Graphic Design

Although typically applied to printed, published, broadcast, and reproduced materials in contemporary
times, all words, letters, symbols, and numbers written alongside the earliest naturalistic drawings by
humans may be called typography. The word, typography, is derived from the Greek words τύπος typos
"form" or "impression" and γράφειν graphein "to write", traces its origins to the first punches and dies
used to make seals and currency in ancient times, which ties the concept to printing. The uneven
spacing of the impressions on brick stamps found in the Mesopotamian cities of Uruk and Larsa, dating
from the second millennium B.C., may be evidence of type, wherein the reuse of identical characters
was applied to create cuneiform text.[4] Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an impression on
a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay.[5] Typography also was implemented in the Phaistos Disc, an
enigmatic Minoan printed item from Crete, which dates to between 1850 and 1600 B.C.[6][7][8] It has
been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created with movable type printing,[9][10][11]
but German typographer Herbert Brekle recently dismissed this view.[12]

The essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening
Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos Disc.[6][13][14][15]
The silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II (1195–1204) in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with
individual letter punches.[16][17][18] Apparently, the same printing technique may be found in tenth to
twelfth century Byzantine reliquaries.[16][17] Other early examples include individual letter tiles where
the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order, which were reasonably
widespread in medieval Northern Europe.[6][14]

Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song dynasty in China by Bi
Sheng (990–1051).[19] His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay
type printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing Dynasty.

Wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type. Although the wooden type was more
durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down and
the types could be replaced only by carving new pieces.[20]

Metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, approximately 1230. Hua Sui
introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD. The diffusion of both movable-type systems was
limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however.[21]

A sixteenth century workshop in Germany showing a printing press and many of the activities involved in
the process of printing
Modern lead-based movable type, along with the mechanical printing press, is most often attributed to
the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg in 1439.[22][23][24][25] His type pieces, made from a lead-based
alloy, suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today.[26] Gutenberg developed
specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letter punches in the vast quantities
required to print multiple copies of texts.[27] This technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting
the Printing Revolution and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was the Gutenberg
Bible.

Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the latter twentieth century. During the
1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any office or workshop with stand-alone
machines such as those introduced by IBM (see: IBM Selectric typewriter). During the same period
Letraset introduced Dry transfer technology that allowed designers to transfer types instantly. [28]The
famous Lorem Ipsum gained popularity due to its usage in Letraset. During the mid-1980s personal
computers such as the Macintosh allowed type designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial
graphic design software. Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental
typefaces as well as the practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be
created faster with the new technology, and for more specific functions.[5] The cost for developing
typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses. The change has been called
the "democratization of type" and has given new designers more opportunities to enter the field.[29]

Evolution

The design of typefaces has developed alongside the development of typesetting systems.[30] Although
typography has evolved significantly from its origins, it is a largely conservative art that tends to cleave
closely to tradition.[31] This is because legibility is paramount, and so the typefaces that are the most
readable usually are retained. In addition, the evolution of typography is inextricably intertwined with
lettering by hand and related art forms, especially formal styles, which thrived for centuries preceding
typography,[31] and so the evolution of typography must be discussed with reference to this
relationship.

In the nascent stages of European printing, the typeface (blackletter, or Gothic) was designed in
imitation of the popular hand-lettering styles of scribes.[32] Initially, this typeface was difficult to read,
because each letter was set in place individually and made to fit tightly into the allocated space.[33] The
art of manuscript writing, whose origin was during Hellenistic and Roman bookmaking, reached its
zenith in the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages. Metal typefaces notably altered the style,
making it "crisp and uncompromising", and also brought about "new standards of composition".[31]
During the Renaissance period in France, Claude Garamond was partially responsible for the adoption of
Roman typeface that eventually supplanted the more commonly used Gothic (blackletter).[34]:8 Roman
typeface also was based on hand-lettering styles.[35]
The development of Roman typeface can be traced back to Greek lapidary letters. Greek lapidary letters
were carved into stone and "one of the first formal uses of Western letterforms"; after that, Roman
lapidary letterforms evolved into the monumental capitals, which laid the foundation for Western
typographical design, especially serif typefaces.[34]:10 There are two styles of Roman typefaces: the old
style, and the modern. The former is characterized by its similarly weighted lines, while the latter is
distinguished by its contrast of light and heavy lines.[32] Often, these styles are combined.

