Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Lateral Systems For Tall Buildings PDF

    Uploaded by

    Zain Saeed
    15 views198 pages

    Original Title

    Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings.pdf

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    15 views198 pages

    Lateral Systems For Tall Buildings PDF

    Uploaded by

    Zain Saeed

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 198
    Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings by Kermin Chok BS, Civil and Environmental Engineering (2003) Northwestem University ‘Submitted tothe Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering {In Partial Fulfilment ofthe Requirements forthe Degree of ‘Master of Engincering in Civil and Environmental Engineering atthe Massachusetts Institute of Technology ‘une 2004 (© 2008 Kermin Chok All rights reserved ‘The autho hereby grants MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copes of this thess document in whole orn part eet ee Signature of Author be Depatfcat of Civil and Environmental Engineering a es ioe Certified by. oo ~ a pata neve! arg eet ert Accepted by Heidt Nept CChaisman, Committee For Graduate Stadents OF recrnowner JUN 07 2008 ARCHIVES LIBRARIES Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings Leal Systems for Tall Buildings Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings by Kermin Chok BS, Civil and Environmental Engincering (2003) Northwestera University ‘Sulited tothe Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering on May 7, 2004 {In Partal Fulillment ofthe Requirements forthe Degree of Master of Engineering in Civil and Environmental Engineering ABSTRACT ‘The advance in three-dimensional structural analysis and computing resources have allowed the efficient and safe design of increasingly taller structures. These structures are the ‘consequence of increasing urban densification and economic viability, The modem skyscraper hasand will hus continue o feature prominently in the landscape of urban cities, The tend towards progressively aller srcres has demanded 2 shift fom te traditional strength based design approach of buildings ta focus on constraining the overall motion ofthe structure Surctural engineers have responded to this challenge of lateral contol with a myriad of systems thatachiove motion contol while adhering tothe overall architectural vision. An investigation ‘wascaried out to understand the behavior of the different lateral systems employed in today's skyscrapers. The investigation examined the structural behavior ofthe traditional moment frame, the aaced frame, the braced fame with outiggers ard finally the tubular structure. The suviniages and disadvantages oF all schemes were explored tom both an architectural and structural efficiency standpoint. Prior the computer modeling of each lateral system, each Scheme was understood from an analytical standpoint to both verify computer results and to luatrate the importance of hand calculations, The study repeatedly illustrated that motion was the zoverning condition and ths led to the proposal of an approach forthe design of braced Frames Thess Supe Profesor of Civil and Environmental Engineering Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings Lateral Systems for Tall Baings ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, | wold bke to thank my parents and family for always being unconditionally supportive ‘of my education in the United States, The environment and knowledge gained at both [Northwestern University and MIT has been invaluable and has allowed incredibly opportunity tnforeseen a few years ago. Thank you | would als like to acknowledge the professors who have challenged end encouraged me theughout my academic earoer. Many thanks to Professor Jerome Connor and Professor Edwin Rossow for being the guiding force during my structural engineering studies. Their dedication to {he advancement ofthe eld and stent focus as been resolute and my gratitude is immense Thanks to: Tiffany for her sense of humor and going through the ups and downs of the year with me {hope that lean have the postive impact on you as you had on me when your graduate studies come around Diego for being supportive and a great buddy. {have learnt many things from you besides that there is no such thing as ard tacos “Midori for her patcnce and belief You have broadened my horizons far beyond tht of only architecture “Mark Chang, Thanks fr being a great friend and homework buddy. Our experiences at Northwestemn wil be with me for long time to come Evan for pesonifying dedication and perseverance. And ofcourse all the M. Eng HPS people who have made the year a great experience. All the best you al. Systems for Tall Buildings “Iteration is only for people who don’t know what they are doing.” Professor Jerome Connor Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings Table of Contents 1 CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW occ LL Isrropuction 1s 2 HstoRy oF mi SeyseR eR 6 1.2.1 Fos Skyscraper Period 6 1.2.2 Second Styseraper Period. “8 1.2.3 Third and Fourth Sksoraper Period. 9 1.3 REFERENCES. 20 2 CHAPTER 2: LOADING AND DESIGN CRITERIA... 2.1 BUILDING TYPE AND DIMENSIONS 2 2.2 Wino LOADING: 2 23 Live Loapwno. 23 24 MesneR Destaw CRITERIN 2 2.4. Strength Based AISC Design Criteria, 2 2.4.2 Displacement Criteria ™ 25 COLUMN Sizes 2 26REFERENCES. 24 3 CHAPTER 3: MOMENT FRAMES. 3.1 MOMENT FRAME INTRODUCTION. 