Intercultural Communication and Subcultures Objectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 1. Define subculture and understand its various components. 2. Identify key features of reference group membership and its effect on individual behaviors, including communication. 3. Understand the effects of residence and social class on communication behavior. 4. Identify the causes of barriers in interracial and interethnic communication. 5. Identify the basic steps necessary to improve interracial and interethnic communication. 6. Identify the dynamic elements of a counterculture and apply those elements to specific groups. 7. Identify attitudes of poverty level subcultures and the traditional subcultures around the world.{A fundamental principle of social communication is that we do not live isolation but, inevitably, must coordinate our behaviors with other S00" members. Social support for attitudes and behaviors stems from signitt Ot" oilers and from salient reference groups, including subcultural groups. Eve? in the most individualistic cultures, subcultural groups act as reference poin's for individual thought and action, For example, 2 person deciding how to vote ina major election in the United States is often heavily influenced by family. peers, unions, and recreational associates ‘ Even though we properly speak of similarities of customs and the like that constitute a culture, a web of subcultures within 2 culture mediates cultural influence. For example, North America contains numerous subcul- tural groups that act as reference groups mediating thought and behavior. A Mexican-American in South Texas may reject culturally expected partici- pation in a fiesta because of his loyalty to an educational group. 2 religious sect, of upper-middle class ideals—all of which represent subcultures. This chapter focuses on reference group influence—and some individual characteristics. Since many intercultural communication problems stem from intergroup or subcultural communication situations, to understand group in- fiuence is to more fully appreciate microcosms that make up the whole of 2 culture. As the first chapter indicated, the term subculture does not connote any notion of less than or below, but is a term used throughout this text to mean a smaller cultural unit within a larger culture. The definition connotes groupness and includes a host of units such as occupation, ethnicity, age, and'the like. Rodg- rs (1978) has advanced an eclectic definition of subculture, suggesting that sulture is any collectivity of persons who possess conscious membership in identifiable units of an encompassing cultural unit as well as the larger "cultural unit itself” (pp. 4-5). Since they are consciously aware of their > in a behaviorally defined sub-unit of a definite larger unit, What Is a Subculture? 4sSubcultures exist in a larger culture and yet maintain unique Purpose and self image al. temporal, or h the world around them relational image; these images they tend to share w It is rather a value image (Boulding, 1972, pp. 1 Taking these definitions a step further, there are some additional criteria that seem useful in making the definition of subculture concrete. While pre- serving the integrity of the above definitions and the following categories, the reader will undoubtedly realize that we must allow for some flexibility where exact parameters cannot be established. Thus. it seems reasonable that a subculture can be operationally defined with these cr ‘A. Members may be self-identifiable. That is, they may perc themselves to at least intellectually, if not behaviorally, have so: of their membership in the subculture. If a person reports hims: a member of a “poor” class, then his self-perception stands as one index of membership in the subculture of the poor 2. Members are often behaviorally identifiable. Some characteristic must exist that can be behaviorally perceived by others, For example, a Person whd is part Sioux Indian may document his heritage but lack behavioral involvement as a member in that subculture. For all Practical purposes, therefore, that person is not really a member of that subculture, since he chooses not to personally identify 3. Members are often contemporaneously identifiable. While not the only criterion, this point suggests that to the extent contemporary society hhas developed its own coinage for the subculture, to that extent, there is corroboration in defining the group as a subculture. For example, the news media coined the label “Children of God” for that right-wing religious communal movement, and the label was adopted by the members of the group to identify themselves.As chapter one also indicated, the types of subcultures that exist lead to the following considerations for this chapter: Reference Group Membership and Communication &-Demographic Group Membership and Communication «Interracial and Interethnic Communication Countercultural Communication __ The Subculture of the Poor Retérence groups . 102 person and which influence many of thay pc to which people belong act as mediating influences upon a given « cation In essence, they serve as a focal point for interpreting messages and affecting perceptions of issues and events. In this text, the term “reference group” encompasses primary and secondary groups. Individual behavior is not fully understood without a knowledge of the influence exerted by a person’s group. This influence is so strong that it not ‘only touches an individual's opinions, but results in the group itself becoming 4 reference point, by whose norms an individual judges himself. The group ‘may become a symbol of personal self-worth and identification. A person does not necessarily come in physical contact with a group, for one may simply think of-hiniself oF herself as a memiber of the “intellectual class” or the “average middle-class American” and act accordingly. Most reference groups center around family. play or peer groups. co- ‘sorkers, and co-members in voluntary organizations (Smith. Bruner. and White, 1956; Sherif and Sherif, 1967). Bereison and Steiner (1964) identified still other types of groups which reflect reference group influence: 1. the eutonomous group, such as a circle of close friends built on free choice and voluntary association; _ 2 the institutionalized small group, such as family: