a Mg alloy anode in
(4) place of pure Mg and dissolved O reactant in seawater for undersea
vehicle applications [45]. The electrochemical rechargeable iron-air
(Fe-air) battery has a low specific energy of 60–75 W h/kg and lower
cost compared with other metal-air batteries [45,72,73]. This battery is
a potential automotive power source for EVs because of its lower life
cycle costs and no deformation of active materials or shapes for
prolonged electrical cycling [45,73].
Aluminum-air (Al-air) battery has high specific energy, terminal
voltage, and amp-hour capacity. However, these advantages are
reduced because of water consumption during discharging [45,72].
Al-air battery is solely mechanically rechargeable and maintained by
replacing aluminum anode after every discharge, where electrically
rechargeable is not feasible, by using aqueous electrolytes [45].
batteries Advanced Al-air batteries are made with Al alloy to avoid corrosion
and to operate at 98% or more coulombic efficiency over a large current
density range [46]. This type of battery is commonly used to power
marine or underwater vehicles. Aluminum-oxygen (Al-O2) battery is
mostly available in other forms given that Al-O2 combination produces
almost double the energy per kilogram of oxygen as hydrogen-FC
[45,72–76].
Zinc-air (Zn-Air) battery is technically viable. This battery has
several properties of FCs and conventional cells, and is electrically and
mechanically rechargeable. The reaction rate of Zn-air battery is
controlled by varying the flow of air [30,45,72–74,81,82]. The ad-
vanced electrically rechargeable Zn-air battery uses bifunctional air
electrode for better life cycle, and the mechanically rechargeable Zn-Air
battery is designed in such a way that the discharged anode could be
replaced to avoid shape deformation [45,81,82]. For high-performance

