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5 6070858448088596495 PDF
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1 ELECTRON THEORY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electronics is a relatively new branch of technology which has made impact in every aspect of our
lives. Electronic techniques are now applied to all branches of science and engineering and more and
more people in all walks of life are going to need a basic knowledge of electronics techniques.
1.2 DEFINITION
It is the field of science that studies the behaviour of electrons. It comes from the words; electrons
mechanics. The ability to control the movement of electrons either through a vacuum (gas filled tubes)
which are sometimes called valves or the semi-conductor materials forms the basis of electronics.
Within the field of electronics, there are numerous specializations;
-computers
-communication
-consumer electronics.
-medical electronics
-industrial electronics etc
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• All matter is composed of atoms and molecules. The smallest particle which a compound can be
broken and maintain its physical properties is the molecule.
• The smallest particle which a compound can be broken and maintain its chemical properties is the
atom.
1.5 STUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Each atom has one or more electrons, and one nucleus. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
Apart from the simple hydrogen atom, the nucleus is made up of protons neutrons in approximately
equal numbers (Hydrogen a highly reactive element has no neutrons)
The electrical charge of the electron is negative, the electrical charge of the proton is positive, The
neutron has no electrical charge.
A normal atom is electrically neutral containing an equal number of electrons and protons. That means
the charge per electron is equal but opposite in polarity
1.5.1 ELECTRON THEORY
Atoms are far too small for the most powerful microscope and we have to infer their construction by
the way they behave and the way they affect various forms of radiation beamed at them. Because
nobody knows what an atom looks like, physists construct models of the atoms to help them predict
various atom behaviours.
In 1897, JJ Thompson did an experiment that may be the origin of the studies of this field. He produced
cathodes rays by applying a voltage across a gas filled tube and showing that they could be deflected by
an electric field or magnetic field. He concluded that they consisted of minute negatively charged
particles later called electrons. He determined charge/mass (Q/M) ratio and showed that this was the
same where different materials were used, and concluded that electron is universally present in all
matter.
1.5.2 THE BOHR`S MODEL
Neil Bohr (1885-1962) was a Danish scientist who developed a model of the atomic structure that
explains the electron theory. In this model, the atom consists of the nucleus at the middle of it with
electrons.
The electrons don’t bunch together in a solid mass but rather they spread out in different orbits.
According to Bohr;
• An atom consists of positively charged nucleus round which negatively charged electrons
revolve in different circular orbits.
• The electrons can revolve round the nucleus only in certain permitted orbits i.e. orbits of certain
radius.
• The electrons in each permitted orbits have a certain fixed amount of energy. The larger the
orbit (i.e. larger the radius) the greater the energy of the electrons.
• If the electron is given additional energy e.g. heat or light, it is lifted to a higher energy level.
• For an electron to move from a higher energy level to a lower one, then it emits energy in form
of electromagnetic radiations.
The figure below shows shell structure of common atoms.
+1
+6 +14
a) Hydrogen
2
Nucleus
b) Carbon Electrons
c) Silicon
Ngetha H.T.
Though there are a number of energy bands in solids, the following are of particular importance.
1.8.1VALENCE BANDS
They are the electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom. The valence band has electrons with the
highest energy. The valence band maybe completely or partially full. The partially full band can
accommodate more electrons.
1.8.2CONDUCTION BAND
In some materials e.g. metals, the valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus. Even at
ordinary temperatures, some of the valence electrons may get detached to become free electrons. It is
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these free electrons, which are responsible for the conduction of current. All electrons in the conduction
band are free.
Conduction Band
Forbidden Gap
Valence Band
Conduction Band
Valence Band
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The best conductor is gold followed by silver then copper, aluminium, zinc, etc
1.9.2 INSULATORS
They don’t allow current to flow as they are poor conductors.
Electrons within insulators are very tightly bound to their atoms and a lot of energy is needed to free
them.
In terms of the energy bands their valence band is full while their conduction band is empty. The
energy gap between the valence and the conduction band is very large;( approximately 15eV).
Therefore a very large electrical field is required to push the valence electrons to the conduction band.
Conduction Band
Valence Band
Example of insulators include: paper, polythene rubber Perspex, dry air, pvc etc
1.9.3 SEMI-CONDUCTORS
They Have their atoms grouped together in a regular pattern called the crystal lattice. They are
not good conductors since they have few free electrons. The number of free electrons can be increased
by
1. Raising their temperatures by heating the semi-conductor.
2. When a beam of light is shone on the semi-conductor.
3. Addition of controlled amount of impurities into the semi-conductors.
In terms of the energy bands he valence band is almost full and the conduction band is small. Therefore
relatively smaller electric field is required to push the electrons from the valence to the conduction
band.
Conduction Band
Forbidden gap ~1eV
Valence Band
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Ch arg e(coulombs)
Current =
Time(sec onds
Q
I= …………………………………………(Eqn.1.2)
t
The unit of current is the ampere (A). One ampere is the flow of one coulomb of charge past
each point of a circuit each second. The smaller units of ampere are
Mill amperes (mA) =10-3 A
Microamperes (µA) =10-6 A
NB: Although it is recognised that the flow of current is due to the flow electrons from the negative to
the positive, by convention, the direction of the current on a circuit diagram is shown as that in which a
positive charge would flow.
