BIposse STE IU) aerTm te RELEVANT DISCONTINUITIES ; RADIOGRAPHIC TESTINGPublished by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 1711 A\lingate Lane PO Box 28518 Columbus, OH 43228-0518 Copyright © 2010 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT. IRRSP, NDT Handbook, The NDT Technician and wwwasnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level il Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and ANDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing. \SBN-13: 978-1-57117-204-4 Printed in the United States of America. Cover photograph courtesy of Scott L. Dean. POO ee Acknowledgments The following technical reviewers and contributors provided valuable assistance with this series: ‘Shelby Abercrombie ~ Aerojet Ordnance Tennessee Bruce Crouse — Inspection Services Richard Duin - Alion Science and Technology Nat Faransso — KBR Morteza K. Jafari ~ International Quality Services ‘Amy E. Krauser ~ Edwards & Associates Martin Lug ~ TSC Inspection Systems David G. Moore ~ Sandia National Laboratories Sam Robinson ~ Sherwin Incorporated Dave Russell - Russell NDE Systems Inc. Roderic K. Stanley — NDE Information Consultants Bill White ~ Forged Products Inc. Carl J. Wilkey ~ lveyCooper Services, LLC Wiliam J, Wiltsey — TEAM Industrial Services Inc. ‘The Publications Review Committee includes: Gary Heath — All Tech Inspection, Inc. Glenn M, Light ~ Southwest Research Institute Bob Conklin Educational Materials Editor iitThis module is intended as a reference guide for students, technicians and professionals in NDT. An overview of each discontinuity provides the following information: Description Location in part Characteristics/appearance Metallurgical analysis Depending on the availability of information, one or more of the following items are subsequently presented in terms of radiographic testing per discontinuity: Appearance - describing the outcome of a typical test result Rationale — explaining why the method is preferred Advantage(s) — highlighting the strong points of the method Limitation(s) ~ detailing any drawbacks associated with the application of the method Recommendation(s) — providing procedural tips for a successful outcome Precaution(s) - advising what safeguards to take when conducting a test Please note that this module is intended as a supplement only. It should not take the place of specific codes, procedures or standards applicable to a specific test. POODN0DDOOODDOooD Table of Contents Primary Processing Discontinuities.25 References... Convolution Cracks... 26 Figure Sources. Concave Root Surface 28 Drop-Through “30.1 Detived Units... 58 Inclusions (Welding) ... 32 Conversions to SI Units 9 Radiography of Wel Traditional Units Converted Flat Plates ....0-+---+ to SI Units.. ‘Acknowledgments Preface. Table of Contents ronen56 57 Radiographic Principles Image Sharpness... Exposure Principle: Advantages of fT. Limitations of RT. Precautions with ® Incomplete Fusion Lack of Penetration Radiography of Welded ‘Comer joints. A3 Relevant Discontinuities.cconnnne7 Porosity (GAS) wns Using Shim Stock with Welds...47 Inherent Discontinutties Unconsumed Insert. AB Cold Shuts. Undercut Hot Tears: Inclusions.. Pipe... Porosity Shrinkage (Microshrinkage) Shrinkage Cracks Service Discontinuities Intergranular Corrosion Cracking..52 Radiography of Semiconductors. Gamma Ray Sources : X-Ray Energy Thickness Limits. Radiographic Equivalent FactorsRadiographic Principles X-rays and gamma rays have the ability to penetrate materials, including materials that do not transmit light. In passing through material, some of these rays are absorbed. Dependit e Size of radiation that object will vai Thicker portions of the test object or dense inclusions will appear lighter because of more absorption of the radiation. Reinforcement on the outside or the inside of a weld will appear as lighter images on the radiograph because of the increased thickness and thus greater absorption. The terms “lighter” and “darker” apply to film. However, images provided by digital radiographic techniques will usually be (Source: CF-RT-2)The sharpness of the image is determined by the size of the radiation source and the ratio of the object-to-film/detector distance and source- to-object distance. In the figure below, a small geometrical unsharpness (penumbra) is shown in (a) when the test object is close to the film/detector. The umbra (darkest part of the shadow) is the only part that is normally seen in a radiograph. The penumbra (unsharpness) is seldom seen. Figure (b) shows greater geometrical unsharpness when the source-to-film/detector distance remains unchanged but the object-to-film/detector distance is increased. Figure (c) shows a smaller geometrical unsharpness when the object-to-film/detector distance is the same as in (a) but the source-to-film/detector distance is increased. Fiim/detector Film/detector Image Sharpness To determine the geometric unsharpness, use the following formula: gtd 70) where Ug is geometric