SCIENTIFIC > AMERICANStand Up To Cancer Ambassador Learn more at StandUpToCancer.org/ClinicalTrials F2 36 “ SCIENTIFIC =m AMERICAN New View of the Milky Way A recent effort to map the spiral structure of our galaxy has produced an unprecedented view of our eosinie home. Ry Mark I Rei and Xéng-Wu Zheng Cat vs. Woodrat, eral catshill a ot of wildlife, but methods wo solve the problem are coutrover~ sial and understudied. In Key Largo, Fo., conservationists are trying new ways tosave the endangered woodrat without having to exterminate felines. By Carrie Arnold ‘The Trouble with Teeth Our teeth ate crowded, crooked and riddled with cavities. I-hasnt always, boom this way. By Peter S. Ungar Extreme Survivor A tiny she-legged creature called Tultbergia has persevered through more ‘than 30 ioe ages in the harshest badlands of the Transantarctic Mountains. Scientists ate ust searting to figure out how. Ry Douglas Far ‘The Aid Tyunami The ocean took their loved ones and destroyed their villages, But it was misguided disaster relief that destroyed their way of lite ByAjay Saini and Simerond. Singh SCIENTIFIC 4 nic © ON THE COVER rere fsa © 2020 Sefentifie American Apel 2000, selenticamerican om 1SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN $ From the Editor 4 Letters 8 Science Agenda ‘The nuclear trigger should not be under the sole control of the LS. president. Ay the Editors 10 Forum Female surgeons cannot perform ot their best ifthey are battling workplace sexual abuse. Ry Chethan Sathya 12 Advances A flior flexing roal pigeon wings. Humans’ oversize Impact on future fossils trap for dengue virus made from DNA. Prismlike blocks to build mosphing objeets. a4 Meter Lichen as model and metaphor for intimacy By Forrvet Gander 95 The Seience of Health Sleep apnea often follows a different pattern in women ‘and may therefore be overlooked. By Claudia Wallis 26. Ventures Investing in technology for the toughest problems on the planot. By Wade Roush 06. Recommended Birdseye view of our changing Earth. CSI pioneet. The mysterious death of a Civil War submarine. mertwining technclogy and human behavior. By Andrea Qaseryleeski 67 Observatory Why do white men and scientists tend to downplay the risks oftechnology? By Naomé Oreskes Anti Gravity One US. senator thinks Saturnis moon Titan isa fxer- upper real estate possibility By Steve Mirsky 69 50,100 & 150 Years Ago By DanielC. Schlenof 70. Graphic Science Child mortality is decreasing, yet certain countries till struzele, By Amanda Montattes and Mapping Specialists (Ratt 4D acre So yr mura NS oqo ert (249 Cin mr 5 enki en (4) E Sener scatter Pimaisa tie ata tea alee ned 2 Scientific Ame 1 Ape 2000 © 2020 Scientific AmericanEF Garis train éacingestorindidc Sdentcansion v Falewhmon Mater tebearard We Are Here Anyone living in Manhattan cen tellyou thet of ell she wonaers ‘he urban lifestyle affords, great istasof the city itself are not one of them. Sweeping views of this Amerioen metropolis are avail- abonlyfrom the outside, from places lke NewTTereeyor Queen Reseatchers who study the Milky Way have the seine problem, ‘Toy cannct see the entirety of our galaxy, becausy, along with the reat of us, they'e right in the thick of. And yet there is no ¢vennie equlvelent of hopping the next trein to Hoboken ot Long, Island City to gain tne penoramie perspective they so desire ‘Thankfully, radio telescopes olfera solution, as astronomers Merk J. Reld and Xing-Wa Zheng explain in this month's cover story (rage 28), Using tousands of nours of obeervatlons from. several projects, hey end thelr colleagues were able to map the spiral structure of the Milky Wy In unprecedented detail and Detter pinpoint our solar system's location therein, The result is saunning new pleture of the whirlpool of sersw call home, ‘ying for the title of most amaaing ienage tn thle feaue ls a magnificent poruait of BdBersie medienterctica, an animel smaller than asecame seed, This o-called extremophiile makes ‘tsunlikelybome on the slopesof the Transantarctic Mountains, emuned in by crushing ice on one side and toxic soils on the other First glimpeed in 1964 but only reaiscovered two yeare ago, iubelongs to agroup of primitive, wingless relatives of insects, called springtalls. “They have suevived move than 30 [ee ages, yat go delicate are ‘heze creatures thet they shrivel and die almost as soon as the FROM THE EDITOR rvelis under which thoy Live axe overturned, Thus, we had no ¥2ea ‘wat the outeome would be wnen the biologists who found them generously agreed to snip afew ol ihe prize speciinens tobe pho: sograpnec. But lgorSiwanawre, aneursbielogist st the Howara Hughes Medical Institute, who specializes in capturing images of tiny creatures with a laser-scanning miezoscope and other tools, pulled it off wrth aplomb and as Journalist Douglas Fox reports Tualbergt is now rewriting the history of Antarctica ‘Dum to “Entreme Survivor” on pagr 60, to explore more, Here's someth ing elve to chew on: paleontologist Peter S Ungar’s fascinating tale (oage 48) about the evolution of uma ‘eetn end the shocking raveletion taat we in tae mogera worl have many more dentel problems than our ancientancestors As hh explaing, “Although teeth enduce for millions of years in the fosell recor, ours eannat g2em to last @ letlane In our mouths” ‘That is because our chempersars “ammitecle” of ewlutlonary ‘design at ine boin macroseopicand microscopic levee, forged in ‘the oral crueole over hundzeds of millions of years. But begin» lng with the transition from foraging to farming during the Neclitnle period 10.000 years ago and continuing through the Industriel Revolution, humans began eating softer, more eazbo. hnydrate-rich foodeto which our dental environment ieiladapted ‘The consequencesare the impacted molars, cavities and gum dis feage that are 90 common todas. ‘Stories lke these help us to underetana our place in the cos. ‘mos, the history of our planetand itsbeguilingdenizens,aswell athe rather astonish ing reason 0 many people have bad tect. Moreover, I nope thayall intl a respect for feat the grandest seeles of space and ime, ™ edna inet ber en ty trioneet Coben tnaaK tre Tarn Tptr omer Primo Boo edfowan fc oe she Prive Teor searo eon! Trainee, There angobte scion Tord ta xt ews hace tesa i es sscfnepeltnan| Memes ty Boca ek eos Pomeroy Spas Tey, tot ey Sharan, aon obi! ‘ha pray ai? Coir ofc nts Cyeternpeicadon Nt Comeege Concern ho Wd thie tan, ‘ovnattative a an apt TebsnPeebopnd ‘los ean oH Sw ecto Sey lures ta ‘nce hoger msc cepa nad hitwisre Meat tatsoidZcboy ete Fob ang Tht eh se DyaraaeaCnesttnin wit Des.oones selon ac ‘hora Hie ee | Poe Dis fora season a hoard Tesimscrttatemtach ssh Ienamiog aed ietE ee enigincdig ie tea MLC) Cant fom Tove Csinagassocyan cine occ, Spasms neue Seria ‘eon tosinghob aya he ‘erat bgnengeConpor Sooo bina eget Sot acon Taryseont Cupesiat¥eoang Um, Seman tv Boe Meets "avn a sani wali dprmee cries hor trae ‘argo Waites dna Si to somes ray tc Trannys Ou pas Qamaiorenn Apn 2026, Scnineanertesn.com 3 © 2020 Scientific AmericanLETTERS LOD MALS oN Las CL GGIES Oa, December 2019 BLACK HOLE BREAKOUT. In “Escape from a Black Tole?” Steven B, Giddings gives us a fascinating update on developments in the black hole informa- tion erisis the seeming paradox of quaa- ‘wm ules and general relativity indicat- ‘ng that black holes destroy information despite quantum mechanics saying that ‘information eannot be destroyed, ‘One thing puzzles me about his act count. He explains that the three leading candidate solutions to the crisis all have ‘the same thorny problem: they violate the principle of locality, which maintains that no influence can mewe across space faster ‘than the speed cflight. But Pve read else ‘where that the violation of Ieeality has already been rigorously established from Dott observations and theoretical analye ses of quantum entanglement. If that as sessment Is correct, why is such violation still garded as a problem for black hole ‘theories? And why doesnt Giddings men- jon tho confirmation of nenlocality in en- tanglement. studies as helping things slong for these theories? Bruce Roxen New York Chey GIDDINGS REPLIES: Eeker’s question re- fects a ccmmon misunderstanding of the precise meunis of locality in plusics, Te {i true that quarturm mechanics has prop- exties—specifcaliy, ewensiement—aat ap ‘pear to represent a kind of nonloeality ‘This observation famously bothered Ate “Lexpect that when truly intelligent computers arrive, we will be surrounded by artificial conscious- ness and not even realize it.” bert Kirstein, who referred to its conser quences as “spooky action at a distance.” Bue quantum field theory fully recemctes locality with quantum mechanics. AL howgie it exhibits entaristement, the pre- cise statement of locality is that there iso way to send a signad (meaning no way 1 tranemit information) nontocally—that ie, faster than the speed of light. Mere uan- ‘rum entanglement does nor allow such sig. naling. eis his locality property of quae tum field theory that directly conflicts with the statement that, apparently, infor ‘mation must escape a Black hele and that prompts us to consider modiications of ‘quantum field theory, CONSCIOUS DISTINCTION Christof Koch gives an interesting summa- ryof theories of naman consciousness and ‘whether computers can attain it in “Proust among the Machines” The popular me- dia—including Koch, it would seem—as- ‘sume that compare consciousness would bbe mich like our own, with a desire to be fee, safe and alive. But computers are so physically different from ourselves and ‘wir reason for exsting so different mat if thoy were to gnin consciousness, it would be very distinct from what we experience Take selfdriving cars, for example. ‘Their programming, or walning, is a kind of evolutionary process where the best- performing connections win out. If ears being conscious would recult in better driving, then, sooner or Later, it would hap pen ‘The only thing such a car would “want,” however, woukl be to stay on the road and not hit anything. Behavior auch as admiring the scenery would not con- tnibute to good driving and would be elimi- nated in the training. What would it be like to “be” such a ear? The experience would be so distant from our own that we would pPobably not racognize it as consetousness expect that when truly intelligent com- puters arrive, we will be surrounded by ar= tifiial consciousness and not oven realize it Or maybe we already are. Paut Cousounse Ortawa PLASTICS AND CLIMATE In “Learning to Love Plastic® [Ventures Wade Roush asserts thet standard plastic Js good for the environment because ft traps carbon that would contribute to cli- ‘mate change and Wat we should thus aot adopt biodegradable plastic to reduce ‘waste. Hisargument isfawed in woways. The first is a misunderstanding of the problem, whicahe identifies as the carbon intensity of biodagrading plastics. The re- Jease of carbon dioxide isa natural part of biodegradation, yet Roush implies this isa problem unique to biodegradable plastics. Fallen leaves on the forest floor do the seme. If anything, the problem wit bio- degradable plastics is that they/re weaker than those derived from petrochemicals, ‘and tn the same issue of Stontgic Amert- «an, *Bioplastics for a Circular Economy.” by Javier Garcia Martine, highlights of- {for's to stiensthen biodegradable plastics as one of the “Top 10 Emerging Tachnolo- ies of 2019” ‘The second flaw in Roush's position is more important: he fails to recognize that ‘we can tare two problems at once. Biode- stadable plastics are a hepeful solution to a serious problem: plastic palution. They fare not the root cause of 0 different but certainly more serious problem: climate change because of anthropogenic carbon emissions. Thankfully, we are developing other solutions to selve that problem tat don't involve treating petrochemical plas- tice as carbon sinks, Zacaaay Ersteis Houston, Tex, 1 was appalled to see the following staie- ment in Roustis article with no support- Jing documentation: ‘And your supposedly eco-conscious loth grocery bag is more damaging to the environment than con~ ‘ventional plastic bagsunless you reuse it Iierally thousands of times” This “idea” dofies logic and demands evidential sup- port. A reasable, plant-based cotton bag 4 Sclentie American, Ape 3020, © 2020 Scientific American> CR er aa meee my Smarten up TERE EL) Ss Se ea eee ee ere eee ad i Do you really need your ch to pay for your coffee? We say keep your money in your pocket, not on your wrist. Stawer'SMART gives you everything you Peter ent eee ne eee ees Keep an eye on your health with heart rate, blood pressure** and sleep Track your steps and calories burned. 