How to weld

duplex stainless steels

 How to weld
duplex stainless steels
Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels, usually referred to as duplex
steels, combine many of the good properties of ferritic and
austenitic stainless steels.

The high chromium content in combination with Uses

nitrogen, and often also molybdenum, gives duplex • Heat exchangers
steels their superior resistance to both pitting and cre- • Water heaters
vice corrosion. The duplex structure gives very good • Pressure vessels
strength and, allied with the high corrosion resistance, • Storage tanks
very good resistance to stress corrosion. • Rotors, impellers and shafts
Thanks to this exceptional combination of strength • Digesters and other equipment in pulp and paper
and corrosion resistance, duplex steels are widely production
used in everything from tanks for corrosive media to • Cargo tanks in chemical tankers
structural components, chemical tankers and offshore • Desalination plants
applications. • Waste gas purifiers
Duplex steels are primarily intended for applications • Sea water systems
where the working temperature is from –40 to +250°C.
The weldability of duplex steels is good and all com-
mon welding methods can be used. Chemical compositions
Outokumpu EN ASTM
Table 1 shows the chemical compositions (parent and
LDX 2101 ®
1.4162 S32101
filler metals) of some duplex steels.
2304 1.4362 S32304 Matching fillers are used for welding. Fillers that are
2205 1.4462 S32205/31803 more highly alloyed can also be used. For example,
SAF 2507® 1.4410 S32750 LDX 2101, 2304 and 2205 can be welded with 2507/P100.
SAF 2507 is a trademark owed by Sandvik AB

Table 1: Chemical compositions – parent and filler metals

EN ASTM/AWS C N Cr Ni Mo Other
Plate* LDX 2101® 1.4162 S32101 0.03 0.22 21.5 1.4 0.3 5 Mn
2304 1.4362 S32304 0.02 0.10 23 4.8 0.3
2205 1.4462 S32205 0.02 0.17 22 5.7 3.1
SAF 2507™ 1.4410 S32750 0.02 0.27 25 7.0 4.0
MMA EN 1600 A5.4
LDX 2101 – – 0.04 0.14 23.5 7.0 0.4
2304 – – 0.02 0.12 24.5 9.0 <0.3
2205 22 9 3 N L R E2209 0.02 0.15 23.0 9.5 3.0
2507/P100 25 9 4 N L R E2594 0.03 0.23 25.5 10.0 3.6
Wire** EN 12072 A5.9
LDX 2101 – – 0.02 0.15 23.5 7.5 0.2
2304 – – 0.02 0.15 23.5 7.5 0.2
2205 22 9 3 N L ER2209 0.02 0.17 23.0 8.5 3.1
2507/P100 25 9 4 N L ER2594 0.02 0.25 25.0 9.5 4.0
FCW EN 12073 A5.22
LDX 2101 – – 0.02 0.14 24.0 9.0 0.6
2304 – – 0.02 0.14 24.0 9.0 0.6
2205 22 9 3 N L E2209 0.03 0.13 22.5 9.0 3.2

* Hot rolled plate, cold rolled plate, bars, pipes, pipe fittings and flanges
** MIG, TIG and SAW wire


 Figure 1: Microstructure of a weld in 2205 – transition between plate and weld
Microstructure
The chemical composition of duplex steels is balanced
to ensure that, in their solution-annealed states, they
have a structure with approximately equal amounts of
ferrite and austenite.
Duplex steels initially solidify with a completely
ferritic structure. They then undergo a phase trans-
formation in which primary and secondary austenite
grows at the ferrite’s grain boundaries. The amount of
austenite is strongly dependent on composition and
cooling rate. In the production of plates, coils, pipes,
etc., controlled heat treatment can be used to give a
50-50 balance of austenite and ferrite. However, cooling
conditions when welding are not as good. Cooling is
often very rapid here and, consequently, there is little
time for austenite to form. Thus, to give a balanced
structure, filler metals are always over-alloyed with
nickel. This is strongly austenite stabilising. Nitrogen
is another austenite stabilising element and is of great
importance in the re-forming of austenite. However,
variations of between 20 and 70% ferrite are normal.
Welds with this ferrite content have good corrosion and
mechanical properties. Figure 1 shows the fusion line
in a 2205 joint.
Welding with the “wrong” filler metal (e.g. “plate
analysis”), or with no or too little filler metal (e.g.
narrow groove/no root gap), can give a ferrite content
of over 70%. This entails a risk of lower ductility and
reduced corrosion resistance.
When duplex steels are subjected to temperatures
from 350°C up to around 950°C, secondary precipitates

