Structural Notes 1 PDF

Structural and Materials Related Topics
RH
Code: CISTR Refresher Notes
School of PE™
A Division of EDUMIND•
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.
ivan anderson (ivaniv54@gmail.com)
1.0 Structural Session Topics
1.1 Structural Session Coverage
1. Design Philosophy (Demand versus capacity)
2. Loads and Loading (Demand)
3. Structural Analysis (Shear and moment diagrams)
Effect of loading on members ➔ Find internal forces & deflection
4. Stress Analysis
Calculate stresses due to internal forces
5. Concrete Material Properties
6. Reinforced Concrete Design (ACI) Timber & masonry design in
bonus class
7. Structural Steel Design (AISC)
ivan anderson (ivaniv54@gmail.com) 1
1.2 Extremely Important Topics
1. Concrete material properties (CERM, Chapters 48 & 49)
2. Stress analysis and stress calculations
3. Member forces in a truss
4. Shear and moment diagrams (structural analysis)
5. Design topics
i. Design loads and load calculations
ii. Reinforced concrete design: beams, one-way slabs and
footings
iii. Structural steel design: section properties and beam design
6. Structural mechanics, including deflection calculations
2.0 Design Methods and Codes
2.1 Design Codes
1. Allowable Strength Design, ASD
(Formerly: Allowable Stress Design, ASD)
(Formerly: Working Stress Design, WSD)
Steel: AISC-ASD, 14th edition
2. Strength Design
(Load and Resistance Factored Design, LRFD)
Reinforced concrete: ACI 318-14 (Only strength design methodology)
Steel: AISC-LRFD, 14th edition
CERM Sections: 45.1, 45.2; 50.4 thru

50.6 and 58.6 thru 58.8
2.2 Allowable Strength Design (ASD)
Process
• Apply service loads (with NO load factors).
• Linear elastic analysis of structure. (Find internal forces and
deflection)
• Actual calculated stresses shall not exceed allowable stresses.
can be obtained thru S.F.
like Fy/2 = 0.5 Fy (S.F. = 2)
Example: fActual Stress (Elastic) ≤ FAllowable Stress

NOTE: While load factors are not used in ASD, when
loads are applied in combinations, they may be applied in
less than full load.
CERM: 50.4 thru 50.6 and 58.6 thru 58.8
Example 2.1: Loads (ASD)
If a steel plate is subjected to a tension dead load of 10 kips and a
tension live load of 15 kips, what is the demand (design load)?
ASD:
P = Ptotal = Demand = Design Load
All these terms represent the same concept, which

is the required capacity based on the service loads P
demand
Ptotal = D + L = 10 kips + 15 kips = 25 kips
The member must be designed to resist this load.

S.F. is not obvious
➔ you can’t tell
2.3 Strength Design (LRFD) how much (you
can’t give a
• Demand = Service Loads x Load Factors number for it)
• Design Strength = Resistance Factor x Nominal Strength

=  x Nominal Strength
Factored load
(Design load)
• Demand ≤ Design Strength Reduced strength
Example: Mu = 1.2MD+1.6ML  Mn
Vu  Vn
• M = Moment ; V = Shear; D = Dead Load; L = Live Load
• u = Design or Ultimate action (Moment, Shear, etc.)
• n = Nominal Capacity (Moment, Shear, etc.)
Process
• Apply factored loads (service loads x load factors). Factored stress
• Linear elastic analysis to determine cross-sectional demand.

• Factored
Factoreddemands
demandsshall
not to
notexceed
exceedreduced
reducednominal
nominalstrength.
strength
CERM: 50.4 thru 50.6 and 58.6 thru 58.8
Example 2.2: Loads (LRFD)
If a steel plate is subjected to a tension dead load of 10 kips and a
tension live load of 15 kips, what is the demand (design load)?
LRFD:
Pu = Pultimate= Demand = Factored Load = Design Load
All these terms represent the same concept, which
is the required capacity based on factored loads.
Pu = Service Loads x Load Factors Pu

For the load combination of 1.2 D + 1.6 L
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2(10 kips) + 1.6(15 kips) = 36 kips

The member must be designed to resist this load combination.
3.0 Loads
3.1 Types of Loads (Examples)
a. Gravity Loads (Vertical Loads)
i. Dead (D) In breadth
ii. Live (L) problems
b. Wind (W) Lateral Loads

Environmental
Loads c. Seismic (E)
d. Snow (S) or Rain (R) Gravity Loads In depth
e. AASHTO Truck and Lane Loading problems
f. Fatigue Loading
g. Earth Pressures (foundations)
h. Construction loads
CERM: 58.8
For design in USA
3.2 Load Combinations (ASCE 7-10) for Strength

Design
• Gravity Loads only

1.4D
1.2D+1.6L
• Gravity + Wind Loads

1.2D+1.0W+1.0L
Refer to reference materials, ASCE 7-10, for other basic combinations.
CERM: 50.5 and 58.8
3.3 Dead Loads
constant
Weight of structure plus
weights of elements that are
attached to it
Dead loads are permanent in magnitude and location.

Superimposed dead loads ➔ weights of elements that are
attached to the structure; like asphalt on a bridge deck.
Common Material Unit Weights
• Steel 490 pcf
• Unreinforced Concrete 145 pcf
• Reinforced Concrete 150 pcf
• Lightweight Concrete 120 pcf
Structural Steel Shapes

depth
• W12x120 120 plf
• WT6x60 Weight lb/ft. 60 plf
• C9x20 20 plf
• HSS 5x3x3/8 rectangular HSS 5”x3”x3/8” wall thickness Weights in plf are
• HSS10x1/2 round HSS 10” dia. x ½” wall thickness available in tables
HSS ➔ Hollow Structural Shape

3.4 Live Loads
• Live loads can vary in magnitude and location with time.
• Use maximum loads expected by intended use or occupancy. Codes
define minimum uniformly distributed loads (psf). Refer to
reference materials for ASCE 7-10 loads examples.
Examples:
• Office buildings:
– File and computer rooms shall be designed for heavier loads based on
anticipated occupancy
– Lobbies 100 psf
– Offices 50 psf
• Public rooms and corridors serving them: 100 psf
• Schools:
– Classrooms 40 psf
– Corridors above first floor 80 psf
4.0 Determinate Analysis in breadth
problems
4.1 Determinate Analysis Topics
1. Structural Supports
2. Free Body Diagram: Loads and Reactions
3. Shear Diagrams
4. Moment Diagrams
CERM – 41.1 thru

41.24, 44.11, 44.12
4.2 Main Structural Supports
At support, displacement or deflection is ZERO
“Roller” : Provides one reaction normal to supporting

surface.
Vertical displacement, v = 0
“Pin” or “Hinge”: Provides two reactions.

Horizontal displacement, u = 0
“Fixed” : Provides two reactions and a moment.

