TUGAS RESENSI TERMODINAMIKA

DOSEN PEMBIMBING

Andika Bagus N.R.P., M. Pd

DISUSUN OLEH

Febiano De Oliviera (170513624080)

Ferry Anggryawan (150515508007)

Lismiati (170513624017)

Magfor Hidayat (170513634006)

UNIVERSITAS NEGERI MALANG

FAKULTAS TEKNIK

TEKNIK MESIN 2017/2018

DEFINITION OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics may be defined as follows :
_ Thermodynamics is an axiomatic science which deals with the relations among
heat, work and properties of system which are in equilibrium. It describes state
and changes
Thermodynamics, basically entails four laws or axioms known as Zeroth, First,
Second and
Third law of thermodynamics.
_ The First law throws light on concept of internal energy.
_ The Zeroth law deals with thermal equilibrium and establishes a concept of
temperature.
_ The Second law indicates the limit of converting heat into work and introduces
the principle of increase of entropy.
_ The Third law defines the absolute zero of entropy.
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
System, Boundary and Surroundings

Closed System
. If the boundary of the system is impervious to the flow of matter, it is called a
closed system.
Open System
An open system is one in which matter flows into or out of the system. Most of the
engineering systems are open.

Adiabatic System
An adiabatic system is one which is thermally insulated from its surroundings. It
can, however, exchange work with its surroundings. If it does not, it becomes an
isolated system. Phase. A phase is a quantity of matter which is homogeneous
throughout in chemical composition and physical structure.
Homogeneous System
A system which consists of a single phase is termed as homogeneous system.
Examples : Mixture of air and water vapour, water plus nitric acid and octane plus
heptane.
Heterogeneous System
A system which consists of two or more phases is called a heterogeneous system.
Examples : Water plus steam, ice
plus water and water plus oil.
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if the temperature and pressure at all
points are same.
Thus for attaining a state of thermodynamic equilibrium the following three types
of equilibrium states must be achieved :
1. Thermal equilibrium
2. Mechanical equilibrium.
3. Chemical equilibrium.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

_ ‘Zeroth law of thermodynamics’ states that if two systems are each equal in
temperature to a third, they are equal in temperature to each other.

The Thermometer And Thermometric Property

_ The zeroth law of thermodynamics provides the basis for the measurement of
temperature.
Measurement of Temperature
Temperature can be depicted as a thermal state which depends upon the internal
or molecular energy of the body.
Temperature Measuring Instruments
These instruments may be classified in two broad categories :
1. Non-electrical methods
2. Electrical method :
The thermometers may also be classified as follows :
1. Expansion thermometers
(i) Liquid-in-glass thermometers (ii) Bimetallic thermometers.
2. Pressure thermometers
(i) Vapour pressure thermometers (ii) Liquid-filled thermometers
(iii) Gas-filled thermometers.
3. Thermocouple thermometers
4. Resistance thermometers
5. Radiation pyrometers
6. Optical pyrometers.

Ideal Gas
From experimental observations it has been established that an ideal gas (to a
good approximation)
behaves according to the simple equation pV = mRT
where p, V and T are the pressure, volume and temperature of gas having mass m
and R is a constant for the gas known as its gas constant. can be written as pv =
RT

Pressure
Pressure is defined as the normal component of force per unit area. Most
thermodynamics investigations are concerned with absolute pressure. Most
pressure and vacuum gauges, however, read the difference between the absolute
pressure and the atmospheric pressure existing at the gauge. This is referred to as
gauge pressure

Unit for Pressure

The fundamental SI unit of pressure is N/m2 (sometimes called pascal, Pa) or bar.
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 Pa.
Standard atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 bar = 0.76 m (or 760 mm) Hg.

Specific volume
The specific volume of a substance is defined as the volume per unit mass, and is
given the symbol v.
V m3
v=
 m [ ]
kg
The density of a substance (r) is defined as the mass per unit volume, and is
therefore the reciprocal of the specific volume.
 1 m3
r=
v [ ]
kg

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

Reversible process. A reversible process (also sometimes known as quasi-static
process) is one which can be stopped at any stage and reversed so that the system
and surroundings are exactly restored to their initial states.

Irreversible process. An irreversible process is one in which heat is transferred

through a finite temperature.

Irreversibilities are of two types :

1. External irreversibilities. These are associated with dissipating effects outside

the working fluid.
Example. Mechanical friction occurring during a process due to some external
source.
2. Internal irreversibilities. These are associated with dissipating effects within
the working fluid.
Example. Unrestricted expansion of gas, viscosity and inertia of the gas.

ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT

Energy
One of the very important concepts in a study of thermodynamics is the concept
of energy. Energy is a fundamental concept, such as mass or force and, as is often
the case with such concepts, is very difficult to define. Energy is defined as the
capability to produce an effect. It is important to note that energy can be stored
within a system and can be transferred (as heat, for example) from one system to
another.
FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the
total energy E of a system. The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is
denoted by e and is expressed as
E
e= kJ/kg
m
The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy (KE).
v2
KE =m
2
Work and Heat
Definition of work
Work is defined as a force F acting through a displacement x, the displacement
being in the direction of the force.
Training Centre / Centre de formation
Thermodynamics defines work as follows: work is done by a system if the sole
effect on the surroundings (everything external to the system) could be the raising
of a weight. Work done by a system is considered positive and work done to a
system is considered negative.
Units for work
The unit for work in SI units is called the joule (J).
1J = 1 N•m
Work is a transient quantity which only appears at the boundary while a change
of state is taking place within a system. Work is ‘something’ which appears at the
boundary when a system changes its state due to the movement of a part of the
boundary under the action of a force.
Definition of heat
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred across the boundary of a
system at a given temperature to another system (or the surroundings) at a lower
temperature by virtue of the temperature difference between the two systems.
Another aspect of this definition of heat is that a body never contains heat. Rather,
heat can be identified only as it crosses the boundary. Thus, heat is a transient
phenomenon.
Sign convention :
If the heat flows into a system from the surroundings, the quantity is said to be
positive and, conversely, if heat flows from the system to the surroundings it is
said to be negative. In other words :
Heat received by the system = + Q
Heat rejected or given up by the system = – Q.

REVERSIBLE WORK
Let us consider an ideal frictionless fluid contained in a cylinder above a piston as
shown in .Assume that the pressure and temperature of the fluid are uniform and
that there is no friction between the piston and the cylinder walls.
Let A = Cross-sectional area of the piston,
p = Pressure of the fluid at any instant,
(p – dp) A = Restraining force exerted by the surroundings on the piston, and
dl = The distance moved by the piston under the action of the force exerted.
Then work done by the fluid on the piston is given by force times the distance
moved, i.e., Work done by the fluid = (pA) × dl = pdV (where dV = a small
increase in volume) Or considering unit mass Work done = pdv (where v =
specific volume) Hence when a reversible process takes place between state 1 and

state 2, we have Work done by the unit mass of fluid ∫ ¿ pdv

1

When a fluid undergoes a reversible process a series of state points can be joined
up to form a line on a diagram of properties. The work done by the fluid during
any reversible process is therefore given by the area under the line of process
plotted on a p-v diagram i.e., Work done = Shaded area
2

∫ ¿ pdv
1

When p can be expressed in terms of v then the integral

∫ ¿ pdv
1

can be evaluated.
INTERNALLY AND EXTERNALLY REVERSIBLE PROCESSES
A typical process involves interactions between a system and its surroundings,
and a reversible process involves no irreversibilities associated with either of
them. A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibilities occur within
the boundaries of the system during the process. During an internally reversible
process, a system proceeds through a series of equilibrium states, and when the
process is reversed, the system passes through exactly the same equilibrium states
while returning to its initial state.
A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibilities occur outside the
system boundaries during the process. Heat transfer between a
reservoir and a system is an externally reversible process if the outer surface
of the system is at the temperature of the reservoir.
A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it involves no
irreversibilities within the system or its surroundings. A totally reversible process
involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature difference, no nonquasi
equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative effects .
THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS
In the development of the second law of thermodynamics, it is very convenient to
have a hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity (mass
specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without undergoing
any change in temperature. Such a body is called a thermal energy reservoir, or
just a reservoir. In practice, large bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers
as well as the atmospheric air can be modeled accurately as thermal energy
reservoirs because of their large thermal energy storage capabilities or thermal
masses. A two-phase system can be modeled as a reservoir also since it can absorb
and release large quantities of heat while remaining at constant temperature Another
familiar example of a thermal energy reservoir is the industrial furnace. The temperatures
of most furnaces are carefully controlled, and they are capable of supplying large
quantities of thermal energy as heat in an essentially isothermal manner. Therefore, they
can be modeled as reservoirs. Thermal energy reservoirs are often referred to as heat
reservoirs since they supply or absorb energy in the form of heat. Heat transfer from
industrial sources to the environment is of major concern to environmentalists as well as
to engineers. Irresponsible management of waste energy can significantly increase the
temperature of portions of the environment, causing what is called thermal pollution. If it
is not carefully controlled, thermal pollution can seriously disrupt marine life in lakes and
rivers. However, by careful design and management, the waste energy dumped into large
bodies of water can be used to improve the quality of marine life by keeping the local
temperature increases within safe and desirable levels.