are formed. Intermetallic phases, e.g. sigma phase, are
formed in the 600–950°C temperature range. Ferrite
is re-formed at 350–525°C (embrittlement at 475°C).
Ferrite re-formation can have an embrittling effect
and a negative impact on corrosion resistance. Hence,
unnecessary exposure to these temperatures must be
avoided. In normal welding, the hold time at these
temperatures is relatively short. However, there is an
evident risk if the metal has to undergo subsequent
heat treatment.
Table 3 sets out the recommended heat treatments.
At any other temperatures than those given in the table,
stress-relieving annealing results in lower ductility and
reduced corrosion resistance. Consequently, it is to be
avoided.
Mechanical properties
Duplex steels are characterised by high strength. Table 2
shows typical mechanical properties of parent and weld
metals (pure weld metal).
The high tensile strength also means that the fatigue
properties are very good. However, fatigue strength is
highly dependent on the component’s shape. The fatigue
properties of welded joints are also clearly inferior.
Welding method and joint type are of great significance.
For example, a TIG welded joint has considerably better
properties than one made with covered electrodes.
Because their ductility is lower than that of austenitic
steels, duplex steels are not suitable for use at low
temperatures (< –40°C).
Corrosion properties
Duplex steels offer a very wide range of corrosion pro- Detailed information on the corrosion properties of
perties. Thanks to the high chromium content, corrosion duplex steels is given in the corrosion handbook
resistance is generally very good in most environments. published by Outokumpu.
This applies to both pitting and crevice corrosion. The
high strength also means that the resistance to stress cor-
rosion is very good. Because of the low carbon content, CPT (°C)
intergranular corrosion is rarely a problem.
100 100
Generally speaking, corrosion resistance increases with
increased nickel, chromium and nitrogen content. This is 80 80
reflected in the “resistance ranking” of the duplex steels:
LDX 2101; 2304; 2205 ; SAF 2507. The pitting corrosion 60 60
resistance is shown in diagram 1.
For the most part, the corrosion resistance of a welded 40 40
joint is slightly lower than that of the parent metal. This
is primarily due to: the temperature cycle undergone by 20 20
the weld and the heat-affected zone (HAZ); the shape
0 0
of the weld surface; and, the contaminants and defects 4404 LDX 2101 2304 2205 SAF 2507 254 SMO
generated in welding. To achieve the best possible cor-
rosion resistance, the surfaces of the weld and the plate Parent metal Welded joint
must be clean and even. After welding, the weld metal
and HAZ must be pickled. Refer also to the “Pre-weld Diagram 1: Typical critical pitting temperatures (CPT) as per ASTM
cleaning” and “Post-weld cleaning” sections. G48 – parent metal and weld, brushed and pickled TIG joint

Table 2: Mechanical properties

Min.-value1) Typical values (pure weld metal)
Steel grades P H C MMA MIG TIG SAW FCAW
LDX 2101
Rp0.2 (MPa) 450 480 530 640 520 550 570 580
Rm (MPa) 650 680 700 800 710 730 750 760
Elongation A5 (%) 30 30 30 25 30 30 25 25
Impact strength (J)
+20°C 60 60 – 45 150 180 140 50
–40°C – – – 28 110 180 60 40
2304
Rp0.2 (MPa) 400 400 420 640 520 550 570 580
Rm (MPa) 630 600 600 780 710 730 750 760
Elongation A5 (%) 25 20 20 23 30 30 25 25
Impact strength (J)
+20°C 100 – – 40 150 180 140 50
–40°C 80 – – 25 110 180 60 40
2205
Rp0.2 (MPa) 460 460 480 620 550 610 590 590
Rm (MPa) 640 660 660 810 770 805 800 810
Elongation A5 (%) 25 25 20 25 30 31 29 29
Impact strength (J)
+20°C 100 – – 45 150 200 100 55
–40°C 80 – – 35 110 170 70 40
SAF 2507
Rp0.2 (MPa) 530 530 530 695 570 660 650 –
Rm (MPa) 730 750 750 895 830 860 870 –
Elongation A5 (%) 20 15 15 27 29 28 25 –
Impact strength (J)
+20°C 100 – – 80 140 190 80 –
–40°C 80 – – 55 – 170 – –

1) P = hot rolled plate, H = hot rolled coil, C = cold rolled coil


 Table 3: Recommended heat treatments
LDX 2101® 2304 2205
Hot forming (C°) 900–1100 900–1100 950–1150
Solution heat treatment (C°) 1020–1080 950–1050 1020–1100
Stress-relieving annealing (C°) 1020–1100 950–1050 1020–1100
Shaping
Hot forming, if required, must be performed at the
temperatures given in table 3. Duplex steels are prone
to precipitation when they are subjected to tempera-
tures under approximately 900°C. Precipitation entails
a lowering of both ductility and corrosion resistance.
To reduce the quantity of precipitates, the workpiece
should undergo solution heat treatment after hot for-
ming. Duplex steels soften considerably at high tempe-
ratures. This must be borne in mind during handling
and when tooling up/positioning prior to heat treat-
ment.
Cold forming of duplex steels can be accomplished
using conventional methods. However, because of
the high strength, operations such as deep drawing,
stretch forming and spinning are more difficult than
they are with austenitic steels.
Machining of duplex steels (LDX 2101 excepted) is,
owing to their hardness, slightly more difficult than it
is for austenitic steels. Tools made of high-speed steel
are usually more effective than ceramic tools.
Welding methods
All conventional welding methods such as MMA
(covered electrodes), MIG/MAG, TIG, SAW, FCAW,
plasma and laser can be used to weld duplex steels.
Welding without filler metals is only permitted where
subsequent heat treatment (solution heat treatment) is
possible. If heat treatment is not carried out, there is a
great risk that the ferrite content in the weld metal will
be too high. As a result, ductility and corrosion resis-
tance will be lower.
Property requirements, positional weldability and
productivity usually determine the choice of welding
method.
MMA welding is particularly excellent for position
welding, single-sided welding and where access is limi-
ted. Avesta Welding has a very wide range of covered
electrodes for duplex steels:
LDX 2101 AC/DC all positions
2304 AC/DC all positions
2205-3D all positions
2205-4D position welding
2205-2D high metal recovery
2205 Basic high impact strength requirements
2507/P100 Rutile all positions
2507/P100-4D position welding