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Peis Soe) SS eee eA aE D hay el Ure Please use this code when you order to receive your discount. recente fies Ce ar ry nny nctororany omen saroearinee ta tena poorer ted pa ecb aenteeceared rote eterna iy eter ohm th nesta presets sit baer trea“! Se PNT (a cane staca coeur nen ee eee eet eee ee ed aoc poe ee eee eae iilMER mi ie “SGIENTIFIC % m \CIENTIFIC AMERICAN Digital archive access back to 1845 including articles by Einstein, Curie and other timeless luminaries in more than 7,000 issues! 12 print and digital issues of Scientific American per year More than 150 eBooks and Collector's Editions Access to Scientific American Mind, Space & Physics and Health & Medicine More than 200 articles per month, including news and commentary, ‘on ScientificAmerican.com Per Rea ne)LerTers ‘will most certainly degrade more quickly and with less harm than a petroleum Dased plastic one, ‘The war to cave oar environment re- quires maximum effort oneveryone'spart. No effort in this regard is too small, Irs E. Brrrscu Santa Barbara, Calif ROUSH REPLIES: My column about plas tie was meant t0 combat the idea that “biodegradadie mens “safe for the erate ronment.” Quite the reverse is trus ff your ‘parasnennt goat 48 0 lnwer greenhouse gus emissions, Epstein is right chat fallen leaves bio- degrade. Bat if humans can avoid adding 10 the natural carton eyelet thls case, by ewitehing to monbiodegradable beplas tic and disposing of it responsibly then ‘ee should. Plastic pollution remains a significant problern. But te sotutton ts to stop abandoning plastic éa the enaciron- ‘ment, not to hope thas it decays there. To respond to Briteeh’s comment: A bag’ ful lifecycle impact is wleat cours. Reusable cotton bags often consi of cot- fon grown on farms in China that use enormeus amounts of irrigation water and are manufactured én textile planes that ran on coal-fired eletricity_In.a thor- ug 2017 report, the Canadian govermn- ‘ment corporation Reeye-Qnébec deter- mined that a cotton bag must be reused DBewveen 100 and 3000 tkies to bring its fecyele impact loel down to that of a conventional plastic (high-density poly. ethylene) bag used just once, ERRATA “GPS Down,” by Paul Tullis, should nave indiowed that the civilian and military signals sent by GPS satellites are distin ‘guished by special bite of code, not en eryption keys. “Say Vision,” by Belinda J. Wilkes, in- conectly implied tat the supernova that ‘rcated the neutron star in the Crab Nebu- Ja oceurved in the year 1053, It was fist observed on Earth at that time but had ‘occurred thousands of years easlle “Odd Disturbances Pierce the Unie verse,” by Katie Peek [Graphic Science], erroneously deseribed tho lasore in two LIGO gravitational-wave detector sites as located underground. They run in above- ground tubes 25 miles lone. SCIENTIFIC peo sth, ta 2 nen ture evar snare Makan “croqocan st Garant ‘spqcutsesansuy anna Teapsn “Sarr ae somone nn Says ster bas sss eo Spe tate sexouomeyucven eyes“ sours Saye moreno prey Sem cman eae ccna Hato nee Ueto sist ete stot sine caea aes as mapa Steamer a See art ae ase ttveral, Cte, arate. Garon Nox Mi ate Pook, oes Mane Stan ‘ommutwemara Eidathip memeaserarvavee May oucaspret Ramen chon Woe aan ‘curity on Beta ‘secret Darech ae! Dean Sanderson stecvconsons Webelfind vanenc conto Ary venouornamaunennennsie SoiwePacel ka onenncor army Ae semrcone mmo tansreier a oumoercrme amy Bp odes pba ne steerer hy mere rer aa names Sethe ve ny re sitio cma ovo es parry coma Re ‘coeoue Sedticwss ecsacientt ide aera” sreunoncn oes Daa Seu Aan Naw Yor a iN ok NYO areca ews roe ela We evecare eho Tandecenaranariet St anette akon an Te sutscitoes ayers ters scented — “ahaimarseits — seicmnes eae manent erm ay ewer esas 28 coe Nor Een ——— Sten Saaete a ame | eee, soe te “Soa ane —— — ee Se i —| ccc ‘pmaeusidieeloowsie. Rostykcyedustioestcoasi —" UelSauinabe ute April 2020, SeientincAmerscn.com 5: {© 2020 Sefentific AmericanSPONSOR FEATURE ‘Our universe began with 1 bang—a big bang. The ‘explosion stretched the vety fabric of spacetime, sending superheated matter n all rections. Asitexponded, the matter cooled and started to ogeregate, forming atoms, then ‘elements, then stars, galaxies and, ultimately all we know and see today, For physicist and cosmologist Alan Guth, ‘one big question about the big bang remains: *What was it that banged?" The anwer lies init theory of cosmicinilation. "It sets up the Conditions forthe big bang—like ‘ prequel.” says Guth, a professor of physics at MIT. For developing that theory, Guth and two of his colleagues, Andrei Linde at Stanford University and Alexei Starobinsky atthe Landau Institute for Theoretical Physi ofthe Russian Acadamy of Sciences near Moscow, were anarded the 2014 Kavli Prize in astrophysics ‘According tothe theory, in the trllonth of a trilionth ofa second before the big berg, en exotic form of matter exerted a counterintuitive force: gravitational repulsion. ‘Although we norrnally think of sravity as being attractive (picture Isaac Newton and the faling apple), Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity allows for such gravitational repulsion, BIG QUESTIONS FROM.. ALAN GUTH As a postdoctoral fellow, physicist Alan Guth developed the theory of cosmic inflation, which describes the early universe before the big bang Here, he shares his thoughts on what existed before that: a backward world where the past is the future and where infinite parallel pocket universes pop into existence. Under the conditions present inthe early universe, when temperatures were extraordinarily high. Guth says the existence ‘of this material was reasonably likely. “it only has tobe a speck he says. “But when that speck starts to inflate, the expansion is ‘exponentil.” CContempiating those fateful ‘events—and what happened next— Guth says. raises some of the most fascinating questions in science: How did our universe begin, where isit going, ond what caused it to existin the first place? "We don't necossarily expect to ~ansner those questions next year he adds. But “anything that makes small steps towards understanding the ancwors is teiling Here, Guth addresses some of those mysteries, including where ‘our universe comes from, what ese is out there, and how inflation may have spawned primorcial black holes, a hypothetical entity that could represent the universe's long sought-after dark mater. ‘What was there before inflation started? That is something | have been thinking about in the context cof a paper that I'm writing with Sean Carroll {at Caltech). The idea is thatthe universe is actually eternal. It existed at all times, so there is no beginning to exon, The laws of physics themselves don't seem to make any significant istincton between the future and the past. As the universe evolves,SPONSOR FEATURE its entropy. or disorder will grow. What we call the future 's simply the direction of higher entropy astate of Jower entropy is what we call the past. ut acurious thing hhappens if you take this initial low entropy state and follow ‘tbackwards in time, towards what we previously called the past the entropy will also start to grow in that direction. | tink that the people living falong that arcow of time] would not feel anything ciferent from What we feel. Everybody will think that they/e living from the past towards the future, except what they callthe future willbe what we call te past What can inflation tellus about the forces that hold our tuniverse together? Ifthe only matter in the galaxies was the ‘matter we see, there would not be nearly enough gravity tohold galaxies together. With them spinning as fast as they ate, they would just fly apart— or they would never have formed in the fst place. The assumption is that there must be other matter present to create a stronger gravitational field to hold the matter in, ‘even at these high velocities That's dark matter In collaboration with other physicists and students, fm calculating the production of primordial black holes in 2 version of inflation called hybrid inflation, Primocdial black heles could conceivably bbe dark matter. They could also be the seeds that ledto the supermassive black holes that we see in the centers of selaxies—black holes that have ‘milion and even billions at solar masses. fwe could find primordial black holes would bbe ahuge thing Isouruniverse all there is? The theory of eternal inflation says that once inflation starts, itmever completely stops Rather, it ends in places, and Universes form there, We callthom pocket universes because they're not everything that exists, We are living in ‘one ofthese pocket universes. ‘And even though the pocket Universes keep forming, there's always a volume of exctic repulsive grevity material that canin‘late foraver, producing aninfinite number ofthese Pocket universes ina never ending procession. ach individual pocket Universe will presumably ultimately die, in the sense that itwillrun out of energy and cool down. But inthe big picture of allthe pocket Universes, fe would nat only go.on eternally, but ‘there'd be more and more fit every instant ‘Are there any drawbacks tolivingin amultiverse? The problem with having an Infinite multiverse ts that if youesks simple question Tice,“ you fipacoin, what's the probability it wll come up heads" normally you would s2y50 percent, But inthe context of the muitiverse, the ansneris that there's an infinite number of heads and infinite number of tails. Since there’s no unambiguous way of comparing infitios,thera's no ‘lear way of saving that some types of events are common, and other types of events are rare, That leads to fundamental ‘questions about the meaning ‘of probability. And probability is crucial to physicists because cur basic theory is quantum theory, which is based on probabilities, so we had better know what they mean, Toleory mare itn toe oacas wit Alon Guth 98 DonfcAmeicencom. Ao, oy tuned forthe anncuncerert cf thenext Kou Pee aueates ‘onntey 2, 2020 1. When our universe was atallonth of 3 tilionth of a trlionth of second ld, ‘twesan unimaginably hot, dense speck far smaller than an elactron. Comic background fterslon Oyears +! 13.8bilion years THE we THEBIG BANG'S BEGINNINGS Cosmic inflation theory solves certain mysteries the conventional big bang theory doesn't, including what already existed ‘and what drove it to expand. 