unsharpness, Fis source size (the maximum projected dimension of the radiating source, or effective focal spot, in the plane perpendicular to the surface of the object being radiographed), D is the distance from the source of radiation to the object being radiographed, and dis the distance from the source side of the object to the film/detector. Optimum geometrical sharpness of the image is obtained when the radiation source is small, the distance from the source to the test object is relatively great and the distance from the test object to the film/detector plane is small. AHHH Film/detector (Source: CERT-2)Exposure Principles if the film/detector is placed too farfrom the _be placed as close to the test object as possible, test object, the discontinuity image will be and the radiation source must be placed as far enlarged. If the test object has a discontinuity from the film or detector as is practical. and is too close to the source, the image will be greatly enlarged, resulting in the loss of Gimersional seutty; Proper placenrentof the Source ah film/detector minimizes this enlargement and allows for more accurate representation of the Test size of the discontinuity. objet The following diagram of a radiographic exposure shows basic geometric relationships between the radiation source, the test object and the film/detector on which the image is recorded. The ratio of the test object diameter mage Do to the image diameter Dy is equal to the ratio of the source-to-object distance d, to the ae source-to-film/detector distance d,. For the a radiographic image to be closer to the same size as the test object, the film/detector must ama Gource: CT-RT-2) DOgn008 Advantages of RT ECR ‘ernal discontinuities in * Radiation safety procedures must always id material, such as be followed. castings, forgings and ents. ° Accessibility can be limited. The erospace industry for radiographer must have acces Sides of the test object. © Discontinuities the radiation tive action. . on . significant variations in the ot impos jetect. composition of a material. * Complex geometries may cause confusion * Able to detect conditions that result in a with correct interpretations. 2% or greater difference in through- * Sensitivity levels govern the capability to section thickness. detect small or tight discontinuities.* The type of marking material (e.g., grease PRES MDI CUD ST pencil on titanium) used to identify the * Radiation can cause damage to the cells of area of discontinuities may affect the living tissue, so it is essential that structure of the test part. personnel be adequately aware and * Foreign material, such as loose scale, flux protected. or splatter, may affect the validity of the ¢ Radiographic testing and quality assurance test results. | : personnel must be continually aware of * Proper safety equipment, including the radiation hazard and mindful of safety protective barriers, must be provided. regulations. * Asafe distance from any energized * Strict observance of state and federal equipment, based on appropriate codes, safety regulations is mandatory. must be observed. * Many jurisdictions require separate * High energy levels may increase safety radiation safety certification to ensure issues because of increased shielding technicians are cognizant of the safety requirements. ; regulations. * The source intensity (total quantity of * It is imperative that personnel responsible penetrating rays) will directly affect the for radiographic testing are trained and exposure time. Increased exposure time qualified with a technical understanding of may affect safety requirements. the test equipment and materials, the test * Technical procedures should be performed object and the test procedures. in accordance with specific instructions, codes and specifications. TH Relevant Discontinuities A discontinuity is any intentional or unintentional interruption in the physical structure or configuration of a part. Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process by which discontinuities are located. As part of the NDT process, evaluation criteria are applied to determine if the discontinuities that are discovered may or may not affect the usefulness of the part. indications (responses to a nondestructive test) are classitted as false, nonrelevant or relevant. * A false indication is an indication produced by something other than a discontinuity; many times a false indication arises from improper procedures. * Anonrelevant indication is an indication that is caused by a condition or type of discontinuity that is not rejectable. A nonrelevant indication may also result from a misapplied test or may Le an indication tha. is too small to be considered relevant. Nonrelevant indications usually resuit from intentional interruptions in a part such as a change in section geometry, thickness or hardness, or by a physical condition that is not a discontinuity. * Arelevant indication is the result of an actual discontinuity and must be evaluated