SAF 2507™
1025–1200
1040–1120
1040–1120
With all products, direct current (DC+) gives the best
welding results. Nonetheless, all rutile-acid electrodes
can also be used with alternating current. However,
weldability is clearly inferior than it is with direct
current.
A short arc is to be used for welding. This gives the
best stability and reduces the risk of nitrogen pick-
up. The latter can lead to pore formation and increase
surface oxidation.
MIG welding (really MAG – welding is often carried
out with an active component in the shielding gas) is
a particularly good method for welding sheet metal
up to around 6 mm thick. Welding is usually from
two sides, but sheet metal (< 4 mm) can be welded
single-sided with a root backing. A spray arc or pulsed
current is normally used for welding. The advantage
of spray-arc welding is the higher deposition rate.
However, because the weld pool is relatively large,
position welding possibilities are limited. Drop trans-
fer is considerably more sedate and more controlled
with a pulsed arc. The opportunity for position weld-
ing, especially vertical-down, is thus very great. As
the stability of a spray arc is relatively poor, a pulsed
arc is particularly important when welding the super
duplex steel, SAF 2507.
The MIG method is especially suited to robot or
automatic welding in all positions.
TIG welding is normally used for thin (up to around
4 mm) workpieces. It is especially common in the weld-
ing of pipe joints. The method is also highly suitable
for welding single-sided root beads (both with and
without root backing). Subsequent beads can then be
welded using a method with a higher deposition rate.
SAW is widely used with duplex steels. Its high pro-
ductivity and beautiful weld finishes are a big plus.
Furthermore, the SAW work environment is consider-
ably better than that of other methods. Both fume ge-
neration and radiation are minimal. The disadvantages
of SAW are that it is restricted to the horizontal position
and that the heat input is relatively large. Consequently,
small objects present problems. A basic agglomerated
flux, e.g. Avesta 805, must be used for SAW.
Figure 2: Welding with FCW 2205

FCAW is suitable for material thicknesses above ap-
proximately 2.5 mm. Thanks to the slag that is formed,
positional weldability is very good. When FCW is
used, the arc and weld pool are protected by both the
slag and the shielding gas. Drop transfer is even and
finishes are extremely smooth and fine.
FCAW can advantageously be used for single-sided
welding against a ceramic backing. This is fast and
efficient. At the same time, the surface properties
on the root side are very good. For the best results,
the root bead should here be welded using a slightly
lower current intensity.
Flux cored wire is available as LDX 2101, 2304 and
2205 in the following variants:
FCW-2D LDX 2101 welding in the flat and horizontal-
vertical positions
FCW-2D 2304 welding in the flat and horizontal-
vertical positions
FCW-2D 2205 welding in the flat and horizontal-
vertical positions as well as against
a ceramic backing in all positions
FCW 2205-PW position welding

Table 4: Example welding parameters for different types of joints

Method Filler Diam. (mm) Position EN/ASTM Bead Current (A) Voltage (V) Speed (cm/min)
MMA 2205 2.50 PF (3G) Root* 50– 60 20–22 4– 6
3.25 Cap 80– 95 23–25 7– 9
MMA 2507/P100 4.00 PA (1G) 125–135 24–26 15–25
MIG 2205 1.20 PA (1G) 180–200 28–30 30–40
TIG 2205 1.60 H-L 045 (6G) Root 45– 50 9–10 3– 5
TIG 2205 2.40 PA (1G) Root 100–120 16–18 5– 8
FCAW 1.20 Cap 190–210 28–30 17–22
SAW 2205 3.20 PA (1G) 400–450 30–32 40–50
SAW 2507/P100 2.40 PA (1G) 350–400 28–30 40–50
FCAW 2205 1.20 PA (1G) Root* 135–145 24–26 20–25
Cap 200–220 28–30 30–45
FCAW 2205-PW 1.20 PF (3G) Root 140–150 23–25 8–12
Cap 160–180 24–26 9–13
FCAW LDX 2101 1.20 PA (1G) Root 170–190 26–28 30–40
Cap 200–220 27–29 30–45

* Single-sided



Laser, laser hybrid and plasma welding are high
productivity methods that are very suitable for duplex
steels. However, as previously stated, if a filler metal
is not used, the workpiece should be heat treated after
welding.
Laser hybrid is a particularly interesting method. It
combines keyhole welding (laser) with arc welding
(MIG/MAG, TIG or plasma). The method ensures a
high productivity process that, thanks to the filler metal
and the low heat input, preserves metallurgical proper-
ties.
Nowadays, laser hybrid welding is most often per-
formed using a CO2 laser or a Nd:YAG laser. With the
exception of the considerably better penetration, laser
hybrid welding of thin sheets has much in common
with ordinary MIG/MAG welding. Penetration depth
is primarily determined by the laser beam’s ability to
create a keyhole. The width is dependent on the heat
transferred by the arc.
There are two variants of laser hybrid welding, name-
ly, “leading” and “trailing” laser. Whichever is chosen,
it is important that the arc and the beam are sufficiently
close to each other for them to work in the same weld
pool. For better process stability in “leading” laser
hybrid welding, the angle of the MIG/MAG nozzle
should be as slight as possible (i.e. nozzle in the upright
position). Having the arc in the leading position allows
material from the filler wire to fill any gaps. This means
that the laser beam creates a keyhole in a stable weld
pool. The result is an even weld with good penetration.
In the laser-MIG/MAG process, the following
parameters have proved to be important: torch angle,
“offset”, stick-out, working distance and focal length.
The effect of torch angle is much the same as in con-
ventional MIG/MAG welding.
Spray and pulsed arcs can advantageously be used.
However, because there is no stabilising of the arc, a
short arc must not be used in laser-MIG/MAG welding.
Shielding gases
MIG welding of duplex steels is possible using the
conventional shielding gases used with stainless steels.
Normally, argon is used with an addition of 2% O2 or
2–3% CO2. Both of these act as arc stabilisers. An addi-
tion of around 30% helium is advantageous. It increases
arc energy which, in turn, increases weld pool fluidity
and enables higher welding speeds.
Using a pulsed arc, a four-component gas (Ar +30%
He + 2.5% CO2 + 0.03% NO) has given very good
results.
Arc stability varies greatly between different arc
types, different steel grades and even between different
welding machines. Table 5 sets out general recommen-
dations for the MIG welding of various duplex grades.
TIG welding is usually performed with pure argon as
the shielding gas. Resistance to, in particular, pitting
corrosion can be considerably raised by the addition of
up to 2% nitrogen. However, because the risk of pores
increases with increased nitrogen content, the latter
should not exceed 2%.
The addition of around 30% helium markedly
increases arc energy and thus enables a considerable
increase (20–30%) in welding speed. In the welding
of duplex steels, the addition of hydrogen is not to be
recommended. In combination with the high ferrite
content (over 70%), this can lead to hydrogen embritt-
lement.
Single-sided root beads must be welded with a
backing gas. This is normally the same as the shiel-
ding gas. However, Formier gas (90% N2 + 10% H2)
is a good alternative that also provides first-class root
protection while also being cheaper than pure argon.
Because only a negligible quantity of the hydrogen
penetrates the weld metal, no negative effect has been
demonstrated. A backing gas should also be used for
tack welding all the way up until weld thickness is at
least 8 mm.