2. Gravitational repulsion expands space-time itself atatiliontrilion 10%s times the speed of ight 3. The universe cools ast expands. 4.The universe fethe size ofa marble. Gravity now attracts rather than repels Time period of cosmic inflation ho First atoms: Fst stars First galacies Cosmic inflation predicts many big bangs, creating rultple expanding » universes ‘multiverse Overlapping universes KAVLI PRIZESCIENCE AGENDA OPINION AND ANALYSIS FROM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN'S BOARD OF EDITORS An Erratic Finger on the Button The U.S. president alone should not be able to start a nuclear war Exports generally agroo that tho world care dosest to nuclear ‘war during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, when te US. and the USSR. faced offon the issue of Soviet ballistic missiles boing Installed just.60 miles away from thee American mainland. Ih the ‘end, President John F, Kennedy found a way to back away from the brink of disaster: he wasrational enough to see the inevitable catastropie that would have resulted from “pashing the button.” [But what if he hadif' been? Since the atomic bomb was firs. ‘used against Japan in 1945, all US. presidents have had wide lat- jimde to order a nuclear attack. And although we donit dwell on the fact, prychiatrie and neurological disorders are not uncom- ‘mon among people wo ascend to the world’s most powerful of- fice. Lyndon B, Johnson and Richard M. Nixon displayed behav ‘or suggestive of paranoia. Eater, Abraham Lincoln showed signs of depression. In fact, the study of presidents from 1776 to 197% ‘ound that nearly half the top office holders demonstrated signs ‘ofpsychopathology Thepotantial for irrational decision-making cies out forlimits on the power to destroy the world. Wnin brings us to Donald Trump. Erratic behavior nas been the norm during his presidency. Trump's order forthe precipitous assassination of Iraris high-ranking officer Qassem Soleimani in January is only the most recent example, Shortly after he took of- ‘hee, Trump threatened North Korea's leader Kim Jong-an with, “fre and fury like the world has never seen.” Then he turned around and declared that he and the dictator were “in love," d= sending Kim even when the country continued to conduct missile tests: The fulllist of Trump’ capricious behaviors would fl many pages. The American Psychiatric Association states that it i un- ethical to offer aprofessional opinion about someone before athor- ‘ough medical examination, but some psychiatrists have begun to argue that breaching the rule fs justified in this case for the pub- lic good. And practitioners have followed through: hundreds of psjcilatristsand medical professionalssubmitied adocunnent 0 Congress last December stating thot‘Trumps mental health was declining during the course of te impeachment proceed ings. highly impulsive US. president should not be able to single- Inandedly start agiobal nuclear conflagration that could Kill ens ‘of millions of people. Trump himself might even agree.The self- styled “stable genius” tweeted in 2014: “The global warming we should be worried about isthe glcbal warming caused by NUCLEAR WEAPONS in the lands of erazy or incompetent leaders! ‘He wae right Fortunately there are a few possible solutions ‘that may be brought tobear. Proposals have circulated to require Cc either Conaress or cabinet officials to give assent to any first use ‘of nucleat weapons. And Section 4 ofthe 25th amendment 1 the Constitution can be invoked to determine whether a president is Atte continue serving in ofie. The apocalyptic danger posed by an unstable president with hisorher finger on the nuclear button would be moot ifthe world scrapped nuclear weapons entirely. Falling that, the mest mpor- tant measure the US. could take as the worl’s preeminent mili- tary power should be to pledge never to initiate a first strike—a promise we have never made despite lawmakers efforts—signal- ‘ng tnat our current ruclear arsenal serves solely asa deterrent In tandem, given that the nuclear early-waming system activates every day, usually in tesponse toa roeket launching somewhere ‘onthe gobe, the US. should take nukes off their current launch ‘on-varning status to remove the pressure on any president to re- spond in minutes to what may well be a false arm. “The legislation needed toeniact any one of these measures may Ihave to avait @ new administration and a shift away from the wn- ‘precadented partisanship that divides the US. political ene Pub- lie ear of nukes appears tohave abated somewhat from the time ‘when every schoolenild nad to practloeduek-and-cover drs Si ‘hopeful sign of congressional willingness to imploment » chock ‘onpresidential power came from the massing of bipartisan Se ate votes in response to the Soleimani killing vo limit Trump's au- ‘thority to take miliary action in Tran. ‘Whether Demoerat or Republican, any post‘Trump oxi tration should prioritize nudear de-escalation while maintaining ceurity: My-button-ie-bigger-than-yours tweets ehould be ro- ‘placed with reminders ofthe Joint statement made by Ronald Rea- ‘gan and Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev in 1087: "A nuclear var cannge be won and must never be fousht.” JOIN THE CONVERSATION ONLINE ‘is SceficAmerican on Facebcok and Titer orsendaleter tothe edkor editors@xdam.com 1 Sclentific American, April 3020 {© 2020 Sefentific American j ;rue @ GREAT Courses’ Introduction to Astrophysics Unravel the Physics of Everything beyond Earth Everyone loves to see the beauty of the star-studded night sky, but how many of us understand what makes stars shine, where Saturn's rings ccome from, or why galaxies have thei distinctive shapes? 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Dark Matter ee een) Prd Dey Cary Chireniertprpeteal-f hierar) SAVE UP TO $200 PND) cua Cree ar toec) For over25 years, The Great Courses nas brought Ce ere ee ed reece cers te eae ee ee en eae nett Pein reece eat acai) cere ai oo) courses available at vnwn TheGreatCourses comFORUM COMMENTARY ON SCIENCE IN THE NEWS FROM THE EXPERTS Stand Up for Female Surgeons Their male colleagues are abusive, and we must all be part of the solution Asa male surgeon, [ am mortified mat the profession allows ‘my female colloaguos to be treated like second-class eitizons Thave watched women surgeons get bullied, harassed and dis- criminated ogninst by their male counterparts. I have seen a ‘countless number of their careers crumble In front of my eves, have seen their tears. | have sen them go into a deep hole of depression and never come back. And ['m embarrassed to say that for along time, I did nothing about it New reseateh[s shining light onto the pervasiveness of sex- ual harassment, intimidation and prejudice in our world of sur- xety—but this is something that doctors have known about for decades: Its deeply ingrained in our culture of medicine —and it needs to change. While the rest of tie world seems to be ‘embracing the #MéToo movement, we are running from it. Asa result, most cases of abuse are going unaddressed. And this is leading to burnent and suleldal thoughts among surgeons, It’s also bad for patients, When a person places one's life in the hands of a surgeon, one assumes that she or he is sin. sularly focused on the patient’ well-being. But how can sur- sgeons perform at thetr best if ey are battling workplace abuse? Like many male surgeons, [have been afraid to speakup out Chethan Sethe species endioumab based | Naw York iy Fol bimon Tot etcetera ‘of fear that it would destray my reputation among senior sur- geons in power, who are more often than not men I am not alone. “Men are bystanders They know something is wrong, ‘They know someone is taking advantage of the situation, But ‘medical training is hierarchical, and most men find it hard to challenge someone with more authority” says Zeno Franco, soclate professor at the Medical College of Wisconsin, And frankly, many male surgeons don't care enough ta do 80. AA study in the New England Jenrnal of Medicine showsthat about a third of surgical trainees in the US. experience gendor discrimination or verbal and physical abuse, Nearly two mids of female surgeons-in-raining experience gender discrimina- tion, and one in five is sexually harassed—often by senior super- ‘ising surgeons. Another survey showod that 58 percent of US. ‘women surgeons experienced sexual harassment within the Tas, ‘year, and many incidents were not reported. The most.common, reason: “fear of a negative impact om my career.” Discrimination and abuse are daily occurrences for many ‘womten surgeons; the perpetrators include co-workers, patients and their families, and nurses, says Atghavan Salles, scholar in residence at the Stanford University School of Medicine. “This isan epidemic” she says. "Not just one bad actor” Because ‘women are scarce in academic surgery, says Karyn Butler, apro- fessor of surgery at the Sidney Kimmel Medical College of ‘Thomas Jefferson University, “they are the minority trying to convince the majority And getting ahead fs based on reputation, among colleagues, making it easy for one's career to be de- stroyed for speaking out. To avoid sexual harassment at work, she notes, many women surgeons have resorted to demeaning ‘ground rules, ike “always wear a shirt under your serubs,or else ‘male surgeons willlook down at your chest” ‘Men must acknowledge that discrimination and harass- ‘ment in surgery are a problem, Butler seys, and they need to stepup. When we witness gender abuse, we need to support the ‘victim and call out our colleagues or make sue that leadership fis doing something about it. When we see great ideas from ‘women surgeons being discounted o7 undeservingly credited ‘to men, we can redirect the conversation, We can implore ou institutions to hire and promote equitably. We can demand ‘hat they acknowledge maternity rights. ‘I mysolfhave started raising those issues with my malo eol- leagues. Some think the problem is overblown, and a few are ‘outraged, But Ive been gratified to see that many are support- Ive of these efforts. We have had @ number of conversations around the tepie, and most have been highly produetive, with ‘women feeling confortable sharing their storiesof abuse. | urge urgeons at other institutions to begin talking as well. They may fear that heir careers could be at risk, but our female colleagues ‘wouldn't hesitate to stick their necks out forus. Let's show them Ht they are not alone, & JOIN THE CONVERSATION ONLINE ‘is SceficAmerican on Facebcok and Titer orsendaleter tothe edkor editors@xdam.com 10 Ssontie American, Apel 2080 tray iy atte {© 2020 Sefentific AmericanAdvanced Rechargeable ital Hearing Technology Only *229!" nye (Each when you buy a pait) 5 Star Reviews! Outstanding Product! “This product is outstanding. 