by a ‘qualified inspector to determine the severity of the discontinuity. Finding and evaluating relevant indications at an early stage is a ciitical step in preventing discontinuities from becoming more serious, causing system or catastrophic failure, while the intended part or component is in service.This module summarizes the characteristics of various types of relevant indications wi from discontinuities that may be detected by radiographic testing (RT). Capabilities an: limitations of RF when applied for the detection of a specific discontinuity are shown. The discontinuities in this module are divided into four categoric secondary processing and service, nherent, primary processing, * Inherent discontinuities originate from the solidification of cast or molten metal. Inherent discontinuities may also. have their origin in other bulk consolidation methods, Such as press.and sinter, as well as composites. * Primary processing discontinuities atise from the hot or cold working of an ingot into forgings, rod and bar, pipe and tube, and from welding. As with inherent discontinuities, primary processing discontinuities may be found in composite materials, as well. * Secondary processing discontinuities stem from secondary processes and finishing operations stich as machining, grinding, heat treatment and plating. * Service-induced discontinuities are caused during the use of the part. The discontinuities discussed in the following sections are only some of the many hundreds that are asseciated with various industrial products. This group of discontinuities occurs during the initial melting and refining processes (ingots) and during solidi n from the molten state (castings). Such discontinuities are present before rolling or forging is performed to produce intermediate shapes. RT is recom: the following inherent discontinuities: * Cold shuts Hot tears Indusions see eee rinkage cracksCold Shuts Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous cast material. Location in Part: Surface and subsurface. Characteristics/Appearance: Generally appear as smooth indentations on the cast surface and may resemble a forging lap. Metallurgical Analysis: Produced during the casting of molten metal. Cold shuts may result from splashing, surging, interrupted pouring or the meeting of two streams of metal coming from different directions. Cold shuts are also caused by the solidification of one surface before other metal flows over it; the presence of interposing surface films on cold, sluggish metal; or any factor that prevents fusion where two surfaces meet. Cold shuts are more prevalent in castings formed in a mold having several sprues or gates. They are also more pret aluminum because of th magnesium sets & Cold shut in 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) aluminum casting. (HB-RT) yaph of a surface cold shut.Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous castings. Location in Part: Internal or near surface. Characteristics/Appearance: Appear as a ragged line of variable width and numerous branches. May occur individually or in groups. Metallurgical Analysis: Hot tears or cracks are : caused by nonuniform cooling resulting in . stresses that rupture the surface of the metal while its temperature is still in the brittle range. Tears may originate where stresses are set up : by the more rapid cooling of thin sections that, adjoin heavier masses of metal, which are : slower to cool. Hot tears are cracks that form before complete solidification of the metal section of a casting. (HB-RT) AHHH Using RT to Detect Hot ty Appearance: Dark, sometimes intermi jagged, linear indication, _ Limitations: (one 1. The sensitivity level may not be suffi jot tears. Close-up view of hot tears. Hot tears in the fillet of a casting.Inclusions castings. Location in Part: Internal, subsurface or surface, Inclusions less dense aa | than surrounding Characteristics/Appearance: Inclusions are matesial 1-322 in foreign materials in a supposedly uniform (0.125 in.) aluminum matrix. They may be less or more dense than casting. (HB-RT) the matrix alloy and will appear on the radiograph, respectively, as darker or lighter indications. The latter is more common in light metal castings. Metallurgical Analysis: Caused by oxides, sulfides or other refractory materials and impurities that are entrapped in the molten metal as it solidifies in the ingot mold. They are normally lighter than the metal and the majority of inclusions and slag rise to the top while the metal is still in the liquid state. Most follows © Sand indusions: R inadver other mater jals th molten cast metal. This results in a lighter area of film density in the radiograph. 