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Fig. 9. Zinc-air battery chemistry: (a) during discharging, (b) during charging, and (c) Zn-Air battery prototype [83].
applications, the hybrid design is considered with Zn-Air of high
specific energy and LA of high specific power to form Zn-Air LA hybrid
battery storage system [45,81,82].
Overall, metal-air batteries are satisfactory for rechargeable storage
application because of their low material cost and high specific energy
[61,73]. The overall electrochemical reaction in metal-air battery is
given in Eq. (5).
4Me + nO2 + 2nH2 O ⇌ 4Me (OH )n
where Me is metal, e.g., Li, Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, and Zn; and n is the value
that depends on the valence change for the oxidation of metal.
Fig. 9 shows the zinc-air battery chemistry during discharging and
charging. At the time of discharging, zinc electrode is oxidized by
releasing electrons and air electrode produces hydroxide ions. During
battery charging, zinc is deposited into zinc electrode, and oxygen is
released into the air electrode [83].
4.2.2.5. Sodium-beta batteries. Sodium (Na) is an attractive material
for battery anodes. Sodium-beta batteries are the only batteries that
use solid electrolyte. These batteries use beta-alumina (β″-Al2O3) as
electrolyte, which exhibits good Na+ conductivity and electric isolation
at high temperatures [83]. Depending on cathode materials, sodium-
beta batteries are classified into sodium-sulfur (Na-S) and sodium-
metal halide [14,30,45,83]. Na-S was developed by Ford particularly
for EV applications in the 1960s [84]. Later on, this battery type
became commonly used for large-scale storage applications to support
utility and electric grids [63,84,85]. This battery has a high
temperature and operates in the range of 300–350 °C [14,84,5983].
Furthermore, it has adequate energy and power density of 150–
240 W h/kg and 150–230 W/kg, respectively [45,53], a long life cycle
of 4500 [30,33,53,85], and high energy efficiency of 80–90%
[45,53,63,86], and it is cheap and safe. However, this battery type
suffers from high internal resistance [45] and Na corrosion, and it
needs to be heated at approximately 300 °C to maintain the molten
state of electrodes [59,63]. Na-S battery consists of solid sodium in
molten form as anode and molten sulfur as cathode, and partitioned by
solid beta alumina ceramic electrolyte [33,84]. The battery system is
illustrated in Fig. 10. The overall electrochemical reaction in Na-S
battery is indicated in Eq. (6).
Na + xS ⇌ Na2 Sx
where x is 3–5.
Fig. 10 shows the Na-S battery chemistry during discharging and
charging [30,33,53,83]. At the time of discharging, Na is oxidized at the
Na-beta interface and produces positive Na+ ions to pass through the
beta-alumina electrolyte, and combines with sulfur to form sodium
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
polysulfides (Na2Sx). Electrons flow through the external circuit to
generate the desired output voltage. When the cell is recharged, the
electrochemical reaction processes take place in reverse
[33,45,53,83,84].
Sodium-metal halide battery technologies have successfully pow-
ered EVs since the 1990s because they have a higher cell voltage than
Na-S batteries [30]. This type of battery is well known as Zero Emission
Battery Research Activity (ZEBRA) [3,87]. A sodium-metal chloride
(5)
(Na-MeCl2) battery operates at a wide temperature range of 250–
350 °C [14,30]. ZEBRA batteries have the most attractive temperature
for EV power because of their high energy density, less corrosion,
intrinsic safety, and better tolerance to overcharging and overdischar-
ging than Na-S because of the semisolid cathode [45,84], long life cycle,
and lower cost than other batteries [3,14]. However, ZEBRA batteries
have a comparatively low specific power of 150 W-kg, and they need
thermal management [14] and self-discharge [3,88,89]. Na-NiCl2, Na-
FeCl2, and Na-Ni-FeCl2 ZEBRA batteries are available for energy
storage applications [87–89]. The main difference between the two
sodium-beta batteries is the additional use of sodium aluminum tetra
chloride (NaAlCl4) as secondary electrolyte in ZEBRA battery [45]. The
active materials of ZEBRA battery are molten sodium as anode, solid
beta-alumina ceramic as primary electrolyte, molten sodium aluminum
tetra chloride (NaAlCl4) as secondary electrolyte, and porous metal
chloride (MeCl2) as cathode [14]. The metal chloride may be nickel
chloride (NiCl2), iron chloride (FeCl2), or a combination of nickel-iron
chloride (Ni-FeCl2). The overall electrochemical reaction in Na-S
battery is indicated in Eq. (7).
2Na + NiCl2 ⇌ Ni + 2NaCl (7)
Fig. 11 shows the ZEBRA battery prototype design view labeled
with all the components [45,83,87]. The electrochemical reaction
during charging and discharging mechanisms are similar to Na-S
battery reaction processes. When discharging, molten Na and NiCl2
are transferred to Ni and salt (NaCl), and reactions are reversed during
charging [83], as indicated in Eq. (7). If the cell is overcharged, then
the primary electrolyte could be broken down, and the molten
secondary electrolyte, NaAlCl4, is combined with Ni, thereby forming
NiCl, molten Na, and AlCl3, as demonstrated in Eq. (8), rather than
breaking down NaAlCl4 in the form of Na, Cl2, and AlCl3 [14,45,87]
(6) Ni + 2NaAlCl4 → NiCl2 + 2Na + 2AlCl3 (8)
NaNiCl2 batteries are utilized especially in EVs for large- or
medium-scale power storage applications. Technological advances have
been achieved in the development of advanced ZEBRA batteries for
long service periods [89].
4.2.2.6. Lithium batteries. Lithium SBs are promising batteries for EV
energy storage applications because of their high energy density, high
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Fig. 10. Sodium-sulfur battery chemistry: (a) during discharging and charging, (b) tubular design view of Na-S battery, and (c) Na-S battery prototype [30,33,53,83].
Fig. 11. ZEBRA battery prototype design view [45,83,88].
specific energy and power, and light weight [3,83]. Moreover, lithium
batteries have no memory effect and no harmful effects unlike mercury
or lead [3]. However, this battery type is costlier than other battery
types; it typically costs $150 for 1300/kW h and needs protection for
safe operation and cell balancing system to ensure consistent battery
performance at the same voltage and charge level [3,30,33,63,90,91].
Lithium batteries are designed for high temperature and ambient
temperature applications. Other than sodium-beta batteries, lithium-
aluminum-iron monosulfide (Li-Al-FeS) and lithium-aluminum-iron
disulfide (Li-Al-FeS2) are high-temperature lithium batteries
[14,45,59]. These lithium-sulfur batteries have the highest energy
capacity and the lowest weight among all other lithium batteries.
These types have a comparatively low life cycle [3], need thermal
management, and lose energy for maintaining operating temperature
[14]. Lithium-sulfur batteries operate at a temperature range of 375–
500 °C [14,45]. The high-temperature lithium-sulfur batteries consist
of Li-Al alloy as anode, iron sulfide as cathode, molten lithium chloride-
potassium chloride as electrolyte, and a separator [14,59]. In these
batteries, Li-Al alloy is used to control the activity of lithium, and iron
sulfide is used to prevent the corrosion of iron [14,59]. The overall
electrochemical reactions in both lithium-sulfur battery types are
indicated in Eqs. (9) and (10).
2Li − AlFeS ⇌ 2Al + Fe + Li2 S
2Li − Al + FeS2 ⇌ 2Al + Fe + Li2 FeS2
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
The other lithium batteries that operate normally at ambient
temperature are mainly Li-poly and Li-ion batteries, which are well
developed for EV application [14,86]. The main difference between Li-
poly and Li-Ion batteries is that the former uses lithium metal as one
reactor, whereas no metallic lithium is used in the cell of the latter [14].
Li-poly batteries are useful for a variety of packaging shapes, and they
exhibit toughness and dependability. However, they have poor con-
ductivity and power density [3], and they have high specific energy and
power needs of 155 W h/kg and 315 W/kg, respectively [14,58,84].
Li-ion batteries are popular for energy storage and portable electric
and electronics products because of their small size, light weight, and
potential [33,51,63,83,92]. In 1991, Sony commercially produced Li-