2 3.2 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 2s 3.21 Portal Analysts 2% 5.2.2 Drift Anabssis 8 3.3 COLUMN / GiRDER DESIGN eo 3.4 MoniON Baseo DESIGN. 2» 3.4.1 Vrtwl Work Displacement Oprinization 30 34.2 Motion Based Column Design a 2. FICIENCY OF MOMENT FRAMES. 2 6 CONCLUSION (MOMENT FRAME) 3B S7 RereReNCHS M Lateral Systoms For Tall Buiings 4 CHAPTER 4: BRACED FRAMES. 4.1 RACED FRaMe INTRODUCTION 4.2 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS. 42.1 Stroctural Analysis For Component Steing 422 Drift Analysis 4.22.1 Vital Work 422.2 Approximate Drift Analysis 43 SAP Monet (Brace Fam) 43.1 30 Story Braced Frame Models 43.1.1 Force Analysis (SAP Mode!) 43.1.2 Structural Eticiney of Braced Frames, 43.1.3 Virtual Work Drift Optimi 43.1.4 Displacement Profile. 42 40 Story Broced Frame Models 432.1 SAP MODEL. 43.2.2 Theoretical Shoat Foree Distributions. if Analysis 43.2.3 Optimization of Theoretical Shear Force Disebutions 43.2.4 Optimized Shear Force Distribution (SAP Mode!) 43.3 Virwal Work Drift Opnimezation. 44 Conctusion (Brace Fk). 4.5 REFERENCES. ‘5 CHAPTER 5: BRACED FRAMES WITH OUTRIGGERS, {1 BRACED FRAME wir OuTRIGGERS. 2 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 5.2.1 Governing Equations 4.2.2 Optimum Location of Ouriggers 4.3 SAP MopFLs (BRACHD FRAME WITH OUTRIOGERS) 5.31 Option Location 5.3.2 Sirwcnsal Ecteney 5.4.5 Deformed Shope ax! Design Ives Buildings 4 CONCLUSION (BRACED Fae 11H OU TRIGGERS). n SSRIrERENCIS. % 6 CHAPTER 6: TUBULAR STRUCTURES nr) (61 Tunutar SraUcTURES INTRODUCTION, ” {62 SrRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 81 6.2.1 Shear Low. 2 6.2.11 Positive Shear Lag 8 6.2.1.2 Negative Shear Lag 8 6.2.2 Quantification of Shear Log. as 62.2. Variation of Sheue Lag ith Height. 87 6.22.2 Shear Lag Variation with Base Dimensions 88 63 SAP Mopets (Tumut. ak SraucruRes) 9 6.3.1 Shear Log Coefficients. 2 6.3.2 SAP Model Results 9 6321 Variation of Flange ané Web Shear with HIF and H/W. 95 (6.32.2 Variation of Flange and Web Shear Lag with Height 7 {63.2.3 Variation of Flange Shear Lag with F/W o* {63.2.4 fect of Increased Girder Stifiness on Flange Shear Lag 99 (6212.5 Braced Tube Structures. 100 64 CoNCLUSION (TUBULAR STRUCTURES) or 65 Rererences 103 7 CHAPTER 7; STIFFNESS DISTRIBUTION FOR BRACED FRAMES... 1105 TVINTRODUCTION los 72 METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYZING STIFFNESS DIST los 73 RESULTS OF PaRAMETRIC STUDY lor TA IMPLICATIONS FoR DEsiiy 109 TS CONCLUSION. 109 TORErERENCES. 110 APPENDIX Aes Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings APPENDIX 1s APPENDIX C APPENDIX D. APPENDIX E. 14s APPENDIX F. 483 APPENDIX G.. a8 List of Figures Figure | - 1: Fvolation of Skyscraper Form: Figure |= 2: Chryster Building (New York) (1) Figure |= 3° Woolworth Building (New York). Figure 2 - 1 Typical Stucture (Elevation View) Figure 2-2: Typical Stueture (Plan View) Figure 3 - 1 Portal Frame Deflected Shape Figure 3-2: Portal Frame Moment Disgram Under Lateral Loads Figure 3-3 Virual Work Optimization. Figure 3-4: Normalized Amount of Steel Requited Figure 4 1: Empire State Building (New York (1) Figure 4-2: John Hancock Center (Chicago) £2] gue 4-5: Eank of China Tower (Hong Kong) [2) igure 4-4 John Hancock Center Ineiae Space (Chicago) [3} Figure 45: Flexural Deformation Mode. Figure - 6: Eraced Frame Deformation Mode Figure 4-7/3 Bay Braced Frame Figue 4-8 Single Bay Brace Fame Figure 4-9: Compson of Sts! Volume Required Figue4- 10:3 Bay Bracing Viwal Work Dit Optimization Figure 4-11 Displacement Profile (Heaced Frame). Figue- 12:40 Story Integrated Model Figue 4-13-40 Story Separatd Mods Figue 4 14: Theor Figure 4-15 shear Fores Distt Figure 4 16: Viewal Work Diagram (Separated Model) Figured ical Shear Force Distribution Virtual Work Diagram with Inreased Bracing Cross Sectional Arca 9 9 a 26 28 30 3 Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings US Bank Center (Milwaukee) 1), Vila Otimpiea (Barestons. Spain) [1] Structural Model Figure $4 Opsinnm location of outrigger [2] Figure 5: SAP Outrigger Model Figute 5 - 6 Deformed Outrigger Shape Figire $7: Braced Frame with Single Outrigger Figure 5-8: Braced Frame with 2 Outriggers Figure 5-9: Graph of Stce! Volume Required Figire S Figure $11: Vitwal Work Diagram (Braced Frame with 2 Outrigger). Figure 5 - 12: Location of tnflesion point in a Braced Frame with 2 Outriggers, 0; Deformed Shape (Braced Frame with 2 Outriggers) Fire 6 1: World Trade Center (New York) (1) Figaro 6 2 Sears Tower (Chicago) [1] Fipwe 6-3: Avia Suess with Shea Lag (3) Figie 6 4: Deformation Resulting in Positive Shear Lag 6] Figo 6S: Deformation Resulting in Negative Shoar Lag [4] Figo 6-6: Quantification of Web Shear Lag (3) Fipie 6-7: Quantificaton of Flange Shea Lag [5] Figure 6-8: Variation of Shoat Lag with Height [6] igre 6-9: Variation of Shear Lag with Height I] Figure 6 10: Variation of Shear with Base Dimensions [5] igi 611: Stscral Mod [5 Figur 6-12 Plat of Shear Lag Coctiients with Varying Wa and 1 [5} Figure 6-13: Flange Axial Force Distribution for Mods 1 Figure 6 - 14: Web Axial Force Distribution for Model | Figure 615: Variation of Flange Shear Lag with WF Figure 6-16: Variation of Web Shear Lag with W/W Figure 6-17: Variation of Flange Shoat Lag with EW at ar 8 85 86 6 "7 88 "9 ” 9% 94 7 {Lateral Systm fr Tal Buildings Figure 6 18: Tubular Structure with Bracing Figare 7-1: Variation ofS" with Aspect Ratios We ‘Table 1-1 Table2-1 Table 3-1 Table 3-2: Table3- 3 Table 4-1 Table 4-2: Table 4 3 Tables 4 Tabled 5 Table $- Table -2 Table $3: Table 6-1 Table 6-2, Table 6 3: Table 6-4 Table 6-5: Table 