Horizontal displacement, u = 0
Rotation, q = 0
CERM:
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.41.19
4.3 Reactions
Apply Equations of Equilibrium to obtain reactions:
Ʃ Fv = 0 (Summation of forces in Vertical direction)
Ʃ Fh = 0 (Summation of forces in Horizontal direction)

P = 50 Kips
10 Ft.
Ʃ M = 0 (Summation of moments about a point)
0 A B
Ʃ Mb = Summation of Moments about support ‘B’ no horizontal
reaction since 20 Ft.
= Ra,v (20 ft.) – 50 kips x 10 ft. = 0 there is no
Solving for Ra,v : horizontal load R a,v R b,v
Ra,v = 25 kips as assumed By symmetry:
R a,v = R b,v = P /2 = 50 /2 = 25 kips
Ʃ Fv = Ra,v + Rb,v – P = 0
P = 200 lbs. @ center of table
Substituting in the Ʃ Fv equation: 25 kips + Rb,v – 50 kips = 0

Rb,v = 25 kips as assumed 50 lbs.
Note: 1- Ʃ M could be taken about point ‘a’, solving for Rb,v , and then use Ʃ Fv to solve for Ra,v.
2- In this example, there are no horizontal loads, therefore, there are no horizontal reactions.
3- In this example, based on geometry and loading symmetry, it can be inferred that these reactions
have to be equal, thus each one is half the point load, ‘P’. Load @ center of table that has 4
legs, P = 200 lbs.
Each leg = 200 lbs./4 = 50 lbs.
M =This
Load x isDistance
copy = following
given to the P L student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.
4.3 Reactions
Ʃ Fh = 0 = Ra,h → Ra,h = 0
Please note:
If there is no Action, then there is NO Reaction.
As shown in this example, the left support “A” is a pin, which

means it has the capability of providing both horizontal and
vertical reactions.
However, if there is no External Horizontal force on the member

(beam, truss, frame, etc.), then there is no Horizontal Reaction.
4.4 Free-Body Diagrams
x1 x2 x3
A “cut” at point “c” creates 2 free-body Diagrams:

Mc = RA (x1 + x2) – P x2
x1 x2 Mc = RB x3
x3
RA RB
Vc = P - RA V c = RB
• Equilibrium must occur for entire beam, as well as

for each free-body diagram.
• How is equilibrium maintained in a free-body diagram?
Internal forces balance external forces

4.5 Shear and Moment Diagrams P = 50 kips
- Apply Equations of Equilibrium to obtain reactions; 10 ft.
- Apply Free-Body Diagrams to obtain shear (or moment) equations A B
between supports and loads, and between loads;
C
- Obtain shear (or moment) values at beginning and end of each
interval. 20 ft.
- Draw shear (or moment) diagram based on type of equation:
constant, linear, quadratic… R a,v = 25 k R b,v = 25 k
V
Between support ‘A’ and point ‘P’: A 25 25
Left of “P” or Point “C”
(+)
Ʃ Fv = Ra,v - V = 0 V [kips]
Thus V = 25 Kips R a,v = 25 K (-)
25 25
Between point load ‘P’ and support ‘B’:
Right of “P” or Point “C”
P = 50 K
250 k-ft.
Ʃ Fv = Ra,v – P - V = 0 V
A
(+)
25 K – 50 K – V = 0 M [kip-ft.]
0 0
Thus, V = - 25 Kips
R a,v = 25 K
Note: Similar calculations using Ʃ M can be used to obtain equations for CERM: 44.11 and 44.12
moments and the moment diagram.
This copy is given to the Ʃfollowing
Mc = 0student as
Ra,vpart
(10’) = 25ofk (10’)
of School = MNot
PE course. c allowed to distribute to others.
ivan anderson
Mc = 250 k-ft.
(ivaniv54@gmail.com) 17
4.6 Sign Conventions for Constructing Shear
and Moment Diagrams
Sign conventions for constructing shear diagrams:
Sign conventions for constructing moment diagrams:
Clockwise concentrated moments about the point are positive.

Counter-clockwise concentrated moments about the point are negative.
CERM: 44.11 and 44.12
4.7 Fundamental relationships between loads,
shear, and moment diagrams
Shear Diagrams:
• The shear diagram changes by the magnitude of the load.
• Shear is constant along unloaded portions of a beam.
• For a point load, the shear function is constant. For a uniform load, the shear function is linear.
• Slope of shear diagram @ a point = magnitude of load @ that point.
Moment Diagrams:
• For a constant shear, the moment function is linear.
• For a linear shear, the moment is a second-degree curve.
• The change in moment = area under the shear diagram.
• Maximum (or minimum) moment occurs at points of zero shear. Identify those locations in a
member length to select the worst (largest) moment.
• An applied moment at a given location, does not affect the shear diagram, only the moment
diagram.
• Slope of moment diagram @ a point = magnitude of shear @ that point.
CERM:
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed 44.11
to distribute and
to others. 44.12
Guidelines for constructing shear and moment diagrams are summarized and
illustrated in the diagram below (Ref. CERM Fig. 44.9):
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. NotCERM: 44.11 and
allowed to distribute 44.12
to others.
4.8 Examples of Relationship between Loads,
Shear Diagram and Moment Diagram
P
w (uniform load intensity)
No Load
A B A B
𝐿 𝐿
2 2
L
L Ra,v = 𝑤2 𝐿 Rb,v = 𝑤2 𝐿
Ra,v = 𝑃 Rb,v = 𝑃 𝐿
2 2
Slope = 0 (no load) 2
➔ constant shear
𝑃 𝑤𝐿 Slope = w (uniform load)
2 𝐿 2
(+) 2 V (+)
V
[Shear]
[Shear] (-)
𝐿 (-) 𝑤𝐿
𝑃 -
2 - 2
2 𝑤𝐿 𝐿 1 𝑤 𝐿2
Mmax = =
Slope is 2 2 2 8
𝑃 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 decreasing
Slope is constant Mmax = 2 = Slope is
2 4
𝑃 (+)
= increasing
2 (+) Slope is constant M
M 𝑃
[Moment] =- [Moment] 0 0
2 at location of zero shear
0 0
• Point load • Uniform load
• Constant Shear diagram • Linear Shear diagram
• Linear Moment diagram • 2nd –Degree-Curve Moment
4.9 Exam Recommendations
• The previous numerical example describes the long form of getting shear and
moment values and diagrams: get reactions, free-body diagrams, equations,
etc.
• APPENDIX 44.A (page A-133 in CERM 16th Edition), includes typical cases of
beam loadings, giving formulas for reactions, shears, moments and
deflections. Similar data can be found in other literature (textbooks, codes).
• APPENDIX 47.A (page A-140 in CERM 16th Edition), provides fixed-end
moments for indeterminate beams with typical cases of beam loadings and
boundary conditions. Similar data can be found in other literature (textbooks,
codes).
• APPENDIX 47.B (page A-142 in CERM 16th Edition), includes indeterminate
beams with typical cases of loadings, giving formulas for reactions, shears,
moments and deflections. Similar data can be found in other literature
(textbooks, codes).
• Become familiar with its use, mark pages for easy access during the exam.
• Morning questions about shear and moment diagrams mainly relate to
concepts (no calculations) or to problems for which the appendix can be
used.
Example 4.1: Shear Diagram
P = 48 kips
- What is the maximum shear in this beam? 14 ft.
Draw the Shear Diagram. A B

22 ft.
A) 17.45 kips
B) 30,500 lbs
C) 48 kips
D) 17,450 lbs
′
Example 4.1: Solution
48𝑘 (14 )
Ra,v = = 30.55k
22′
′
48𝑘 (8 ) P = 48 kips
Rb,v = = 17.45k
22′ 14 ft.
Maximum shear = 30.55k A B
Answer: B 22 ft.
Or P = 48 kips
Ʃ MB = 0 a = 8 ft. b = 14 ft.
Ra,v (22’) – 48k (14’) = 0