ion batteries, but this type of battery was already proposed by Bell Labs
in the 1960s [62,85,93]. Li-ion battery has high energy density, high
power density ranging from 500 to 2000 W/kg [64,93], low self-
discharge, and long lifetimes [92]. However, the life cycle of the Li-
on battery is affected by temperature and is reduced abruptly in deep
discharge [63]. Depending on positive electrode, Li-ion batteries are
classified into lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium manganese oxide
(LiMn2O4), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), lithium nickel-manga-
nese-cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO2), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide
(LiNiCoAlO2), and lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12) batteries [14,92].
The LiCoO2 battery was the first type that was developed. Given
that cobalt oxide was more expensive than others, nickel and manga-
nese oxide batteries were introduced, with the latter being more cost
effective [94]. LiFePO4 battery is considered the highest power density
battery with high discharge current and has the lowest cost among all
Li-Ion batteries [3,92]. LiFePO4 battery is stable in thermal and
chemical operations [3], and is widely applied in EVs. Li4Ti5O12
batteries are presently used in EV applications because of their faster
charging behavior compared with other lithium batteries [3]. Li-ion
battery consists of lithium metal oxide (LiMeO2, e.g., LiCoO2, LiMn2O4,
LiFePO4, LiNiMnCoO2, LiNiCoAlO2, and Li4Ti5O12,) as cathode, dis-
solved lithium salts in organic carbonates as electrolyte, lithiated
graphite carbon as anode, and a separator [45,65,84,86,94,95]. The
overall electrochemical reaction in Li-Ion battery is indicated in Eq.
(11).
LiMeO2 + C ⇌ Li1− x MeO2 + Lix C (11)
Fig. 12 shows the Li-ion battery chemistry during discharging and
charging [31,45,84,95]. When the cell is recharged, Li+ travels from the
cathode to anode electrolyte and is formed into lithium atom by
combining with charging electrons (e-) and deposited between carbon
(9)
layers. During discharging, the processes are executed in reverse
(10) [33,53,65,84,94]. At present, Li-ion battery technologies are being
developed for next-generation EV applications [65,83,92,96]. In this
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M.A. Hannan et al.
Fig. 12. Lithium-ion battery chemistry: (a) during discharging and charging and (b) cylindrical view of Li-ion battery [31,45,84,95].
context, high-energy Li-ion technologies are being designed for EV
energy storage applications to meet specific power and energy require-
ments of EVs [31].
All electrochemical SBs for EV ESSs are summarized in Table 1
[3,14,45,56–58,62,69], which shows typical characteristics of SBs in
terms of specific energy, energy density, specific power, energy
efficiency, battery life cycle, operating temperature range, per energy
unit cost in US$, and properties with regard to merits and demerits.
Fig. 13 depicts the technological maturity of electrochemical SBS in
terms of specific power versus specific energy [97]. In all aspects,
lithium batteries are preferred for high energy density and efficient
applications, especially Li-ion batteries, which are attractive for power-
ing current and future EVs [56,64,98]. In addition, the development of
low-cost lithium battery materials and battery management system has
been advancing in terms of reducing manufacturing costs [60,90,91].
Moreover, advanced LA, NiCd, NiMH, NiH2, Zn-Air, Na-S, and Na-
NiCl2 batteries are applied for vehicular energy storage applications in
certain cases because of their attractive features in specific properties.
4.3. Chemical storage systems (CSSs)
Chemical storage systems (CSSs) store and release energy through
chemical reactions of chemical compounds composed in the system,
thereby forming other compounds [59]. The FC is a typical chemical
storage system that converts chemical energy of fuel to electrical energy
continuously [14,45,58]. The main difference between an FC and a
battery is the way they supply energy source. In an FC, the fuel and
oxidant are supplied externally to generate electricity, and these parts
are integrated in the battery (except metal-air batteries) [45]. The
advantage of FC is its capability to generate electricity as long as the
active materials are supplied to it. FCs offer 40–85% fuel efficiency
[14,58].
FC technologies have been proven as an energy generation source
that can reduce fossil fuel use and CO2 emission [58,88,89]. FCs are
composed of liquid or gaseous fuel as anode and oxygen, air, and
chlorine as the oxidant in the cathode side. Hydrogen-based FCs
(HFCs) in particular are popular and available in the market. HFCs
use a combination of hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity. This
combination could be regenerative and reversible from electricity and
water [14]. Depending on fueling, HFCs are categorized into direct and
indirect system FCs [45]. In direct system FCs, fuel (e.g., hydrogen and
methanol) reacts directly, whereas in indirect system FCs, fuel (e.g.,
fossil fuels and natural gas) is first converted to reform rich hydrogen
gas and then supplied into the cell for the reaction [99]. FCs are
classified into several types based on fuel and oxidant combinations,
electrolyte type, operating temperature, and applications; these types
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
include alkaline FC (AFC), phosphoric acid FC (PAFC), solid polymer
fuel cell-proton exchange membrane FC (SPFC-PEMFC), regenerative
FC (RFC), solid oxide FC (SOFC), direct methanol FC (DMFC), and
molten carbonate FC (MCFC) [3,14,45,46]. AFC, PAFC, PEMFC, and
RFC are used directly as hydrogen fuel at the anode. The overall
chemical reaction in fuel cells is given in Eq. (12).
2H2 + O2 ⇌ 2H2 O + Electricity (12)
Fig. 14 shows the simple hydrogen fuel cell chemistry [14,46,58].
The injected hydrogen fuel dissociates on the catalytic surface of the
fuel electrode by forming hydrogen and electrons. The hydrogen ions
pass through the electrolyte to other catalytic surface of the oxygen
electrode. Simultaneously, electrons move through external circuit to
power the load. On the overside of other electrodes, water is produced
by combining hydrogen ions, oxygen, and electrons [45]. In the
regenerative closed-loop process, a power electrolyzer separates water
into hydrogen and oxygen to be fed again to the cell, thereby producing
electricity and water, and recycling them repeatedly as long as
electricity is needed [45].
Fig. 15 shows the technologies of different types of FCs in operating
temperatures at a variety of output power levels [3,100]. AFC, PEMFC,
and DMFC operate at normal temperature and are applied for low and
medium levels of power storage application. PAFC uses moderate-
temperature FC. These FCs are employed in transportation application
because of their high operating efficiency, simple design, sound, and
low emission [3,100]. MCFC and SOFC operate at high temperature
within the range of 600–1000 °C [3,45,100]. These two FCs are utilized
for large-scale power storage and generation for utility and grid
applications. DMFC uses methanol (CH3OH) directly as fuel because
it is easier to store than hydrogen [53]. DMFC is a high-energy-density
FC, but its efficiency is low , and it emits CO2 [53]. SOFC has high fuel
efficiency and better stability than DMFC, but it is expensive and needs
high temperature. SOFCs are utilized in EV as a potential auxiliary
power source because of their high efficiency [53,101–103].
SPFC (PEMFC) has attractive features for EV applications because
it has the highest power density among all FCs, where solid polymer
membrane electrolyte and platinum catalyzed porous electrodes are
used [14]. However, the costs of the solid polymer membrane electro-
lyte and the platinum catalyzed electrodes are high. Presently, R & D is
advancing to reduce the material cost of its electrodes and electrolyte.
Hydrocarbon membranes are considered as the alternative because of
its low cost [14,15,104]. PEMFC has low wattage application features
for recharging small electronic systems [45].
Other types of FCs include metal-air FC (MAFC) and microbial FC
(MFC) [53,73]. MAFCs are high-energy-density FCs and have the least
cost [53]. Although MAFCs have recharging issues, research on its
 Table 1
Typical characteristics of EV batteries.