HEAT ENGINE
From this and other observations, we conclude that work can be converted to heat directly
and completely, but converting heat to work requires the use of some special devices.
These devices are called heat engines.
Heat engines differ considerably from one another, but all can be characterized by the
following :
1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear
reactor, etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotatingshaft).
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers,
etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic devices usually involve a fluid to and from which heat is
transferred while undergoing a cycle. This fluid is called the working fluid. The term heat
engine is often used in a broader sense to include workproducing devices that do not
operate in a thermodynamic cycle. Engines that involve internal combustion such as gas
turbines and car engines fall into this category. These devices operate in a mechanical
cycle but not in a thermodynamic cycle since the working fluid (the combustion gases)
does not undergo a complete cycle. Instead of being cooled to the initial temperature, the
exhaust gases are purged and replaced by fresh air-and-fuel mixture at the end of the
cycle.

THE CARNOT CYCLE

We mentioned earlier that heat engines are cyclic devices and that the working
fluid of a heat engine returns to its initial state at the end of each cycle. Work is
done by the working fluid during one part of the cycle and on the working fluid
during another part. The difference between these two is the net work delivered by
the heat engine. The efficiency of a heat-engine cycle greatly depends on how the
individual processes that make up the cycle are executed.
Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in practice because the irreversibilities
associated with each process cannot be eliminated. However, reversible cycles
provide upper limits on the performance of real cycles. Heat engines and
refrigerators that work on reversible cycles serve as models to which actual heat
engines and refrigerators can be compared. Reversible cycles also serve as starting
points in the development of actual cycles and are modified as needed to meet
certain requirements. Probably the best known reversible cycle is the Carnot
cycle, first proposed in 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot. The theoretical heat
engine that operates on the Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat engine. The
Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes—two isothermal and two
adiabatic—and it can be executed either in a closed or a steady-flow system. The
four reversible processes that make up the Carnot cycle are as follows:
Reversible Isothermal Expansion . Initially (state 1), the temperature of the gas
is TH and the cylinder head is in close contact with a source at temperature TH.
The gas is allowed to expand slowly, doing work on the surroundings. As the gas
expands, the temperature of the gas tends to decrease. But as soon as the
temperature drops by an infinitesimal amount dT, some heat is transferred from
the reservoir into the gas, raising the gas temperature to TH. Thus, the gas
temperature is kept constant at TH. Since the temperature difference between the
gas and the reservoir never exceeds a differential amount dT, this is a reversible
heat transfer process. It continues until the piston reaches position 2. The amount
of total heat transferred to the gas during this process is QH.
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion . At state 2, the reservoir that was in contact
with the cylinder head is removed and replaced by insulation so that the system
becomes adiabatic. The gas continues to expand slowly, doing work on the
surroundings until its temperature drops from TH to TL (state 3). The piston is
assumed to be frictionless and the process to be quasiequilibrium, so the process is
reversible as well as adiabatic
Reversible Isothermal Compression . At state 3, the insulation at the cylinder
head is removed, and the cylinder is brought into contact with a sink at
temperature TL. Now the piston is pushed inward by an external force, doing
work on the gas. As the gas is compressed, its temperature tends to rise. But as
soon as it rises by an infinitesimal amount dT, heat is transferred from the gas to
the sink, causing the gas temperature to drop to TL. Thus, the gas temperature
remains constant at TL. Since the temperature difference between the gas and the
sink never exceeds a differential amount dT, this is a reversible heat transfer
process. It continues until the piston reaches state 4. The
amount of heat rejected from the gas during this process is QL.
Reversible Adiabatic Compression , temperature rises from TL
to T H). State 4 is such that when the low-temperature reservoir is
removed, the insulation is put back on the cylinder head, and the gas is
compressed in a reversible manner, the gas returns to its initial state (state
1). The temperature rises from TL to TH during this reversible adiabatic
compression process, which completes the cycle.
THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES
The second law of thermodynamics puts limits on the operation of cyclic devices
as expressed by the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements. A heat engine cannot
operate by exchanging heat with a single reservoir, and a refrigerator cannot
operate without a net energy input from an external source.

THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE

A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of the substances that are
used to measure temperature is called a thermodynamic temperature scale. Such a
temperature scale offers great conveniences in thermodynamic calculations, and
its derivation is given below using some reversible heat engines. That is, the
efficiency of a reversible engine is independent of the working fluid employed
and its properties, the way the cycle is executed, or the type of reversible engine
used. Since energy reservoirs are characterized by their temperatures, the thermal
efficiency of reversible heat engines is a function of the reservoir temperatures
only. Even though the thermodynamic temperature scale is defined with the help
of the reversible heat engines, it is not possible, nor is it practical, to actually
operate such an engine to determine numerical values on the absolute temperature
scale. Absolute temperatures can be measured accurately by other means, such as
the constant-volume ideal-gas thermometer together with extrapolation techniques
as discussed in Chap. 1. The validity of Eq. 6–16 can be demonstrated from
physical considerations for a reversible cycle using an ideal gas as the working
fluid.