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(Coupon Code & Price Valid For A Limited Time Only) earl "| (3 Eaa| @ = FDA REGISTERED Visit and Save: ne a Te TTT)+ A form of psychotherapy can protect, against cellular aging + New bandage mateal boosts clotting and repels bacteria + Mollusks inspire flexible, scaly armor + Underwater toloscopes will peer through the dapths to meactire elusive partices Feathe Fliers A pigeon-based robot could inspire next-generation drones ‘As farback as tearus’sil attemat, humans have looked to bird fo claviation inspiration in our airborne endeavors. But uly trdlice fight with flexible, Featrered wings nas long aluded us; for ene thing, engineers heve struggled to understand row nie central wing feathers. But two ‘new stuces could change that. Research: ort recently designed.and flew a robot with featrered wings thetcan change shoe mid- fight ke birds do, giving t greater mancu- verablity then rgie drones. Todesign tre winged robot, che researchers fist used motion-copture video 0 examine how pigeons fold and flex their wings while flying. Based on the result hey determined I was possible to contol 20 feathers on each wing af arebot— which they duaned "PigeonBat"—via elastic bands connected to just two joints. They aso used moder gain now insight into how micrescopie siructures temporarily hook many bird species’ feathers tone another during fight. PigeonBot needs ea feathers io work s0researchers mt stl find ways artificially reproduce feathers’ qualities 0 take the technelogy to the next level The sclenulsts medeled the robor's wing ‘and feather movements clozelyen those of ive pigeons, says study co-eutho Chang, a mechanical engineer tStaniord University. Pigeons can sharply urn and ani by changing their wing shape, an caurribute the researchers wanted to build imaging wernology 10 JOIN THE CONVERSATION ONLINE Vist Scene American on Facebook and Twitter © 2020 Scientiffe AmericanADVANCES into their flier. Motion-eaature fectage showed now pigeons do this primarily ay ‘opening end closing their wrist joints. ‘Once the researchers bul protiype— 2 feom-beord body with endoerdectroric ‘guidance systems andelastic bands contro ling real pigeon foathors—they first floxed its wings ina wind tunnel to determine if ‘could function in blustory reckworldcond- lions. worked saving Lie way fr glcing land wring tests auteide the laboratory, Chang pote Figeo Bot from the ground and deseritesit az anineredbly nerve: ‘wracking experience: When] we had landed in one peca, | do remember collaoe- {gon the ground afterward in this sense of voli’ ho say. The scientists ouslished thelr results in January In Scknce Rodos. Pigeon featrors can automatically attach to their neighbors woforma smooth, {erie lying surface, and Pigoontet’s mak- cers facto igure autexactly how. Like mary bied species, pigeons sccomplsh thi with microscopic structures called lobate cl, nich omitholagists documentocearly in the 20th century. But partly because of tie lit of ligat microscopy atthe time, they assured birch’ labote cla worked by sin ply increasing fnetion netwaen feathers, ‘uct lke ruabing pieces of sancpoper ‘together, says Teresa Fee, zoologist at the Smithsonian National Mucoum of Nat Ural History, who contributed to a second ‘paper from tne team in Sionco, algo in Jon uy. “What we discovered isthe actual ‘mechanism of these loaateelia—thatit ie not friction, but hooking." Feo says. The team demonstrated how these cia ralease ‘hen birds fold their wings and grabeach Cotner again wnan tre wings are extonded ‘Ther new understanding was made possible by modern analytic tosmniques such as scannhigelectronand way micros- Cony and CT scans, says study co-author Laura Matloff,2 mecherical engineer at Stanford. “We're te first to realy revisit [lott cla) with this new instrumenta- tion,” the says. But there ere still mysteries ebouthow natural feathers work. Tae esearch group found thatthe cla are notably absent from feathers of narn owls and nighjars, two species that stalk preyat night. Like Yel, te merostuetures are noisy w/nen they detach; in these stealtry hunters, ‘evolution may have favored silent fiat ‘over feather connectivity. “i's pretty clear that this san example of convergers evar lution, where there was atrade-off” says Jul Clee, a paleontologist at the Univer- sy of Texas ot Austin, whe was notinvalved Inthe studies. Clarke i intrigued oy the ci [a's evolutionary nistory, although the says the tiny sructures may be hard to findin the fesel record, Emulating features vat help mate fying surfaces eof out sturdy could be invakioole designing artificial morphing wings— key step to ouilding next-gonoration drones. Typical quadcogter-style drones are maneuverable and adept at hovering fn place. but Chang says winged drones could be faster and cpictor. The Stanford tears looking at ovr to best design not {pst “an actual wing shape that gives you more eficiency, bt [the abily] to change thatwing shape very dynamically" for streamned fight, he ays. ‘The research “points the way ta new forms of ciomimetic fying robots tat could have lot of useful applications," saye Phil {et sty Therapy for Cells ‘Cognitive-behavioral therapy improved cellular aging markers in people with social anviety Depression, anxiety and other peychiatie disorders can aso influence rysical heath; ‘thoy er linked with increased risk ofheart disease, for earnpie, and shorter Ife expec- taney. Recent research suggests tit may be related toaccelerated aging—anr new ‘work find that a form of puroly peychologi- caltherapy can havea patectivephysio~ logo offect. ‘A studyled by cnical psychologist KB coffer Minzzon ofthe Karoline Incite fa ‘Sweden showed tat cogitive-behayiorel ‘therapy (CBT), acermman payehetrerepy technique, ot only reduced arwety levels in 14 Sefentiie American, Api! 2020 ‘povole with social amety cisorder but also Improved collar agingmariers for some patients This finding could ultimately nelp Clnicans personalze treatments. TTelomeres,shert DNA sequences that cap crromosomes ends to protec: them from damage, indicate cellar age. Each time acalldvides to drvegrowth and repak,itstelomeres shorten. The enzyme telomerase maintains hem tn. exter, but coventuell trey shorten somucn that ells canno longer divide, and signs of body aging appear. Telomeresclzo shorten through eeilar damage caused iy highly oxicizing motocuiescalledfreeracicale. Mary studies lnk stress with shortar telomeres. Andin 2015 researchers led by nical asychologlst Jasine Verhoeven of, ‘Ameterdam Universty Medical Center found tat patients with an active arxety deordar had shortatlomerae than thote In remission or heathy controk. inthe new study, publisnad last Dacem= berin Translational Poychietny the scientists © 2020 Sctentific American first coo two blood samples, nine weeks. apart from 46 poopie wit social anxioy s+ corde. They measured the subjects telomere loagth as well as ovat of tolomerass ond glutathione geronidase (GPs), an atioxidert enzyme tat countoraets free radical dem- age. The participants received nine weeks of online CBT andtnen gaveanether emai, ‘Al measuresremained rgely unchanged cover tie ta sampler ariorto theraay. But afterward) the subjects had increased GPs, Mavens by mas RakeHusbands, bioinspirod robotieist atthe Uni \ersiy of Sussax, who was not involved in ther story. “An interesting future challenge might be tha development of soft artifeil feathers thet can maton the real thing in moe phingebil ‘Soft, feathered wings ara"camplataly Unusual in apraspace engineering” —and auik ing awarking artifcil feather romaine ¢ mar challenge, says David Lentink, an aerospace ‘enginear anc experimental zoologist 2 Sean ford are principal investigator on both stusies, Structuranauch as lobcea cla ara curontly tao. smal for -Dprintersto handle, he adds Bil, Pigoce B's currant incarnation could help zaciogins better understand how bids convolthair wings during fight, Lacks Ie scifout to tudy livebids ina vind tune! ar natty impeasbleto tran ther to rave jst avr orasinglefrger inten commard. "My ‘geal 's to davelop reve ralistiemadelscf rcs and providea range of spaces thatfly very ef- ferent" heads. Museurshavea wethol ‘pathora tht coulc bo used in robots that mimic ‘ther bcs, lowing sciernisisto sty cvorsty of ight Lanting explains. And rape animals wth robetscan redzethe avery broad rangeof tings thetyoucan study with these roonts,"hesays. “Thora arenumerous sent ing sen eos tor arimal rasacren. “Thos ‘quesicratin spinout omthis” — Jim Daly lvelson average Talomerata alsa roaaamang patients whose anxiety levels berefited most foorn trast although activity averaged ‘overall partcpanta did not change. There were ‘even indications thattalarnoraia activity ould predicttreatmant response, “The people with thelones welamarasehad greater improve- ‘montiy ays Verhoeven, who was rat involved inthestudy. "This nexdstobe replicated, bt I's aninteresting lead for futureresaareh” Alonger study might show changes to ‘telornaes therreahas nine weeks vas too short for thet, according to Mnsson. Neverte- laws the ratearch suggests purely behavioral chargexcen affect hedth atacelliarleve. "Our biology Is earkably dyrami” Mansson .s37."And tsoerns to respond quite quis ‘exer |ust wanks, witha behavioral intervention” *Paychiatry avery divided betwaan tha poy ‘ological and biological" Vertoeven says. "This pepercornects those fields” These reauts could alsa hap ralave che stigmaat marca laa, sreadde: i's not something that'sanlyin your heed'saso inyour body” —Sinon Makin ©2020 Setentifie Ameriean Over 51 Features & Apps in this New Version! Over 500,000 registered users worldwide i De te I eek 6,500+ Colleges & Universities. Be cee Aico ney ee ete Reseed Pre ad OTsADVANCES PALEONTOLOGY Future Fossils Humans’ and domesticated animals’ influence will ‘overwhelm the fossil record Humans have bocome a deminert force fon the planet, driving species extinctions, ‘waneforming the landeoane end changing the climate. And this infuence wil ely ‘outleetHono sapiens ty milion of years: ‘we as look set to dorninate paleontology inthe citant futuro, according to research publishedin March in Antropocene. The new xudy finde that mammalian fossle {rom the current peopie-centric geologic 290 willcontict amostentiraly of humans, livestock and acts. ‘We andur srimalsarejustgoingto totaly flood the mernmalian fossil record” ‘395 Roy Plotnik, 2 paleontologett the Univesity of irc at Chicago are! ead autaor ofthe stuxty “The uue fos record cof today will include lots of aman skeletons allinedupina row” ‘Therecent research wasaratul folowe upto 2016 aaperin which Plainiecandiie colleagues examined whether endangered species would wind up nthe feel record. MEDICINE A Cut Above Blood-repelling bandage material also helps with quick dotting Hamorrhage—blood escaping profusely froma rupturedvessel—tsa leading cause of potenialy preventable deatn, Bandages ‘often falto top tho bleeding, Bur receareh- lerssay they nave developed a bester kind of drossing: one that repels blood and bae- tea, promoxes quic< clowing and decaches ‘witaoutreaponingtis intial wound. While developing biood-epeling coat ings fer medical dovicos, scientists atthe National Univesiy of Singapore and the ‘Swiss Fedora Institute of Technology in Zurich found at one minvure of carbon nanofisers andiiconehadn unexpected effect: boosted blood clotting. So they sprayed the misture ento conventional act tongauzeend applied heat to mace itstick 16 Sefentiie American, Apri! 2020 ‘They found that less than 9 percent of mam> mak curry thretoned with extinction wal kely make the aut. ftrlearning which feesls weuld not be pratent Plotniccsaye he was curious to see wiicn woul ‘So herd co-author Karen Koy, pale- ‘cntologistat Missouri Western State Uni- versity, exhaustively reviewed studies of how the aumizersof mumans livestock and vile animals and ter cist eution nave changedover time, bot globaly andin the slate of Michigan. For tn lattar, they com- pred cemetery and andl locations to ‘tes where Pleistocene and Helocene ‘mammatan fossis tend to occur They abso considered naw humen treatment of remains diffs from natural processes. ‘Theresearchersfouneithat even ze wld animal aurice's plummet worldwide, hu- ‘man doveloament ial crowding out 4 inlaboravory wstsand