15 of this material is removed di operations. Nonmetallic inclusions, when Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous further processed, can produce laminations, seams and cracks in finished material. g cropping ty Inclusion more dense than surrounding ‘material in 6.4 mm (0.25 in) aluminum casting.Description: Found mostly in steel and other metals poured into ingot molds. Location in Part: Internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Central cavity that becomes tight and elongated during Radiograph of elongated voids. (CT-RT-4) forming operations. ee Metallurgical Analysis: Pipe is formed when an ingot cools more rapidly at the outside surfaces, thereby causing the formation of a central cavity as the result of shrinkage. Pipe has a tendency to remain centrally located as the ingot is rolled down to blooms and billets. Radiograph of large, irregular void. (HB-RT) ing RT to Detect Pi have a rough, (treelike) metal WVRadiographs of 6.4 mm ) aluminum casting showing Porosity indications of gas voids (a) and elongated gas porosity (b). HER Description: Found mostly in steel and other ERD metals poured into ingot molds. Location in Part; At the surface of a casting or throughout the cross section. Characteristics/Appearance: Gas porosity takes the form of more or less spherical voids or bubbles that form within the cast metal. Metallurgical Analysis: Porosity is usually due to occluded gas that forms in the molten metal before it is poured into an ingot mold. The gas has no opportunity to rise and escape through the casting top or risers, thus becoming entrapped during solidification. Gas porosity generally results from atmospheric interactions between the mold and metal. Overheating of the melt and excessive moisture in the mold are contributing factors. DODOQOONODDOD000E Using RT to Detect Porosity Appearance: individually . the radiograph % “ * Porosity indications in a . casting. ¢ 3 = Gas holes, also referred to as blowholes. (HB-RT) 19Shrinkage (Microshrinkage) — Radiographs Microshrinkage in 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) thick magnesium base alloy castings: (a) sponge and (b) feathery. (HB-RT) @ Shrinkage may take the form of large imegular voids with a Tough, jagged surface of treelike metal grains. (HB-RT) sections because thinner areas solidity and « faster than thicker cross sections. (Continued on next page.) 2BShrinkage (Microshrinkage) Description: Found in cast materials; magnesium is especially prone to microshrinkage due to density. Also found in ferrous castings and other nonferrous castings. Location in Part: Internal, unless machined surfaces open internal cavities. Characteristics/Appearance: Small filamentary voids in the grain boundaries appear as concentrated porosity in cross section. Metallurgical Analysis: Shrinkage occurs while the metal is in a semi-molten state. If sufficient molten metal cannot flow into different areas, as it cools the shrinkage will leave a void. The void is identified by its appearance and by the time spent between the liquid to solid phases. Microshrinkage is caused by the withdrawal of the low melting point constituent from the grain boundaries. Microshrinkage usually appears at the gate of the casting, although it also occurs when molten metal must flow from a thin section into a thicker section of a casting. What is of concern is the amount of time it takes to cool large ingots of metal. Feathery micreshrinkage. (HB-RT) to Detect Shrinkage (IV Appearance: Shrinkage may take the form of large, irregular voids indications thi hot tears. Micro: that may vary in un * Filamentary shrinkage: a continuous structure of connected lines or branches of variable length, width and density or occasionally as a network. * Sponge shrinkage: areas of lacy texture with diffuse outlines, generally toward the mid thickness of heavier casting sections. Rationale: RT is universally used to determine the acceptance level of microshrinkage, 1. Orientation of the microshrinkege could give 2 false impression of Sze 2. Relatively lange areas of microshrinkage may be weil individual defined. jear indications m: aing RT to Detect Shrinkage Cracks Appearance: Appear as thin (straight or ‘ jagged) linearly disposed discontinuities. Radiographically, shrinkage cracks are less open (narrower) than hot tears. Advantage: Able to detect subsurface cracks through full volume. Crack formed after the metal has completely solidified and While itis cooling to ambient temperature. (HB-RT) ‘o produced by forming or fabrication operations including : found roling, forging and welding. RT is recommended for the following primary Processingconvolution crack showing the orange peel characteristics. Convolu iS Description: Found in nonferrous material. Location in Part: Surface. Characteristics/Appearance: Convolution cracks range from microfractures to open fissures. They are situated on the periphery of the convolutions and extend longitudinally in the direction of rolling. Metallurgical Analysis: The rough “orange peel” effect of convolution cracks is the result of either a forming operation that stretches the material or a chemical attack such as pickling treatment. The roughened surface contains small pits that form stress risers. Subsequent service applications (vibration and