saa ae 3, the small group within a large organization, often called a mediating ‘group because of its linking position between the individual and the - Organization. such as a work group in a factory or office, a group of yemberships which are highly important cisions These groups s which support numerous and sometimes ct, as We have already stated, one of the Reference Group hership and Com- munication Role and Function of the Reterence Group 51their mark to our perceptions and sometimes press us jnto conformity By conforming to group norms, members receive two rewards: (1) aes tears My the group, and (2) title to group beliefs to which one can cling as & Way interpreting life's events (Abelson, 1959, pp- 25-26). a me « But just what effect does the group have upon communication | © reference point, the group basically performs the task of mediating comm ication, usually in the direction of messages that reinforce group opinion." other words, the group acts as a source, reinforcement, and support, bolstering up old attitudes and providing a context for future conversion to new pos! ns (Sherif, Sherif. and Nedergall, 1965). This social communication provides & frame of reference, but this “womb of influence” is most meaningful when we consider important group variables that influence communication. change,and control. comme the reference group fluctuates in size, various results occur Thoemallerthe size of the group, the greater the pressure to conform. The larger a group becomes, the more formal are its proceedings, and the greater the probability a formal leader will emerge. The larger the group becomes, the greater the possibility of splinter groups or cliques: these are prevented in ‘a smaller group because of social pressures. If there is persuasive communi ‘cation occurring in the group, the mode of presentation will change as the group gets larger. Within 2 large group. for example, less interpersonal in- teraction occurs, and thus the group lash central leader to structure the communication (Bettinghaus, 1980): ‘Frequency of contact. Still another group characteristics the relationship between attitudes and frequency of contact. Researc the more interaction within a_ grou! P Also, when some group ‘members share opinions, they often predispose other group members toward ‘acceptance of these opinions (Berelson and Steiner. 1964). Furthermore, in- ‘creased contact strengthens friendships and produces opportunity for similar attitudes and behaviors to develop. ‘Studies of subcultural or intergroup contact generally support the idea ‘that positive attitudes follow intergroup contact. For example, one generally accepted approach to easing tense race relations has been to induce interracial ‘contact, during which erroneous preconceptions about members of the other 2 group will diminish. The members realize the negative stereotypes are inac- ‘Curate, now that they actually communicate face-to-face, and therefore seek ‘to correct the prejudice. As Gudykunst (1977) pointed out, however, subcul- tural contact may produce positive attitudes only under certain favorableIntercultural contact is one important way of reducing stereotypic impressions and establishing positive attitudes toward members from other cultures or subcultures 1. When the status between persons of both groups is similar, positive attitudes result When someone in charge promotes intergroup contact, positive attitudes result 3. When the intergroup contact is personal, rather than casual or impersonal, positive attitudes result 4. When the intergroup contact seems rewarding and pleasant, positive attitudes result $. When the individuals within each group differ markedly from commonly held negative stereotypes, positive attitude change results. Furthermore, Gudykunst (1977) has shown that intercultural contact, such as international visits, foreign travel in a host culture, and talking with inter. national students, also induces positive attitudes. Of course, the exact nature ‘of one’s feelings depends upon the amount of contact, the setting, quality of Chapter3 — Subcuitur, 53Contact, and the reason for the contact. Chapter five offers a discussion of acculturation and culture shock and the role of cultural contact.* Cohesiveness. Another factor in group influence is that of cohesiveness, which most frequently is defined as the degree of group attraction for group members. Cohesion implies a unity ~ ‘Sennen Sa (7 Back’s (1958) now classic study of cohesive and non-cohesive groups, (1) cohesive members: showed efforts toward uniformity and agreement, (2) fewer individual differences emerged in the highly cohesive groups, and (3) discussion was more effective, producing more influence and change than in non-cohesive groups. By contrast, low cohesive groups appeared to act independently, disregarding the needs and desires of other group members. Group cohesiveness extends to several general principles summarized as follows, 1, Highly cohesive groups will have fewer deviants in their decisions; 2. Cohesive groups are more likely to be influenced by persuasive communication; 3. Members of a highly cohesive group communicate frequently, and the communication is distributed more evenly among the members; 4, Members of a highly cohesive group offer mutual support and tend to reject threatening messages 5. The higher the cohesiveness of the group, the stronger the pressure to conform (Bettinghaus, 1980). fers to the importance of a group and, there- fore, the value the individual places upon the group. In another sense, salience Specifies personal awareness of the group and perceptions of its importance. Researchers tell us that resistance to change of group norms and attitudes is in direct proportion to the degree of the salience of the group. For example, the Symbionese Liberation Army would be expected to resist outside com- munication—which it did—because of the salience the group held for its members. In addition, research has demonstrated that the more interested the in- dividual is in becoming a member of a group and the more salient the group, the more he tends to conform to its norms of behavior. An example of this principle is the Jonestown, Guyana religious community where group salience may have been a factor leading to an ultimate cohesive behavior—mass suicide ‘of 900 victims. bit wiGexe