experiments with rats, they observed that tris new bandage ‘promoted the production of fins, proves that forma meshiice noowork at wound sites waid eluting. The nandage ako stayed dry, repeting blood, whicn madeit cosy to pull away froma wound—andan vestigation Using Escherichia cof chowed nat bacterin solution could notachere to the material. ‘The research dezeribed their findrge act December i Nature Communications {© 2020 Sefentific American Meat processing wil produce distinctive fossil marshlands and other places mast conducive to fossibfor ning processes Comnined witn the vast rumbersof humans and ‘omesticated animas ac- ‘cupying the planet—96 por cantof al mammals on exrthare people-crive- stock, according to.22018 study—theee findinge sug ‘gest very low chances of wi animes being representodinthe fossil record. (Pitiic« and Kay so precietcatsanel dogs wil ikely be preserved, bacecon thei goograpical spread) And future fossils will arobably look ‘mucr diferent from moet feund today. For ‘@arele, they wil indude sawed animal ‘bones from indusrial-scale meat process- ing completeand aligned human skeletons ncamoteres, and mass assomolages of Ivestock carcasses landils. “These changes’ sheer sales “stagger ing” says Kate Lyons,a paleoecoloaistat the Unversity of Necraske-Lincela, wno \wasnetinvalved in the new research, “AS | wae reading tre parer,|wasthinding sedly of allthe ecological questions that | amabletoascusing the Plastocene foes recordtrat will be unanswerable using this future fess record” = —Rachal Nuwer ‘Sudyco-auther Choon Hwai Yap, biomedical onginoorin ingepore, says more testsare need to understand wy the nanofibers encourage fin formation But henotes thet producing the motels Inoxpensive and couldbe replicated ona larger cele." think the new bondage cen rrakea big ference serious wound, such as ina car accident or ontaebatle- fil" Yap says.“in these sitions you wwantto provent loosing very quis by repelling tack no the wourd, instead of sccking and draining blood fromtre body” ko Kanhuri,apharmacologist aie University of Haltnk who was not volved inthenew study, cutions vat hnumon vel weuld ve neededte prove the bandage’srel capabites. This study pre- sented vo very frst observation ofthe materials prozertis on blood and in very auto, uncomplicated weunde;" Kankuri says. "Tneresulisare very god andprom- ‘eng, but aboratory conltone re very/tar from actual clinical realty.” —ian Kamer i— IN NA ramawerk Dengue vu —Anigenste Artgon cuter E : Researchers built a framework from DNA that binds to particular proteins the dengue Virus uses to snag host cls. The framework (dark ice ights up once attached. BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE DNA Trap ‘Anew test clings to dengue virus Scientists have erafted a rap for the den ‘ue vins using ascaffold mace from frag- ‘ments of DNA, The star-shaped svucwre ieengineeredite single out the virus inthe blocdstreem and lich on toit with grec slon, providing a aowerful yet simple test to detect tre mosquizo-transmitied disease. Dangueis tne world fastest-growing ‘yector-bore disease, with mukiol serious foutbreaks in 2019. Ins severe forme, f-can cauze internal bleedingend issometimes fatal, There is no widely accepted vaccine or targeted treatment for dexgue, so accu rate early detections ucla “The spherical surface of the dengue vitus Ispepperedwith antigens, special proteins the Virus uses te attach to the eee infects Sclewisis led ty Xing Wang, biochemist atthe University of lino at Urbana- ‘Champaign, constructed flexible scaffold using DNA nanoteennelogy to mirrarthe proteins’ arangementon a hemisanere of the vial surizce. Tre tips and vertices of this fve-poimied "DNA sta" align wth che antigons and carry molecules that thay giomon to. The multiple ascent pois ‘male the binding strongandvery prec, the researchers say: te DNA star targets only viruses with that particular patter. nee binding occurs, the star fuoresces, or lighteup,signelingtie precence of the vue. “Thisise greatexemate of how DNA nanotechnology can solve real aelogicel problems,” says Mingxu You, whe leads 2 rucleicacid chomistry research group at Ue University of Massachusetts Armerst ‘and was net involved inthe study. "Com= pared wit current dengue-detection] tacrniques, this NA probe exhibits exck- ing sensitivity and simplicity.” Current goké-standard dengue tests reqpire sophisticated laboratory set-ups ‘and taining. “Ourtachnology is very sin- ple; we need only one to two minutes, and ‘he costs only 80 cents foreacn test” ‘Weng say In their Nature Chemisty pa per, published in January, the researchers ‘compare their technology with current clinical tests and make 2 case for ie supe ror sensitivity and accuracy. It should work before symptoms appear, and tne DNA nenestructures are nontoxic and friewdly to human tissue, the resaarchers say. Dengue’s surface eattern is comelex, Wang adds, so DNA nanostructures must be molded into comolicated geomet. shaoes to match, Simpler viruses would vroqpie simeler designs. ‘Wangis now colahorating with ‘Sherwood Yoo, CEO of Atom Bioworks inNorta Carclina, to expand the same principle to other vinuses sucn os Zita and inluenza—and beyond, to bactera ‘and perhaps even cancer eel. Yao ha a background in Al and was invigued by tho methods potion recogritionap- proach, which ne compared with facil- recognition tecnriques. The technology provides“ programmable interface into biology” Vaosays, “Our colution could becomes fundamental venice not only todetact a pathogen but alzo te inhibit.” — Hari Berath © 2020 Scientific American SCIENCE WE TRUST 66 Let's reinventa reverence for our real creator — Nature.” —Prof Donald C Johanson FFRF Honcrary Director Paleoanthropclogist Join the nation’s largest association of freethinkers atheists and agnostics) working to keep religion ‘out of government. Join now or get a FREE trial membership & bonus issues of Freethought Today, FERF’s newspaper. Call 1-800-335-4021 firbus/science aes a BleNy) FROM RELIGION foundation FFRF.ORG FFRF is 501(C)(3) educational charity Pee tiene eedADVANCES Scaly sea creatures inspire a flexible protective material Protective gear nas come along wey since the days of madieval armor. But engiavers sill have trouble shielding joints lke eloows and knees, when requires material tough ‘enough to preventinjury but fleibleencugh twallow mation. Toward this ens, research- cersere imitating an inconsaicucus zea eri mal whose covering stkes aremarkacle balance between protection and fiexblty. Cerah spedes of ravine malliscs callod chitone are encircled by gles of tough tissue capped with overlapping scales of esleium carbonate, the rigid com- pound that encases mary shellfish. Sclen- tists analyzed this ocean armor to learn how it provides freedom of movemera ‘without compromising defensa, then 3-D-printed protective gear oasedn Is shape. The work anaoared lest Decemoor Nature Communications. “Wedd aeyeternati study of the mato: vialstructue, from the nanometer to mac reeoopic cele,” says study co-author Ling Li,2 mechanical engineer at Virginia Pohy~ 18 Solent American, April 2020 technic Institute andState University. He and his colleagues at mulplotnstiutions ‘examined indviclchiton scales’ comical composition, cysta structureand mactank cal properties, then zoomed out to study how the scales worked together. The type cfetiton they sted isebout the length of ‘apenry. and islargest scales are only cou le of milimeters wide-—so the researchers ‘elle on high-resolution xrays olmagethe 3-D geometry ofthe animale’ coverings. ‘Tray found the armor gains strength fromits imerocking structure, Each scale hasadiarrond-shaped tase via streches Up toa smooth top eurfzes, whicn curves tohook the plate ta itsneighbor. Wher an utsido force pusheson onescal, itprosses ‘against those next io i, dlswlouting the pressure to protect tho organism undor- neath, Working with architectural designe 7, the team 3-D printed analogous sealed armor for humans—including kneepads that protect the wearer from aroken glace ‘The researches could then run ahysi- © 2020 Sctentific American Indi ele 7 caltestson the scales’ behavior rathe= tran relyingon computor simulations “This systom witha lt of scales that con tact aac otrer tna side along one anather—Fyou ty to capture this using tradonel computer model, tenit becomess nigrumare very fas," soys Fra cois Barthelat,a mecranical engineer at the University of Colorado Boulder, who \was nat involvedin ne sud. Printing the tucture offer anoffciont way to dem cnsvate the princiales involved, heads. Listoam tested different scale corfigu- rations and investigated how the synthetic armor aonaved under stres;he says t could provide protection fr athletes for tcionists doing feldwore. Bartnolatrotos thet “seers io be prety efficient at com- bing floxéiltywtn protection against Ibceration.” He swagests the armor could cover ay joints including fingers, and oul for exemple, nlp industrial workers “There's 2 ruge demandior th type flexible pretection” — —Sophie BushwickMorphin 2 Materials Foldable building blocks could help with nanoscale manufecturing ‘The sculpture-lice objects in Bas Over- veld laboratory at the Netrerke ‘comic and Molecular Physics (AMOLF) retiute are not ee zim ‘Made of multiple prism blocks, each ‘200 connected by flexible hinges, they can easly fi from hanes such at 3-Detareinio cyinders, bale, and more, Tah ofa clasic slap bracelet, Over- vole says:a structure that hes two stable § postions, one straight and one cured uo. 2 But as laa’ objects can fold along ther ‘many hinges to pop into dozers of predict- able positions when pressure ie apaled, Beyond bullinga collection ofthese physical objects, Overvelde and his fellow research- ers used computer sinulations to explore ‘even more complex aasemilies ofthe build Ingblocks, fining every pacertal snape many combinations caa form, Some large virual constructors reached more than 100 stable configurations. Te study woscetailed last December in Nature Communications. By designingandsimulating oojects that fold into predictable srapes wren pusned ‘on, the researeners hope 1 mekeiteasior to manulacture very tiny robots and materials ‘with changeadle evuctures, Ifeuch tome ‘cen easly morph into speci stable forms, fowertoole are needed to bender assem bilethem. Plus, certain shapes and internal structures can addetrongth and make ‘objects resilient: for instance, "bone fas a microstrucaure that male i ighter, butt stays af” Overvelde says. "We vy to do ‘he same kinds of things with our material This study explores the “centimeter scale” (rougnly the size range of vacitional paper origami made with human hands) but Overvelde notes suen objects would ‘work the same way if much larger or much smaller. For ow the groupis focusing on ie basics: “We're not aeoole whe do. {© 2020 Sefentifie American This object flexes into numerous shapes. ‘manufacturing ot sell scale” he says. "We tty 1o.come up with new concepts” These eoncepts have imprareed some of Overvelde's peers in materials science. Itai Cohan, whe leads sirilarreeoarch a Cornell University anc was nat invelved inthis study, cays the new work is“areal tour de force in its research and imlica lone, "These aresll deviees thet are done with tie equivalent of cardvoard and dou le-sidod sticky tape—but the real question is, Could youstart to make robotic y= 1teme?” Conon adds. “In robotic systems, the numberof configurations that you can ge trough dictates how mucn tne robot isable todo, how mery lightcifractingl ‘tings you can make or chemical surfaces youcmepese” —Carvine Detvert Expertise. Insights. [umination. 