FCAW is most suitably performed using argon with

Table 5: Shielding gases for MIG, TIG, FCAW, an addition of 16–25% carbon dioxide as the shielding
plasma and laser welding gas. Welding with pure carbon dioxide is also possible,
Method Grades Shielding gases but arc stability and weld pool control are noticeably
MIG LDX 2101, 2304, 2205 1. Ar+30%He+1–3%CO2
poorer. However, compared with a mixed gas, one
2. Ar+1–2%O2 or Ar+2–3%CO2 advantage is that penetration is slightly better. Also
compared with a mixed gas, the voltage should be
2507/P100 1. Ar+30%He+1–3%CO2 increased by 2–3 volts when welding with pure carbon
2. Ar dioxide. This prevents the arc being too short.
3. Ar+30%He+1–2%N2+1–2%CO2

TIG LDX 2101, 2304, 2205, 1. Ar+2%N2 +10–30%He Plasma welding normally uses pure argon, or argon
2507/P100 2. Ar with an addition of 20–30% helium, as both the plasma
FCAW LDX 2101, 2304, 2205 1. Ar+16–25%CO2 and the shielding gas. As with TIG welding, the addition
2. 100% CO2 of 2–3% nitrogen has a positive effect on corrosion resis-
Plasma LDX 2101, 2304, 2205, 1. Ar* tance. The addition of hydrogen should be avoided.
2507/P100 2. Ar+20–30%He+1–2%N2*

Laser LDX 2101, 2304, 2205, 1. Ar

Laser welding can be carried out with pure argon,
2507/P100 nitrogen, helium or mixtures of these gases. To ensure
high-quality welds when using a CO2 laser or a
* Also as plasma gas


Nd:YAG-laser, a shielding gas is required. Because
interaction between the beam and the shielding gas
affects heat transfer to the workpiece, the choice of
shielding gas in CO2 laser welding is critical. The
normal shielding gases are pure argon or, where high
laser powers (1.5–2.0 kW) are used, helium. As there
is little or no interaction between shielding gases and
the wavelength of the Nd:YAG laser, argon, which is
relatively cheap, is normally used.
Laser hybrid welding with a CO2 laser has demon-
strated that the shielding gas need not be pure helium.
It is sufficient that a minimum of 30% helium is added
via the MIG/MAG nozzle. For Nd:YAG laser hybrid
welding, a mixture of Ar + 30–35% He + 2–5% CO2 can
advantageously be used. The mixture is added via the
MIG/MAG nozzle. The addition of helium improves
process stability and gives even welds.
Edge preparation
When welding stainless steels, meticulous edge
preparation and the correct choice of joint type are
important for good results. This applies even more
particularly to duplex steels.
Because of the weld pool’s slightly poorer penetra-
tion and fluidity (compared with standard austenites),
the joint must be correctly designed to give full pene-
tration without the risk of burn-through. The groove
angle must be sufficiently wide to allow the welder
full control of the arc, weld pool and slag. A groove
angle of around 35° (i.e. somewhat larger than for
austenitic steels) is to be recommended for manual
welding.
General recommendations:
• An X-joint can advantageously be used for plate
thicknesses above approximately 15 mm.
• For plate thicknesses above approximately 30 mm,
a double U-joint is advantageous.
• In single-sided welding, a root gap of 2–3 mm and
a straight edge of about 0–1 mm are recommended.
For double-sided welding, the straight edge can be
increased to 1.5–2 mm.
• A wider root gap, 4–6 mm, should be used when
welding against a ceramic backing.

Figure 3 shows a number of common joint types.

Joint type 1 1. I-joint for: single-sided MMA, TIG
I-joint, t < 2.5 mm D = 1.0 – 2.0 mm MIG
D = 1.0–2.0 mm
and PAW; and, double-sided welding
Single-sided, with or without root backing D
using the same methods plus MIG and
I-joint, t < 4.0 mm D = 2.0 – 2.5 mm FCAW. MIGSuitable root protection must be
A
D = 2.0–2.5 mm used with single-sided TIG and plasma
Double-sided without root backing but
welding.
with root grinding

Joint type 2 A C 2. V-joint (t > 4 mm) for: single and

V-joint, t = 4–16 mm
D double-sided MMA and TIG welding
α = 60°–70°
C = 0.5–1.5 mm as well as double-sided MIG and
D = 2.0–4.0 mm (4–6 mm against abacking)
C FCAW. Single-sided welding is also
Single-sided, with or without root backing A
possible with FCAW, but a ceramic
V-joint, t = 4–16 mm D
backing must then be used.
α = 60°–70°
C = 2.0–2.5 mm
D = 2.5–3.5 mm
A C
Double-sided without root backing but D
with root grinding

Joint type 3 A C 3. V-joint for SAW. So that full penetra-

V-joint, t = 8–16 mm
D tion is possible, the root bead must be
α = 80°–90°
C = 3–6 mm ground precisely.
Double-sided welding without root gap, A C
but with root grinding


Joint type 4 A 4. In SAW, an X-joint is to be recommended

X-joint, t = 14–30 mm
α = 80°–90°
C = 3–8 mm (2507/2101 3–4 mm)
Double-sided welding without root gap,
but with root grinding
C where plate thickness exceeds 16 mm.
 To achieve best penetration when weld-
ing 2205 and 2304, the straight edge
C can be increased up to 8 mm. The torch
must then be slightly angled (around
15°) in the direction of welding. In this
way, thicknesses up to 20 mm can be
welded with only two beads. However,
for LDX 2101 and SAF 2507, the straight
edge should not exceed 4 mm.