Current (I)
+
−
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1.9.3 VOLT
As an electric current is the movement of charge in the same direction, it follows that the charge
must possess energy and is therefore able to work (move). A battery, a dynamo or a cell provides
the energy. This is called the electro-motive force (e.m.f.). It is measured in volts, the volt being
the unit of e.m.f.
Volt is defined as one joule of energy carried by each coulomb of charge through the circuit.
Energy( joules)
Volt =
Ch arg e(coulombs)
W
V = …………………………………….(Eqn 1.3)
Q
Energy is required for a current to pass through the various wires of a circuit and through the
various components making up the circuit. This means that the current will be carrying less energy
after passing through a component than before entering. Voltage is a measure of the energy carried by
each coulomb of the charge. Hence, the amount of energy on one side of a light bulb should be higher
than on the other side. The voltage is referred to as Potential Difference (p.d.).
p.d. is the difference in voltage that exists across all components in a circuit and it’s a measure of the
energy needed to drive the current through the components. It is also measured in volts.
1.10OHM’SLAW
It states that the current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across the
conductor and inversely proportional to the resistant of the conductor provided the temperature is kept
constant.
V
I∝
R
Three equations that result from ohms Law are:
V
I = ……………………………….(Eqn 1.4)
R
V = I .R ……………………………..(Eqn. 1.5)
V
R = ……………………………….(Eqn 1.6)
I
1.9 POWER
This is the rate of doing work/ the rate of expending energy.
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Q
P = V .Q ÷
I
I
= V .Q * and so
Q
P = VI …………………………………………….(Eqn 1.8)
Example
If the voltage across a 50KΩ resistor is 250V . What would be the current flowing through it? What
would be the power dissipated by the resistor?
Solution
I =V / R
I = 250 x50 x103 = 5 x10 − 3 = 5mA
Resistor
or
Variable
or resistor
+
Battery
Ground
Capacitor
+ Polarized Capacitor
Variable Capacitor
Inductor
Light Emitting Diode
P-njunction Diode + Operation
Inductor Schottky Diode Amplifier
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1.12.2 CIRCUIT
A number of components connected together in such a way to carry out a specific function. It must
have some power.
1.9.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
A representation of how the various components making up a circuit are joined together.
Eg.
1uF D1
+ 1k
+
V1 S1
1.12.4 SYSTEMS
Electronic circuits which are able to carry out specific functions.
1.12.5 SUB-SYSTEMS
They are electronic units making up the whole systems.
1.12.6BLOCK DIAGRAMS
They are diagrams showing how systems are joined together
Eg.
Exercises
1. Show the atomic structure and determine the electron valence for the element silicon (Si) which has
an atomic number of 14.
2. Calculate the amount of time taken for neutral dielectric material to obtain a charge of –20C if the
charging current is 2.5A.
3. Draw a diagram illustrating an electrically balanced atom that has 30 protons in its nucleus, has four
shells and where the first three shells are full. (Label all
ii. Define the electrical conductivity of the material.
4. List any two materials used to make semi conducting devices.
5. Describe briefly why some materials are good conductors of electricity and others are insulators.
6.Explain the relationship between the physical structure of the atom and the electric current flow
7.In any circuit state any two requirements for producing current.
8. Define the following terms and give the S.I. units for each.
i. Electric Power
ii Current
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2.ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
They maybe divide into two:
-Passive Components
-Active Components
2.3 RESISTORS
Used to reduce the amount of current flowing in a circuit. They oppose the flow of current. This
opposition is called resistance and is measured in ohms. All conductors have resistance, which is
measured by the ohms law.
2.3.1 RESISTOR COLOUR CODES
Since some relatively small in size, it is rather impossible to indicate their value on their bodies.
The value of the resistors is given on the resistor in form of a colour code consisting o four coloured
bands. Three of them give the size of the resistance and the 4th, the tolerance of the resistance.
Tolerance is the percentage by which the resistance maybe higher or lower than the coded value.
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1st Digit
2nd Digit
Number of Zeros
Tolerance
Tolerance :Red-2%
Gold-5%
Silver-10%
No band-20%
The bands are nearer to one end of the resistor than the other and it is with the band closest to the end
that we start with. This band gives the 1st digit of the value. The 2nd band gives the next digit of the
value. The 3rd band gives the number of zeros to be written after the two-digit number to give the value
of the resistance in ohms. The colour codes are as follows:
Black =0
Brown =1
Red =2
Orange =3
Yellow =4
Green =5
Blue =6
Violet =7
Grey =8
White =9
2.3.3TYPES OF RESISTORS
1. Fixed Value Resistors
2. Variable Resistors
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Disadvantages
1. Large in size.
2. Expensive.
3. They are not available in very high values.
2.3.3.2Variable Resistors
Resistors whose resistance change with the change of a movable contact. They are normally
made of a circular track of resistant material e.g. carbon and a slide, which moves over the track hence
changing the resistance.
Spindle
Slide
Track
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A B
Connection
Maximum resistance between connections A and S is when the slide is at the far right of the track i.e. at
point B.
Maximum resistance between connections B and S is when the slide is at the far left of the track i.e. at
point A.
Connection between A and B will make the resistor a fixed one.
The Markings
The value i.e. resistance of the track is marked on the case of the resistor together with the letters
“LIN” or “LOG”. This refers to how resistance changes round the track.