′ _ A B
48𝑘 (14 ) 672𝑘 ′
Ra,v = = = 30.55k
22′ 22′ L = 22 ft.
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑎
Ʃ Fv = 0 Ra,v = 𝐿
Rb,v = 𝐿
Ra,v – P + Rb,v = 0 ➔ Rb,v = P - Ra,v = 0 30.55k
Rb,v = 48k – 30.55k = 17.45k (+)
48k
Or (-)
-17.45k
Ʃ MA = 0
-Rb,v (22’) + 48k (8’) = 0
′ _
48𝑘 (8 ) 384𝑘 ′
Rb,v = = = 17.45k
22′ 22 This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowedCERM:
′ Appendix 44.A
to distribute to others.
Example 4.2: Moment Diagram
W = 1.5 kip/ft.
- What is the maximum Moment in this beam?
Draw the Moment diagram. A B
A) 205 kip-ft. 25 ft.
B) 160 kip-ft.
C) 117 kip-ft.
D) 72.3 kip-ft.
W = 1.5 kip/ft.
𝑤𝐿2
(1.5 𝑘/𝑓𝑡)(25′ )2
Mmax = 8
=
8
= 117.1785 kip-ft. A B
Mmax  117 kip-ft. 25 ft.
Answer: C Mmax = 117 𝑘 − 𝑓𝑡
CERM: Appendix 44.A
Example 4.3: Shear Diagram
This kind of problems is common in the exams
Which one is the correct shear diagram for the given loading?
a)
b)
c)
d)
No loads ➔ constant shear
Constant shear while Constant slope (linear shear) while

there is uniform load there are no loads ➔
a) It should be constant shear (zero
slope)
b) Jump in shear diagram while there is

2nd – degree curve no concentrated load
under uniform load
➔ It should be linear c) Constant slope (linear shear) while
shear there are no loads ➔
It should be constant shear (zero
slope)
d) Slope is zero (constant shear)
P
because there is no load
Linear shear for
uniform load Jump in shear diagram under
concentrated load, P
Example 4.4: Moment Diagram
This kind of problems is common in the exams
Which one is the correct moment diagram for the given loading?
a)
b)
c)
d)
No jump in moment diagram while

there is a concentrated moment
a)
Uniform load ➔ Linear
shear ➔
2nd - degree moment b)
Sudden change in moment diagram
under concentrated moment. Since the
c) concentrated moment is clockwise, the
jump is up (+)
No jump in moment diagram while

there is a concentrated moment
d)
5.0 Trusses
In breadth exam
5.1 Analysis of Trusses
• Identify if the truss is determinate or indeterminate.
• Identify if the truss is stable or unstable.
• Determine support reactions applying the equations of
equilibrium for the truss.
• Determine truss member forces:
Two techniques for calculating the forces (tension or
compression) in statically determinate trusses:
– Method of Joints
– Method of Sections
Note: In a determinate structure, reactions at supports can be determined by applying the equations of
equilibrium. Indeterminate structures (beyond the scope of these notes and the morning exam session)
require extra steps or procedures.
CERM: 41.20, 41.29 thru 41.38
5.2 Determinacy of Trusses
In order to determine stability and determinacy of two P
P P Py
dimensional trusses: y
Px
m = number of members Px
r = number of reaction components

RA,x RA,x
j = number of joints
A B A B
m + r < 2j → Unstable
RA,y RB,y RA,y RB,y
m + r = 2j → Statically determinate
m=4 m=5
m + r > 2j → Statically indeterminate j=4
r=3
j=4
r=3
2 j = 2 (4) = 8 2 j = 2 (4) = 8
m+r=4+3=7 m+r=5+3=8
If m + r ≥ 2j → Check stability visually 7<8 8=8
Unstable Determinate & stable
CERM: 41.32
Example 5.1: Determinacy/Stability
The truss structure shown below is:
a) Indeterminate and stable

b) Indeterminate and unstable
c) Determinate and stable
d) Determinate and unstable
The truss structure shown below is:
a) Indeterminate and stable
b) Indeterminate and unstable
c) Determinate and stable If this member is removed ➔ unstable truss
d) Determinate and unstable

If this member is added ➔ indeterminate
m = 13
j=8
r=3 R1,x = 0
2 j = 2 (8) = 16
m + r = 13 + 3 = 16
m + r = 2 j =16
➔ Determinate and also stable
R1,y R5,y
Example 5.2: Reactions
What is the reaction force at support 1?
a) 15 kips b) 20 kips c) 25 kips d) 30 kips
What is the reaction force at support 1?
a) 15 kips b) 20 kips c) 25 kips d) 30 kips
10k + 30k + 10k = 50k
50𝑘
= 25k (by symmetry)
2
Or
R1,x = 0
Ʃ M5 = 0
R1,y (80’) – 10k (60’) – 30k (40’)

– 10k (20’) = 0
_
2000𝑘 ′
R1,y = = 25k R1,y = 25 k R5,y = 25 k
80′
5.3 Truss Member Force Calculations
(Two-Dimensional Trusses)
Method of Joints
At each joint: ΣFH = 0 (Horizontal)
ΣFV = 0 (Vertical)
The forces are applied loads, reactions, and member forces.
Method of Sections
• Cut the truss into two sections. Each section is a free-body
diagram and, therefore, must be in equilibrium.
• Sections can be cut in any direction (vertical, inclined, etc.)
5.4 Method of Joints
What are the forces in members 2-3 and 6-7?
Reactions at each end = 25 kips
q
Sin(Angle6-1-2)= L2-6/L1-6=15’/25’ = 3/5
Cos(Angle6-1-2)=L1-2/L1-6=20’/25’ = 4/5
R1,y = 25 k R5,y = 25 k
25’ 5
q 15’ q 3
20’ 4
Each diagonal has two components, one vertical (in y-direction) and one horizontal (in x-direction)
F1,6
Joint 1 (Sign convention: Tension in members is positive.)
3
ΣFv = 0 = 25 + F1-6(3/5) → F1-6 = -41.67 kips (comp.) 4
ΣFH = 0 = F1-6(4/5) + F1-2 → F1-2 = +33.33 kips (tens.) F1,6
Substitute with sign (-41.67 k) F1,2
1
F1,2
R1,y = 25 k
CERM: 41.34
5.4 Method of Joints
F2,6
Joint 2
ΣFH = 0 = F2-3 – F1-2 → F2-3 = +33.33 kips (tens.)
ΣFV = 0 = F2-6 – 10 → F2-6 = 10.00 kips (tens.)
F2,6
F1,2 F2,3
F1,2 F2,3
2
10 k
Substitute with sign (-41.67 k)

Joint 6
ΣFv = 0 = – F1-6(3/5) – F2-6 – F3-6(3/5) → F3-6 = 25.00 kips (tens.)
ΣFH = 0 = – F1-6(4/5) + F3-6(4/5) + F6-7 → F6-7 = -53.33 kips (comp.)
Substitute with sign (-41.67 k)
F6,7 F6,7
6
3 3
4 4
CERM: 41.34
F2,6
5.5 Method of Sections
What are the forces in members 2-3 and 6-7?
Reactions at each end = 25 kips.
Cut the structure…
Take moments about Point 6: as assumed

R = 25 k 1,y R5,y = 25 k
ΣM6 = 0 = R1(20’) – F2-3(15’) → F2-3 = 33.33 kips (tens.)