By the twentieth century, computers turned typeface design into a rather simplified process. This has
allowed the number of typefaces and styles to proliferate exponentially, as there now are thousands
available.[32] Unfortunately, confusion between typeface and font (the various styles of a single
typeface) occurred in 1984 when Steve Jobs mislabeled typefaces as fonts for Apple computers and his
error has been perpetuated throughout the computer industry, leading to common misuse by the public
of the term "font" when typeface is the proper term.

Experimental typeface uses

"Experimental typography" is defined as the unconventional and more artistic approach to typeface
selection. Francis Picabia was a Dada pioneer of this practice in the early twentieth century. David
Carson is often associated with this movement, particularly for his work in Ray Gun magazine in the
1990s. His work caused an uproar in the design community due to his abandonment of standard
practices in typeface selection, layout, and design. Experimental typography is said to place emphasis on
expressing emotion, rather than having a concern for legibility while communicating ideas, hence
considered bordering on being art.

Techniques

There are many facets to the expressive use of typography, and with those come many different
techniques to help with visual aid and the graphic design. Spacing and kerning, size-specific spacing, x-
height and vertical proportions, character variation, width, weight, and contrast,[36] are several
techniques that are necessary to be taken into consideration when thinking about the appropriateness
of specific typefaces or creating them. When placing two or more differing and/or contrasting fonts
together, these techniques come into play for organizational strategies and demanding attractive
qualities. For example, if the bulk of a title has a more unfamiliar or unusual font, simpler sans-serif fonts
will help complement the title while attracting more attention to the piece as a whole.[37]

Scope

In contemporary use, the practice and study of typography include a broad range, covering all aspects of
letter design and application, both mechanical (typesetting, type design, and typefaces) and manual
(handwriting and calligraphy). Typographical elements may appear in a wide variety of situations,
including:
Documents

Presentations

Display typography (described below)

Clothing

Maps and labels

Vehicle instrument panels

As a component of industrial design—type on household appliances, pens, and wristwatches, for

example

As a component in modern poetry (see, for example, the poetry of e. e. cummings)

Since digitization, typographical uses have spread to a wider range of applications, appearing on web
pages, LCD mobile phone screens, and hand-held video games.

Recent research in psychology has studied the effects of typography on human cognition. The research
points toward multiple applications such as helping readers remember the content better and
strategically use fonts to help dyslexic readers.[38]

Text typefaces

A specimen sheet by William Caslon shows printed examples of Roman typefaces.

Traditionally, text is composed to create a readable, coherent, and visually satisfying typeface that works
invisibly, without the awareness of the reader. Even distribution of typeset material, with a minimum of
distractions and anomalies, is aimed at producing clarity and transparency.

Choice of typeface(s) is the primary aspect of text typography—prose fiction, non-fiction, editorial,
educational, religious, scientific, spiritual, and commercial writing all have differing characteristics and
requirements of appropriate typefaces (and their fonts or styles). For historic material, established text
typefaces frequently are chosen according to a scheme of historical genre acquired by a long process of
accretion, with considerable overlap among historical periods.

Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art "text romans" or "book romans"
typefaces with serifs and design values echoing present-day design arts, which are closely based on
traditional models such as those of Nicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who created the
model for Aldine typefaces), and Claude Garamond. With their more specialized requirements,
newspapers and magazines rely on compact, tightly fitted styles of text typefaces with serifs specially
designed for the task, which offer maximum flexibility, readability, legibility, and efficient use of page
space. Sans serif text typefaces (without serifs) often are used for introductory paragraphs, incidental
text, and whole short articles. A current fashion is to pair a sans-serif typeface for headings with a high-
performance serif typeface of matching style for the text of an article.

Typesetting conventions are modulated by orthography and linguistics, word structures, word
frequencies, morphology, phonetic constructs and linguistic syntax. Typesetting conventions also are
subject to specific cultural conventions. For example, in French it is customary to insert a non-breaking
space before a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it is not.