flexing) may introduce stresses that act on these pits and form fatigue cracks Cross section of a convolution crack ADDO Using RT to Detect Convolution Cracks Appearance Micrograph of convolution with partial cracking on si rcluding travel spee Rear Me ole an artes aie ear Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Commonly known as “suck back.” Location in Part: Surface. Sometimes occurs ‘on inaccessible back side of weld. Characteristics/Appearance: The root of the weld takes on a concave appearance. Metallurgical Analysis: Concave root surface is caused by excessive shrinkage of the weld-deposited root bead. A concave root occurs when the molten weld solidifies without sufficient filler or weld metal being added to the molten zone to supply the volumetric ae shrinkage that takes place during solidification. £ : ‘ This condition is promoted by excessive Photomacrograph of concave root surface. (EPRI) amperage, excessive joint fit-up gaps and out-of-position welding; however, it can be caused by improper welding technique, ing RT to Detect Concave Root Surface Appearance: C 29Drop-Through Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Also known as “convexity” and “excessive penetration.” Location in Part: Surface reinforcement. Characteristics/Appearance: Drop-through is an undesirable sagging (convex appearance) and excessive root bead width at the weld root. Metallurgical Analysis: Drop-through is ustially encountered when the welding temperature is near the melting temperature of the base metal. It can be caused by overheating with rapid diffusion or alloying between the filler metal and the base metal. This condition is largely associated with welder inexperience and improper welding technique. DODDODDOOD OOOO OE Using RT to Detect Dro; Photomacrograph of drop-through. (EPRI) 3Inclusions (Welding) Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Location in Part: Surface and subsurface. Characteristics/Appearance: Inclusions may be any shape; however, tungsten inclusions are generally round. Inclusions may be metallic or nonmetallic and may appear individually or be linearly distributed or scattered throughout the weldment. The most common are slag and tungsten inclusions. Metallurgical Analysis: Metallic inclusions are generally particles of metals of different density as compared to the density of the weld or base metal. Nonmetallic inclusions are oxides, sulfides, slag or other nonmetallic foreign material entrapped in the weld or between the weld metal and the base metal. Slag inclusions are generally created by molten fluxes indicated by a g absorbent material gi * Metallic inclusions: appear as sharply , exratically shaped or jows of round globules regularly shaped contours Rationale: RT inclusions. to Detect Inclusions (V employed in arc welding operations. In multilayer welding operations, failure to remove slag between passes can result in slag inclusions in these zones. Tungsten inclusions generally occur when particles of tungsten electrodes are transferred into the weld deposit. Cross section of weld showing intetnal inclusions. Inclusions trapped in weld. E0000 eit) Metallic inclusion in weld. 33Inclusions (Welding) — Radiographs Reference standards for scattered slag Inclusions in steel welds: (a) cross section showing slag inclusion in joint of offset double vee-groove weld; (b) standard 1 for sensitivity 2-17; (c) standard 2. (HB- Rn 90 degrees U0 MMM Be MM (Source: CT-RT-6) Gf hole type IQIs are us the IQl isa true representation of sensitivity for the thickness of the test object at the weld area. 35can be caused by improper weaving, low welding current or too fast of a welding speed Incomplete Fusion Description: Found in multi-pass welds. Also referred to as “lack of fusion.” Location in Part: Can be found at any point in the weld. Characteristics/Appearance: Incomplete fusion is the failure of adjacent weld metal and base metal, or of weld metal and weld metal, to fuse together. It usually has an angular orientation with the surface. Metallurgical Analysis: Incomplete fusion results when base metal or a previously deposited weld is not raised to the melting point at the point of weld deposit fusion. Failure to remove slag, mill scale, oxides or other material alien to the metal alloy from weld joint surfaces can also prevent the deposited metal from fusing. This condition HHH Using RT to Detect Incomplete Fusion Photomacrograph of incomplete fusion at root. (EPRI) Appearance: 37Incomplete Fusion — Radiographs Radiograph of sidewall incomplete fusion. (EPRI) Radiograph of interbead incomplete fusion. (EPRI) AHH 00000000 39.ee Ta aro) CL CO Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous weldments. Also referred to as “incomplete penetration” (IP). Location in Part: Intemal or external. Characteristics/Appearance: Generally itregular and filamentary, occurring at the root and running parallel with the weld. Metallurgical Analysis: Can be caused when insufficient root gap is provided