Battery Type Energya Energy Specific Energy Life Cycle Operating Cost (US Properties
(W h/kg) Densitya (W h/ Powerb (W/ Efficiency (%) (no. of Temperature (°C) $/kWh)
L) kg) cycles)
M.A. Hannan et al.

Lead acid[14,30,58] 30–50 60–100 200–400 70–90 2000–4500 -20–60 120–150 M-Low cost, mature technology, high specific power;
D- Low specific energy, short service life, High maintenance
requirements

Ni-Fe[3,14] 30–55 60–110 25–110 75 1200–4000 -10–45 150–200 M-Very rugged, can withstand physical and electrical abuse, long
life;
D-Low specific energy, Low power and energy density; high self-
discharge; hydrogen evolution; high cost and high maintenance
cost

Ni-Zn[30,45] 60–65 120–130 150–300 76 100–300 -10–50 100–200 M-High specific energy, no degradation for deep charge/discharge,
high peak power;
D- High cost, life shorten by fast growth of dendrites

Ni-Cd[14,62–67] 40–50 80–100 150–350 60–90 2000–3000 -40–60 300–350 M-High specific energy, no degradation for deep charge/discharge;
D- High cost cadmium toxicity, recycling issues

Ni-MH[30,45,62] 50–70 100–140 150–300 50–80 500–3000 -40–50 150–200 M-High specific energy, large temperature ranges, safety, long
service life;
D- High cost, high self-discharge, memory effect

Ni-H2[45,62] 60–70 100–120 150–350 80–90 6000–40000 -20–60 300–400 M- High good capacity rate. extreme long life cycle and tolerance
to overcharge or over-discharge without damage,

780
D- Expensive, Self-discharge proportional to H2 pressure, Low
volumetric energy density;

Zn-Cl2[14,70] 65 90 60 200 – M-High energy density ;

D-Low specific power; requirement of plumbing operation and
maintenance;

Zn-Br2[45,71] 65–75 60–70 90–110 300 150 M- High specific energy; fast charging capability and low material
cost;
D-Low specific power; high reactivity of bromine; large size for
electrolyte circulation and temperature control;

Fe-Air[45,72,73] 60–75 100 60 300–600 -20–45 – M- High specific energy; good life; lower life-cycle costs; no
deformation of active materials or shapes for prolong electrical
cycling; low materials cost;
D-Low specific energy; low voltage, low efficiency;

Al-Air[45,46,72]
190 190 16 50–80 -c – M-High specific energy; high terminal voltage and high amp-hour
capacity; high columbic efficiency; operates over a large current
density range; low materials cost;
D-Loss due to consumption of water during discharge; necessary of
aluminum anode replacement after every discharge;

Zn-Air[45,81,82] 230 269 105 60 -c 90–120 M-High specific energy; technically feasible; the rate of reaction
can be controlled by varying the flow of air; better life cycle; low
materials cost;
D-Difficult in design; necessary of Zinc anode replacement; short
circuit problem;

(continued on next page)

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
 Table 1 (continued)

Battery Type Energya Energy Specific Energy Life Cycle Operating Cost (US Properties
(W h/kg) Densitya (W h/ Powerb (W/ Efficiency (%) (no. of Temperature (°C) $/kWh)
L) kg) cycles)
M.A. Hannan et al.

Na-S[14,53,83–86] 100 150 120 80 2500–4500 300–350 250–500 M-High energy and power density ‰ Relatively high efficiency,
Long cycle life;
D-Relatively expensive, High temperature produces unique safety
issues

Na-NiCl2[3,87–89] 86 149 150 80 2500–3000 250–350 160–300 M-High energy density, less corrosive, intrinsically safer, good
tolerance to overcharge and over-discharge than Na-S, high cycle
life, lowest cost than any other batteries.
D-Low specific power, need of thermal management, self-discharge
problem.

LiAl-FeS[14,45,59] 130 220 240 80 > 1000 375–500 110 M-High power and energy densities tolerant to freeze-thaw abuse,
over-discharge and overcharge; low weight;
D-Requires thermal management system; consumes some stored
energy for temperature maintaining; low life cycle.

LiAl-FeS2[14,45,59] 180 350 400 > 1000 375–500 – M-High power and energy densities tolerant to freeze-thaw abuse,
over-discharge and overcharge; low weight;
D-Requires thermal management system; consumes some stored
energy for temperature maintaining; low life cycle.

Li-Polymer[14,58,84] 155 200 315 70 > 1200 -20–60 > 125 M-High energy density and specific energy, slim type; high voltage
operation; high aspect-ratio form factor; no memory effect;
tolerant to overcharged state without explosion; high energy

781
efficiency; low self-discharge; long life cycle;
D- High cost, low conductivity and power density;

Li-Ion[33,51,53,64,92,93] 120–140 240–280 200–300 70–85 1500–4500 -20–60 150–1300 M-High energy density and specific energy, high voltage operation;
no memory effect; lighter and smaller; high energy efficiency; low
self-discharge; long life cycle;
D- High cost, life shorten by deep discharges, affected by
temperature, fragile; needs protection for overcharge and over-
discharge;

a
At 80% depth-of-discharge.
b
At 3-h discharge rate.
c
Mechanical recharge. M- Merits. D- Demerits.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
M.A. Hannan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789

100000 4.4. Electrical storage systems (EeSSs)

100 C
Li-Ion
rate
10000 Lead-acid
spiral wound
EeSSs differ from ESSs because of their storing technologies.
Specific Power (W/kg)

10 C Usually, an EeSS stores electrical energy directly as electricity in the

NiCd rate
NiMH
Li-Po
form of electric field by separating charges or magnetic field by flux.
1000
Lead-acid NaNiCl 1C UCs and superconducting electromagnets are EeSSs.
rate
100
0.1 C 4.4.1. Ultracapacitors (UCs)
rate A UC is similar to a normal capacitor in terms of structure and
10
function. However, a UC can have a high energy capacity with the value
0.01 C
1 rate of kilo farads [3,33] and is called supercapacitor. The specific power of
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 UC is approximately 1000–2000 W/kg with 95% energy efficiency
Specific Energy (Wh/kg)
[3,14,46,108–111]. Among all ESSs, UC has the longest lifetime of
Fig. 13. Different electrochemical batteries according to their specific power and specific almost 40 years. UC is accepted in EV applications because of its high
energy [97]. power storage due to its features; it does not require maintenance, and
it exhibits temperature insensitivity and a long operation time
[3,14,111]. For fast charging and discharging profile of UCs, the UCs
are used as energy storage during electric braking and as energy source
during rapid acceleration needed for hilling in EVs [63,108–111].
UCs are found in three classes, namely, electric double-layer
capacitors (EDLC), pseudocapacitors, and hybrid capacitors
[3,14,64]. EDLC has higher power density than other capacitors, but
it has a low specific energy of 5–7 W h/kg, high self-discharge, and
high cost [3,63,64]. For these reasons, UCs are utilized with batteries,
FCs, or other ESSs in EV applications such that a combination of high
power, high energy densities, and an extension of overall life is
achieved [63,65,108–114]. Fig. 16 shows a single UC cell structure
[115]. UCs use dielectric materials of high permittivity, porous active
carbon surface-edged electrodes, organic or aqueous electrolyte, and a
thin porous separator [14,33,63]. Organic UCs have higher energy
density and terminal voltage than aqueous UCs [63]. Organic UCs are
Fig. 14. HFC chemistry [14,46,58]. typically used for powering EVs [14]. As illustrated in Fig. 16, ions
travel between the electrodes through the electrolyte in UCs.
The energy stored in the capacitor is directly proportional to its
1000
Operating Temperature (°C)