Sapehcbirn =~ of intergroup contact or intercultural contact on attitude or behavioral change is contact hypothesis.” Early studies noted contact effects on attitudes toward | (Amir, 1969), race, and countercultures. Work by Kim (1977) outlines 2 that influence acculturation, including intercultural contactClarity of group norm. Studies concerning group norms have shown that, in general, the more ambiguous the group norms and standards of conduct dre, the less control the group will have over its members. However, if the Standards are clear and unambiguous, the pressure to conform will be greater When ambiguity is prevalent within a group, furthermore, interaction among group members increases to reduce the ambiguity (Berclson and Steiner, 1964). For example, in college life if the rules for fraternity membership are unclear, then it is unlikely a fraternity will influence its members. Clear standards, however, create conformity. Also, when the rules are undefined, the fraternity members will increase their communication in order to define expectations among members Homogeneity. Although homophily refers to degree of similarity on var- ious characteristics between two people, homogeneity refers to similarity among many group members, We know that small groups tend toward uni- formity in actions and attitudes as homogeneity increases, Group homogeneity also contributes toward cohesiveness. Also, when homogeneous attitudes pre~ sail, an individual tends to hold personal attitudes more tenaciously. Homo- geneity of opinion is most directly observable in reference groups such as family, friends, and co-workers (Katz,1963). Issues. The issues that confront the reference group influence individuals in that group. As the importance of a particular issue increases, a tendency ‘exists to conform in attitudes, behaviors, and values. On the other hand, when an issue is ambiguous, or even overly complex, a person finds consolation in conforming to views consistent with the majority, especially when an individ- ual lacks experience in dealing with that particular issue. Reference group influence extends only as far as the boundaries of the human Individual personality allow. Personality affects individual response in concert with group Characteristics influences. For example, whenever group members depend strongly upon the and Reference group for satisfying various needs, they will probably conform to group ex- Group pectations, if they understand the norms to which they are supposed to con- Membership form. And, this conformity may result from a need to resemble highly esteemed persons, to sustain social approval, or to avoid unpleasant circum- stances such as loss of membership (Hovland, Janis, and Kelley, 1953). In such situations, communication may become overly self-serving, since depen- dent members may offer frequent “positive strokes” in order to win the favor of high status members and receive positive strokes themselves. Affiliative needs. Some personalities experience a high need for accep- tance. The more strongly one is motivated to stay in a group, for example, the ‘more susceptible that person is to persuasion from the group. Also, individuals who are strongly attached to the group are least influenced by later commu- High need for acceptance and fear ple are compulsive “‘joiners"—theyGroups and individual purpose. Although groups influence individuals, ‘is we have already stated, some people join groups for the primary purpose of reinforcing that person's existing beliefs. For example, a person who already holds a position consistent with the goals of the organization may join a civic club, Membership may deepen this person's beliefs and strengthen commit. ment, but a favorable predisposition existed before joining. $ A secondary individual purpose in joining groups concerns the person's using the group for personal goals. Our person who joins the civic club may indeed associate with the group because the group shares similar viewpoints, but the same person may identify with the group because of less idealistic motives, For example, a salesperson may wish to make contacts, useful later for sales appointments. In this sense, reference groups serve instrumentally, mostly as a stepping stone for individual purposes. Demographic In their writing about the reasons why people do not respond similarly to the Group same message, De Fleur and Ball-Rokeach (1976) highlight what is called Member- ‘the “social categories theory” of communication. The inherent idea of this ship and Com- approach is that certain groupings of people are sufficiently similar to think munication like and to respond uniformly to messages. This assumption appears correct inspite of the heterogeneity of modern society. In large measure, some sub- cultures can be considered social categories. Or, you may wish to think of these categories, as some researchers do, as demographic groupings which are another dimension describing subcultures and communication. Residence While any generalization about residence is susceptible to becoming quickly out-of-date and/or a gross simplification, place of residence holds some sig- nificance for understanding subcultures. And, remember that everything we can learn about subcultures should help provide insight into this level of intercultural communication. Geographical region. Demographic strategists sometimes label certain regions of the United States as possessing attitudes supposedly typical of that egion. Polling institutions remind us that regions within the United States differ in their attitudes. Thus, demographic characteristics, such as region, do allow us to make generalizations. Many times, even voting records support those generalizations. However, we should avoid extreme generalization or trying to make generalizations fit every individual. Regional differences, therefore, can represent differences in outlook. The intercultural communicator thus should expect not only to understand re. sional, cultural differences but to work toward thoughtfully inviting conver. Sation, suspending any negative stereotypes. Even speech patterns and dialectical differences can produce feelings of disrespect toward others. To Prevent negative perceptual filters from misleading a person, each intercultural ic i Grent should be viewed in light of the uniqueness of each