ΣFV = 0 = 25k – 10k – F3-6(3/5) → F3-6 = 25.00 kips (tens.)
as assumed
Take moments about Point 2: F6,7

7
ΣM2 = 0 = R1(20’) + F3-6(4/5)(15’) + F6-7(15’) 3

4
F67 = -53.33 kips (comp.)
not as assumed → comp. 3
F2,3
R1,y = 25 k
Or: Take moments about Point 3:
ΣM3 = 0 Free-Body Diagram
25k (40’) – 10k(20’) + F6-7(15’) = 0

F67 = - 53.33 kips (comp.) CERM: 41.36
not as assumed → comp.
Example 5.3: Truss Member Forces
What is the force in member AB? (Ignore the self-weight of the truss.)
a) 25 kips in compression
b) 25 kips in tension
c) 50 kips in compression
d) 50 kips in tension
Example 5.3: Solution K-Truss
Simply supported truss acts like

a simply supported beam
C
N.A. Zero stress
T
50 k 50 k
Simply supported beam bends down under transverse load having compression above the
neutral axis (NA) and tension below it. In simply supported truss, the top chord members will
be in compression and the bottom chord members will be in tension.
Take a K-cut: FAB
Since member “A-B” is a top chord member, it will be in compression.

Take moments about joint C:
ΣMC = 0 10’
C
10’
50k (20’) – FA-B(20’) = 0
50 k
→ FA-B = (100 k-ft.)/ (20’) = 50 kips (as assumed, comp.)
The vertical cut gives too many unknown forces
50 k
5.6 Identification of Zero-Force Members
Important in breadth exam, 1 to 2 truss problems
FB2
FB1
Two members not
along the same line
(No external load) Two collinear

members (No external load) FB3
(2 members) (3 members)
RULES:
1. Case 1: If there are ONLY two non-collinear members at a joint, with no external
load, BOTH FA1 and FA2 are zero-force members.
2. Case 2: If there are ONLY three members at a joint, two of which are collinear, with
no external load, Member FB2 is a zero-force member.
Note: NO External Load is essential for these concepts to apply.
CERM: 41.33
Identification of Zero-Force Members
RULES (continued):
3. Once you have identified a zero-force member (i.e. using the first two
concepts), you can assume that the member “does not” exist and
“delete” it from the truss. The resulting layout of the truss can be
reviewed again and there could be other zero-force members.
4. The geometry at the supports can result in additional zero-force

members. For example, a roller support does not provide horizontal
reactions. If there is only one horizontal member connected to a roller
with no diagonals, then the horizontal member must be a zero-force
member.
10 k (comp.)
10 k
NOTE: If a member is a zero-force member, that does not mean that it is not needed in the truss.
It only means that for that specific load case, it is a zero-force member. There could be other load
cases for which the member will have to carry a force.
Example 5.4: Zero-Force Members
Find the zero-force members in the truss shown below.
7
6
5
1 4
2 3
Rule (2)
7 Rule (1)
6
5
1 4
2 3
Rules (3 and 4)
Rule (4)
5 zero-force members
Example 5.5: Zero-Force Members
Find the zero-force members in the crane truss tower
shown below.
4 5
3
2
1 9
6 7 8
Crane load moves 10 11

back and forth
12 13
Crane Tower
Rule (1)
Rule (2) 4 5
5
3
Rule (1) 2 6
1 4
1 9 Rules (3 & 2)
2 6 7 8
3
P 10
Rule (3) & Rule (2)
Equilibrium
7
10 11 Rule (3) &
Equilibrium
9
12 0 No horizontal load
13
➔ No horizontal reaction
8
Rule (4)
10 zero-force members
Example 5.6: Truss Member Forces
1st 2nd
What are the forces in truss members JB and GE (in kips),

respectively?
a) 0, 0
b) 10, 10
c) 0, 10
d) 10, 0
e) None of the above
Rule (2)
a) 0, 0
b) 10, 10
10k (T)
c) 0, 10
d) 10, 0 Watch for this trick
e) None of the above
6.0 Beam Deflections
6.1 How does a variation of a variable affect the deflection?
PL3
max =
48EI
5wL4
max =
384EI
L
PL3
max =
3EI cantilever
(Calculate deflection under service load)
E = Modulus of Elasticity of the material [psi].
For steel: E= 29,000,000 psi.
For Concrete (𝑓′𝑐 is in psi units!):
1.5
𝐸 = 33 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 𝑤𝑐 ; for concrete unit weight, 𝑤𝑐 , between 90 and 155 lb/ft3
psi
For normal weight concrete, 𝑤𝑐 =145 lb/ft3, E = 57,000 𝑓′𝑐 is permitted to be used.
4]
I = Moment of Inertia of theThismember cross
copy is given section
to the following [𝑖𝑛as
student psi of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.
part of School
EI = Flexural Rigidity for elastic behavior (section within elastic
ivan anderson range)
(ivaniv54@gmail.com) CERM: Table 44.1, Appendix 44.A 51
Example 6.1: Deflections
What would be the effect on computed deflections of changing
the yield strength, Fy, of a steel bridge girder from 50 ksi to 70 ksi
while keeping the remaining design data the same?
a. Deflection will decrease

b. Deflection will increase
c. No change in deflection
d. Not enough information given
7.0 Mechanics of Materials
7.1 Mechanics of Materials – Concepts
I = Moment of Inertia
For rectangular section, 𝑏 ℎ3 ℎ 𝑏3
Ix = Iy =
12 12
The moment of inertia is a measure of

section resistance to bending and deflection.
Reference axis
The moment of inertia of a composite system is the sum of

the moments of inertia of its component subsystems
all taken about the centroidal axis of composite system.
A = Total cross-section area = A1 + A2
Centroidal axis is the neutral axis for homogenous section =
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course.CERM:

Not allowed42.1, 42.2,
to distribute 42.5
to others. and 42.6
53
7.1 Mechanics of Materials – Concepts
𝑏1 ℎ13 𝑏2 ℎ23
I = Total section moment of inertia = I1 + I2 + A1 d12 + A2 d22 = + + A1 d12 + A2 d22
12 12
Icentroid = Moment of inertia of each rectangular block about its own centroidal axis
Ai = Area of each rectangular block as part of the whole section
di = Distance from the center of each rectangular block to centroid of the whole section
yi = Distance from the center of each rectangular block to top (or bottom) of the whole section
Reference axis
σ E
=
Ԑ 1
Hooke’s Law (within elastic range): σ = E Ԑ ➔
Axial stress (for axial load, P):
Axial strain (for axial load, P):
E = Modulus of elasticity for the material

σ = Axial stress ; Ԑ = Strain ; L = Member length
This copy is given to the; following
∆ = Member
student aselongation
part of School of PE course. Not allowedCERM:
to distribute44.1 and 44.2
to others.
54
“Stresses” important topic. The most important slides are 55 to 58. In the exam you will calculate stress.
b
7.2 Axial and Shear Stresses
P P P h A=bxh
Axial: σa = f a = ; for rectangular sections: σa = =
A A bh
Shear:
VQ
General Equation: ʋ = t = f v = Ib
[CERM 44.13];
V
Average shear stress: ʋavg. = f v, avg. = ;
A
V
for rectangular: ʋavg. =
𝑏ℎ
Maximum shear for rectangular section:
3V 3
ʋmax = = ʋavg.
2bh 2
hh bh2
Qmax = b =
24 8
𝑏 ℎ3
I=
12
bh2
V Qmax V 3V 3V 3
8
Ʋmax = = 𝑏 ℎ3 = = = ʋavg.
Ib b 2bh 2A 2
12
CERM:
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to 44.1
distribute to and
others. 44.13
7.2 Axial and Shear Stresses
Where:
P = Axial Load [force units]