6-6 Table 6-7 Table 1 {Lateral Systems fall Hulings List of Tables List of Buildings tor Figure 1-1 Wind Point Loads. Top Story Drift Using Strength Based Column Design Volume of Stee! Required for Strength and Motion Based Design Normalized Stes! Volumes, ‘Shear Rigidity of Different Bracing Schemes Distribution of Lateral Fores in Braced Frames Comparison of Stel Volumes Required ‘Theoretical Average Frame Shear Force and Standard Deviation, Average Shear Fore and Standard Deviation Comparison of Top Story Drift with Outrigger Placement Comparison of Stee! Volume Required ‘Comparison of Base Moments SAP Models Analyzed Flange Axial Forces for Model 1 (Bottom Column). Computed Shear Lag Coefficients Variation of Flange Sher Lag with IVE Variation of Web Shear Lag with HAW Flange Shear Lag with Varying Girder Stiffness ‘Shar Lag Coefficient with Bracing Introduced traced Frame Models Analyzed 0 2 2» 3 2 3 a7 4” ss 9 n B 7 93 95 9s 96 cy wo? 107 Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings 1 Chapter 1: Overview duction Mankind has always had a fascination for height and throughout our history, we have ‘constantly sought to metaphorically reac forthe sar. From the ancient pyramids to today's vader skyscraper, a civilization’s power and wealth has been repeatedly expressed through spectacular and monumental structutes. Today, the symbol of economic power and leadership is ‘the skyscraper, There as beon a demonstrated competitiveness that exist in mankind to proclaim to have the tallest building in she world is undying ques for height has lad out incredible opportunities forthe building pro‘ssion. From the carly moment frames to today’s ulraeficient mepa-braced structures, the structural engineering profession has come a long way. The recent development of structural analysis and design software coupled with advances in the finite element method has allowed the creation of many structural and architecturally innovative forms, However, increased reliance on computer analysis snot the solution tothe challenges that ie abead in the profession. The basic understanding of structural behavior while leveraging on computing tools are the elements that will change the way structures are designed and bil. ‘The design of skyscrapers usually governed bythe lateral loads imposed on the structure, As buildings have gotten taller and narrower, the structural engineer has been ‘nccasingly challenge to meet the imposed drift quirements while minimizing the architectural impact of the structure. In response to this challenge, the profession has proposed a ‘multitude of lateral schemes that are now expressed in tall buildings across the globe “This thesis seks 1 understand the evolution ofthe different laterl systems that have ‘merged and its asociated structural bchavior For cach lateral scheme examined its advantages and disadvantages willbe looked at This investigation will rely on both analytical models and computer analysis and this dual exploration wil serve to reiterate the importance of analytical solutions. The lateral schemes look looked at are the moment frame the brace frame, the braced frame with outriggers and the tubular form 1.2 History of the Skysera Skyscrapers have a long history dating back to the carly 1900s. The modsen skyscraper ‘movement has been widely regarded to have started in Chicago withthe Home Life Insurance ‘ompany building which was the frst building to utlize a motal skeleton as its load carrying stncture Up till 1900, buildings were predominantly constructed out of masonry which immediately limited the height of buildings through its relatively low strength (200ps), As skyscraper design progressed and strctural innovations occurred, the form and structural behavior evolved, The form and look of skyscrapers have been generally grouped into fou periods. 2.1 First Skyscraper Period With the constrcton ofthe Home Life Insurance Company in Chieago the first skyscraper period began. The inrease in sce availability in the lte 18005 allowed engineers to es gn and propose new structural forms tha allowed an evonomical progression towards taller stnectures, However, architects ofthe day struggled to find an acceptable geometric form forthe new structures, They were bound tothe historical styles which they had been fan with, A compromise was sought between the siyles ofthe past andthe new urban landscape which was quickly taking form “The first style adopted was the Renaissance Palazzo syle that comprised a block and slab form for the building which gave buildings a highly regular and repetitive form. AS ‘buildings go taller, architects sought to break this patter approach by introducing different sof palazzi on top of eachother. For example, a building might be comprised of three i Romanesque style, the mide section inthe Classical style and the root section with Queen Anne inspied design (1). This style generally donminated the first skyscraper period inthe (Chicago school [As the Chicago school developed and refined their architectural ideas, the expression of a ent styles of palazz stacked on top ofeach ther with the base section designed inthe boulling’s underlying structure began to take place. This was best demons Pit detained by the underlying ster form and not the sand ei 1 by the Carson Scott Department Store (Figure I= 1g) in 1904 whose spans and bay widths were etural russ of Lateral Systems for Tall Buings 1.22 Second Skyscraper Period The completion ofthe 47 sory 614 f Singer Building in New York (1908) marked the ‘movement inthe rac for height