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post-weld cleaning, all joint surfaces, and the surfaces 4)'
adjoining these, must be thoroughly cleaned before C &#7
welding. Dirt, oil and grease must be removed using,
for example, a cleaning agent such as Avesta Cleaner. D
All rough edges must be completely removed by gentle
grinding. Oxides, paints and primers must be entirely
removed not only in the joint but also in the 50 mm
!ROOTLANDOFMMANDABOVEMAYREQUIRETHETORCHTOBEANGLEDTOWARDSTHEDIRECTIONOFTRAVEL
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So that shrinkage during welding does not prevent full
 3!7CANBEUSEDFORFILLANDCAPPASSES 
burn-through, precise tack welding is extremely im-
portant. For metal thicknesses up to 6 mm, tack length
should be 10–15 mm. This should be increased to 20–25
mm for thicker workpieces. A suitable distance between
tacks is 150–200 mm.
In single-sided welding, the entire tack must be
ground away before welding. In double-sided welding,
it is sufficient to grind away the beginning and the end
of the tack. A common alternative in single-sided weld-
ing is the use of bridges or distance pieces (see figure 4).
These must be made of, and tacked with, duplex steel.
Note that gap width must be constant throughout the
joint.

Figure 4: Tack welding of thick-walled pipe using distance pieces

10
“Starts and stops”–
striking and extinguishing the arc
It is very important to use the right technique when
striking and extinguishing the arc. As regards metal-
lurgical, mechanical and corrosion properties, each start
and stop is a “critical” area.
To avoid striking scars, the arc must always be struck
down in the joint. If, despite this, striking scars occur,
they must be carefully repaired by grinding and polish-
ing or, in the worst cases, repair welding.
In MMA welding, the arc must be extinguished care-
fully by first making several circular movements in
the centre of the weld pool. The electrode is then to be
moved slowly backwards 10 mm through the weld
pool before being gently lifted. If this is done too
quickly, crater cracks and slag inclusions may result.
Modern power sources for MIG and TIG welding
often have a so-called crater filling facility. This gives
smooth and controlled stops.
To remove any crater cracks and slag inclusions, each
start and stop must be carefully ground with a suitable
grinding disc.
Planning the welding sequence
Because it makes burn-through unnecessary, double-
sided welding is always to be preferred over single-
sided welding. To ensure full burn-through on the last
bead, the root side must be ground to clean metal. A
grinding disc not exceeding 2 mm in width is a suit-
able tool. If it is difficult to decide whether grinding has
reached the first bead, penetrant testing can be used.
In double-sided MMA welding, electrodes with a
diameter of 3.25 to 4.00 mm can be used from the very
start. Single-sided welding is most simply carried out
against a root backing. Single-sided root beads are
suitably welded with a 2.50 mm diameter electrode.
The joint is then filled using 3.25, 4.00 or 5.00 mm elec-
trodes. The choice of electrode diameter is determined
by welding position. In certain cases (e.g. pipe joints)
single-sided welding without root backing is required.
Figure 5: Single-sided TIG root bead
This is most simply done using MMA or TIG welding
with electrode diameters of 2.50 mm and 1.60–2.40 mm
respectively. As already stated, a backing gas must be
used in TIG welding. Single-sided welding without
root backing places the severest demands on even and
thorough edge preparation. Figure 5 shows a correctly
executed TIG root bead.
Root beads must satisfy three important
requirements:
• Correct metallurgy and structure (right root gap to
ensure sufficient quantity of filler metal).
• Correct geometry (no concavity, undercutting or
lack of fusion).
• Best possible productivity (always in relation to
weldability).
Filler beads must be deposited with the highest pos-
sible productivity. At the same time, structure and
mechanical properties have to be maintained. In many
cases, fill passes use the same filler metal as that used in
root passes. High productivity welding methods may
thus be economical for joint filling. Several common
choices are:
• TIG root pass + MMA, MIG or SAW fill passes
• MMA root pass + SAW or FCAW fill passes
Generally speaking, welding is carried out with the
highest possible heat input that is still consistent with
maintained properties and weldability. Visual inspection
between the passes is important.
Slag residues and severe welding oxide are removed
before depositing the next layer. Otherwise, there is al-
ways the risk of slag inclusions being left behind. A suit-
able grinding disc must be used. To avoid damaging
adjacent surfaces, grinding should be carried out with
some care. Figure 6 shows deleterious grinding scars.
Figure 6: Grinding scars
11