R1 R2 R3
V1 V2 V3
IS
IS
VT
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Considering the figure of the circuit above, the rules for a series circuit
1. The source current IS remains the same throughout the circuit.
2. The source voltage VT is equal to the sum of all the p.d. across the resistors in the circuit i.e.
VT=V1+V2+V3+…………..VN where n is the nth p.d. ………………….(Eqn. 2.1)
3. The total circuit resistance RT equals the sum of the entire resistance in the circuit i.e.
RT=R1+R2+R3+…RN where n is the nth resistance……………………..(Eqn2.2)
4. Total resultant resistance is always greater than the largest resistor in the circuit
I1 I2 I3
R3 V = Vs
R1 R2
Vs
Is
Examples 1
Find the unknown values in the circuits of the figures below
Is
>
R1
I1` I2
+
E
+ R2
E R1
R2
Q.1 Q.2
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Solution
Q.1 (a) Since this is a series circuit, then
RT = R1+R2 =8 +4=12Ω
E 24
Is = = = 2A
RT 12
V1 = Is*R1 = 2*8 = 16V
V2 =Is*R2 = 2*4 = 8V
(b) RT = R1 + R2 = 1 + 9 =10KΩ
E = Is*RT = 10*103 * 5 *10-3 = 50V
R1 1
V1 =Is*R1= 1*103 * 5*10-3 =5V or E * = 50 * = 5V
RT 10
E 20 R1 6
I2 = = = 6.667 A or I 2 = Is * = = 6.667 A
R2 3 R1 + R 2 6 + 3
R1 * R 2 12 * 4 48
(b) RT = = = = 3 KΩ
R1 + R 2 12 + 4 16
E= Is*RT = 3*10-3 * 3*103 = 9V
E 9
I1 = = = 0.75 * 10 − 3A = 0.75mA
R1 12 * 103
E 9
I2 = = 3
= 2.25 * 10 − 3A = 2.25mA
R 2 4 * 10
Example 2
In the circuit of he figure below find RT, Is, V1, V2, I1, and 12.
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Is
>
R1
4R
E + I1 I2
< >
12V
R2 R3
6R 3R
Solution
This is a series parallel circuit.
To get total circuit resistance we start with the parallel part first.
R 2 * R3 6 * 3
R'23 = = = 2Ω
R 2 + R3 6 + 3
RT= R’23 + R1 = 4+2 =6Ω
E
Is = T = 12 = 2 A
R 6
V1 = Is*R1 = 2 * 4 = 8V
V2 = Is*R’23 =2*2 = 4V
V2 4
I1 = = = 0.667 A
R2 6
V2 4
I2 = = = 1.333 A
R3 3
Exercise
In the figure of the circuit below calculate the voltage across resistor R4
R1
4R
E +
18V R3 R2
2R 10R
R4
8R
Example 3
In the figure of the circuit below calculate RT and find the source current Is. Also Calculate the amount
of power dissipated by the resistor R1 and R2.
16
Ngetha H.T.
R1 R4 R6
3R 5R 5R
E + R7
18V R5 2R R9
R3 10R
10R 10R
R8
R2 8R
1k
Solution
To get the total circuit resistance we start with end opposite the power supply(battery)
But first
R'78 = R7 + R8 = 2 R + 8R = 10 R
R'78 * R9 10 * 10
R'789 = = = 5R
R'78 + R9 10 + 10
R'6..9 = R'789 + R6 = 5 + 5 = 10 R
R6..9 * R5 10 * 10
R'5..9 = = = 5R
R6..9 + R5 10 + 10
R 4..9 = R5..9 + R 4 = 5 + 5 = 10 R
R 4..9 * R3 10 * 10
R3..9 = = = 5R
R 4..9 + R3 10 + 10
RT = R3..9 + R 2 + R1 = 5 + 1 + 3 = 9 R
E 18
Is = = = 2A
RT 9
PR1=I2s*R1=22*3= 12W
PR2 = I2s*R=22*1= 4W
1
G= ……………………………………………..(Eqn 2.6)
R
Unit of conductance is the siemen (S)
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Ngetha H.T.
V
Hence I= = V .G ………………………………………(Eqn.2.7)
R
Like wise conductivity, σ is expressed by
1
σ = ………………………………………………..(Eqn 2.8)
ρ
Example1
Calculate the resistance and conductance of 10M length 10copper and nichrome wires if the have the
same cross-section area of 1mm2. Resistivity of copper at 20˚C is 1.76 x 10-8ΩM and that of nichrome
108 x10-8ΩM.
Solution
L=10M A= 1mm2 =1 x10-6 M2
ρL
1.76 * 10 −8 *10
For copper R= = = 0.176Ω
A 1 * 10 − 6
1 1
G= = = 5.68S
R 0.176
108 * 10 −8 *10
R= = 10.8Ω
For nichrome 1 * 10 − 6
1
G= = 0.926S
10.8
IA=5A
IC=8A
IB=3A
X
IA + IB-I C= 0 = 5 + 3 - 8 = 0
We consider all the currents into a point as positive and all the currents directed away from that point
as negative.
Example
In the circuit of the figure below Calculate the valueof the currents Is, I1, and I2.
R1 R4
10R Is I2 10R
> <
E
+ I1
R5
240V R3 20R
60R
R2
30R
Solution
18
Ngetha H.T.
Solution
Considering the closed loop1(Loop around voltage source V1).
V1=VR1+ VR3
30=I1.R1 + I3.R3 but I3 = I1 + I2 so that
30=I1.R1 + R3(I1+I2) Inserting the known values of the resistors.