fiom Chicago to New York One year lier, the 50 story ‘Metropolitan Life Insurance Tower topped out at 6758 The ace for vertial supremacy bad clearly begun, Unlike their counterparts in Chicago, design in Now York was sill fil rooted in the omamentation and visual impact ofa stucture which inevitably resulted in hidden structural forms. As the plazzo style came increasingly unsuited for taller and tale structures, architects were challenged to find a new language to define the now quickly emerging towers [New York skyscrapers generally fll into two styles, Classical’Gothie (Figure 1 1) and ArtDeco. The Classi 1UGothic utlized an omamentalfagade which miniature towers and ‘butresses were a predominant feature. This fagade was subsequently atached 10 the ste! skeleton beneath, These forms bid well the structural characteristics of the building ‘The Ar Deco design was brought about by the revision in the New York city building ‘code which sought to limit the impact of skyserapers on the lighting and ventilation of adjacent buildings and aso the visual impact atthe street level. Buildings were then forced w incorporate Set ncks which allowed more light tthe srect level, With the zoning requirements in pace all buildings began to take the Form of sculptures. This sculptural At Deco style was best expressed by the Chrysler building which incorporates distinc setbacks and a tall sie ‘Towards the end ofthe 1920s, skyscrapers hegun to ake a more austere Kine form that was the hallmark of the modernists. The expression of structural form and effciney less the architectural ornamentation were distinctions of ther design. Lateral Systm for Tall Building Figure 1-2: Chrys Building (New York) [1] Figure 1-3: Wolwerth Building (New York) 1.23 Third and Fourth Skyscraper Period The third skyscraper peri continued with modernism but with increasing focus and ‘expression of technological innovation and stricural form, The Sears Tower and John Hancock Corte in Chicage clearly demonstrate the modemist style with distinct expression of the structural form. To this day, modernism continues to persist in the architectural language for all strvtures a they continue to oar wit inereasing ambition | Flguee 1] Buiding Cay Year a | Marshall Fie Warchouse Chi ee? 5 | Home Life tnsuranse Company c TRA P Lateral Systems for Tall Busing = [Sioa a in ‘Bulle ¢ Monadnock Buing Chee 7 tance Bling ‘Chicago = arson Piri Scot Deparment Sore | Chicago D Metopolian Lie surance | New York [1909 7 ‘Woolworth Baling Rew York [1913 7 hel Saainn'sEnry Tor Chicago | Chicago [1922 “Teibune Tower Competition r ‘Cayster Buitding New York [1950 7 nine State Building New York | 1937 = Daily News Buitding New York [1950 a ‘Me Craw TT Bing New York [1937 2 RCA Bulking ‘Rew York [1935 P PSPS Bang Philadephia | 1932 1.3 References ia} |W, Sclueller, The Vertical Building Sructure, Now York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990. Late System for Tall Buildings 2 Chapter 2.1 Building Type and Dimensions In onde o give realism to this academic study, an office building ste structure of : Loading and Design Criteria ‘various heights ws sited in Boston, MA with dhe Following dimensions The building is 35m x 25min plan with columas spaced 7m on center A floor to floor height of 3.5m es aso assumed. This location and structure type allowed a definition of building type and basic wind ‘vlacties. An elevation and plan view ofa typical structure is shown in Figure 2-1 and 2-2 ‘Complete drawings are atached in Appendix B. “The faa system ofthe structure was aso assumed to transfer the fll wind loading ppliod tothe main lateral load carying system (e.g moment frame, bracing) as pont loads. This allowed the application ofthe wind loading to node points inthe SAP model and eliminated local deformations that might cur atthe windward face columns. This allowed a more accurate cstimation of deflections and story shears, Figere 2-1: Typ Strcte (Elevation View) Lateral Systems for Tall Buiings 2.2 Wind Loading “The wind loading in this study was established in accordance with ASCE Standard 7-95. Frm the code, the following cquations were established and constants defined. For expediency wird loads were only evaluated every 5 stores. A table of calculations and nodal forces are attached in Appendix B. P AGC, eMC 4 494 (windward wall), (leeward wal 4 O613K.KaV"I (Ni @ Gareth G Gust rect Factor (0.8) op Wall Pressure Coefficients (0.8 Windward Wall, 0.5 Leeward Wall) com Internal Pressure Coefficient (+/-0.18) kK Velocity Pressure Coefficient (2.01[2/2)°*%™) 457m (with exposure category A) alpha 5.0 (with exposure category A) Ke Topographic Factor (1¢K KK? Ki Factor to account for shape of topographic feature (1) kK Factor to account for reduction in speed up with distance with respect to crest (1) ky Factor to account fr reduction i speed up with height above local train oy v Basie Wind Speed (49rv/sec for MA, USA) 1 Importance Factor (1.15 with Building Category II elassfication) The following nodal forces Table 2-1 wote established forthe various structures of same plan dimension but of varying heights. For simplicity. nodal point forces were only computed every 5 stores, this allowed faster aplication of nodal loads able 21 Wind Pine Loads 20 Sion | WStory | 40 Story 5 3s a | « ® 7% 7 | m0 w]e | 8 96 Tor [108 109 15 nodal wind Toads in EN 23 Live Loading In accordance with ASCE 7.95, 2 uniform ive lading oF 24kNim? (oie ws) was assumed forthe sizing of columas. This was aplid ovr the otal for area (1225?) ofeach story and distributed evenly among all 30 columns. Ths imposed an axial load of KN per column per story. Nat ‘on te floor system but an even dstibuion was assumed to simplify the model ly, actual lve loading imposed on the columns would depend greatly 2.4 Member Design Criteria “The primary area of study 6 the amount of stel dedicated to columns as structure height, Jncrascs. tn order to size the columns realistically, they were designed in accondance with LLRID recommendations. This equations used are illustrated below. 