during fit-up operations or when residual welding stresses cause the established gap to be closed. Can also be caused by the root face of the joint not Teaching fusion temperature before weld metal _Photemacrograph of inadequate penetration. EPRI) was deposited. Other causes include too fast of a welding rate, too large of a welding rod or too cold of a bead. Appearance: A Radiograph of inadequate penetration 4ack of Penetration — Radiographs @ 30 degrees from Varying degrees of perpendicular incomplete penetration in steel welds correlated with weld cross sections: (@) moderate condition in joint in comer weld resulting from too large of an electrode on root pass; (b) gross condition in joint of double vvee-groove weld resulting from iow heat and too large of an electrode. BRT) ) DOQO0DD0000000000 Radiography of Welded Corner Joints Observing th will minimiz: in the proper ofexposure @ +4. 0) 9 igure tration. The X-ray + for this particular application. The film and joint must be placed perpendicular to the tube aperture. 100% joint penetration (Source: CTRT-6) 43weld. Porosity is also caused Porosity (Gas) moisture on the base or filler metal or improper Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous _ leaning or preheating. weldments. Location in Part: Surface or subsurface. Characteristics/Appearance: Rounded or elongated, teardrop shaped, with or without a sharp discontinuity at the point. Scattered uniformly throughout the weld or isolated in small groups. May also be concentrated at the root or toe. Pores may also occur as nonspherical pockets along grain boundaries or as elongated tubular voids called “piping porosity” or “wormholes.” Metallurgical Analysis: Porosity in welds is caused by gas entrapment in the molten metal. These gases may be released by the cooling weld metal because of reduced solubility as the temperature drops or from gases formed by chemical reactions in the QQQ00000000000000 Using RT to Detect Porosity (Ga Appearance: T Photomacrograph of porosity in weld. (EPRI) Reference standard for clustered porosity in steel weld with radiographic sensitivity of 2-1. (HB-RT) 45Porosity (Gas) — Radiographs 4 10 degrees from perpendicular 90 degrees () Reference standards for porosity in steel welds: (a) linear porosity in a double vee-groove weld with 2-1T sensitivity; (b) coarse scattered porosity in joint of offset double vee-groove weld, standard 2 for this type of porosity, about 0.7 pore per 1 cm? G pores per 1 in2). (H8-RT) OODDUCCDDDCODDNOL Using Shim Stock with Welds the area of interest. In use, the length and width of the shim should always be greater than the similar dimensions of the IQ) a7Unconsumed Insert Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Location in Part: Surface at the root bead. Metallurgical Analysis: Unconsumed insert results from preplaced filler metal that is not completely melted and fused in the root joint. This condition is caused by low welding current, improper weaving procedure, improper joint design and improper welding speed. Photomacrograph of unconsumned insert. (EPRI) HEHE Pe yee eis i ks Appearance: Ai Radiograph of unconsumed insert. (EPR 49Wits igat a Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Location in Part: Found at any point where weld metal and base metal meet. May be internal or external. Characteristics/Appearance: Undercut is a groove that is melted into the base metal along the edge of the weld and left unfilled by the weld metal. Metallurgical Analysis: Undercutting is generally regarded as a serious discontinuity ee because the result is a reduction in the Photomacrograph of undercut on the outside diameter of a cross-sectional area of the weld zone and weld, EPRI) therefore a reduction in its load-carrying capability. Undercut is the result of improper welding procedures such as excessively high amperage or large welding rod. DOQD0DODO0000oooe ig RT to Detect Undercut Appearance: A a. Radiograph of undercut. (EPRI) s1Base ose S This group of discontinuities is related to the various service conditions such as stress corrosion, fatigue and wear. RT is recommended for the following service discontinuity: * Intergranular corrosion cracking Intergranular Corrosion Cracking Description: Intergranular corrosion is typically found in nonferrous materials such as stainless steels and aluminum but can also be found in some of the ferritic stainless grades and mild steel typically in the form of exfoliation. Location in Part: Surface or internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Intergranular corrosion cracking appears as a series of small micro-openings with no definite patter. May appear individually or in groups. The insidious nature of intergranular corrosion results from the fact that very little corrosion or corrosion product is visible on the surface. Intergranular corrosion may extend in any direction following the grain boundaries of the material. Metallurgical Analysis: The metallurgical structure of some materials (for