30=120.I1 +18(I1 +I2) = 138I1 + 18I2
wish can be simplified to. 5 = 23I1 + 3I2…………………….(1)
2.4 CAPACITORS
They store electric charge. Consists of two metal plates separated by an insulator called the dielectric
material.
When connected to a battery the capacitor changes up until the p.d. between the terminals is the same
as the e.m.f. of the battery. If the battery is removed the charge may take a long time to leak away
unless a conductor is connected across the terminals. Capacitance of a capacitor is its charge storing
ability. It is measured in Farads (F). Capacitance depends on.
-Area of the plates (being large if the area is large)
-Distance between the plates (being small if the distance is large)
-Type of di-electric material used.
The above parameters can be expressed as follows
A
C∝
d
Introducing constants the equation becomes
εεrA
C= …………………………(Eqn. 2.9)
d
where
εo is the pemitivity of free space and is given as: εo = 8.854 x 10-12 F/M
εr is relative permitivity of the dielectric material used its value varies from material to material
and in most cases will be given
A is the area of the plates in M2
d is distance between the plates in M.
Solution
εoεrA 8.854 * 10 −12 *1 * 600 * 10 −4
C= = −3
= 10.625 * 10 −11F = 1.0625 * 10 −12 F = 1.0625 pF
d 5 * 10
When choosing a capacitor it is important to consider its working voltage (that which it can with stand
before dielectric break down), Its tolerance and its leakage current.
Capacitors are either polarised(i.e. have both the positive and the negative terminals) and hence have to
be connected right way round the circuit. or non polarised, or non polarised and can be connected either
way.
The various types of capacitors are mainly determined by the types of dielectric materials used.
Eg. Ceramic, paper, mica, plastic air capacitors etc.
Dielectric material though is not the only method used to classify capacitors.
Consider 3 capacitors in series. In a series circuit the Charge Q is constant| round the circuit
Q
From the basics: V =
C
Q
So that the voltage across the capacitor C1 , V1 is expressed as : V 1 =
C1
Q
Voltage across capacitor C2 is express as: V2=
C2
Q
And that across capacitor C3 expressed as : V3=
C3
The total circuit voltage Vs can thus be expressed as:
Vs= V1 +V2 +V3
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Q Q Q Q
= + +
CT C1 C 2 C 3
Q ⎛ I 1 1 ⎞
Hence = Q⎜ + + ⎟
CT ⎝ C1 C 2 C 3 ⎠
I 1 1 1
= + + ……………………………(Eqn. 2.11)
CT C1 C 2 C 3
C3
C2
C1
Q=CV
Voltage is constant in a parallel circuit and so
Q1=C1V, Q2=C2V, Q3=C3V
QT= Q1+ Q2 + Q3
CTV =C1V + C2V + C3 V
CT =C1 + C2 + C3 …………………………………………..(Eqn 2.12)
Example
Three of 3µF, 4µF and 8µF are connected in series across a20V d.c. supply . Calculate the equivalent
capacitance and find the voltage across each capacitor.
Solution
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 17
= + + = + + = CT = 1.414µF
CT C1 C 2 C 3 3 4 8 24
22
Ngetha H.T.
Q 28.1 * 10 −6
V3= = = 3.512V
C3 8 * 10 − 6
Example2
C2
0.1uF
X C1
0.75uF
Y
Z C3
0.15uF
Three capacitors are connected as shown above and a 100v d.c.supply connected across terminals XY.
Assuming leakage effects are negligible, calculate the voltage across XZ.
Solution
C’23 = C2 + C3 = 0.15 +0.1 = 0.25µF
1 I 1 1 1
= + = + = 5.333
CT C '23 C1 0.25 0.75
CT = 0.1876
Q = C.V = 0.1876*10-6 * 100 = 18.76*10-6C
Q 18.76 * 10−6
VXY = = = 25V
C1 0.75 * 10 − 6
2.4 .3 ENERGY STORED IN A CPACITOR
Suppose a capacitor is charged to aa charge Q , the voltage of the capacior will be proportional to the
charge and will increase with time such that .
Q = CV = It
CV
Hence I=
t
The average Of voltage over time t seconds will be V/2 (V being the final voltage reached)
Energy = Power * time
V CV
W= * *t
2 t
Hence ……………………………………...(Eqn.2.12)
1
W = CV Joules
2
Example
Calculate the maximum and the minimum resulting capacitances that can be deduced by combining 3
capacitors of values 0.1µF, 0.2µF and 0.2µF.
If a 100V d.c. supply is connected across each of the combination , calculate the energy stored by each
of the circuit.
Solution
In parallel we get the maximum capacitance.
Cmax = C1 + C2 + C3 = 0.1 + 0.2 +0.2 = 0.5µF
Cmin is when we connect all the capacitors in series
23
Ngetha H.T.
1 1 1 1
= + + = 20
C min .01 0.2 0.2
1
C min = = 0.05µF
20
Energy stored in the first case
1 1
W = CV 2= * 0.5 * 10 − 6 *100 2 = 0.25 * 10 − 2J = 2.5mJ
2 2
Energy Stored in the second case
1 1
W = CV 2= * 0.05 * 10 − 6 *100 2 = 0.25 * 10− 2J = 0.25mJ
2 2
2.5 INDUCTORS
A coil of insulated wire that may or may not be over a ferrous metal.
When a coil is connected in a circuit the flow of current through the coil forces the electro-magnetic
fields to be created in the coil opposing the direction of the applied current. The effect is that the
current first applied to the inductor seems to have very high resistance reducing the current flow
through. Once the electro-magnetic field is established the resistance drops.