Color

Main article: Type color

In typesetting, color is the overall density of the ink on the page, determined mainly by the typeface, but
also by the word spacing, leading, and depth of the margins.[39] Text layout, tone, or color of the set
text, and the interplay of text with the white space of the page in combination with other graphic
elements impart a "feel" or "resonance" to the subject matter. With printed media, typographers also
are concerned with binding margins, paper selection, and printing methods when determining the
correct color of the page.

Principles of the typographic craft

Three fundamental aspects of typography are legibility, readability, and aesthetics. Although in a non-
technical sense "legible" and "readable" are often used synonymously, typographically they are separate
but related concepts.[40] Legibility and readability tend to support aesthetic aspects of a product.

Legibility describes how easily individual characters can be distinguished from one another. It is
described by Walter Tracy as "the quality of being decipherable and recognisable".[40] For instance if a
"b" and an "h", or a "3" and an "8", are difficult to distinguish at small sizes, this is a problem of legibility.
[40] Typographers are concerned with legibility insofar as it is their job to select the correct font to use.
Brush Script is an example of a font containing many characters which might be difficult to distinguish.
Selection of case influences the legibility of typography because using only upper-case letters (all-caps)
reduces legibility.

Readability refers to how easy it is to read the text as a whole, as opposed to the individual character
recognition described by legibility. Use of margins, word- and line-spacing, and clear document structure
all impact on readability. Some fonts or font styles, for instance sans-serif fonts, are considered to have
low readability, and so be unsuited for large quantities of prose.[40]
Text typeset example in Iowan Old Style roman, italics, and small caps, optimized at approximately ten
words per line, typeface sized at 14 points on 1.4 × leading, with 0.2 points extra tracking using an
extract of an essay by Oscar Wilde The English Renaissance of Art c. 1882

Legibility "refers to perception" (being able to see as determined by physical limitations of the eye) and
readability "refers to comprehension" (understanding the meaning).[40] Good typographers and graphic
designers aim to achieve excellence in both.

"The typeface chosen should be legible. That is, it should be read without effort. Sometimes legibility is
simply a matter of type size; more often, however, it is a matter of typeface design. Case selection
always influences legibility. In general, typefaces that are true to the basic letterforms are more legible
than typefaces that have been condensed, expanded, embellished, or abstracted.

However, even a legible typeface can become unreadable through poor setting and placement, just as a
less legible typeface can be made more readable through good design.[41]

Studies of both legibility and readability have examined a wide range of factors including type size and
type design. For example, comparing serif vs. sans-serif type, roman type vs. oblique type, and italic
type, line length, line spacing, color contrast, the design of right-hand edge (for example, justification,
straight right hand edge) vs. ragged right, and whether text is hyphenated. Justified copy must be
adjusted tightly during typesetting to prevent loss of readability, something beyond the capabilities of
typical personal computers.

Legibility research has been published since the late nineteenth century. Although there often are
commonalities and agreement on many topics, others often create poignant areas of conflict and
variation of opinion. For example, Alex Poole asserts that no one has provided a conclusive answer as to
which typeface style, serif or sans serif, provides the most legibility,[42][unreliable source?] although
differences of opinion exist regarding such debates. Other topics such as justified vs unjustified type, use
of hyphens, and proper typefaces for people with reading difficulties such as dyslexia, have continued to
be subjects of debate.

Legibility is usually measured through speed of reading, with comprehension scores used to check for
effectiveness (that is, not a rushed or careless read). For example, Miles Tinker, who published
numerous studies from the 1930s to the 1960s, used a speed of reading test that required participants
to spot incongruous words as an effectiveness filter.
The Readability of Print Unit at the Royal College of Art under Professor Herbert Spencer with Brian Coe
and Linda Reynolds[43] did important work in this area and was one of the centres that revealed the
importance of the saccadic rhythm of eye movement for readability—in particular, the ability to take in
(i.e., recognise the meaning of groups of) about three words at once and the physiognomy of the eye,
which means the eye tires if the line required more than 3 or 4 of these saccadic jumps. More than this
is found to introduce strain and errors in reading (e.g., Doubling). The use of all-caps renders words
indistinguishable as groups, all letters presenting a uniform line to the eye, requiring special effort for
separation and understanding.

These days, legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues, or the testing of specific design
solutions (for example, when new typefaces are developed). Examples of critical issues include typefaces
for people with visual impairment, typefaces and case selection for highway and street signs, or for
other conditions where legibility may make a key difference.