example, unstabilized 300 series stainless steel) is naturally prone to intergranular corrosion. Other materials become susceptible to intergranular corrosion during improper stress relieving or heat treating. Either of these conditions coupled with a corrosive atmosphere results in intergranular attack. DDUD0000000000000 Recommendation: A standard should be used to simulate the maximum amount of corrosion that is acceptable. ‘Micrograph showing nature of intergranular corrosion. Only minor evidence of corrosion is evident from the surface, 3Radiography of S The radiography of semiconductors is somewhat different than applications discussed previously. With semiconductors, two major areas are of concem after the electrical acceptance tests have been completed: inconsistent internal construction and internal foreign material. Specific discontinuities associated with semiconductors include: * Loose particles, solder balls, flakes, weld splash and wire. * Loose or discontinuous connecting leads between internal elements and external terminals. * Extraneous matter, excessive solder or weld extrusions. * Inclusions or voids in seals or around lead connections or insufficient sealing material. Inadequate clearance. Foreign ‘material within (@m semiconductor. ODDQDDD0000000000 Rationale: Universally used as the NDT method Precautions: Internal wires in semiconductors are very fine and may be constructed from materials of different density, such as copper, Siver, gold and aluminum. 7 iguration and intemal ductors limit NDT Semiconductors that ha may require more than one technique due to the density of the copper. Fine crack in plastic casing material 55irae Bossi, R. H., FA. Iddings and G. C. Wheeler, tech. eds., and P. O. Moore, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (2002. Bryant, L.€,, tech. ed., and P. Melntire, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Volume 3, Radiography and Radiation Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (1985). EPRI NP-1590-SR, NDE Characteristics of Pipe Weld Defects, Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute (1980). Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second edition: Radiographic Testing. Fort Worth, TX: General Dynamics, Convair Division (1983). Staton, |. Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (2005). fe ete rey 7SI Derived Units Quantity Unit symbol Relation to Other SI Units Capacitance fared F ow Conductance siemens s AV Energy joule J Nm Frequency (periodic) hertz He us Fore newton N gums? Inductance henry X Woid | Flectic charge coulomb c As Hlectric potential (electromotive) volt v WA Hlectric resistance ohm Q VA Plane angle radian rad d Power watt w Ws Pressure (stress) pascal Pa Nm? Radiation absorbed dose gray cy vkg Radiation dose equivalent siovert sv kg Solid angle steradian sr 1 Radioactivity becquerel 8q us Temperature, celsius degree celsius if « Volume liter L dm? SHO pete CORBET ay « Matipiy by Yo Get 3 Unt Mass pound (Ib, Idlogram (kg) kelvin (K) or degree celsius CC) degree celsius CC) Temperature (scale) degree fahrenheit (F) CF ~32)+1.8 4273.15 kelvin (K) Temperature (Increment) degree fahrenhei Temperature (scale) degree fahrenheit 30Breteler 's Converted to SI Units Traditional Unit Multiply by Resulting SI Unit Electronvolt (@V) 16x10" joule @) Speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum (¢) 2.997 92458 x10" meter per second (ms) Unified atomic mass unit (u) 1.66 x 1077 kilogram (kg) Curie (C) 3.7 x 1088 becquerel (Bq) 37 gigabecquerel (GBq) Rad (rad or rd) 10? gray (Gy) 10 miligray (rmGy) Rem (rem) 102 sievert (Sv) 10 milisievert (mSv) Roentgen (R) 258x104 coulomb per kilogram (Cikg) 258 microcoulomb per kilogram (Wika) Compound Radiographic Units RICi/h att m 90.27 mSv/GBq/h at 1 m Cimin‘in? 30 GBq-min‘em? Rumin (absorbed dose) 0.01 Gyimin Rimin (dase absorbed by human body) 0.01 Svimin R 2.58 x 104 kg HHH Commie ass Be les Cobah-60 7 2nd 133 sae Bem q2uag tide 192 en7 esr sa Res e553 048 and 0.05 wea 07513 enees 61X-Ray Energy Thickness Limits Maximum Voltage (kV) Screens ‘Approximate Thickness Limits 50 Tene, thin sections of most metals none or lead foil 425 mm 6.0 in) aluminum 150 none or lead foll 25 mm G6 in) steet* fluorescent 38 mm (1.5 in.) steel 250 lead foil 50 mm (2.0 in) steel ‘luorescent 75 mm G.0 in) steel 400 lead foil 75 mm G.0 in) steel fluorescent 100 mm (4.0 in.) steel 1000 lead foi 125 min (6.0 in.) steel fluorescent 200 min @-0 in) steed 2000 lead fot 200 min (8.0 in. steel 8000 ~ 25 000 lead foil 400 mm (16.0 in.) steel a. Or equivalent — for this and remaining items in list. 150 | 220 | 400 "1000 | 2000 | kr-192 |Cs-137] Co-60 Magnesium 06 06 | 005 0.08 022, 022) 022 Aluminum 1 1 0.12) 0.18 0.34) 0.34) 0.34 Titanium 8 0.63| 0.71) 071) o9 | 09 | 09 | 09 | 09 Steel 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Copper 18 16 | 14 | 14) 44 | 1) ae a ee Zinc 14°] 12 tS aed wa 1 Brass V4 | 12>) 4a [Ra oe ee a Lead 14 12 5 25 | 4 32] 23 Note: Values are approximate