Once the current flowing through the conductor is constant, the only opposition to current flow comes
from the resistance of the coil wire. This resistance is small compared with the apparent resistance
(called inductive reactance). The opposing force that prevents current from flowing is the induced
current trying to flow in the opposite direction. We make great of this phenomena in transformers.
The unit of inductors is the Henry (H). In electronics milli-Henries and micro-Henries are commonly
used.
When inductors are needed they are specified in terms of
Wire thickness (area).
Number of turns.
Core type.
Length of conductor.
Solution
The value of current flowing in the circuit when the effect of the magnetism ceased to be felt is given
as.
V 40
I= = = 2.5 A Hence
R 16
1 1
Energy(W ) = LI 2= * 3 * 2.52 = 90375 J
2 2
24
Ngetha H.T.
2.6TRANSFORMER
It is an a.c. electro-magnetic device that takes in energy on one side (primary) and delivers it onto
another (secondary) usually at a different voltage.
Vp Vs
Soft Iron
Primary Winding Secondary Winding
Vp Tp
= = N …………………………(Eqn 2.14)
Vs Ts
Where
Vp=Primary Winding
Vs=Secondary Voltage
Tp=Number of turns in the primary windings
Ts= Number of turns in the secondary windings
Tp
N = TurnsRatio =
Ts
Also
Ip Ts 1
= = ………………………………….(Eqn2.15)
Is Tp N
Where
Is=Primary Current
Ip= Secondary Current
Example
The primary voltage and the secondary current of a transformer having a turns ratio of 50:1 are 200V
and 1.5A respectively. Calculate he secondary voltage and the primary current.
Solution
25
Ngetha H.T.
Vp 50 200 50
=N= = Hence
Vs 1 Vs 1
200
Vs = = 4V
50
Ip 1 1 Ip 1
= = = Hence
Is N 50 1.5 50
1.5
Ip = = 0.03 A = 30mA
50
2.61 Transformer Efficiency
This assumes that the efficiency of an ideal transformer is 100% i.e. no power losses and hence input
power is equal to the output power. But for a practical case the efficiency ranges from 96%-99%.
OutputPowr
Efficiency = * 100 %……………….(2.16)
InputPower
Rp > Rs
With the load resistor Rs across its secondary then looking into the primary an input resistor Rp is
observed which is the equivalent value of Rs when transferred to the primary.
Rp
The ratio is the impedance or the Resistance ratio of a transformer.
Rs
Now
Vp Vs
Rp = Rs =
Ip Is
Rp Vp Vs Rp Vp Is Vp Is
The ratio = ÷ = * = * =N*N
Rs Ip Is Rs Ip Vs Vs Ip
Rp
Hence = N 2 …………………………………….(Eqn 2.17)
Rs
Example
If Rs =100Ω and the turns ratio N=2:1 Then looking into primary the transformer resistance will be
sen as?
Solution
Rp Rp 2 2 4
=N 2 = = Rp=400Ω
Rs 100 1 1
Transformer Matching
To must ensure matching between a load and an output stage or between 2 stages of a circuit a
transformer is sometimes used as a coupling device.
e.g
26
Ngetha H.T.
If an amplifier is feeding aloud speaker as shown above, with the amplifier having an output impedance
of 1000Ω, for matching to occur, the turns ratio must be of suh a value as to present 1000Ωto the
amplifier.
Rp 1000
Hence =N 2 =N 2
Rs 10
2
N = 100 and so N=10:1
Exercise
1.Give the color codes for the following resistors using the four band-code
i. 330Ω
ii. 2.2MΩ
iii. 680KΩ
iv. 47Ω
2. Give the values of the resistors with the following colour codes
i. Yellow, White, Black, Gold
ii. Orange, blue, Orange
iii. Brown, Red, Yellow, Silver.
iv. Orange, orange, black, gold.
3. List any three advantages of using wire wound resistors over carbon resistors.
4. Calculate the resistance and the conductivity of a piece of length 0.5M and cross section area0.001mm2of the
following materials
Copper ρ =0.0172 ΩM
Glass ρ = 1 x 108 ΩM
5. By the use of an illustration diagram show the construction of a variable resistor and show which connections
would give the maximum resistance (3 Marks)
6. Differentiate between the active and the passive components and an example for each.
7. In the figure below resolve for the voltages across R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6 and R7.
27
Ngetha H.T.
R7=100R
R5=1K
R6=6K
+
Vt =32V R3=2K2
R4=1K5
R2=1K2
R1=2K4
200V @10mA
R1
150v @ 1mA
RL3
Vs =200V
R2
RL2
100v @ 1mA
R3 RL1
Ib=100mA
9. i. Capacitors of 0.5µF and 0.8µF capacitance are connected in parallel. What is the resultant capacitance?
ii. A third capacitor is connected in series with this circuit and the resultant capacitance of all three is then 0.3µF.
Calculate the value of the third capacitor.
iii. If a battery having an e.m.f. of 10V is connected to this final circuit, Calculate the p.d. across each capacitor.
10.
28
Ngetha H.T.
C
a
b
In the circuit of the figure above the variable capacitor C is set to 60µF. If a voltage 500V d.c. supply is
connected across ab. Calculate.
i. Total capacitance.
ii. Voltage across the variable capacitor.
iii. The charge on the 14µF capacitor.