Much of the legibility research literature is atheoretical—various factors were tested individually or in
combination (inevitably so, as the different factors are interdependent), but many tests were carried out
in the absence of a model of reading or visual perception. Some typographers believe that the overall
word shape (Bouma) is very important in readability, and that the theory of parallel letter recognition is
either wrong, less important, or not the entire picture. Word shape differs by outline, influenced by
ascending and descending elements of lower case letters and enables reading the entire word without
having to parse out each letter (for example, dog is easily distinguished from cat) and that becomes
more influential to being able to read groups of words at a time.

Studies distinguishing between Bouma recognition and parallel letter recognition with regard to how
people recognize words when they read, have favored parallel letter recognition, which is widely
accepted by cognitive psychologists.[citation needed]

Some commonly agreed findings of legibility research include:[citation needed]

Text set in lower case is more legible than text set all in upper case (capitals, all-caps), presumably
because lower case letter structures and word shapes are more distinctive.

Extenders (ascenders, descenders, and other projecting parts) increase salience (prominence).

Regular upright type (roman type) is found to be more legible than italic type.

Contrast, without dazzling brightness, also has been found to be important, with black on yellow/cream
being most effective along with white on blue.

Positive images (e.g., black on white) make handheld material easier to read than negative or reversed
(e.g., white on black). Even this commonly accepted practice has some exceptions, however (for
example, in some cases of disability,[44][unreliable source?] and designing the most effective signs for
drivers).

The upper portions of letters (ascenders) play a stronger part in the recognition process than the lower
portions.

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The aesthetic concerns in typography deals not only with the careful selection of one or two
harmonizing typefaces and relative type sizes, but also with laying out elements to be printed on a flat
surface tastefully and appealingly, among others. For this reason, typographers attempt to observe
typographical principles, the most common of which are listed below:

Limit up to three colors, which should harmonize to each other and with the color of the paper and the
dominant color(s) of the photo or graphics

Limit to two typefaces on a single page, which should "match"

Limit up to three fonts and sizes

Select the size of leading to be optimal and most pleasing to the eyes.

The number of different enhancements such as greater size, bold, italic fonts, capitalization, or different
typeface, different color, as used for headlines and emphasized words inside the text block, should be
limited and consistent, and be judiciously selected

Avoid underlining like pest and should not be on top of another enhancement

Text should be placed judiciously to lead the eye from one text cognitively natural way to the next text

Multi-line headline should be segmented by phrases (no phrase should be split into two lines)

No widows and orphans (no beginning line of paragraph at the bottom of page, no last line of paragraph
at the top of page)

Likewise no headline is at the page bottom

The last line of a paragraph should flush with the preceding lines and not stand alone below a picture

The printing elements should not be scattered in the hodgepodge fashion across the page, unless it truly
conveys hodgepodge.

The letters V and W at the beginning of a paragraph line should extent a little to left of the vertical left
flush line to give an optical impression of being flush with lines below.
Text typeset using LaTeX digital typesetting software, often used for academic papers and journals

Readability also may be compromised by letter-spacing, word spacing, or leading that is too tight or too
loose. It may be improved when generous vertical space separates lines of text, making it easier for the
eye to distinguish one line from the next, or previous line. Poorly designed typefaces and those that are
too tightly or loosely fitted also may result in poor legibility. Underlining also may reduce readability by
eliminating the recognition effect contributed by the descending elements of letters.

Periodical publications, especially newspapers and magazines, use typographical elements to achieve an
attractive, distinctive appearance, to aid readers in navigating the publication, and in some cases for
dramatic effect. By formulating a style guide, a publication or periodical standardizes with a relatively
small collection of typefaces, each used for specific elements within the publication, and makes
consistent use of typefaces, case, type sizes, italic, boldface, colors, and other typographic features such
as combining large and small capital letters together. Some publications, such as The Guardian and The
Economist, go so far as to commission a type designer to create customized typefaces for their exclusive
use.

Different periodical publications design their publications, including their typography, to achieve a
particular tone or style. For example, USA Today uses a bold, colorful, and comparatively modern style
through their use of a variety of typefaces and colors; type sizes vary widely, and the newspaper's name
is placed on a colored background. In contrast, The New York Times uses a more traditional approach,
with fewer colors, less typeface variation, and more columns.

Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers, headlines often are set in larger
display typefaces to attract attention, and are placed near the masthead.

Typography utilized to characterize text: Typography is intended to reveal the character of the text.
Through the use of typography, a body of text can instantaneously reveal the mood the author intends
to convey to its readers. The message that a body of text conveys has a direct relationship with the
typeface that is chosen. Therefore, when a person is focusing on typography and setting type they must
pay very close attention to the typeface they decide to choose. Choosing the correct typeface for a body
of text can only be done after thoroughly reading the text, understanding its context, and understanding
what the text is wishing to convey. Once the typographer has an understanding of the text, then they
have the responsibility of using the appropriate typeface to honor the writing done by the author of the
text. Knowledge of choosing the correct typeface comes along with understanding the historical
background of typefaces and understanding the reason why that typeface was created. For example, if
the body of text is titled “Commercial Real Estate Transactions” and further elaborates on the real estate
market throughout the body, then the appropriate typeface to use in this instance is a serif typeface.
This typeface would be appropriate because the author intends to inform its audience on a serious topic
and not entertain his audience with an anecdote; therefore, a serif typeface would effectively convey a
sense of seriousness to the audience instantaneously. The typographer would also employ larger-sized
font for the title of the text to convey a sense of importance to the title of the text which directly
informs the reader of the structure in which the text is intended to be read, as well as increasing
readability from varying viewing distances.[45]

Typography utilized to make reading practical: Typography not only has a direct correlation with
honoring the tone of the text, but also shares the responsibility of making the audience commence the
reading process as well as sustaining the audience's attention throughout the body of text. Although
typography can potentially be utilized to attract the reader's attention to commence the reading
process, and create a beautiful/attractive piece of text, the craft of typography is not limited to
aesthetics. Typography is a craft that is not stringently encompassed with the aesthetic appeal of the
text. On the contrary, the object of typography is to make the reading experience practical and useful.
The use of bold colors, multiple typefaces, and colorful backgrounds in a typographic design may be eye-
catching; however, it may not be appropriate for all bodies of text and could potentially make text
illegible. Overuse of design elements such as colors and typefaces can create an unsettling reading
experience, preventing the author of the text from conveying their message to readers.[46]

Display graphics

Nineteenth century wanted poster for John Wilkes Booth (the assassin of U.S. President Abraham
Lincoln) printed with lead and woodcut type, and incorporating photography

Type may be combined with negative space and images, forming relationships and dialog between the
words and images for special effects. Display designs are a potent element in graphic design. Some sign
designers exhibit less concern for readability, sacrificing it for an artistic manner. Color and size of type
elements may be much more prevalent than in solely text designs. Most display items exploit type at
larger sizes, where the details of letter design are magnified. Color is used for its emotional effect in
conveying the tone and nature of subject matter.

Display typography encompasses:

Advertisements in publications, such as newspapers and magazines

Magazine and newspaper headline type

Signs and other large-scale-letter designs, such as information signs and billboards

Posters

Brochures and flyers

Packaging and labeling

Business communications and advertising

Book covers

Typographic logos, trademarks, and word marks

Graffiti

Inscriptions

Architectural lettering

Kinetic typography in motion pictures, television, vending machine displays, online, and computer
screen displays

Advertising

Typography has long been a vital part of promotional material and advertising. Designers often use
typefaces to set a theme and mood in an advertisement (for example, using bold, large text to convey a
particular message to the reader).[47] Choice of typeface is often used to draw attention to a particular
advertisement, combined with efficient use of color, shapes, and images.[48] Today, typography in
advertising often reflects a company's brand.

A brand may use typography to express it’s theme, personality, and message. [49] Just by looking at the
typeface, viewers can get an idea about the message and personality of the brand, which the brands are
fully aware of and are tapping into the power of good typography.

Typefaces used in advertisements convey different messages to the reader: classical ones are for a
strong personality, while more modern ones may convey clean, neutral look. Bold typefaces are used for
making statements and attracting attention. In any design, a balance has to be achieved between the
visual impact and communication aspects.[50] Digital technology in the twentieth and twenty-first
centuries has enabled the creation of typefaces for advertising that are more experimental than
traditional typefaces.[29]