V = Shear [force units]
ʋ = Shear Stress [ksi or psi]
A = Cross-sectional Area [in2]
b, h = Section Dimensions [in.] b.y
I = Moment of Inertia [in4]
h y
Q = Statical Moment of Area = A* ( - ) [see CERM 44.13]
2 2
NOTE: for Steel Wide Flanged Members, shear resistance is calculated using the area
within the web:
V
ʋavg. =
tw∗d
Where:
t w = web thickness
Shear is carried by web (see
d = total depth of steel member next slide)
CERM: 44.13
7.3 Shear Stress Distribution
Rectangular Section Wide-flange Section

- For rectangular and wide-flange sections, maximum shear
stress occurs at mid-depth, as shown.
- For a wide-flange section, shear stresses are smaller at the
flanges and larger within the web because of the change in
thickness.
- As discussed later in the presentation:
for Concrete: d = effective depth;
CERM: 44.13 57
for Steel: d = total depthivanof member.
anderson (ivaniv54@gmail.com)
CERM:
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others. 44.14
28k
a) 1.40 ksi V
A
=
20 in2
= 1.4 ksi
b) 6.75 ksi
c) 0.20 ksi
d) 4.82 ksi
V = 28k
Aw = tw x d = 0.415” x 14” = 5.81 in2
V
ʋavg = tavg =
Aw
28k
ʋavg = = 4.82 ksi
5.81 in2
Answer: (d)
What is the difference between this and the previous example?

Use only web area
ivan anderson (ivaniv54@gmail.com) CERM: 44.16 72
Solution
The 36-kip load is eccentric about the y-axis by an eccentricity ex = 2” and about the
x-axis by an eccentricity ey = 9”.
Move the load to member C.G. location ➔ this move will create moments about x &
y axes as follows:
Mx = P ey = 36 k (9in) = 324 kip-in = 324,000 lb-in
My = P ex = 36 k (2in) = 72 kip-in = 72,000 lb-in

Stress at Point A:
All normal stresses due to P, Mx and My will be in compression @ Point A.
Member area: A = 20in (30in) = 600 in2
Member section modulus about x-axis:

Sx = (b h2)/6 = [(20 in) (30 in) 2]/6 = 3,000 in3
Member section modulus about y-axis:

Sy = (h b2)/6 = [(30 in) (20 in) 2]/6 = 2,000 in3
s = - P/A ± Mx/Sx ± My/Sy
sA = - P/A - Mx/Sx - My/Sy
sA = - 36,000 lb/600 in2 - 324,000 lb-in/3,000 in3 - 72,000 lb-in/2,000 in3
sA = - 60 psi - 108 psi - 36 psi = - 204 psi
sA = 204 psi (compression)

Euler’s Buckling Load
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋2 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝑃𝑒 = =
𝐿2 (𝐿/𝑟)2
𝜋2 𝐸
𝐹𝑐𝑟 = 𝐹𝑒 =
(𝐿/𝑟)2
Pcr = Pe = Euler’s buckling load or elastic critical buckling load, kips or lbs
Fcr = Fe = Euler’s buckling stress or elastic critical buckling stress, ksi or psi
E = Material modulus of elasticity, ksi or psi
I = Moment of inertia, in4
A = Cross-sectional area, in2
r = Radius of gyration, in
L = Length of pin-ended member (points of zero moment) or the length of half sine wave
L/r = Slenderness ratio, SR
CERM: 45.3, 61.2
CERM: 45.3, 61.3
87
CERM: 48.12
CERM: 48.12 and 48.13
CERM: 48.6
10.4 Types of Portland Cement (PC)
Type I Normal PC – General Purpose
Type II Modified PC – Moderate sulfate resistance, used Mixed

properties
in hot weather for larger structures of Types IV

and V
Mass concrete
Type III High Early Strength
Type IV Low Heat – Large structures (Dams)
Type V Sulfate Resistant For concrete in contact with soil or for roadway pavement
CERM: 48.2
11.0 Reinforced Concrete Design
11.1 Topics
• American Concrete Institute (ACI)
• Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-14)
and Commentary (ACI 318R-14)
– Singly Reinforced Beams

– “T” and “L” Beam Sections
– Shear
– Slabs (One-way Slabs)
– Footings
CERM: 50, 51, 55
CERM: 50.5
Label this slide
11.4 Strength Reduction Factors (ACI 318- 2014)
For beams
 = 0.9 when et ≥ 0.005
 = 0.65 when et ≤ 0.002
ivan anderson (ivaniv54@gmail.com) ACI-318-14, Section 21.2 96
Label this slide
Bar Diameter (in.) Bar area (in.2) Weight (lb/ft)

3
8
in. #3 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 0.875 0.60 2.044
8
8
in. #8 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 1.693 2.25 7.65
18
8
in. #18 2.257 4.00 13.60
The different sizes of concrete reinforcing steel is designated by a number. For #3 thru #8 bars, the number
corresponds to the diameter in eighths of an inch.
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowedCERM:
to distributeTable 50.3
to others.
Cracked section: Only the “uncracked” portion is considered
to contribute to the flexural strength, combined with the steel
reinforcement (As).
CERM: 50.10
Ts = As fy
Cc = 0.85fc'a b
By equilibrium, ΣFH = 0: Cc = Ts
As fy
Substituting and solving for ‘a’: a =
0.85fc'b
Nominal moment capacity:
 a
Mn = As fy  d − 
 2
CERM: 50.10
11.9 Reinforcement Ratio at Balanced Strain
Condition for Rectangular Beam
𝐴𝑆
Reinforcement ratio, ρ=
𝑏𝑑
At the balanced strain condition, the maximum strain at the extreme concrete
compression fiber just reaches the crushing strain eu when the tension steel
yields (reaches ey = fy / Es) as shown above.
CERM: 50.8
11.9 Reinforcement Ratio at Balanced Strain
Condition for Rectangular Beam (Cont.)
0.85 f’c 87,000
ρb =
fy
b 1 87,000 + f
in psi
𝑦
ρmax = reinforcement ratio that ensures a minimum net tensile strain of 0.004 in
extreme layer of reinforcement when concrete reaches eu = 0.003
0.003 + ey
ρ (for et = 0.004) = ρmax = ρb
0.007
If Grade 60 is used, ey = fy / Es = 60,000 psi/29,000,000 psi = 0.002
0.003 +0.002
ρmax = ρb = 0.724 ρb
0.007
CERM: 50.8
Example 11.1: Singly Reinforced
Rectangular Beams
Determine the design moment capacity of a rectangular beam 20-in wide by
32-in deep if the effective depth (d) = 29 inches and the steel reinforcement
consists of 4-# 8 steel bars with fy = 60 ksi. f’c = 4 ksi.
1. As = Area of one bar (Ab) multiplied by the number of bars