11. i. Capacitors of 0.5µF and 0.8µF capacitance are connected in parallel. What is the resultant capacitance?
ii. A third capacitor is connected in series with this circuit and the resultant capacitance of all three is then 0.3µF.
Calculate the value of the third capacitor.
iii. If a battery having an e.m.f. of 10V is connected to this final circuit, Calculate the p.d. across each capacitor.
29
Ngetha H.T.
3. AC THEORY
Direct current flows in one direction only.
Voltage or
Current
Sine Wave
Voltage or
Current
Time in Seconds
Square Wave
30
V or I
Ngetha H.T.
V or I Saw Tooth
Time in Sec
Complex
Wave
V or I
Time in Sec
The root mean square (rms) value of an a.c. voltage is defined as the d.c. equivalent that provides the
same power as the original waveforms. For a.c. waveforms different types of rms values are always
quoted. For sinusoidal waveforms rms value is given as
PeakValue
Root mean Square = ……………………(Eqn 3.1)
2
For an a.c. wave-form, since the voltageand is current are continuously charging we can only give the
value of these parameter at a given time instance. This voltage or current is known as the instantaneous
value. For a sine wave is can be given by.
VNSTANTANEOUS = VPEAK.Sin2πft = VPEAK Sin θ………………….(Eqn 3.2)
Where
f is the frequency of oscillation of the wave form
and t is the time instance.
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Ngetha H.T.
3.1 REACTANCE
Inductors and capacitors offer resistance to the flow of a.c. current. This a.c. resistance is called
reactance (×) and is measure in ohms. Reactance depends on the value of the inductor or the capacitor
as well as the frequency of the a.c. waveform. An inductor has an inductive reactance, XL given by
XL = 2πfl……………………………..(Eqn 3.3)
Where f = frequency of the oscillation in Hertz
L =Inductance in Henries
The reactance of an inductor increases with frequency.
Example
A10mH inductor operating at a 1KHz frequency has a reactance?
Solution
XL = 2πfL = 2*π*1000*10*10-2 = 62.8Ω
A capacitor has a capacitive reactance XC given as
1
XC = …………………………………………..(Eqn 3.4)
2πfC
C = capacitance in Farads
The reactance of a capacitor decreases with increasing frequency.
Example
Calculate the reactance of a 1µF capacitor operating at 10KHz
Solution
1 1
XC = = = 15.9Ω
2πfC 2 * π * 10 * 10 − 3 *1 * 10 − 6
3.2 j-Notation
When a.c. flows in reactance energy alternates between the a.c. source and the field (magnetic or
electric) of the reactance has a phase difference of 90o with the current. Phase difference is only 90o
when the inductive or the capacitive reactance is pure. Pure inductive /capacitive circuit is one that
does not have any resistive component whatsoever.
In the resistance both the current and the voltage are in phase.
In an inductor current lags voltage by 90o.
I
V
V
V
32
Ngetha H.T.
Since V=I.XL, it means that XL represents a phase operator which rotates the current phase through
+90o to get the voltage phase. Such an operation is equivalent to the manipulation by j. hence
XL = j2πfL=jωL=j⏐XL⏐=ωL ∠90°Ω
Hence the example above is concisely expressed as
A circuit with both capacitive reactance and inductive reactance has a total reactance given by the
phase sum of the 2 reactances i.e.
X = XL + XC……………………………….(Eqn 3.5)
Example
If XL =j70Ω and XC=-j30Ω then
X=XL+XC = j70 +-j30=j40Ω
Or
If XL=j40Ω and XC = j90Ω then
X = j40 –j 90 =-j50Ω
IMPEDANCE
This is the opposition to a.c. current flow in a circuit, which has both resistance and reactance
components.
jXL
|Z|
θ
|Z|
θ
R
-jXC
Z = R + jX……………………………..(Eqn3.6)
|Z| = R 2 + X 2 …………………………..(Eqn 3.7)
−1
⎛X⎞
θ = tan ⎜ ⎟ ………………………………(Eqn 3.8)
⎝R⎠
Exerxise
1. Explain the following terms and show how each of them is related to the peak e.m.f
i. Instantaneous e.m.f
33
Ngetha H.T.
~Vs=24V
f=4.775KHz R=4.7K
XL1
I^ 30R
Vt=100V XC2
20R
XL2 R2
30R 10R
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Ngetha H.T.
4.SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Virtually all-modern electronic devices are constructed from semi-conductor materials. The electrical
characteristics of semi-conductors stems from the way its atoms interlock with each other to form the
structure of the material. The interlocking of semi-conductor atoms through electron sharing is called
covalent bonding.
+ + +
Atom
. . .
+ + +
. . .
+ + +
Covalent Bond
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Ngetha H.T.
Each atom is surrounded by four neighbours allocated at equal distances. These atoms are held together
by covalent bonds and each covalent bonds and each covalent bond contains 2 electrons. The mainly
used semi-conductors are
Silicon (Si)
Germanium (Ge)
However, because of temperature properties, germanium is not so widely used nowadays.
36
Ngetha H.T.
Inside AB
Applying external fields, covalent bonds will be broken creating holes which will be attracted to the
negative terminal. There are two components of current in the semi-conductor; due to holes and due to
electrons.
Outside AB
Conduction electrons will be attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery. The electrons will
leave the end A and move to the external circuits. The negative terminal will repel the electrons and
they will move through the external circuit to end B.