12 print issues per year + Archive back to 1845 » Read anytime, anywhere ae TOs OURS Pie? Tena) 9 's Nota , Womicis ssue pce tay peer aes easADVANCES Underv Eyes ‘Submarine neutrino telescopes will sean for dark matter, distant star explosions, and more ‘Suspended near tie bottom ofthe Medi terranean Sea offFrance and italy, 126 foot bal-sicedolasespherosare alreadyusing the ocean itself as an insvument to search for signals from dark matter, supernovae and neutron star callsiors, These are the first of meny such globes deployed fora project called tre Cubic Kilometer Neu- twine Telescope, or KMENGT. Ntstarget, neuvinos, are fundamental perticles that have no electrical charge end almost no mass. “Unike cosmic rays, neu whos are not deflected by magnetic elds Inintergatoctiespoce, making then unique messengers” says Walter Winter, ¢ neu- wine asvophysielst at the German Electron ‘Synchrotron (DESY) resesren canter, wna {is notinvolved with KM3N¢T. “They ere ‘comlementaty to other soureet a infor mation ike electromagnetic radiation and gravitational waves” Neut'ines cen pass trough most other ‘20 Scentific American, Apt 3920 Researchers are in the process of deploying modules for _arow pair of underwatortalescopos (visualized hore). matter with only a tiny fection erecting, this ghostly behavior makes them ideal candidetes for astronomy. KM3NET is set tobe installed trougnout one cunic klo~ meter ef wate-—enough fer 400,000 ‘Olympicswimrring poo's—split over two locations urring tre eurreunding water Intoa giant lens. More than 6,000 spheres, c20cn contathing 3 highly sensitive detoc- torscalled photomuliplie- wibes, willing tostings anchored to the seafloor and kept aut by lows. *Perhace onser two neutrinos in mil- lion wall mteract with quarks inside the nucleus of ether hycrogen or oxygen” inthe water says te project's piysies and solt- ‘ware manager, Paschal Coyle ofthe Mar- selle Particle Physics Center. Because the ‘coumie neutrinos possess very hign energy, the rey of such interactions iste releese {© 2020 Sefentific American of charpedpartie that travels very fast.” Infact, it travels trrough the water faster than light cen, producing an effect Coyle tkerstaan optical equivalent ef tre Concorde jets sonic boon, Researchers can dotermine tne original noutrinos' eneray and drectionusing the fi released—so-called Cherentov radia tion—picked up by the undersee sensors, ‘Among the hancful of stronomy- focused netrino telescopesinexstence, *KIMANGT 'sunique, especially arserving the Southern [Hemisphere] sky with unprec- dented directional andene-ay rescltions, pared with ts enormoussizs" Winter=ays. “The French site, scherlled for cornpe- tion in 2024, will detect low-energy neutr nos generated when cosmic rays interact with Eartys atmosphere. As they pass througt the planet, tse particles provide ‘an cray-the view of whatis inside. The Ialan ste, set for 2026, wil focus on cos- mic neutrinos produced in te eataciyemic deavisof distant stars—or in dense regions of colicing dark matter Intriguingly che telescopes’ clearest view f looking downwares Earth works a5 a iter to block background perils from ‘the cosmic raysthat continuously somoard our world, Neutrincsare tie only snown particles from those rays iat mae it rough tre planet. —Dhaneriay KhaiharPees Quick ati Dee eee ‘Anan stady traces how smoke plumes rom heavy ‘Amazon burning in 2007 and 2010 deposited back carbon anddustinthe Andes, speeding up mating ofthe Botan Zongo Glacier by basting heat absorption. Focmesetat vt SireSctuichnnkancom/ ‘eoladvnces ou Now analysis sapgestsafragenc of anclont lassmayhaoformed froma Herclareunnhablan’ bran head bythe A. 79 enptionof Mount Vesuvius. ot Bones of children buried 3,000 and 6,000 years ago in (Carson grands provided frat ancient nan DNAromthisreso. The covey Hminaes early _gonetic every ad aleastenalong-gonepepulaten. ‘Aurora chasers in land helped Mentfy anowfoature inthe Nocthera Lights. Nicknamed “cede,” may rflectanelusivetypeof ripple in farehsupper atmosphere. oa Researchers bolated and se an intriguing single- celled microorganismin thelab from sodiment off thecosst of central Japan. Thetontacied Archaean uses proteinscommon to ‘muitcallular oeganisms and might lend insight inc hhowtheattar evolved. Ofdelslnd of New Guinen and northern Australia researchers spottd fur spaces ofintricatlypattrnod sharks that walk on ther fnstohunt daring ow des. They average ss than ameter Jong and bring thatotl of krewn “walking” sharks onin. © 2020 Sefentifie Ameriesn Get this with your money at a typical auto parts store. Cimon a cus Peed acca! Or ALL this at www.RockAuto.com!See Health care today isa tale of e think about and cubator, and insurer, plan holistically and two systems, One is based tl UP a network unconventionally about how to fon the limitless potential 2 2 of a0 hospitals, 5,000 improve patient care while also of nd techno 8 phy patient and tobeat disease. The other zreates < of innovation. community practice facies, does UPMC is the obstacle course of Yet only afew are truly testing and 3.6milion insurance plan implement change? Scientific time, access, and cost tha he status quo to make the ‘members, inthe United States American asked four leaders sick people experience in and abroad, That breadth about how t petting well. Bridging that a ¥ Leaving divide requires more than PMc Incremental change. It research enterprise. health model, UPMC is using data patient experier requires a fundamental shift care provider,new business from ts various enterprise the future of medicineTHE NEXT REVOLUTION IN HEALTH CARE Stoven Shapiro, MD, is the Executive Vice President and Chief Medical and Scientific Officer at UPMC. Jeremy Abbate, the publisher of Scientific American, asked for his view on health care today ‘and tomorrow, and how it will take some unconventional thinking to get us where we want to g9, @: How would you describe the state of healthcare today? ‘A: We see this as both the best ‘of times and worst of times for health care, The advances inscience and technology are unbelievable. We're doing things to improve patient care lke never before. But, the price is too high and we need to work on affordability and @: How can you place a greater ‘emphasis on affordability ‘without sacrificing quality care? ‘A; The two often go hand “Changing behaviors could eliminate the majority of chronic diseases, improving health in our country tremendously.” in hand. The higher quality cften lowers the cost, but sometimes one pays for what they get. Our job isto know the difference. The incentives are largely misaligned, which is why the government thas been working on other ‘models of caren the meantime, we're unique in courstructure, so.as payer provider, wo.can start to ceal with these things today. The total cost of care andi quality is on us asa system. Qf you imagine the hospital cof the future, what wil it look lke? ‘As We can bring continuous physiologic monitoring to.our patients in theirhomes. It's 2 mattor of realy coordinating the care, keeping in contact There willbe anced, atleast in the foreseeable future, for a brick-and-mortar hospital But in that hospital, the patients will be sicker. Wilalmost be e big ICU #1 you could change one thing about our heaith care system, in this country or even Bjobally, what would that be? talked about affordability which is big but we could make the most difference if we focused on healthier ifestyles. A healthy diet, litle exercise, don't smoke, and maybe sleep a ite bit more, Changing UPMC behaviors could eliminate the majority of chronic disaases, improving health in our country tremendously Q: What's the next trontior for UPMC? We would ike to continue ‘on our payer-provider journey to interlock even more closely with our health plan to deliver higher qualty care that’s more affordable for our patients. But with advar technology, we also have the opportunity to develop new therapies that could really make a difference in treating intractable diseases, if not uitimately lead to a cure,SPONSOR FEATURE curate the huge data sets identifying the risk factors necessary for conducting behind costly postoperative THE PROMISE mses tect wt wits a OF BIG DATA Npmedicine weve been programe ni hospitals ware Featuring Oscar Marroqun, MD, Chief to's) assis Clinical Analytics Officer, UPMC inowthat the phenotype afisk or readmscon. The pot Obstacles include a culture of professional autonomy in ‘medicine and the logistics challenge of turning vast amounts of raw, disaggregated data into the knowledge to act. It takes more than an apo to get that right bata people and the machine, but if you do, youve nailed the future of health care" says Oscar Marroquin, a cardiologist who oversees the development of UPMC’s large suite of information assets as Chief Clinical Analytics Officer in the Health Services Division ‘Marroquin runs ateam of data scient engineers, and visualization specialists witha simple mandate: to back clinical decisions with evidence relatable tothe whole person rot ust the cisease ‘We dont see data as, just a research too! butas continuous learning Support inpatient care,” Marroguin says. “it's more the bedside than the bench” ‘Martoguin’s group is fully funded by UPMC andi between 5, softwareUPMC patients" says Tim Bll, “Chronic inflammatory Professor and Chair of the conditions affect nearly Department of Surety at everyone at sore ott nthe BREAKING THE theUniversy ofPRtcburgh—_Ienarea mayor precuthy rnd conrbuts CODE ON IMMUNE © 2" pecciecne tron Billa treces UPMC's To corsoidte ther diverse RESPONSE involvementin thefield to _capabiitis in immunotherapy, the 1960s, when surgeons PMC andthe Uriversity Featuring Tim ili, MD, Chair, SS ae Department of Surgery, University mumber of fsteNect came Therapy Center (ITTCD in St Pitta ureht Sclicol of Meclicaneiand, faGinpasiaiist, (pals chienetbnisa ‘Scientific Adviser, UPMC Immune tronsformed organ transplants ofimmunology to ereate Transplant and Therapy Center (ITTC) frombigh-iskexperiments to innovations in four areas: routine procedures. "Now with cancer, chronic disease, aging, 20,000 organ ranspiants and and transplant. Ongoing projects include aclinical tral to infuse regulatory dendritic callsin vet transplant patients prior to surgery, with the hope of putting an end to toxic imrmunosupprestion regimens ‘Another isa prospective trial using the diabetes crug, metformin to see fit improves ‘outcomes folowing high- risk surgery. Work is also progressing to explore bone marrow transplants asa novel pathway to treating debilitating Conditions like refractory infammatory bowel disease (18D). The TTC currently has five trials in motion Billiar, who serves as the center's co-director and scientific lead, contends that the TTC canhelp what ails the health research enterprise. “ITTC can rely con its postion as part of UPMC’s own in-house business incubator UPMC Enterprises, which commercializes what comes ut of our abs,” Billar says. For years, immunclogy, orthe autoimmune disease. many cancer breakthroughs,” “Together, weve already had study ofthe immune system, Research hospitals arcund _Billarsays, “we've been hand in funding 30 projects ‘was asleepy little corner in the the worldare working furiously able tomove seamlessly o and creating five start-up otherwise fast-moving world toring thisbudding Science clinical leadershipin cancer __ companies. Seeing cur cof clinical research. Todey, ‘uickly into the cic, but immunotherapies