2s trongth Based AISC Design Criteria ‘The following equations were usd inthe proportioning the sizes of columns Lateral Systems for Tal Buildings 24,22) Where: 7 Applied axial force (kN) Py Nominal axial capacity (kN) Me Applied moment (kN-m) Ma ‘Nominal elastic moment capacity (kN-m) 2.42 Displacement Criteria Standard design codes limit op slory drift ofa structure to 0.0028. This criteria was used throughout all modes studied. 2.5 Column Sizes {An architectural constraint oF 0.4m on column sizes was assumed forthe purpose ofthis, study. This was done to enforce thatthe only way to increase strengthstifiness properties was to increase the wall thickness. This would then be used to demonstrate the inerease in amount of| marl as srengthstfiness requirements increased, Properties suchas clastic moment and axial capacity ofthese square columns of varying wall thicknesses was computed and this s shown in ‘Appendix. These sections were used in designing in column and girder clermets 2.6 References [1] J.C. MeConmae and J.K, Nelson, Suuctual Steel Design. LRED Method, New Jersey Prentice Hall, 2003, [2] ASCE Standard, American Society of Civil Engincers: Design loads for Buildings and Other Strusurss 7.95. New York: American Society of Civil Engines 1996 Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings 3 Chapter 3: Moment Frames 3.4 Moment Frame Introduction ‘A moment frame isa structure that utilizes moment resisting connections between columns and girders throughout its perimeter to resist the lateral loads applied. These fame structures ae characteristic of early skyserapers where 3 dimensional structural analysis was stil ints infancy. The repetitive pater with small ross sectional changes from floor to oor allows simple construction, Moment fames also allows unobstructed bay that allows for lexibility in spaial programming and locations of openings This feature is much desired by architects seokng flexibility in their design and also helps o introduce as much natural igh int the space aspossble However, asa result ofthe multe of fixed connections that are required in moment frames, additonal cost would be incurred duet field welding or additional bolting required isa costly process. The load carrying behavior (trough element bending) of ‘moment eames also result in signiicant column and gtder end moments. This immediatly leads to larger designed sections than in a situation where a separate lateral system is employed. This was ad sil Another drawhack ofthe momen fame is that he gravity system ofthe structure fs coupled with ‘the ateral system, In other words the design ofthe perimeter frame and floor system has to ceurconcurenly, Furthermore, as @ result of te significant column end moments, the floor sysem has to vary fom sory to sory to account for end moments. This leads toa more tedious design process, 3.2 Structural Analysis ‘The structural analysis of any structure canbe broken into a force analysis anda displacement analysis For diferent structural forms, different methods ned tobe employed for both the Force and displacement analysis. In moment frames, the force analysis ean be done via the portal method and the displacement analysis canbe performed by decomposing the dit into the contributions by column and girder deformation. The poral method and displacement analysis procedures are detailed below. \With rigid connections within the whole frame, she Interal loads are carted inthe «columns by shear action and asa result the columns deform in double curvature. This is 2s Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings stated in Figure 3-1 where the deformed shape of 10 sfry portal frame is shown This shape is characteristic ofa shear beam where most inte-story deformation occurs atthe base and decreases as we move up the structure, This i attributed to the accumulation of shear forces ‘ovardsthe bottom ofthe structure where the base columns have to carry the entire lateral load applied to the structure. This gives rise tothe relatively large inter-stor displacement at his ‘321 Portal Analysis Analysis of moment frames can be easily carried out by one ofthe two popular methods, ‘he 2ortal method and the cantilever method. The portal method which was used inthe prefiminary analysis to obtain design loads willbe described briefly, The portal analysis makes the following assumptions. 1. Story soars are cared by comer and interior columns in & 402 ratio, 2. An inflexion point is assumed in the mide ofboth beams and columy Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings |With these assumptions, a highly indeterminate frame canbe easily ana anaysis proceed as following 1. Compute story shears by summing the lateral forces at and above the current son 4. The portal Distribute story shear between interior and comer columns. 