For the area of one bar (Ab) refer to table on slide 95, or ACI 318 Appendix E,
or CERM Chapter 50, Table 50.3.
As = 0.79 in2 per bar x 4 bars = 3.16 in2
2. a = Asfy ' ; a = (3.16 in2 x 60 ksi) / (0.85 x 4 ksi x 20 in.) = 2.79 in.
0.85fc b
3. Design Moment, φ Mn = 0.9 x 3.16 in2 x 60 ksi [29 in. – (2.79 in./ 2)]
φ Mn = 4,710 k-in = 392.5 k-ft.
If As, fy, b & d are given; find C @ ultimate moment (failure)
➔ use
C = 0.85 f’c b a but f’c is not given This copy is
T given
= Asfyto the
andfollowing
C = T student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.
119
11.15 Shear Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Members
Critical section,
per ACI Code @ distance “d”
from face of support
CERM: 50.20 thru 50.27
11.16 Stirrup Spacing
φ𝑉𝑐
The min. shear reinforcement for the range ≤ 𝑉u ≤ φ𝑉𝑐 :
2
use maximum spacing of s ≤ in psi
where: bw = beam width

11.17 Reinforced Concrete Floor Slabs
If L ≥ 2B ➔ one-way slab (load is distributed in one direction)
Otherwise, it is two-way slab (load is distributed in two directions)
Plan View
ivan anderson (ivaniv54@gmail.com) CERM: 51.1 thru 51.7 126
11.17 Reinforced Concrete Floor Slabs (Cont.)
• Design of one-way slabs:

– Design as 12 in. wide beams and find required As in units of in.2/ft.
– Maximum bar spacing for flexure: ≤ 3h or 18 in.
A 12”
– s = (12”) Ab/As; where Ab = Area of one bar [in2]
s
A s
b As = Total area [in2]
s = (12”) A /A
b s
b = 12 in
– Temperature steel ratio
• For fy = 60 ksi,
As
• 𝜌g = As/Agross = = 0.0018
𝑏ℎ
• Agross = Gross area = bh
CERM: 51.1 thru 51.7
Example 11.6: One-way slab
Find the design moment capacity for a 6”- slab reinforced with #5
@ 8”. Use f’c = 4,000 psi and Grade 60 steel reinforcement (fy = 60
ksi). Assume that the reinforcement clear cover is ¾”.
a) 9.54 k-ft.
b) 6.5 k-ft.
c) 15 k-ft.
d) 96 k-in.
Example 11.6: One-way slab (Cont.)
One-way slab is designed for 1 ft. strip ➔ b =12 in.
Area of #5 bar, Ab = 0.31 in2 @ spacing, s = 8”
Diameter of #5 bar, db = 0.625 in.
Slab thickness, h = 6 in.
Rebar clear cover, cc = 0.75 in.
Effective depth, d = h - cc – db/2
d = 6” – 0.75” – 0.625”/2 = 4.9 in.
Reinforcement area in 1 ft. strip, As = Ab (12”/s)
As = 0.31 in2 (12”/8”)2= 0.465 in2 provided in 1 ft. (equivalent to #5@ 8”)
Asfy 0.465 in (60 ksi)
a= ′ = = 0.684 in.
0.85f cb 0.85(4 ksi)(12")
a 0.684"
φMn = φAsfy(d − ) = 0.9 (0.465 in2) (60 ksi) (4.9” - ) = 114.45 k-in.
2 2
= 9.54 k-ft.
Answer: (a)
Example 11.7: One-way slab
Check the spacing of the main longitudinal reinforcement from
Example 11.6 and find the most cost effective spacing for
shrinkage and temperature reinforcement using # 3 bars.
a) 8” spacing is OK, #3 @ 18” (shrinkage and temp. reinf.)

b) 8” spacing is NG, #3 @ 10” (shrinkage and temp. reinf.)
c) 8” spacing is OK, #3 @ 10” (shrinkage and temp. reinf.)
d) 8” spacing is OK, #3 @ 8” (shrinkage and temp. reinf.)
Example 11.7: One-way slab (Cont.)
Max. sp. ≤ 3h or 18”
Smax ≤ 3 (6”) = 18”

the same
or 18”
Smax = 18” > 8” OK

A
𝜌g = As/Agross = s = 0.0018 (shrinkage and temperature reinf. for fy = 60 ksi)
𝑏ℎ
As shrinkage & temp = 𝜌g Agross = 0.0018 (6”) (12”) = 0.1296 in2
Ab #3 = 0.11 in2
0.11 in2
s = (12”) Ab/As = (12”) Ab/As = (12”) = 10”
0.1296 in2
Use #3 @ 10” for shrinkage and temperature reinf.
Answer: (c)
11.18 Column Footings
Building
Soil Pressure Loading
Overburden soil
P/A
 My / I
q = P / A  My / I
Gross soil pressure (footing weight + overburden soil + unfactored building

loading) must be less than or equal to the allowable soil pressure.
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute
CERM: 55.1 to others.
thru 55.4
11.19 Allowable Soil Pressure
Important topic
• Allowable Soil Pressure (qall) is the capacity of

the soil to resist pressure at the base of the
footing.
• It can be provided as
─ Gross Allowable Soil Pressure, or
─ Net Allowable Soil Pressure
Allowable Soil Pressure (cont.)
• Gross Allowable Soil Pressure:
Total soil capacity to resist:
1. Weight of the footing.
2. Weight of the soil that rests on top of the footing (overburden soil).
3. Service (unfactored) building loads.
• Net Allowable Soil Pressure:

❑ It is the net soil capacity available to resist the
service (unfactored) building loads.
❑ Net qall = Gross qall – footing weight – weight of
soil on top of footing.
Allowable Soil Pressure (cont.)
• If the problem gives the Gross Allowable Soil
Pressure, then you need to subtract the weight of
the footing and the soil on top of it to obtain the
“net” capacity that can be used to support the
building service loads.
• If the problem gives the Net Allowable Soil
Pressure, then that value is available to support
the building service loads (no need to deduct
footing or soil weights).
NOTE: Problems in the Morning session typically give the Net allowable soil pressure.
11.20 Allowable Soil Pressure Check
Important topic
11.21 Strength Design of Concrete Foundation
Example 11.8: Soil Pressures
Since there is no information about soil and
footing, net soil pressure can’t be calculated
Example 11.9: Soil Pressures
12.0 Structural Steel
12.1 Structural Steel Design
• American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) offers two (2)
design methods, which are both presented in the AISC Code:
– Allowable Strength Design (ASD)
Note: ASD formerly stood for “Allowable Stress Design.”
– Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Service ASD Factored LRFD

Required Strength  Allowable Strength Required Strength  Design Strength
R
R 2s  n R   Rn