The cap bead is primarily intended to give the weld
good corrosion protection. Besides structure, surface
geometry can also play a critical role here. Undercut-
ting, unevenness, high crowns, gaps, etc. can all have
a negative impact on corrosion resistance. Aesthetic
considerations are often also important.
When using slag forming welding methods, weld
reinforcements must be cleaned of all slag residues.
Welding techniques
In the flat position, there should be no significant
weaving. However, in the vertical-up position, weaving
of up to 20 mm is advantageous. For the best control of
arc and weld pool, welding is normally carried out with
a torch or electrode angle of around 10° away from the
welding direction, i.e. “backhand”. In submerged arc
welding, the torch is not normally angled. A torch angle
of 10–15° in the welding direction (i.e. “forehand”) in-
creases penetration. This allows the unbevelled edge to
be increased to up to around 8 mm. However, because
LDX 2101 and SAF 2507 are slightly more sensitive to
the necessary high heat input, this increase must only
be used for 2205 and 2304. Especially when using wel-
ding wire, backings are very often ceramic. Backing
shape may vary with joint type. A root gap of 4–6 mm
most often gives a nicely shaped root bead. Too wide a
gap can result in a too thin root bead that, in the worst
cases, may crack because of the degree of restraint.
Ceramic backings are frequently used for welding
stainless steel cargo tanks in chemical tankers. Here,
welding is often in difficult positions with little access
from both sides.
Distortion
Broadly speaking, the coefficient of expansion of duplex
steels is lower than that of austenitic steels. It is only
slightly higher than that of carbon steels. Consequently,
distortion during the welding of duplex steels is some-
what less than it is with austenitic steels. However, this
does not mean that tack welding can be simplified.
Preheating
On the whole, stainless steels (duplex steels inclu-
ded therein) must not be preheated before welding.
Normally, welding takes place at room temperature.
At lower temperatures, preheating to a maximum of
50°C is advisable. This drives off any moisture that
may otherwise lead to pore formation.
When welding castings, or where the workpiece
is thick or where restraint is high, preheating to a
maximum of 150°C may be advantageous. This is
particularly true where the welding method has a low
heat input (max. 0.5 kJ/mm). In these cases, a suitable
preheating method is the use of electric blankets or
similar. The use of soot-depositing flames can result in
local carbon pick-up. This reduces resistance to inter-
granular corrosion.
12
Interpass temperature
The recommended interpass temperature for LDX
2101 is 150°C. Both 2304 and 2205 are slightly more
tolerant, but should be welded below 200°C. Super
duplex steels such as SAF 2507 have a far more sen-
sitive structure and, because the risk of deleterious
precipitation rises sharply with increased interpass
temperature, should not be welded above 100°C.
Thermal conductivity is of the same order as that of
austenitic stainless steels, i.e. considerably lower than
it is for low-alloy and carbon steels. This means that,
compared to carbon steels, it takes longer to reach the
correct interpass temperature. The cooling rate can be
increased by using compressed air. This is most suit-
ably directed at the back of the plate or the inside of the
pipe. Compressed air directed straight into the welded
joint presents the risk of contamination. Cooling can
also be accelerated by intermittent welding or using a
correctly planned welding sequence.
The interpass temperature must be measured. Some
form of thermometer or thermoelement is appropriate
for this. Temperature crayons seldom give good results
and must be avoided.
Heat input
Without negatively affecting microstructure and,
consequently, properties, 2205 can be welded using a
relatively high heat input. Heat inputs above 3 kJ/mm
have been used with no negative effects. Welding
method, radiation, distortion and weld pool size are
most often the limiting factors (rather than heat input).
LDX 2101, 2304 and, in particular, SAF 2507 must be
welded with lower heat inputs.
General recommendations:
2304 max. 2.0 kJ/mm
2205 max. 2.5 kJ/mm
LDX 2101, SAF 2507 max. 1.5 kJ/mm
Duplex steels should not be welded with a too low heat
input. The cooling rate could then be very high, which
might result in a high ferrite content (above 70%). This
is particularly true in the welding of thick workpieces.
Theoretical minimum heat inputs are 0.5 kJ/mm
for 2304 and 2205 and 0.3 kJ/mm for LDX 2101 and
SAF 2507. Especially in automatic welding, heat input
is easy to control.
Although it is always desirable to optimise produc-
tivity by increasing the welding parameters, heat
input should never exceed the recommended value.
{ }
UxI UxI U = voltage
Heat input = –––––––––– –––––––––– = kJ/mm I = current
V x 1,000 mm/s x 1,000 V = speed
Figure 7: Storage tanks are a major end use for duplex stainless steels.