SOFC
capacitance and squarely proportional to the voltage across electrodes,
700 and the capacity increases with the increase of the surface area of the
MCFC
600
electrode and the permittivity of dielectric materials, and with the
decrease of the distance between electrodes, as illustrated in Eq. (13)
300
[14,15,33,58].
200 PAFC
1 1 ε×A
AFC WC = C × V2 = Q × V; Q=C × V and C=
100 PEMFC 2 2 d
DMFC
0 (13)
1 100 200 300 400 2000 10000
Output Power (kW) where WC is the electrostatic energy, C is the capacitance value of UC,
V is the voltage across the electrodes, Q is the charge, ε is the
Fig. 15. Technologies of different types of FCs [3,100].
permittivity of dielectric materials, A is the surface area of electrode,
and d is distance between electrodes.
development is ongoing because this FC is a good candidate for EV and
UCs are either symmetrical or asymmetrical configurations such
marine ESSs. MFCs are biological FC systems that produce electrical
that they either have electrodes of identical materials or not. Lead-
energy from chemical energy through catalytic reactions of micro-
carbon capacitors are good examples of asymmetric UC [116]. Carbon
organisms [105]. MFCs are either mediator based or mediator free. In
nanotube UC technology have a high power density of 100 kW/kg and a
mediator MFC, mediators, such as methyl blue and humic acid,
accelerate the cell reaction to transfer electrons to the electrode
[105,106]. However, mediators are toxic and costly. In mediator-free Separator
MFCs, electrochemically active bacteria, such as Shewanella putrefa- - +
- +
ciens and Aeromonas hydrophila, help transfer electrons [105,106].
- +
MFCs use soil-based or phototrophic biofilm anode and nanoporous - +
membrane [105–107]. These types of MFCs are now applicable for - +
Electrode
Electrode

wastewater treatment and for producing electricity directly from - +

plants, such as rice and tomato [107]. MFCs are mainly employed for - +
low-power applications, such as wireless sensor networks, wastewater - +
treatment, hydrogen generation, biosensors, medical applications, and - +
education kits [105–107]. - +
- Carbon Carbon +
Electrolyte

Fig. 16. EDLC cell structure [115].