R 2s = Required Strength R = Required Strength
R n = Nominal Strength R n = Nominal Strength
 = Safety Factor  = Resistance Factor
 = 1.67 for Bending 
= 0.9 for Bending 140
CERM: 58.6 and 58.7
12.2 Structural Steel Rolled Shapes Hot billets of steel pass thru rollers for
many time to get the required shape
CERM: 58.4
Label this slide
12.3 Structural Steel Grades
A992 Rolled 50 65
W-shapes
(Replaces A36 Steel W-shapes)
ivan anderson (ivaniv54@gmail.com) CERM: 58.2 and 58.3 142
12.4 Analysis and Design of Beams
Most steel beams are designed to bend about their strong (x-x) axis.
However, weak axis bending and biaxial bending can also occur (for example,
a perimeter beam supporting floor load (vertical) and wind load (lateral).
CERM:
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to others.
12.5 Strength of Flexural Members (Beams)
As load is applied to a flexural member resulting in a bending moment,
stresses are developed in the cross section. The stresses and strains are
distributed as shown below:
CERM:
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12.5 Strength of Flexural Members (Beams) (Cont.)
For distribution “a”, elastic behavior occurs whenever the material is behaving
along the initial straight line portion of the steel stress-strain curve shown
below.
In the elastic range, the basic flexural stress relationship can be applied
𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑏 = as it was covered before.
I
CERM:
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to distribute others.59.8
Normally the stress at the extreme fiber (the fiber most distant from
neutral axis), is of interest because the largest stress occurs at this
point. The maximum stress at distance ymax = c from N.A. is:
𝑀𝑐 𝑀
𝑓𝑏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝐼 𝑆
S = section modulus = I/c
Yield moment, My = moment that causes the extreme fiber to reach the
yield stress, Fy (moment that gives distribution “b”)
If the load is increased beyond yield moment, the strain in the extreme fiber
increases but the stress remains at Fy (because these fibers are behaving as
depicted by the plateau on the steel stress-strain curve) as shown in
distribution “c”.
As, the moment continues to increase, the portion of the cross section
experiencing the yield stress continues to increase until the entire
section experiences the yield stress as in distribution “d”.
CERM:
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others.
For the doubly symmetric wide flange shape shown below, equilibrium occurs
when the portion of the shape above the elastic neutral axis is stressed to the
yield stress in compression while the portion below the elastic neutral axis is
stressed to the yield stress in tension.
From equilibrium, the tension and compression forces are equal and
opposite. If a moment is taken about the plastic neutral axis (PNA) which
coincides with the elastic neutral axis (NA) for symmetric section, this
moment is the plastic moment: Z x
𝐴
Mp = Fy (Ac yc) + Fy (At yt) = Fy ( ) (yc + yt) = Fy Zx
2
CERM:
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to distribute others.59.8
Mp = Plastic moment that corresponds to fully yielded stress
distribution = Fy Zx
A = Total cross sectional of steel shape
Ac = Area of shape portion that has reached yield stress in
compression (= A/2 for symmetric section only)
At = Area of shape portion that has reached yield stress in
tension (= A/2 for symmetric section only)
yc = Distance between PNA and the centroid of compression
area
yt = Distance between PNA and the centroid of tension area
Zx = Plastic modulus (about x-axis) is a function of the cross
𝐴
section geometry = ( ) (yc + yt)
2
(Cont.)
In order for a given beam to attain its full plastic moment
strength, compression region of a flexural member cross section
shall NOT experience any local buckling or lateral torsional
buckling (i.e., fully yielded stress distribution can be reached
before any buckling mode criteria). Buckling modes for the
compression region of a flexural member cross section will be
covered in the next slides.

12.6 Local Buckling
• Local buckling occurs when a compression element of a flexural member cross

section buckles before it reaches the yield stress.
• Because this buckling occurs at a stress lower than yield stress, the shape is not
capable of reaching plastic moment, Mp.
• When both the flange and web have width-to-thickness ratios less than plastic
limiting width-to-thickness ratios, λp’s (values given in AISC tables), the shapes are
called compact shapes (plastic moment can be reached before local buckling).
• For the flange of W-shape to be compact, its width-to-thickness ratio must satisfy
the following:
𝑏𝑓 𝐸 𝑏𝑓
λf = = λpf = 0.38
𝐹𝑦
(values of
2𝑡𝑓
are given in AISC W-shape
2𝑡𝑓
section properties tables)
• For the web of W-shape to be compact, its width-to-thickness ratio must satisfy
the following:
ℎ 𝐸 ℎ
λw = = λpw = 3.76 (values of are given in AISC W-shape
𝑡𝑤 𝐹𝑦 𝑡𝑤
section properties tables)
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distributeCERM:
to others. 59.4
12.6 Local Buckling (Cont.)
• For Grade 50 steel
𝑏𝑓 29,000 𝑘𝑠𝑖
Flange is compact when its ≤ λpf = 0.38 = 9.15
2𝑡𝑓 50 𝑘𝑠𝑖
ℎ 29,000 𝑘𝑠𝑖
Web is compact when its ≤ λpw = 3.76 = 90.6
𝑡𝑤 50 𝑘𝑠𝑖
• All W-shapes except W21x48, W14x90, W12x65, W10x12, W8x10, W6x15, W6x9
and W6x8.5 have compact flanges for Fy = 50 ksi. All W-shapes have compact webs
at Fy ≤ 65 ksi.
In the breadth exam, sections are assumed to be compact
CERM: 59.4
Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling
Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling
Web is restrained by the flange at one edge, web in tension at other
12.7 Lateral Torsional Buckling
• The compression region of a flexural member cross section has a tendency to
buckle similarly to how pure compression member buckles.
• The major difference is that the bending tension region of the member helps to
resist that buckling.
• The compression T is fully braced about its horizontal axis by the web so it will not
be able to buckle vertically (bend about its horizontal axis).
• But unbraced length of this compression region will be able to buckle laterally
(bend about its vertical axis)
12.7 Lateral Torsional Buckling (Cont.)
• In order for the flexural member to buckle laterally and deflect down simultaneously,
it needs to twist about its longitudinal axis as shown below.
Lb = the distance between compression flange bracing points. This is the

actual unbraced length.
Lp = the maximum unbraced length that would permit the shape to reach its
plastic moment strength, Mn = Mp = FyZx
Lr = the unbraced length that would permit the shape to reach its first yield
moment strength with residual stresses, Mr = 0.7FySx
First yield moment is 30% earlier than My.

For Grade 50 steel, expected residual stress is 0.3(50) = 15 ksi
12.8 Beam Lateral Bracing Examples
Brace must either prevent lateral displacement of the compression flange, or twist of the
cross section.
• This indicates first yield 30% earlier than My.

• For This indicates first yield 30% earlier than
My.
• For 50 ksi steel this indicates an expected
residual stress of
• (50 * 0.3) = 15 ksi.
0.3) = 15 ksi.
CERM:
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute 59.5
to others.
12.8 Lateral Torsional Buckling (Cont.)
CERM:
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute 59.5
to others.
Example 12.1: Strength of Flexural Members
(Beams)
W18x35 (Zx = 66.5 in3 and Zy = 8.06 in3), A992 steel is used for a
simply supported beam that spans 20 ft and is loaded at its
midspan with a dead load of 8.0 kips and a live load of 24.0 kips
as shown below. Ignore the beam self-weight. Assume full lateral
support and a compact section (no local buckling). Check the
adequacy of the steel shape using LRFD design method.
Find the factored load and moment:
Pu = 1.2(PD) + 1.6(PL) = 1.2(8 kips) + 1.6(24 kips) = 48 kips
𝑃𝑢 𝐿 48 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (20 𝑓𝑡)
Mu = = = 240 kip-ft
4 4
Check adequacy of section:
For A992 steel, Fy = 50 ksi
Since there is no lateral torsional buckling (no LTB) and the section is compact
(no local buckling), the section can reach the plastic moment:
Mn = Mp = Fy Zx = (50 ksi) (66.5 in3) = 3,325 kip-in = 277 kip-ft
Mu = φMn = 0.9(277) = 249 kip-ft > 240 kip-ft
OK, the section is adequate
Example 12.2: Flexural Capacity
If the sections below have the same section modulus (Zx) about the major
axis, and the beam is fully unbraced, which one of the following sections is
the strongest? [Hint: for an unbraced member, the section properties in the
weak axis (i.e, Iy, Zy) affect the flexural capacity. Which option has larger
section properties about weak axis?]
For option (a):