13
 Figure 8: Avesta BlueOneTM being used to spray pickle a stainless steel tank.
Post-weld heat treatment
Duplex stainless steels do not normally need post-weld
heat treatment. However, in certain situations, it may
be necessary to subject the workpiece to solution heat
treatment or stress-relieving annealing. The spinning
of dished ends is just such an example. Shaping is here
carried out in stages with intermediate heat treatment.
Table 3 gives the recommended temperatures.
The heat treatment of duplex steels requires very pre-
cise control of both time and temperature. It must only
be carried out by qualified personnel using suitable
equipment.
Welding duplex steels to other metals
Duplex or austenitic filler metals such as Avesta P5
(309MoL) or Avesta 309L are used to weld duplex steels
to carbon or low-alloy steels. As austenitic metals
demonstrate a somewhat greater toughness, Avesta
P5 or 309L may be particularly suitable for welding
workpieces where there is a high degree of restraint
(t > 20 mm). A further alternative is to use Avesta P7,
14
which also gives a weld metal that is highly resistant
to cracking.
Welding to other stainless steels such as EN 1.4301
or EN 1.4401 is also fully possible. It can be done with
a duplex filler metal or with Avesta P5 or Avesta 309L
(only stainless steels that are not alloyed with molyb-
denum).
Welding to fully austenitic steels or nickel base
alloys is suitably carried out using a filler metal that
matches the other metal, for example, Avesta P12
when welding 2205 to 254 SMO.
Post-weld cleaning
Post-weld cleaning is critical in achieving fully satis-
factory corrosion resistance. Clearly enough, it is thus
an integral part of the entire stainless steel welding
procedure. Despite this, post-weld cleaning is not
always standard.
The method and extent of cleaning is determined by
the requirements imposed in respect of corrosion resist-
ance, hygiene and appearance.
Generally speaking, one basic requirement is that de-
fects, welding oxide, organic contaminants and carbon
steel contamination must be removed from weld and
parent metal surfaces. This can be done mechanically
(grinding, brushing, polishing, blasting) or chemically
(pickling). An important rule of thumb for grinding
is to always finish with polishing. The risk of harmful
grinding scars is otherwise very great.
The demonstrably most reliable method is a combina-
tion of mechanical and chemical cleaning, i.e. brushing
with a stainless steel brush followed by pickling.
Avesta Finishing Chemicals has a complete product
programme for the pickling of stainless steel welds. It
comprises cleaning products, pickling pastes, pickling
sprays, pickling fluids and various items of equipment.
Duplex steels are generally more difficult to pickle than
are austenitic steels such as 1.4401 (308L) and 1.4404
(316L). Thus, Avesta BlueOneTM and Avesta RedOneTM,
which are comparatively strong pickling products,
Figure 10: Slag inclusions, SAW 2205
should be used for pickling duplex grades. Further
details are available at www.avestafinishing.com or can
be obtained directly from Avesta Finishing Chemicals.
Defects
Broadly speaking, duplex steels are no more prone to de-
fects than other stainless steels. However, several factors
require special attention.
• The high nitrogen content of duplex steels means
poorer penetration.
• Compared to austenitic steels, there is a slightly greater
tendency to pore formation.
•Arc stability, fluidity and arc control are also somewhat
poorer than they are for austenitic stainless steels.
Consequently, to avoid incomplete penetration, slag
inclusions and pores, the margins for welding parame-
ters and root gaps are more restricted.
Figure 9: Incomplete penetration, MIG 2205
Figure 11: Pores, FCW LDX 2101
15
 Repair welding
All defects must be suitably repaired. Minor surface results, but is both time-consuming and costly. Hence,
defects such as spatter, slag and oxide islands can easily ferrite content is normally determined using a so-
be remedied by grinding followed by polishing using called “ferritescope” such as the Fischer Feritscope®
an at least 320 mesh disc. Note that a grinding disc in- MP30 or by calculations based on the chemical compo-
tended for stainless steel must be used. After polishing, sition. There are a number of calculation methods, e.g.
conventional pickling is to be carried out. Pickling paste DeLong and WRC-92. For duplex steels, calculation as
is most often the simplest alternative. per WRC-92 gives results that are closer to reality than
Defects must never be repaired by TIG dressing those obtained using DeLong. Figure 12 shows a WRC-
(remelting using a TIG electrode). This is because TIG 92 diagram.
dressing has the same effect as welding without filler When it is obtained by measurement, ferrite content
metal, i.e. high ferrite content. is normally expressed as a percentage. Where it is ob-
Large defects and subsurface defects require heavier tained by calculation it is usually expressed as a ferrite
grinding with a coarser grinding disc. Once the entire number (FN). A normal range is 20–70 (%/FN).
defect has been removed (which can be checked by, for
example, penetrant testing), the ground area is to be fil- Overlay welding
led using a suitable method, most often MMA welding. Duplex filler metals can be advantageously used for the
A plasma arc can be used to remove deep subsurface overlay welding of carbon steels. The duplex overlay
defects in thick workpieces. Because of the resultant is resistant to corrosion and has good wear resistance.
carbonisation, carbon arcs should not be used. The Although all welding methods can be used, those with
problem with both plasma and carbon arcs is the a high deposition rate (i.e. SAW, FCAW and MIG) are
powerful spatter. If care is not taken, this can damage normally preferred. Welding with 2205 can be direct
adjacent surfaces. The latter should be protected using, onto carbon steel. However, filler metals such as 309L
for example, Masonite or chalk paint. After gouging, or P5 can also be used for the first layer. This is some-
the area must be ground before welding can start. what more cost-efficient, especially when welding with
G?72#
?PDF


Repair welding can be carried out at least 5 times 2507/P100.
with no negative impact on the parent metal. In overlay welding, there should be as little mixing
with the parent metal as possible. This can be a par-
Measuring ferrite content ticular problem with SAW, FCAW and MIG welding.
Ferrite content can be assessed in several ways. Point Welding parameters and technique are of great im-
counting, which is a standardised method (ASTM portance. Each run is built up on the preceding. The
3TAINLESSSTEELS
E562), is one of these. This method gives very precise arc should never be directed towards the parent metal.

.ICKELEQUIVALENT
.I#.#U 72# 
      
 





 ! 
&.










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!&

 


 &! 
,$8  

&.


&
 

      

#HROMIUMEQUIVALENT
#R-O.B
Figure 12: WRC-92 diagram
&IGURE72# DIAGRAMFORWELDINGCONSUMABLES

WFERRITECONTENTn&.$E,ONG
16 ANDTEMPERATURETRANSFORMTOTALLYORPARTLY
SAWELDTHATMAYBESLIGHTLYSENSITIVETO INTOSIGMAPHASE4HISREDUCESCORROSION
RACKING4OAVOIDTHISAFILLERWIREWITH RESISTANCEANDTOUGHNESS
Table 6. Example chemical compositions of overlay weld metals:
Chemical composition, % by weight Ferrite
Method Final layer1 Filler Layer Flux C Si Mn Cr Ni Other FN2 %3
SAW 2205 P54 1 805 0.03 0.7 1.2 21.0 13.0 Mo 2.3 5 6
2205 2 805 0.03 0.7 1.2 22.5 9.0 Mo 2.8 35 45
MMA 2205 P54 1 – 0.03 0.8 1.1 21.5 13.0 Mo 2.4 8 8
2205 2 – 0.03 0.8 0.7 22.5 9.5 Mo 2.8 25 35
MMA 2207 P52 1 – 0.03 0.8 1.1 21.5 13.0 Mo 2.4 8 8
2507/P100 2 – 0.03 0.6 1.3 24.5 10.5 Mo 3.5 25 35
FCW 2205 FCW-2D P5 1 – 0.03 0.6 1.4 22.0 12.0 Mo 2.1 15 15
FCW-2D 2205 2 - 0.03 0.7 1.1 22.5 9.5 Mo 3.1 30 40
1. Target analysis of the final layer 3. Ferrite in % using a Fischer Feritscope MP30
®

2. Ferrite as per Schaeffler-DeLong 4. Welding is also possible with 2205 or 2507/P100

How to weld duplex steels of

similar compositions
There are a number of steel grades that have composi-
tions similar to those of the Outokumpu duplex steels
described above. Some general recommendations are
set out below.
measurement using a “ferritescope”. In ultrasound
testing, it is important that surfaces are ground flat
so that defects such as pores and cracks can be
reliably detected.