ike CAR science come tlie gives me > itlsoneof thehottestfields _someare farther along. "We've T-celltherapy” ‘reason to think differently | @ inmedicine anda source for been far ahead ofthe crowd ‘Alco in UPMC's sights are about the future ofhealth © some of the most exciting in pursuing the translational treatments for agrowing list of care. From our perspective, 2 newrtherapiesin cancerand —_aspectinwaysthat benefit _chronicinflammatory disorders. the view locks promising.”SPONSOR FEATURE THE PREMIUM IS PREVENTION Featuring Joon S. Lee, MD, Chief Medical Officer, UPMC Insurance Services Division Inhealth care circles, the transitioning from traditional rotion of value-based medicine fee-for-service payments to has been around for some a system where getting paid time. Rather than sick care” depends onthe outcome, model, the thinking goes, we such as lowering hospital should move toa “well care” —_readmissions or optimally cone, where value and outcomes managing co-merbidities ike ace the priory. Thevisionis hypertension,” he says. tantalizing, but realizing thas ‘The centerpiece ofthis, been slow. transition isa "shared Joon $. Lee, the Chief savings" physician Medical Officer of UPMC’s reimbursement formula Insurance Services Division, _thataallows each practice which administers the nation’s to keep a percentage of the nd largest provider-owned money saved irom observing health plan, is challenging that treatment guidelines to lower status quo."Ourhealth planis the total cost of care, "More than half of UPMC Health Plan patients are nov under a shared savings contract Lee says. "We expect that number to rise as w itfrom primary care to the specialty side Leis algo looking at new ways to leverage UPMC's connection to patients to improve preventive health measures. He cites his experience in directing UPMC's Heart and Vascular institute, one of the largest integrated cardiovascular delivery programs."A decade ago we began to see that, despite all the new technology, deaths from heart disease were inching up again," Lee says. ‘We were falling to control for Fisk actors linked to unhealthy lifestyle behaviors lke obesity and smoking in response, the Institute worked with the UPMC Health Planto create a patient-centered coaching prosram called Prescription for Wellness, utilizing UPMC's vast community outreach capabilities in managing heart care frome whole person perspective, Though there is much yet tobe done, Lee says that in the end, integrated care is puzz where the pieces fit “Through the coordinated approach we minimize expensive hospital care. But when it's necessary, UPMC offers the best there is, We meet the patient in the community to seed healthy behaviors, improve outcomes, and keep our insurance rates down, It's 2 trifecta win, for the payer the provider, and the member.” Formore information on how healthcare isevoling, visit UPMC com, UPMC .Erogenous zonesin odks ae stoles of lace-ichen the eo Cee ee Broken packets force A thrusts rushrooms up Cent Ce Co as eters CE aany oa Pere Aas ent ad Sater cs Se aie Cee ery eee Pood Creer s Authors Note 3 llamad nigh shoo aba on tat he sari jealonavinsare a ih hom ht Lay opportu t colo) tay bycur mama sLboene ett, Pag some omc akoisard deer gence —Rsngliede nya Ferret Geer sant eelursbcr enc ith ave the299 Fuller Poy. How i teed ‘exposes ard ology Theos gor Tar Ae cmon Ce cro See a ee De ee card Cet ened Ceecmn ten ee Recor] eres eee Lone Cae eee eet ery a ee pee ey Peete en pret eee Peer See ae) ener oeaes eee Pee ere x oa thig anther. Satna ys uffcontnariont. age Atos © 2020 Scientific American cirri adh ryRL Chua Walser aver winning ens pumakawhae ‘wot happened nei ak Tee, ie fr aed the en Deal She wes xe ein Tae andmanaging ec fSéenrc rei Med Of Sex and Sleep Apnea The risky disorder often looks different in women and may get ignored Pieturo, if you wil, your typical sleep apnea susferer Chances tare he is middle-aged and overweight and enoree lke a feeight sain, Note the male pronoun, Twenty-five years ago experts be- Ileved that the condition, in which breathing ie disrupted dur- ‘ng sleep, was about 10 thnes és common in men asin women. Botter quality studios heve since reduced thet retlo to roughly three to one, but as more dasa come to lighs, It Is becoming cloarer that sleep apnea—nd the broader category known ac sleep disordered breathing—simply koks a litle difeeat in ‘women, And that suggeste itis often oveclcoked. Sleep apuee is a concern because it raises the tisk of heart attacks, hyperienston, artayibins, Instn resistance, strokes and accidents hat result from daytime eleepiness. Putcimply, gasping Jorbreath at nigat ana not giving yourocy « thorough geet puss alot of pressure on the cardiovasruler system caises adrenaline levele and ignitas inflammation, Doetors ciagziose apnea With & sleep vat, often done athome, thet measures your epnca-hypop- nea inaee This indae tefleets tne average number of times an ourthat you heve en episode lasting a lenct 10 seconde during ‘anton breastingstops (apnea) or becomess> deficient thatalood oxygen levels fall by 3 or & percent or more (aypopnes), Fewer ‘than. lveguch episodes en hour is considered notinal Five 1018 is mild sleepepnes, tf to 30ismoderets and more than 20 is evere. ‘Most ome tests do not, nowever, examine thestage of sleep in ‘whieh these epicedes occur, and Una! may be @ problem. A grow sng body ofevideace shows tua ormany women distup tel breatl- ‘ng is concentrated in the rapid eye movement (REN) phage, which isaloo when dreamsare most vivid and when heart and respirato- 1 tatesbecome lee Tegular. A svidyof2,067 menend women aged 461064, published lest Novexcker in tae-ournal 2eep, found that women have just as many v2 do ducing the REM pase “Whatever protection women have in non-REM sleep isnot there ‘aucing REM sleep’ saye Christine Won, mediealairector of the ale Centers for Sleep Mediciaeand ead study author Disrupting REM may be especlallybad for healin,“Studlessuggest thet howmany events you have during REM cleep is whet really puts you at risk Jorcardiovasculr healtn etects” Won says, But becalise BEM ac countefor only bout 20 percont ofa persons nightly clamber, atect hat averages eventsactoss the entice night can be misleading. Sevemlother sex diferences emerged from thenewstudy “One four faaings fs tha: Wornen navealower arousel threshold—aney fare more likelyto wake upatnight in reponse to a given apnea,” saysSusan Redline, georauthor of the stuey anda senior phvsl= THE SCIENCE OF HEALTH Ls cian asthe Division of Sleep ond Circedian Disorders at Brigham ‘ana Women's Hospital n Boston, The may ais impact alegno- sis Women are more likely than mea wo biiedy wake up before ‘metr oxygen evel falleby more tan pereent—tne tnrestold sea vo identily and treat sleep epacein patients covered by Medicare When Won ana Redline used a cutoe! of 3 peroont oxygen dasa uration, many more women met the ctiterie for sleep epnea, ‘These altfering patterns may help explain wey wornen vith sleepapneaare mote likely to complein about momningheadsches, fatigue, depressed mood and insomnie, In men, big complaint (wouelly tom a bed partner) is loud snoring, alongwith deptime sleepiness In both sexes, apnea tates rise with obesity and age ‘Hormonesmost likely play ale in these sexdiffarencee Sleep apnea increases in women after menopause, anditis common in ‘women with polycystic ovary eyndrome, a condition cheracter- ized by high levels of vestosterone Redline noves thet anatomy may also bea factor: "Men have @ onger ané nore collapsible alt ‘way As forthe female tendency to wake up mote eaaly,evol- tHonary pressures and experience might be at work:“It maybe thet ‘women evolved to wake up to tend to their children” Redline says ‘The leading therapy for apnea Is the ase of aCPAP (Contin ouspositive airway pressure) machine to forceair into the throat, st stat it works 208 Euteccciensine shed more light on the varying panternsof tne condition, treetment maybe come moro tailored to the inaividual, Diagnostic cxteris might also need to chang: to capture more cases In women. Medlcare’ 4 percent deastursiion thresheldisone exmple. And the increas Ing use of at-nome testing rather than costll testing In asleep. lab maybe another "If eur ndings ero truo,” Won saye,"then home sleep apnea testing biases against Qagnosiag women.” PX aon by Pata ans April 2000, SniensstaAmerican om 25° © 2020 Setentifie AmerieanVENTURES THE BUSINESS OF INNOVATION Tackling the Toughest Tech A few brave investors are backing start-ups that aim to solve the world’s. hardest problems ‘Some global crises, uch as climate change, are too big to over- ‘coms through individual action or even through government- level policy change. To survive this cermury, we are also going to need some huge science and engineering breakthroughs especially in areas such as energy and transportation. Unjortn- nate, the systems we have built to encourage innovation are in a disinal stave. Federal investment in R&D as a share of the overall econo- iy islower than at any point in the past 60 years. And venture ccapital—the industry that is suppoted to take risky ideas from government or university laboratories and turn them into valu able businassee—has instead epent the past decade investing in Jovrstakes tech that helps us order takeout, avoid taxis, swap selfias and everpay for desk space, Many of Silicon Valley’ “uni ‘coms’ are dcing no more to improve the world than their myth> Wade Roushisthe tstand roduc ofSoorsh potest sbostechnol, cute cask an ere He Isecu-unoe he portale Hu 8 Spoke ae 2 tedance repo xpit.onraand tao, sis as Al fcc av Kanan UR and WAVY, {cal namesakes (see my column *The Big Slow- down,” Scuvrurte Avntca; Ansust 2019). ‘There is, however, t least one bright spot in the world of tect investing, Igot a glimpse of it om a recent visit to The Engine, a for-profit ven- ture firm set up in 2016 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. itis designed to fund ambitious ideas in areas it calls “tough tech": ‘energy, nanotechnology, quantum computing, immunotherapy and othor folds where the tech ical and regulatory challenges are too daunting for most vonturo capitalists. A case in point: Commonwealth Fusion Sys- toms. The Engine-backod start-up has turned a former Radio Shack down the ssreet from MIT. into a lab where it tests components for future fusion reactors Uiat could produce neatly inex- hhaustible, economical, carbon-free energy with vastly less radioactive waste than conventional ‘nukes—an elusive goal that scientists have been laying in vain to accomplish for more than half a century. Chief operating officer Stove Remtor says Commonwealtrs “Kitty Hawk moment"—when it proves its demonstration machine ean gener- ate more energy than it consumes—could come fas soon as 2028, “To get technologies at a scale that impacts ‘what's happening in our climate, in the time frame in whch ‘we need it, its going to require some pretty incredible teams,” says Ann DeWitt, a general partner at The Engine. “In areas like energy delivery, it means figuring out how you make that ‘thing a business and how you integrate it into existing infra- stracture, Those are areas where [think it's really hard for clas- seal investars to 20." Part of what sets The Engine apart is the timescale of its '$200-mnilion fund. Limited-pariner investors know they might not get their money back for 18 years or mare, compared with, ‘the eight-o 12-year life of typical venture fund. Plus. the firm provides lab space and equipment in addition to mentorship and networking. And it welcomes companies that hiopseoteh across disciplinos in ways that might puzzle other investors. “Were not afraid to look ata founding team with aphysteist, an ‘optical engincer and a stom cell biologist,” DeWitt cays. ‘There are20 start-ups at The Engine right now, and the fm is renovating an old Polaroid building that will soon hold 100 ‘companies and 800 entrepreneurs. Researchers come to The Engine not because they are trying te make a quick buek but Decauise they have an idea they ean’ bring alive anywhere else, DeWitt says: “Mhey're compelled into entrepreneurship because ‘of what they're tryin to achieve.” §9 JOIN THE CONVERSATION ONLINE ‘is SceficAmerican on Facebcok and Titer orsenalecertotheedtor editorsOsdam.com 26 Scientie American, Apel 2920 ain en {© 2020 Sefentific American_ Best of British style since 1987 C1 Hteuly enjoy the aualily and comfort of my new pants They ft perfectly ‘ond ore super soft cond enjoyable to waar. 