Ar
* free electron
In the N-type semi-conductor the number of electrons is much greater than the number of holes hence
electrons are the majority charge carriers while the holes are the minority charge carriers.
4.3.2.2 P-Type
Doping a semi-conductor with impurities that have only 3 electrons in their outer most shells produces
p-type semi-conductors.. When they are introduced in the crystal structure, an electron deficiency
occurs because the impurity produces 3 of the 4 electrons necessary for covalent bonding. A hole is
created everywhere an impurity appears. Such impurity atoms are called acceptors. Materials for
doping silicon to create p-type semi-conductors include
Aluminium
Boron
Gallium
Indium
Al 37
Hole
Ngetha H.T.
In p-type semi-conductors holes are the majority carriers while electrons are the minority carriers.
P N
- +
+ + + - - -
- +
+ + + - - -
- +
+ + + - -- -
- +
Depletion/Barrier Region
Diffusion current flows whenever there is a surplus of carriers in one region and a corresponding lack
of carriers of the same kind in another region. Consequently at the instant the P and N blocks are joined
electrons at the N-region diffuse into the P-region and the holes in the P-region diffuse into the N-
region. For each electron that leaves the N-region to cross the junction, a donor atom that now has a
positive charge is left behind. Similarly for each hole that leaves the P-region (i.e. for each acceptor
atom that acquires an electron) an acceptor atom acquires a net negative charge.
Accumulation of charge polarity in the two separated regions causes an electric field to be established
between those regions. The accumulation of negatively charges in the P-region prevents additional
electrons from entering that region. (Like charges repel and similarly positive charges in the N-region
repel additional holes).
In the region of the junction where the charge atoms are located there are no mobile carriers because all
charges have been depleted/removed. This region is hence called the depletion layer/region. It is also
called the barrier region because it the electric field acts as a barrier to further diffusion of current. The
width of the depletion layer depends on how heavy the P and N materials have been doped using. If
both sides have been doped using the same impurity densities, the depletion layer will extend an equal
distance in both the P and N sides. If doping levels are not equal then the depletion region will extend
further into the side having a smaller impurity concentration.
If more electrons wish to cross the depletion region they must have sufficient energy to overcome the
barrier potential. Such energy will be provided by an external e.m.f. source. The height of the barrier
potential will depend on.
38
Ngetha H.T.
p N
When you connect the P side of the semi-conductor to the positive terminal of the battery and the N
side to the negative terminal of the battery. The electrons from the N side are attracted by the positive
terminal while the holes tend to be attracted by the negative terminal of the battery. The depletion layer
reduces by and by with the increase in the e.m.f.
At no biase
__
+ P N
At Forward Bias
The barrier potential reduces by and by until it is no more. Hence current can flow.
P N
_
+
When we connect the P side to the negative terminal of the battery and the N side to the positive of the
terminal, the depletion layer increases by and by with the increase of the external e.m.f.
At NO Bias
At NO Bias
_ +
_ N +
P N
P
At Reverse Bias
At Reverse Bias
The positive terminal of the diode is called the anode while the negative terminal is called the cathode.
The direction of arrow is the direction of flow of current (conventional current).
40
Ngetha H.T.
A K
+
When we connect the anode to the negative terminal of the battery and the cathode to the positive, then
the diode is said to be connected in reverse bias mode thus reducing the current flow to practically nil.
A K
VBRK If(mA)
Ge
Si
250 50
Ge
Si IR(µA)
When connected in forward bias, the current flows through the diode until the p.d. across it is greater
than 0.2V for the germanium diode and 0.6V for the silicon diode. His is the voltage at which the
barrier potential is overcome.
In reverse bias mode a small amount of current flows the moment you connect a p.d. source across the
diode. This current remains constant and is called the saturation current until the diode reaches
breakdown voltage. At breakdown voltage, current increases suddenly and the diode becomes
destroyed. Saturation current is almost negligible.
In the P-N junction characteristics curve there are 3 important features
41
Ngetha H.T.
1. Breakdown Voltage
2. Saturation Current
3. Knee Voltage
∆V
Ra.c. = ……………………..(Eqn 4.1)
∆I
4.8 RECTIFICATION
The voltage supply to most of the electronic equipments is gotten from the a.c. mains by using circuits
whose function is to convert a.c. current/voltage to d.c. current/voltage. Such circuits are called
rectifiers and the process of converting a.c. to d.c. is called rectification. The rectifiers are broadly
classified into two categories
1. Half-Wave Rectifiers
2. Full-wave Rectifiers
A K
Load
~ Vin
V out
The diode D1 is connected in series with the voltage supply VS, which changes direction after every
half cycle.
During the positive going half cycle the anode of the diode D1 is positive with respect to the cathode
hence it is forward bias. Therefore D1 conducts.
During the negative going half cycle the anode of the diode D1 is negative with respect to the cathode
hence it is reverse bias. Therefore D1 does not conduct (acts as an open switch).
Vin
T(sec)
42
Vout
Ngetha H.T.
Hence, conduction occurs only during the positive going half cycle, ie. The load current and voltage are
only produced for half of the applied cycle. The average values of voltage and current are given by.
Vin max 2 * Vinrms
Voutavg. = = = 0.318Vin max = 0.45Vinrms ……(Eqn 4.2)
π π
R1 D1
Vs ~
B D2 Load
R2 Vout
C
````````````````````
During the positive going half cycle point X is positive with respect to point Z. The anode of D1 is
positive with respect to its cathode and hence D1 will conduct but D2 will not.