782
M.A. Hannan et al.
Liquid Helium
Vessel
Load
Refrigeration Systems
Power
Converter
Power
Feed
Superconducting
Coils
Fig. 17. SMES system structure [53,95].
high power capacity UC with an energy density of 60 W h/kg [64].
Research is currently being conducted on the development of UC by
using nanostructured materials [69,117]. Pseudocapacitors and hybrid
capacitors exhibit ameliorated performances in energy storage applica-
tions because of their higher power and energy densities [64]. Recently,
Li-ion capacitors (LIC) have been developed, which have higher
terminal voltage and energy density than other UCs [56,118,119].
LICs operate with the same high power density, such as UCs. LICs of
80 W h/kg are now commercially available in the market for EV
applications as substitutes for Li-ion batteries [56,119].
4.4.2. Superconducting magnetic ESSs
Superconducting magnetic ESSs (SMES) store electrical energy in
the form of magnetic field. SMES systems have a high energy storage
efficiency of approximately 97%, full energy discharge capability, a long
life cycle of 100000, and quick response of milliseconds [45,53,69,86].
However, the initial cost is high, which is 205–340 $/kW for a typical
SMES, although the cost is lower than that of EDLC [53,69]. The usual
power rating of SMES is in kW to MW, and R & D focuses on enhancing
SMES. The structure of the SMES is shown in Fig. 17 [53,95]. The
energy is stored in a superconducting electromagnetic coil, which is
made of niobium-titanium alloys at liquid helium (or super liquid
helium) temperature, i.e., 2–4 K [53,111,120,121]. However, SMES
needs a refrigeration system to maintain the low temperature and a
power converter for DC/AC supply [46,51,86]. High-temperature
superconducting materials are being developed with a cheaper coolant,
such as liquid nitrogen. Thus, a hybrid SMES system could be formed
between low and high temperatures for conducting materials for higher
storage capacity [120,121]. Generally, SMES is utilized in UPSs, power
quality applications, and grid systems [51]. SMES is introduced in
hybrid EV applications with batteries. The energy stored by SMES is
directly dependent on the self-inductance of coil and square of current
that flows through, as stated in Eq. (14) [53].
1
WL = L × I2
2 (14)
where WL is the energy stored in the inductive coil, L is the self-
inductance, and I is the current that flows through the coil.
4.5. Thermal storage systems (TSSs)
TSSs store energy in the form of heat in an isolated depository from
solar or electric heater for later use in electricity generation plants or
different heating purposes [30,33]. Thermal energy storage is achieved
in various ways, such as latent heat storage, sensible heat storage, and
thermo-chemical sorption storage systems [30,122,123]. Latent heat
storage systems use organic, (e.g., paraffin) and inorganic (e.g., salt-
hydrates) and phase change materials (PCM), as storage medium to
allow for heat exchange during the phase change of the storage medium
[30]. Molten salt is the latest PCM of the solid-liquid phase change that
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
is used for concentrated solar power plants [30,124]. Latent heat
storage systems have high energy density and efficient heat transfer
capability at constant temperature [30,123]. Sensible heat storage
systems are common, and widespread technologies have storage
mediums that are solid (e.g., ground, cast iron or concrete) or liquid
(e.g., water or thermo-oil) [30]. In these systems, thermal storage
depends on temperature change in the storage medium, and the
capacity depends on the specific heat and mass of the medium [30],
as illustrated in Eq. (15) [111]. Thermo-chemical sorption storage
systems are complex and expensive to design, given adsorption and
absorption processes of heat in the materials. However, the energy
density of such systems is three times higher than that of a sensible
storage system with water [30]. In EVs, the automatic thermoelectric
generation system, which converts waste heat into electrical energy,
can be potentially used to optimize overall efficiency and fuel cost [3].
Et = K (T2 − T1) V (15)
where Et is the thermal energy stored in volume of V, K is the specific
heat, and T1 and T2 are the temperatures before and after recharge,
respectively.
4.6. Hybrid storage systems
ESSs are applied for EV and other storage applications required by
systems considering the highest contribution and effect of ESSs.
Individually, all ESSs are incapable of providing all the features, such
as energy density, power density, discharge rate, life cycle, and cost
[3,14,56,58,125–136]. Thus, ESS is needed to optimize features for
balanced energy storage and delivery by combining two or more ESSs
that have complementary characteristics, thereby ensuring the optimal
performance of ESSs.
Hybrid ESSs (HSS) have been developed, and they electronically
combine the output power of two or more ESSs with complementary
features [3,14,15,33,35,58,125–136]. In HSS systems, the combination
of a high-power-density ESS and high-energy-density ESS, or fast-
response ESS and slow-response ESS, or high-cost and low-cost ESS
are considered by power electronic configurations to deliver optimal
power for loading [14,15,33,58,125–136]. HSSs are classified into
battery and battery hybrids, battery and ultracapacitor hybrids, FC and
battery hybrids, battery and SMES hybrids, and battery and flywheel
hybrids, CAES and battery hybrids, FC and UC hybrids, fC and
ultrahigh-speed flywheel hybrids, and CAES and UC hybrids as near-
and long-term basis for application-dependent HSS systems
[3,14,15,33,56,58,125–136]. Zn-Air and VRLA, Zn-Air and NiMH,
Zn-Air and Li-ion, FC and VRLA, FC and NiMH, and FC and Li-ion
hybrids are examples of high-specific-energy and high-specific-power
combinations. VRLA and UC, NiMH and UC, Li-ion and UC hybrids are
low- and high-power-demand combinations. FC and UC, FC and
UHSF, CAES and UC hybrids are for long-term applications; and other
Li-ion and UHSF/SMES, CAES and VRLA hybrids are found
[14,56,125–136].
Hybrid ESS can absorb the high-frequency fluctuation of UC and
low-frequency fluctuation of batteries, as well as optimize high power
and energy [14]. FC and battery hybrids exhibit higher specific power
and efficiency than FC alone. FC and UC hybrids are attractive for EV
applications because of their low and transient power supply capability
[14,56]. To establish hybrids among the ESSs, structures that use
power electronics that interface for EV applications are indicated in
Fig. 18 [3,35,56,58,125–136]. In Fig. 18(a), two ESSs, such as batteries
and UCs, are in a passive parallel configuration with the same terminal
voltage, which is a simple and efficient structure [3,126–130].
Fig. 18(b), (c)(1), and (c)(2) show a bidirectional DC-DC converter
placed between two ESSs, two bidirectional converters after two ESSs,
and three bidirectional converters after three ESSs in series, respec-
tively. The inverter in the fixed DC link structure of (b)(2) is more
efficient than the direct link structure of (b)(1) because of the fixed
M.A. Hannan et al.
Fig. 18. Structures of HSSs: a) two ESSs in parallel (passive), b) one bidirectional DC-DC converter in series; c) two bidirectional DC-DC converters in series, d) two-input two
bidirectional DC-DC converters in parallel, and e) multi-input ZVS bidirectional DC-DC converter.
voltage of UCs maintained by converters [3,124–129]. The structure of
the two DC-DC converters in Fig. 18(c)(1) appropriates the voltages of
both ESSs, where the first converter controls the output current of
batteries and the second one adjusts the required power of load from
UCs [3,124–130]. The structure 18(c)(2) is like 18(c)(1) except one
more ESS is considered for more stable energy storage and supply.
Fig. 18(d) shows the decoupling structure of two-input two bidirec-
tional DC-DC converters in parallel, which exhibit high flexibility,
stability, and efficient performances to provide a compact HSS and
redundant service for the failure of one source. However, the structure
shows that the battery life is reduced because of large output current
stresses to sources [3,126–130]. A structure was recently developed
using the isolated multi-input ZVS bidirectional DC-DC converter
shown in Fig. 18(e), which can share optimum power among sources,
has high power efficiency, and is reliable and durable, but has a bulky