53. Compute column moments by multiplying the column shear by half he story hei (Compute associated beam moments by taking moment equilibrium at each join. ‘Compute beam shears hy dividing beam moments by half the span length ‘Compute imposed column axial loads by summing beam shears at and above the ‘current column, ‘This prei strength bass. Figure 3-2 depicts the moment ds ‘oral frame under lateral loads. From the diagram, itis observed that inflexion points are not ‘aly at the mid-point of columns but our at approximately 2/3 along is length. However inary analysis was caried out in Excel which allowed sizing of columns on & ram obtained from SAP which real in forschematic purposes, the portal analysis is sufficiently accurate. The complete portal analysis. for 10,20, 30 and 40 story structure are detailed in Appendix C. In order the quickly size the columns forthe portal frames unde lateral loads, only the interior columns (which caer greater moment) were analyzed, 2 Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings i i} La Ann yvrvrerrys N N a x ‘gure 3-2: Portal Frame Mamen Diagram Uuder Lateral Lond 3.22 Drift Analysis “The displacement of porta frame can be accounted for by the two different modes of| deformation (column rotation and girder rotation that occurs. The N90 modes are analyzed separately and the total story dif isthe sum ofthe two effets These equations [1] were used in estimating the drift of the various moment ames under ‘the applied lateral loading. Ths estimation was checked against a SAP model nd the percentage vor was called. These values ofeach top story drift and its eror ae tabulated in Appendix C It was noted thatas the aumber of stories increase, the equations increasingly underestimated Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings ‘the dif This error i ateibuted to the assumption of inflexion atthe middle of the column which ves rise to smaller column momens and thus smaller calculated drifs. A further error arses fom the omission of column axial shortening/engthening inthe analysis, As the number of ‘Mofes inereas, tis eect becomes more pronounced 3.3 Column _/ Girder Design Column design for strength proceeded as detailed in Chapter 2. Only columns every five stores wore designed and that selected uniform section was caried throughout 5 storie. The sare seston was also employed inthe girders ofthe associated 5 stores, This was done to ‘Simplify the design procedure and also provide suficien rotational stifhes tthe joints. This rotstional tess will be illustrated to play a major role inthe lateral deflection of moment frames 3.4 Motion Based Design Table 3-1 below illustrates that strength based design did no provide sufficient ater stifness to the moment frames to meet the 1/500 deft criteria, The columns had tebe redesigned wit stiffer setions to meet the eters, “Table 3-1: Top Story Dit Using Strength Based Column Design ‘No of Stars | Top Story Drift | Dai Criteria | 96 diference 17 008 007 TBST 2 030 oy Tas w ost O3T TiRT wo O79 08 FRET [An analysis procedure was required to determine the optimum location toad more ‘material othe structure, It was important to determine the main sources of interstory isplacement and reduce its relative contribution. The virtual work approach was adopted for this task » Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings Work Displacement Optimization The virual work displacement optimization approach involves applying a unit load a the location at which displacement is sought tobe calculated (the top story being the location in this sition) Rout sss then performed ard the percentage contribution of each ‘menber can be computed, This procedure is performed succinctly in SAP2000. An example ‘output ofthe relative contribution ofeach member i shown in Figure 3 - 3, This illustrated for 4 fieen story moment frame under lateral loads. Reducing top story drift was the goal af this Figure 2-3: Vital Work Optimization It is noted thatthe percentage contributions increase towards the bottom ofthe structure and hs indicates that material allocated towards the bottom ofthe structure would be most flint in reducing the top story displacement. The vial work contributions of the girders are also noted tobe significant where they make up almost an equal amount as the columns Therefore, material should also be allocated tothe girders to reduce the joint rotations which 30 would ultimately reduce top story drift. ‘This insight she asis Fr using the ome sections for both the columns and girders ina particular story Anottcr mtd to decide whether the wires or column sizes should be (ofthe column an ginder’s eatve stiffness. This ratio [2] is given in creased in 8 particular floors the Equation 3-2 znd denoted by y, A D 2) \y>>015, adjust gitder sizes ‘y= 05, adjust column sizes y= 05, both gitder and column sizes ‘This allows the contol of each individual story's drift and could be used in reducing the rift contribution ofthe most flexible Moors, 34.2 Motion Based Column Design With the above displacement optimization insight, cach moment frame was redesigned to incet the H/S00 criteria. This significantly increased the required column sizes, The total stel volume requied for both strength based and motion based design are tabulated in Table 3-2. 1 is clearly noted thatthe amount of stel required for motion control increases significantly as ‘height increas. “Table 2: Volume of Stel Requie Siory | Strength Rare [Mion Based 0 co oa ey Ta a wr isi a9 wo Ta Te Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings 3.