'm coming ack for more! @ Jozef, California kiss ELASTIC WAIST SHORTS AND PANTS + Smart-casual pleat front + Side elastic for added comfort + Zip fly with button at waist * Pants with 5 leg lengths, or shorts ochre Vlhabis 00%CoHon —-—-:BLASTIC WAIST PANTS $5427 $ ‘AF10029 OXU wide log ACIODST OXU HALF PRICE shipping only $4.50 - FREE RETURNS” WITH B PayPal LIMITED TIME st a liens ceca ena eae 2r today at us.cottontraders.com ee Sacco a e-eeey eee coe | DGAUeater)POLL Eo waite g Perera effort to map the spiral eS iaais of-our galaxy provides 2 oS a Seaamiesee a ay unprecedented view Pe, % Ff oder tee Coons ca ‘ SBOP Teee J ee ae a en ca b PEt eee) Sn UyAsronmiers how ‘uprsnglylivle poutine wuaure four lly Wey gala, nd ‘numb ia frre thisendthe lection ofeu sun vn te Recenly,houn, sors bave pce egehar the best mag yt gala by wg dae ‘om earls remarchprojuct, parulaty che Bar andSpiclsiruie Lager (SSL) radlosir. Themap raveals atlesstfournajr spiralarr inthe lly Way, 22 ‘oracmlertea tasasand shows ‘hathesunliee ‘alnest sxc enthe caitalpaeolthe dekeltha gab. Nar. Raids senor rl asters theSinthenan Acpysea Ontensteryatn Cererir Azepyacs| Hana Smiteonan Hove recom elated othe US, Natoal oder of Seance, King Wa Zneg isaproiaorctatonory caNanirg Lnverstyin China Hohac ied ‘avons rnerand star bean x dacs UNDREDS OF YEARS AGO EXPLORERS SAILED ACROSS OCEANS AND TRAVERSED uncharted continents to map Earth, and in the past half a century space probes have photographed most of our solar system. Yet as well as we have come to know our astronomical backyard, our image of the larger neighborhood—our Milky Way galaxy—i ‘blurry. The reason is obvious ‘we cannot get outside it to take a peek. Imagine sending a spacecraft on a multimillion-year journey to go beyond our galaxy, look back and snap a picture: clearly impractical. We are left with many open questions about our cosmichome, such as how many spiral arms the galaxy has, whether the large structure closest to the sun counts as an arm and where in the galaxy our solar system lies. Recent efforts, nowever, nave begun te map the [Milky Way from the inside out, allowing usto assemble ‘an accurate snapehot of ite structure fer the ist time. This emerging: vista le me revult of several lazge pro|- ‘cts involving acwnced radio and optical telescopes, Imetuaing our program, the Bar and Spiral Structure Legacy @e88el) Survey. For thisetfort, we were grani- ‘edan unprecedented amount of cbeerving time—5 000 hhours—on the Very Long Baseline artay.a system opr- ated by the Nationel Radio Astronomy Observatory. ‘and funded by the Nasional Sclence Foundation, ‘Our initial resulis offer a new ane improved viewot the Milky Way In addition to gaining. better under standing of What the Milky Way looks like, we ace Starting to clatity why galaxies such as ours exhibit spiral structure and how our astronomical home ts mo te univers® ase whole THE COSMIC NEIGHBORHOOD nema eazy 1socs Wiliam Parsons, the third Bar] of Rosse, built a Tdinch telessope—huge for its time, He cchservea and arew what we nowy call the Writlpool Galaxy, which clearly had a spiral pater. Without knowledge about how far sway wes or about the scale of the Blky Way, however, twas unclear whether the Whirlpool wae amell struswure inside our galazy or a lnxge nebula stmilar to it, Debate on these points con- ‘Unwed into the early 900s, until Edwin Hubs, using technique developed by Henrie a Lecvit to maazuze tu aistanc® tobrignt stars, showea that the Whirlpool 30 Scientine metien, Apri 2020 ‘and similar epiralowere ior outside the Milky Wey This revelation upended the notion shat. the Milky Way ‘ight encompase the entire universe “Astronemars Agured out that we ive fn-@ spiral gab xy by measuring the motions of ges throughout the ‘isk—the large, pancake-shaped region that makes up ‘the main body of the Milky Way Spirals, along with rounded elipticels, ere common typee of galaxies. The nearby spirals NGC 1300 and Messler 101 (M101) p: ‘ide gp0d examples of how the Milky Way might look from afar NGC 3200 hee a bright, linear structure in its center, which astroaomerscall abar, and two bluish spirel ras that start ot the ends of the bar and wend slowly outward as they encitel t, Bars are een In the majority of spical galaxies and are thought to form from gravitational instabilities ina galany’s dense dick. In turn, the string action of tne rotating central bar may give rise to spiral arms, (Other processes—such as instebiliesassociatea with large mess concentrations inside @ disk or gravitational pervusbations from ne bby goloxica—can also lead to erms) Spirel arms tend glow in Diue light, wich comes from gigantic stellar nurseries where massive sae are forming. MuCI, the other potential Milky Way match, is known oe the Pin ‘wheel Gay although It lacks the bright bar of NGC 1209, it hoacto more spizal arms, Astronomers have long thought that the BLK Way dias characteristics of both these galaxies. It probebly thee « aignificans bar as e2en in NGC 1200, ae well az ‘multiple spiral arms as in M101 Beyond these baste © 2020 Seientifie AmeriesnLIKE THE MILKY WAY, the nearby galaxy NGC 1300 isa barred spiral of stars stretching across more than 100,000 light-years. But our celestial neighbor isnot an exact mirror image: studies indicate the Milky Way has four malor spiral arms rather than two. conclusions there is considerable debate. Infrared observations ‘made mote than a decade ago with the Spitzer Space Telescope have suggested that the galaxy might nave only two spiral arms. But radio-wavelength observations of atomic hydrogen and car- on monexide, which are concentrated in the spiral arms of oth- er galanies, indicate that the Milly Way has four arms. Addition- ally, astronomers have debated now far the sun is from the cen- ter of the galaxy and how high it sits above the Milky Way's _midplane—the central plane of the disk Nearly 70 years ago scientists calculated the distances to some nearby luminous blue stars, Plotting these points on a map revealed segments of three nearby spiral arms, which we all the Sagittarius, Local and Perseus arms. Around the same time, starting in the 1950. redio astronomers observed atomic hydrogen gas, which releases ateltale ligm signature at a wave- length of 21 centimeters. When this gas is moving relative to Earth, the frequency of mils atomic nydrogen signature shifts boeause of the Doppler phenomenon, allowing astronomers to measure the velocity ofthe gas to provide clues to its Location in the galaxy. Using such measurements, galactic cartographers employ a convenient coordinate system for our Milky Way as viewed from the sun: by analogy to Earths longitude and Lati tude, galac mide (2 sero toward the galactic center and jong the “equstorial® plane of the Milky Way ae viewed from the Northern Hemisphere; galactic latitude (2) denotes the angle perpendicular to the plane. So-called longi tude-velocity plots of 2-cemtimeter light signatures from vro- igen gas (and Jetar from earbon monoxide) revealed continuous ares of emission that very likely trace spiral arms. This mapping. ‘method, however, is plagued by ambiguities and lacks the aceu- racy necessary to early reveal the galaxy's spiral structure, iclon ANEW view ‘ove REAsoN that we know sollte about the Milky Way is that the galaxy contains an enormous amount of dust. Dust absorbs opt: cal light efficiently 90 along most ines of sight Unrough the disk ‘we cannet see very far—dust is blodsing the view: Another reason is the Milky Way's mind-numbing vastness, Light from stars on the other side ofthe galaxy takes more than 50,000 years toreaen, Earth, Such distances make it hard to even sort out which stars are near and which are far away Now telescopes operating at optical wavelengths in space and at radio wavelengmns across the globe are now making great strides toward answering our questions about the Milky Was ‘The Gaia mission, launched in 2013, seeks to measure distances ‘to more than a billion stars in 1 galaxy and will undoubtedly revolutionize our understanding of the different stellar populla- tions involved in the Maky Way’ formation. But beesuse it uses ‘optical light, whieh is absorbed by interstellar dust grains, Gala ‘cannot froaly probe distant spiral arms, In contrast, radio waves easily pass through dust and allow us to explore the entire disk and map its structure ‘Two major projects now mapping the Milky Way use a tech: nique in radio astronomy called very long baseline interferorn: tuy (VLBD. The VERA (VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometty) project operatee four radio telescopes spanning Japanese te tory from the north of the country (Mizusawa) 10 its 0 ‘most (Ishak) and easternmost (Ogasawara) islands. And the BeSSel, Survey uses the Very Long Baseline Array, which in- cludes 10 telescopes and spans much of the Wostern Hemt- sphere, from Hawai to New England to St. Croix in the US. Vi sin Islands. Because their telescopes are separated by nearly the diameter of Es rth, these arrays can attain an angular resolution Ap 220, {© 2020 Sefentific AmericanPMMA ie Ce Re) ery ee ee rete eee eee erent Eee eae) enacts Sere ee a eer en Poennerel eet ere Cony) il Crrece) ere ye eee peer i i eee) See ee enn irae aan ee a Sera erred piers eg pee ena reser ecg Cre ees prrceneetits PARALLAX ieee na ont Reset ee eer ere peer en Tn eee een ce earner) aes eee) et eee es ocoenremnan een snettean, ape 2020, Ren et eee ne eee eee eee eee ee ren ee rete ee een tad Rene ne tn N Conan Crna 1 age me eer") Aula | Ly oe \ es J Rae et ed Cee Pea Dene nd up) \ ere) De neal 2020 Selentifie AEagle Eyes on the Sky ‘Measuring the minuscule paralax angle for sta~forming regions on the other side of the galaxy requires extremeanguar resolution curentiy achievablecnly through precisely combining simultaneous odeervatinn form mukinle radioteleenpes acmss the globe. Ths ihstration reveals the power ofthe tecmigue, snown ae Very Lang Baseline Interferometry, 4 hich ean reach resolutions asout 40 times better tran the sharpeet images fom the Hubble ry ony aos peer ble Space Telescope can achieve a resolu ton ofenly about 0.08 second of are ‘With VLBI, we con measure the postion of a radio-brignt sar relative to back- ssround quasars brizix active black holes a: tw centers of distant galaxies) with an ac- ‘curacy approaching 0.00001 second of are. Making thiscomparison allowsusto survey % ‘ery great distances by observing the paral- lax effect, whereby a nearby cbject seen agains a distant background will appear at

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