structure [3,133–136].
5. Characteristics of energy storage systems
The appropriate selection of the ESSs for EV applications mainly
depends on their characteristics, namely, capacity, total output power,
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
discharge time, DOD, self-discharge, life cycle, efficiency, size, and cost.
The capacity of an ESS is defined as the total amount of energy
available in this system, which is stored after full charge. The utilization
of the capacity may vary from ESS to ESS in terms of self-discharge,
DOD, and response time [46]. The characteristics of total power
available in an ESS confine the specification of conversion system
and load such that ESS can be discharged or recharged at its maximum
value. The output and discharge of the power of ESS depend on the
system response and demand. Therefore, the power is factorized with
the rate of discharge or energy transmission according to the amount of
time that it may need to extract the stored energy to deliver to the load
as required [46,58]. The discharge time is the ratio of the amount of
energy stored in an ESS to the maximum amount of power delivered
from that system. The self-discharge characteristic refers to the amount
of energy lost over time when ESS is not in operation or is idle.
Life cycle refers to the durability of an ESS and depends on the
number of times an ESS could deliver energy after every recharging.
The life cycle depends on the materials that constitute the ESS and the
level of safe operation. Efficiency refers to the amount of energy that is
delivered from the stored energy in an ESS. ESS may be limited by
several parameters, such as self-discharge, life cycle, properties of
M.A. Hannan et al.
materials, energy conversion, and operating temperature. The size of
ESS is the crucial characteristic of an ESS for EV applications. A
compact size corresponds to efficient performance of the ESS. The size
specifies the high energy density of ESS in small mass and volume of
the system. The cost is closely related with the size. Moreover, the
capital cost of an ESS includes the storage system design, materials,
and packaging, whereas the maintenance, loss, life span, and environ-
mental issues are part of the operating cost [4–8,46].
The performance of ESSs differs from that of others on the basis of
their characteristics. For efficient energy storage applications in EVs,
high energy density, high power density, and a small size are essential
characteristics for ESSs. In addition, zero emission, negligible self-
discharge, low material corrosion due to chemical reaction, long cycle
duration, high efficiency, and low maintenance are confirmed in
manufacturing and selecting ESSs for EV powering. The ESS needs
to respond quickly to climbing or hilling and remain steady at normal
run with energy-power combination. For these purposes, hybrid ESSs
are proposed for improving better ESSs in EV applications [125–136].
Nowadays, R & D activities focus on the modification and advanced
development of ESSs.
6. Evaluation of energy storage systems for EV applications
ESSs are evaluated for EV applications on the basis of specific
characteristics mentioned in Sections 4 and 5, and the required
demand for EV powering. Fig. 19 illustrates the operating time of
different ESSs on the basis of their power releases [3,14,33–46,51–
62,69,86,100,111,122]. The figure shows the applications of different
ESSs as the demand as EVs and other transportations generally
require. The range of 10 kW to several 100 kW is required for
operations for EV applications for a few hours [33]. The SBs, UCs
and ultra-high speed flywheel systems are commonly applied in EV
powering.
The distribution of ESS technologies could be evaluated in terms of
efficiency and expected life cycle as demonstrated in Fig. 20 [3,14,33–
46,51–62,69,86,100,111,122,137]. At 80% DOD, SMESs, UCs, and
flywheels have high energy efficiencies and a long life cycle. Li-ion, LA,
Na-S, and Ni-Cd batteries have energy efficiencies within the range of
70–85% with a life cycle of 2000–4500. The FCs have low efficiency
and high life cycles. ESSs techniques are hybridized by combining
batteries or FCs as the principal ESSs with UCs or flywheels or SMESs
as auxiliary ESSs for efficient energy storage application in EV along
with the development and availability of standardized EV as the next-
generation form of transportation [125–136].
FCs
VRFB TSS
1000 Na/S
300 High Energy UCs
Lead-Acid
100 Ni-Cd
30
Time (min)
Li-Ion
10
Flywheels
3
EV
SMES
Applications
1
0.3 High Power UCs Transport
Applications
0.1
0.01 0.1 1 10
Power (MW)
Fig. 19. Energy storage technologies.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
100 SMES
UCs
Flywheels
90 Lead-Acid
Na/S
Li-Ion
80 PHSS
Efficiency (%)
70
CASS
VRFB Ni-Cd
60
50
FCs
40
30
102 103 104 105
Life-Cycles (at 80% DOD)
Fig. 20. ESS distribution in terms of efficiency and life cycles.
7. Issues and challenges of ESSs in EV applications
The present development of ESSs is satisfactory for EV energy
storage and powering. Moreover, it reduces the demand for oil, CO2
emissions, and GHGs. ESSs continuously mature with technological
changes and improvements in certain applications. However, these
applications still suffer from problems, such as raw material support
and proper disposal, energy management, power electronics interface,
sizing, safety measures, and cost. These issues of current ESSs are the
primary challenges to advanced R & D actions for the advancement of
energy storage in EV applications. The key issues are discussed with
recommendations in the following sections.
7.1. Materials
The availability of raw materials and supply for the manufacturing
of ESSs and development of related products is a challenging issue. The
electrode, electrolyte, separator materials, and chemical solutions, such
as crystalline, amorphous solids, polymer, organic liquids, metal,
carbon, gas for batteries, UCs, and FCs; flywheel materials; super-
conducting materials for SMES; and hydrogen fuel for FCs are essential
in ESS productions [3,14,30,33,53,62,100,111,115,117]. The major
advancement in ESS design and technology for EV applications is to
consider the optimization of high-grade ESS materials, alloys, and
PHSS solution preparation, as well as the usage of ESSs with high charge
capacity, high energy and power density, good recharge and discharge
rate profiles, durability, cost, and safe operation without corrosion and
CASS explosion [3,14,30,33,62]. The recycling, refurbishing, and reuse of
used ESS materials are considered in present and future research, as
well as in the development of tertiary-level applications and considera-
tion of environmental issues [138–140].
7.2. Power electronics interface
All energy resources and storage systems can produce and deliver
power according to their natural characteristics regardless of efficiency
and optimal supply of voltage and current. Unspecified and unorga-
nized power storage and distribution could reduce performance, life
cycle duration, and efficiency of ESS, as well as lead to extreme power
100 1000
loss and abuse, unexpected explosions and damages, and restricted
behavior and life of loads [33,58,65]. The power electronics interface
deals with situations to handle power conditions, controls, and con-
785
M.A. Hannan et al.
versions for storing and supplying ESS and load requirements such
that the overall performance, durability, and efficiency of that system
are optimized [33,58,65,129,141]. ESSs in EV applications need a
power electronics interface for power conversion, power flow control,
power management control, motor drive, energy management, charge
balancing, and safe operation. Moreover, hybridization of ESSs to
ensure good, efficient, durable, and balanced energy and power supply
requires power electronics converters and drives for EV motor systems
[3,58,125–136,142,143]. R & D involves the fields of power electronics
converters and directs technologies conventionally and intelligently to
be applied in EV storage systems [3,33,58,67,141]. Buck, boost, Cûk,
cascade buck-boost, half bridge, SEPIC/Luo, split-pi, flyback conver-
ters, interleaved converter, hybrid switched capacitor bidirectional DC-
DC converter, power swap converter, source selection in half bridge
converter, Z-source converter, H-bridge, and bidirectional 3×DC-DC
multiplier/divider converter are available in four types of power