$ Efficiency of Moment Frames Moment ames of 1, 20, 30 and 40 stories was designed for both steength and Aisplacement enteria. total oF models were designed and the toa sel volume incurred in cach case tab ed and the normalized numbers are ploted in Figure 3-4 is immediately apparent thatthe amount of material required for deflection cotta Imreases rch fester as the aspect ato increases than the amount of material require for tength based design Within the aspect ratios modeled, it is noted that moment frames are reasonably efficent upto the aspect ratio of 2. Beyond this pont, the amount of material reqaired for deflection contol via curvature dermation of the columns and girders quickly ‘outpaces the amount of material solely required for strength purposes, ‘With this alization and increasing demands for height, structural engineer challenged to come up with forms that would provide lateral stifiness without the penalty of | addtional set. Three more strcturally efficient forms are examined inthe proceeding chapters Table 3-3: Normale Steel Volumes ‘Siony | Heiahi Gn) | Aspest Ratio | Sirengih Based Motion Based avn) | (oonmalied 08.74) | (normalized 8.74) 0 s t 700 To 7 0 z 13s oo 30 0s 7 7a 3506 oe 7 1530 ea Lateral Sostens for Tall Busdings Normalized Amount of Stee! Required g 0 2» i | ° _| | oo, 23 8 8 evet ato | —* Strength Design, © Siiness Design ste Narrow Braced | Ceiivdetrens.” — —-raly (nes Deson) ay eng Dee) | 3.6 Conclusion (Moment Frame) ‘This chapter has surveyed the structural behavior of the moment fame. [thas emronstated how preliminary structural Stel Required alysis and displacement analysis is carried out and sothe assumptions used. It has also demonstrated the accuracy ofthe preliminary analysis decreases asthe numberof stories ietease ina building. The bass for strength and st ‘design foreach particular structure was als illustrated, The efficiency ofthe moment Frame was evaluated from a materials népoint. twas demonstrated that due to drift requirements, the volume of materials required increased at an ‘nrsasing rate, This was illustrated in Figure 3-4. With these insights, the following chapters sxplre more structural ecient lateral schemes such asthe brascd fame, braced frame With outriggers and the rubulr orm, Latsral Systems for Tall ings 3.7 References [1] B.Taranath, Suuctural Analysis & Design of Tall Buildings, New York: MeGraw-il Book Company, 1988. (2) B.S. Smith and A. Coull, all Buldng Structures: Analysis and Design, New York John Wiley & Sons Ine, 1991 (5) W. Schueller, The Vertical Building Structure, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990, Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings 4 Chapter 4: Braced Frames 4.1 Braced Frame Introduction ‘The braced frame isa common s al loads that stem employed 1 est he significant exceptionally tall structures ae subjected to. Bracing forthe frames can occur within a single bay or can span the entire face ofa structure, The Empire State Building isan early example of single bay bracing eing employed ina structure to resist the lateral loads imposed. Other signature projects such asthe Bank of China tower in Hong Kong and the John Hancock center in Chicago are examples of large scale bracing employed to resist lateral lading, These buildings and ther bracing schemes are illustrated in Figure 4 Ico Figure 4~ 3. The diagonal lenents that run across a bay or the face of a building ‘transform the building ito a vertical cantilever beam, The diagonal braces are analogous othe wots that "the whole structure together and re found in russ structures, “The advantages of braced frames from a stractural enginccring standpoint ae enormous, Braced frames carry the lateral forces in an axial manner (through the diagonal elements rather ‘hae through the bending of elements which is highly ineTcient. The separation of the lateral system from the gravity system gives further advantages during the design phase. This allows the lateal system to be designed separately from the gravity system which allows for repetition in ‘oc systems and column sections. With minimal fame ation and mostly axial deformation, ‘munimal moments in the columns and girders result rom the applic lateral loads compared toa ‘moment frame. This in turn cads to cheaper girder-column connections ‘The largos drawhack fr braced frames is thatthe scheme is obstructive and significantly reduces openings within bays. This can be scen fom Figure 4 - 4 which shows an interior space in the John Hancock Center. The large bracing covers a significant part ofthe bay window: However, shouldbe noted that while the bracing clement covers significant portion in certain bays, the separation ofthe lateral system from vertical system leads to much large column spacing which allows mare Mexbiity in programming of the interior space within those hays. Ancther issue with large scale racing is that it must fit within the larger arc feotual concept andi often hard to implement if uch stuctral expression was not considers ding the ‘competition stage of the projce. Such architectural design is he pinnate of fanetion esting Lateral Systems For Tall Buildings Fo and sts practice is concentated within afew fens such as SOM, Foster and Partners and the Richard Rogers Partnership, Figare 4-1: Empire State Bling New Yor) Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings Figure 4-3: Baak of China Tomer (ong Kong) Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings Figure 4-4 Joba Hancock Center ior Space (Chea) 42 Structural Analvsis A braved fame is essen Ilya vertical cantilever trass structure where the columns in the structure ats asthe chords ofthe russ and cary significant axial loads. The columns ofthe braced bay are