Handling of filler metals

Table 7. Welding duplex steels of similar Stainless steel covered electrodes, flux cored
compositions wires and fluxes can be prone to moisture pick-
up. Avesta Welding’s consumables are supplied
Steel grades Filler metal
in packages that have been designed to resist
ASTM 329 Avesta 2205
moisture. However, for the best possible results,
AL 2003 (UNS S32003) Avesta 2205
the following storage and handling precautions are
3RE60 (S31500) Avesta 3RE60 or 2205
still recommended.
URANUS 35N, SAF 2304 Avesta 2304 or 2205
SAF 2205, Uranus 45N, remanit 4462,1903SC, Avesta 2205
AF22, VS22, Falc 223, SM 22Cr, NKCr22 Storage of unbroken packages: Covered elec-
SAF 2507, Zeron 100, DP-3W, S32760, Avesta 2507/P100 trodes, FCWs and fluxes must be stored in their
Uranus 52N+ unbroken, original packaging. Storage in opened
packaging can considerably shorten the product’s
service life. Following the “first in, first out” princi-
Inspection and quality assurance ple, storage time must be kept as short as possible.
The rules that apply to structural steels apply also to Covered electrodes and fluxes should not be stored
stainless steels (duplex included therein). The follow- longer than 5 years. Products that are over 5 years
ing are some of the relevant international standards: old should be redried before use.
Covered electrodes, FCWs and fluxes should
• ISO 5817, which gives guidelines on acceptance not be stored in direct contact with floors or outer
levels for various defects in welded joints. walls.
Storeroom temperature must be kept as even as
• EN 288 and ASME IX, which describe the approval possible (± 5°C) and should not fall below 15°C.
of welding procedures. The relative air humidity should not exceed 50%.

However, duplex steels are used in applications
where the strength and corrosion requirements are
very severe. There is thus every reason to be extra
careful from beginning to end. Welding oxide, spatter,
striking scars and grinding scars must be removed to
achieve the correct corrosion resistance. For the best
fatigue resistance, the weld surface must be even with
no sharp edges.
Nondestructive testing is an integral part of the
examination of welded joints. Suitable methods are
visual inspection, penetrant testing (PT), radiographic
testing (RT), ultrasound testing (UT) and ferrite content
Handling of opened packages: Electrodes that
remain unused at the end of a shift should be
replaced in their packaging and resealed. Alterna-
tively, they can be put in a warm heating cabinet
at 60–70°C. The relative air humidity should not
exceed 50%.
Flux that has not been used should be stored in a
heating cabinet at 60–70°C.
Handling during welding: It is an advantage if
welding can be carried out at room temperature
and low relative air humidity. Covered electrodes,

17

FCWs and fluxes should be used at the same rate
as they are unpacked – preferably within 24 hours.
During shifts, electrodes must be kept as dry as pos-
sible. If the climate so demands, they should be kept
warm in a portable heat-retaining container or similar.
One alternative is to use smaller packs, e.g. half or
quarter capsules.
Rebaking: Electrodes and flux cored wires that have
sustained slight moisture damage can be rebaked for
around 3 hours at, respectively, 250–280°C and 150°C.
Heating and cooling must both be gradual. Items
should not be rebaked any more than three times.
Fluxes can be rebaked for 2 hours at 250–300°C.
Procedures that have been approved for carbon steel
electrodes are also completely satisfactory for stainless
steel electrodes. This is because the latter are not as
prone to moisture pick-up.
Recycling: Because they can be reused, leftover pro-
ducts and scrap are valuable. Wherever possible, pro-
ducts and packaging must be recycled in accordance
with local regulations.
Figure 13: Order and tidiness are essential for a good work environment.
Photo: The Karl Kremsmüller Welding Academy, Austria
18
Health and safety
The fumes and radiation given off during welding can be
hazardous to health. Spatter, molten metal and arcs can
cause burns and fires. Furthermore, electrical equipment is
used. If it is not handled correctly, there is the risk of elect-
rical shock. Thus, it is of the greatest importance that wel-
ders and supervisors are aware of all the potential dangers.
• Ensure that ventilation is adequate and that the
welding site has an extractor system that removes
fumes and gases from the welder’s “breathing zone”.
• When welding in confined spaces, use respiratory
protective equipment or a compressed air line
breathing apparatus. Use safety equipment for
hands, eyes and body, e.g.: gloves; helmet or face
mask with filter glass; safety boots; apron; and arm
and shoulder guards.
• Keep the workplace and equipment clean and dry.
• Regularly check that safety clothing and equipment
are in good condition.
• As far as possible, insulate all conducting elements.
Further information on each product group is contained
in Avesta Welding’s material safety data sheets. These
can be downloaded from Avesta Welding’s website,
www.avestawelding.com, or ordered from Avesta
Welding’s distributors and retailers.
Figure 14: Storage tanks in chemical tankers are often made of duplex stainless steels.

All rights reserved. Contents subject to change without warning or notification. Great care has been taken to ensure that the contents of this publication
are correct. However, Avesta Welding and its subsidiaries cannot accept responsibility for errors or for information that is found to be misleading.
Suggestions for, or descriptions of, working methods or of the use, treatment or machining of products are for information only and Avesta Welding
and its subsidiaries can accept no liability in respect thereof. Before using products supplied or manufactured by the company, customers should satisfy
themselves of product suitability.

19
 10601EN-GB, Centrum Tryck, Avesta 2006.

Avesta Welding AB
P.O. Box 501, Koppardalen
SE- 774 27 Avesta, sweden
Tel: +46 (0) 226 815 00
Fax: +46 (0) 226 815 75
info@avestawelding.com
www.avestawelding.com