Zx = Zy
Ix = I y
rx = ry
Option (a) section has bigger weak axis section properties than their
corresponding ones of the other 3 sections (b, c and d).
Also, option (a) is a closed section (closed sections have good torsional
resistance).
Answer: (a)
12.9 Design Moment Capacity
Available Moment Strength vs. Unbraced Length

AISC Table 3-10

12.9 Design Moment Capacity (Cont.)
(ASD:  = 1.67); (LRFD: ∅ = 0.90)
For compact beams (no local buckling): if Lb ≤ Lp

① (Equation F2-1 ): Mn = Mp = FyZx Mr
For beams with Lp < Lb ≤ Lr
𝐿𝑏 − 𝐿𝑝
② (Equation F2-2 ): Mn = Cb [Mp – (Mp - 0.7FySx)( )] ≤ Mp
𝐿𝑟 − 𝐿𝑝
Note: Cb is the lateral-torsional buckling modification factor for non-uniform moment diagrams. It can be
conservatively taken as 1.0. The charts on AISC Table 3-10 are based on Cb = 1.0.
Fcr Eq. includes Cb

For beams with Lb > Lr
③ (Equation F2-3 ): Mn = Fcr Sx ≤ Mp
For wide flange members (W shapes), enter Table 3-10 nomographs with:
- The unbraced length, Lb ,
- The Moment
- Service moment, Ms , (for ASD) or
- Factored Moment, Mu , (for LRFD)
ivan anderson (ivaniv54@gmail.com) CERM: 59.5 thru 59.8 163
12.10 Beam Design Curves (AISC Table 3-10)
LRFD, If:
Mu = Φ Mn = 540 k-ft.
Lb = 14 ft.
The first solid line to the right
of the intersection point is
W18x76 (most economical
section)
12.11 Designing with Beam Charts
(AISC Table 3-10)
• Enter the charts with Mmax = Allowable Moment and Lb
• Select the first solid curve or line to the right of the intersection point for
most economical section.
• Conservatively assume Cb=1.0 and use the beam charts as is
(recommended for the PE examination), or calculate:
Example 12.3: Beam Flexural Design
Select the lightest W21 section for the simply supported beam
shown. Assume wD = 2.0 kip/ft. (including the beam weight) and
wL = 2.8 kip/ft. Use Gr. 50 steel and assume the lateral bracing is
provided only at the ends [ASD method].
Distributed Load, w
Lb
20 ft
wtotal = wD + wL = 2 kip/ft. + 2.8 kip/ft. = 4.8 kip/ft.

Mdesign = Ms = wtotal L2 / 8 = 4.8 kip/ft.(20 ft.)2 /8 = 240 k-ft.
The lightest beam section is = W21x……
Example 12.4: Beam Flexural Design
Select the lightest W21 section for the simply supported beam
shown. Assume wD = 2.0 kip/ft. (including the beam weight) and
wL = 2.8 kip/ft. Use Gr. 50 steel and assume the lateral bracing is
provided only at the ends [LRFD method].
Distributed Load, w
wu = 1.2wD + 1.6wL
wu = 1.2(2 kip/ft.) + 1.6(2.8 kip/ft.) = 6.88 klf
Mdesign = Mu = wu L2 / 8
Mu = 6.88 kip/ft. (20 ft.)2 / 8 = 344 k-ft.
Lb
The lightest beam section is 20 ft
a) W21x73
How does this answer compare to
b) W21x62
the ASD solution on the previous
c) W12x72 example?
d) W 16x67
13.0 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS
13.1 Homework Problem 1: Solution
13.9 Homework Problem 9: Deflections
13.9 Homework Problem 9: Deflections
13.10 Homework Problem 10: Bending Stress
13.10 Homework Problem 10: Bending Stress

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Structural and Materials Related Topics

CERM Sections: 45.1, 45.2; 50.4 thru

Example: fActual Stress (Elastic) ≤ FAllowable Stress

All these terms represent the same concept, which

Ptotal = D + L = 10 kips + 15 kips = 25 kips

The member must be designed to resist this load.

• Design Strength = Resistance Factor x Nominal Strength

• Linear elastic analysis to determine cross-sectional demand.

Pu = Service Loads x Load Factors Pu

Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2(10 kips) + 1.6(15 kips) = 36 kips

b. Wind (W) Lateral Loads

3.2 Load Combinations (ASCE 7-10) for Strength

• Gravity Loads only

• Gravity + Wind Loads

Refer to reference materials, ASCE 7-10, for other basic combinations.

CERM: 50.5 and 58.8

Dead loads are permanent in magnitude and location.

Structural Steel Shapes

HSS ➔ Hollow Structural Shape

4.1 Determinate Analysis Topics

2. Free Body Diagram: Loads and Reactions

CERM – 41.1 thru

“Roller” : Provides one reaction normal to supporting

“Pin” or “Hinge”: Provides two reactions.

“Fixed” : Provides two reactions and a moment.

Ʃ Fv = 0 (Summation of forces in Vertical direction)

Ʃ Fh = 0 (Summation of forces in Horizontal direction)

Substituting in the Ʃ Fv equation: 25 kips + Rb,v – 50 kips = 0

If there is no Action, then there is NO Reaction.

As shown in this example, the left support “A” is a pin, which

However, if there is no External Horizontal force on the member

A “cut” at point “c” creates 2 free-body Diagrams:

• Equilibrium must occur for entire beam, as well as

• How is equilibrium maintained in a free-body diagram?

Internal forces balance external forces

Thus V = 25 Kips R a,v = 25 K (-)

Sign conventions for constructing moment diagrams:

Clockwise concentrated moments about the point are positive.

Draw the Shear Diagram. A B

Ra,v (22’) – 48k (14’) = 0

A) 205 kip-ft. 25 ft.

Mmax  117 kip-ft. 25 ft.

Answer: C Mmax = 117 𝑘 − 𝑓𝑡

CERM: Appendix 44.A

Constant shear while Constant slope (linear shear) while

b) Jump in shear diagram while there is

No jump in moment diagram while

No jump in moment diagram while

CERM: 41.20, 41.29 thru 41.38

r = number of reaction components

a) Indeterminate and stable

d) Determinate and unstable

R1,y (80’) – 10k (60’) – 30k (40’)

The forces are applied loads, reactions, and member forces.

• Sections can be cut in any direction (vertical, inclined, etc.)

Substitute with sign (-41.67 k)

Take moments about Point 6: as assumed

ΣM6 = 0 = R1(20’) – F2-3(15’) → F2-3 = 33.33 kips (tens.)

Take moments about Point 2: F6,7

ΣM2 = 0 = R1(20’) + F3-6(4/5)(15’) + F6-7(15’) 3

25k (40’) – 10k(20’) + F6-7(15’) = 0

Simply supported truss acts like

Since member “A-B” is a top chord member, it will be in compression.