converters, such as DC-DC, DC-AC, AC-AC, and AC-DC for unidirec-
tional and bidirectional power flow [3,33,58,65,129,141–151]. The
existing power electronics interface systems suffer either in size,
efficiency, current ripple, voltage stress, flexibility, or cost
[3,33,58,65]. Hence, advanced research is necessary in the field of
power electronics to optimize power use and efficiency by reducing
losses.
7.3. Energy management
EVs run on power from batteries, FCs, UCs, and hybrid energy
sources [3,30,33]. EESs need to be recharged after every life cycle from
ultimate or temporary energy resources. An energy management
system (EMS) manages all possible energy resources to feed the power
to ESSs in EV. EMS deals with energy resource systems, ESSs, and
power electronics [3,33,58,65]. The possible energy resources for
recharging of ESSs in EV are grid power, solar energy, hydrogen
energy, regenerative braking, thermal energy, vibration energy, fly-
wheel system, SMES, and other energy sources [3,10,15,16,152–154].
Modern EV systems are designed to address the management of all
energy resources effectively and intelligently given that energy avail-
ability and demand by means of EMS could optimize energy economy
and efficiency [3,10,15,16,154].
7.4. Size and cost
Compact ESS mechanical design with a high capacity and economic
production are the most challenging issues for the development of
future EVs. One-third of the total cost of EV production is dedicated to
ESS [3] although the cost varies for different ESSs. The total cost of
ESSs includes the cost of materials, packaging, power conversion,
replacement, operation and maintenance, and labor. Fig. 21 shows the
total capital cost of ESSs for large-scale storage [69]. From this
Fig. 21. Total capital cost of ESSs for large-scale storage [69].
786
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 771–789
analysis, most electrochemical SBs, such as UCs, CAES, and PHS, have
low total capital cost per unit energy, whereas SMESs and flywheels
have a higher energy storage cost. Batteries and FCs have a higher
power cost per unit, although such feature is low in SMES and UCs
[69]. Hence, the cost of EESs for EV application could be estimated by
acquiring ideas from this large-scale storage cost overview. Presently,
the cost of ESSs is decreasing with large-scale production and uses as a
result of the demand of EVs [1].
7.5. Environmental impact
Despite the use of the EV drive concept and the reduced oil
demand, ESSs of EV have had minimal impact on environment
pollution during manufacture, disposal, and recycling of ESSs, espe-
cially electrochemical batteries [4–8]. Moreover, the processing and
production of ESS cause adverse respiratory, pulmonary, and neuro-
logical diseases [138–140]. Therefore, safety measures and sophisti-
cated tools are essential in handling the entire processes of production
and maintaining ESSs, especially in EV applications.
7.6. Safety measures
Safety measures ensure the demand-rate operation of ESSs and
enhancement of their lives and performances. Every ESS requires
protection and maintenance for smooth operation. For EV applications,
Li-ion batteries need protection from overcharging and overdischar-
ging, Zn-Air batteries need short circuit protection, Na-S batteries
require high-temperature safety measure, ZEBRA batteries need a
thermal management system, FCs need low- and high-temperature
maintenance systems, and LA batteries require maintenance during
operation [3,14,45,56–62,69]. Modern EVs use power electronics
interfaces as energy management, power management, power conver-
sion, and control to establish efficient services and safe operations of
ESSs [3,10–15,30,33,45,58,65,69,129,141–151].
8. Conclusions and recommendations
EV technologies are alternate solutions for ICE-based transporta-
tions given that conventional vehicles with ICEs contribute low drive
train efficiency and CO2 and GHGs emissions. The demand of EVs is
increasing based on zero-emission concepts. Thus, the perfection in
design of EVs with luxurious configurations and facilities is a concern
for future EV technologies. However, EV systems cannot be developed
without considering energy storage technologies. This paper reviews
the technologies of ESS, their constructions, and energy conversion
processes with the various features for EV storage systems. Moreover,
the characteristics and the evaluation of ESSs in EVs are explained by
reviewing ESS technologies, efficiencies, and life cycles. The review also
covers discussions on the issues and challenges of ESS technologies in
EV applications.
On average, most of the available energy storage technology
incorporated in EVs is based on electrochemical battery or FCs. It is
reviewed that in short-term energy storage utilization, secondary power
sources with fast charging and discharging responses are analyzed for
enhancing EV performance. Moreover, hybridization of ESSs with
complementary characteristics has been researched and appropriated
to EV energy storage technologies for upgrading ESS features. These
features include power and energy densities, response time balancing,
efficiency balancing, life cycle, and cost balancing. Thus, ESSs such as
UC, flywheel, and SMES are introduced as sources for developing a
hybrid ESS. It is also reviewed that the advanced power electronics lead
the next-generation EV technologies toward hybridization of ESSs for
optimizing vehicle performance.
ESSs are increasingly becoming mature with technological changes
and improvements for certain applications. However, these ESSs still
suffer from problems, such as material support, proper disposal and
M.A. Hannan et al.
recycling, energy and power management, power electronics interface,
sizing, safety measures, and cost. The optimization of high-grade ESS
materials, alloys, and chemical solution in ESS design for EV applica-
tions could be considered for upgrading charge capacity, energy and
power density, recharge and discharge rate profiles, durability, and
economic and environmental impact. Advanced EV design and tech-
nologies could manage energy resources efficiently and intelligently to
store available energy and deliver power to load systems by means of
EMS and PMS to optimize energy economy and efficiency. Despite the
use of power electronics to control and convert power effectively,
existing power electronics converters and controllers have limited size,
efficiency, current ripple, voltage stress, flexibility, and cost. Thus, an
advanced research is indispensable in developing power electronic
controllers and converters to optimize ESSs in EV applications. These
issues of ESSs could stimulate advanced research and development
actions for the advancement of future ESSs.
The main contribution of this study is the comprehensive analysis
of the various ESSs in EV applications. The findings provide a concrete
idea for researchers and manufacturers on existing ESS technologies
and their advancement for future development of ESSs. Detailed
synthesis of existing ESSs could influence future research and devel-
opment of the hybridizations of ESSs with complementary features for
efficient utilization of the energy in EVs. However, the other published
research analyzed individual ESSs with specific features and issues. The
review on EV technologies might provide a solid concept on the drive
train architectures of the EV such that the research might focus on the
appropriate application of the ESSs and their management in EV. This
study also presents an evaluation that might influence the performance
enhancement of ESSs in EV applications. The review focuses on issues
and challenges of existing ESSs. Such issues could lead academics and
builders to deliberate on possibilities of the modification, improve-
ment, and innovation in ESS development, and to facilitate technolo-
gies for overcoming challenges and advancement toward sustainable
EV storage system development. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
future EV system would manage ESS to store energy and to drive itself,
as well as become a mobile energy backup system and establish V2G
service toward rapid development and meet future demand for EVs.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Ministry of Science, Technology
and Innovation (MOSTI), Malaysia under the grant 06-01-02-SF1060
and UKM grant DIP-2015-012.
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