then designed for these larger than usual axial loads. The other columns can generally be designed predominantly for gravity loads, The tension force inthe windward column isa key design paramter asthe condition of overtuming in the structure is mach sought ‘0 te avoided. The usual design situation is one in which the ded loads ofthe structure reduce this overtuming fore and results na net compressive force in all the columns. nthe event of uplift forces, the bracing scheme can be staggered across the bays ofa structure engaging Aitferent sets of columns in different lors. Inthe deformation of braced frames, two deformation modes are present, shear and bending. The braced bay (bay at which bracing is installed) deforms in flexural due to its high shea egiity while the frame deforms in shear duet its lw bending resistance, These «wo profiles ae the direct opposite ta each other. The Mlexurl deformation mode results in axial lengthening/shortening in columns while the shear mode of deformation results inthe extension ofthe diagonals. Compatibility between the two deformation modes ae ensued through the Fig floors slabs in each flor. Illustrated in Figure 4 $i the flexural deformation shape. The Lateral Systems foe Tall Buildings shear deformation mode has been previously illustrated in Figure 3-1. 1 is note that inthe NRexural mode, maximum curvature occurs towards the top ofthe structure. With the rwo modes of deformation combined, the resulting shape is usually one that is represented in Figure 46 As the aspect aio ofthe structure increase, the Mlesural component mode of deformation tends to dominate {Lateral Systems for Tall Buildings 42.1 Structural Analysis For Component Sizing In the prelim ‘aris all applied lateral load. This reduces the analysis to an analysis of structure illustrated in ary structural analysis of braced flame, iis assumed thatthe braced bay Figure 4-5. Through the method of joints or seston, the axial forces in the diagonal and ‘verial elements canbe found. This allows preliminary sizing for members pioe compete ‘nalysis ofthe fame. However, nthe detailed analysis of braced fame structures, one should "ook athe combined behavior of braced fame structures. The lateral resistance provided by the ‘moment frame might be significant and could result in « more economical structure compared to ‘one where the lateral siffness ofthe moment frame is ignored. This combined behavior is studied Inter in the chapter. 422 Drift Analysis Asa result ofthe simplified siacture, drift analysis can be conveniently cared out by ‘either an exact virtual work method or an approximate method which separates the deformation ‘components of shear and flexure, 40 Lateral Systems fy Tall Bualdings 4.2.2.0 Firma Work Drift Anolis The vieual work aM analysis requires two force analyses. ome fr the acta oad condition and another fora unit load (virtual loud) applied a the positon at which the dit sto be detrmined. This is wiven by the fllowing equation (1) (1) h(a where: a= defection P= axial force in element under applied loading A= cross sectional area M_—=—rmoment om applied loading 1 moment oF inertia Pia force from vietal force m= moment in element fiom virtual force N= noofeclements 4222 dpprosimate Drift Anahsie ‘The approximate method of analysis breaks the drift ta particular story into its flexure and shear components which is simile othe approach in the drift analysis fr moment frames ‘except inthis situation, the overall ending ofthe structure is accounted for. The flexural componcat of drift is analyzed by considering the structure asa beat with an specific moment of merta. This moment of inertia is dependent on the ara ofthe chords (columns) and the width ofthe bracing. Reasonable of averaging of column cross sections should bbe done 50 as to reduce the numer of eros sectional changes which have to Be taken into account along the struct Lateral Systins Ror Till Buildings a2 where = story dit duet flexure Ay = deflection due to lexure = story height 4, ~ tation of story i which sequal to area under M/ET curve (subscript F referring to terms related to flexure) “The shear component of deformation is a function ofthe type of bracing used and the shear catied in that story. This is given in Table 4- | where the shear deflection of various braving layouts are given. The top story dif sa result of shear deflection, is thus the sum of all sntcr-story drifts beneath that floor Lateral Systems fo Tall Buildings Mae ee | can CAT {°"tlged] “sy Se terete eat where: Ae deflection due to shear 8. + story drift due to shear 4.3 SAP Model (Braced Frame) Four braced frame models were stdied in SAP, cach ills ing a specific aspoet of braced frame structural behavier. The four models comprised 1wo thirty’ story models and two forty story models. The thirty story modols were used to study the effets of efee acing schemes. In one mode! bra 1 as only built ina single bay but in the other bracing was sled across three bays. This ve vie 10.4 much “deeper” vertical truss hich gave the Lateral Systoms For Tall Buildings structure significantly more stifiess. ts important 1 note ha in his heightapeet ra range ttekey concen is no longer strength design but fife that resulted fom the need to contol top story dit The two forty story models were sed 10 analyze the interaction between the moment frame and the braced frame. As previously mentioned the two ames deform in different modes butcompatibility is ensured due origi flor slabs Ths different deformation modes result a

    You might also like