During the 2nd cycle, negative going cycle, point Y is positive with respect to Z hence anode of D2 is
positive with respect to its cathode. D2 will conduct while D1 is cut off.
Vin
T(sec)
43
Vout
Ngetha H.T.
There is conduction by either D1 or D2 during the entire voltage cycle. The average values of the load
voltage and current from the full-wave rectifier is given by
2 * Vin max
Voutavg = = 2 2 * Vinrms = 0.64Vin max = 0.9Vinrms ………(Eqn 4.3)
π
~
D4 D2
4.8.5 SMOOTHENING/FILTERING
44
Ngetha H.T.
The above circuits convert an a.c. waveform into a d.c. waveform, which never goes, negative but
cannot be called continuous d.c. because they contain large alternating components. Such a waveform
is too bumpy to be used to supply electronic circuits but to be used for battery charging. The various
methods used for smoothening include.
• Capacitor filter
• Capacitor input filter
• Choke input filter
D1 D3
+
D4 D2
When the out put from the rectifier is increased as shown by the dotted lines, the capacitor charges up.
During the second quarter of the cycle , when the out put from the rectifier fall, the capacitor discharges
into the load. The out put voltage falls until once again the rectifier charges the capacitor. The
effectiveness of the smoothening circuit is determined by.
• Amount of change stored in capacitor
• The load i.e. resistor
• Time between pulsations
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5. TRANSISTOR
There two main types of transistors
• Bipolar transistor(BJT)
• Field effect transistor
Collector
Base
B C
Emitter
NPN Transistor
Collector
Base
C
B
PNP
E
Emitter
PNP Transistor
47
Ngetha H.T.
Ic
>
N +
Ib J2 V2
> P
V1
+ J1
N
Ie
The figure shows an NPN transistor connected to two voltage sources V1 and V2. V2 is constant and
could be a battery while V1 is a variable from 0V upwards.
Starting with V1 turned to zero no current will flow due to V2 because the base collector junction J2 acts
as a reverse biased diode.
The voltage from V1 is now gradually increased As long as it is less than 0.7V (assuming that it is
silicon), no current will flow into the base region because the barrier potential at the base emitter
junction J1 will not have been overcome.
Above 0.7V J1 will act as a normal forward bias diode and electrons will flow from the emitter into the
base. A few of these electrons will be taken by the base but since the base region is thin, lightly doped
and V2 is the large positive voltage than V1, most of the electrons will be attracted by the positive of V2
and continue into the collector through V2 and back to the emitter region.
There are therefore two components of current flowing at the same time one is flowing round the
circuit of V1 and is called the base current. The other flows round the circuit of V2 and is called the
collector current.
The value of the emitter current IE is the sum of the other two currents.
IE = IA + IC………………………..(Eqn5.1)
Suppose that for every 100 electrons that entered the base region and passed to the collector only 1
electron is gathered by by the base, then that would mean that Ic=100 IB
The gain of a transistor is represented Hfe or β. Such that
IC=βIA……………………………….(Eqn 5.2)
The same equations can be applied to a PNP. The only difference is the polarity of supply will be
reversed.
48
Ngetha H.T.
Q1
NPN
OutPut
Input Si l
Si l
This is the most widely used configuration due to its flexibility and high gain The common emitter gain
is given by.
IC
β=
IB
IC
and so, IC =βIB , IB =
β
E
B
OutPut Signal
Input Signal C
49
Ngetha H.T.
E
B + Vcc
Vbb=0V C
And hence
IC = αIE + ICBO…………………………..(Eqn 5.6)
<Ic
A
IB +
> A +
+
VCE
+ - VCC
VCC
VBB
VBB
VBE -
IE
50
Ngetha H.T.
IB(µA)
VBE(voltss)
The figure shows input characteristics of an NPN transistor. It is the same as the characteristics of a
forward biased P-N junction. It is noted that the input current IB flows only when the required voltage
drop is established across the base emitter junction. Once that voltage is established the voltage VBE
remains almost constant for a large increase in base current hence the transistor is considered a current
device.
5.4.2 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
IC(mA)
IB=40µA
IB=20µA
IB=0µA
VCE(volts)
The figure shows a family of curves relating the output/collector current IC to the output/collector
emitter voltage VCE for specific values of base/input current IB.
5.4.3 TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
IC(mA)
∆IC
∆IB
51
IB(µA)
Ngetha H.T.
Shows the relationship between output and input currents. The static current gain may also be
calculated using the characteristics curve.
5.4.4 MUTUAL CHARACTERISTICS CURVE
Germanium
IC(mA)
Silicon
VBE(volts)
5.5 TRANSISTOR REGIONS OF OPERATION
Ic(mA)
40V
VCE(V)
β < Normal.
5.5.4 CUT OFF REGION
The curve at the bottom IB = 0.
Only a small collector currents, so small it cannot be see, due to minority charge carriers. Saturation
and cut off regions are used in digital and computer circuits (the switching circuits).
<Ic
RC
IB RB
> +
VC
+ VCC
VBB E
VBE
IE
The figure above is an example of base biase for setting a fixed value of base current considering the
input loop and applying kirchhoffs voltage law.
VBB = IB + VBE………………………………….(Eqn 5.7)
VBB − VBE
Hence IB = …………………………………..(Eq 5.8)
RB
IC =βIB
Considering the output loop and again using the kirchhoffs voltage law
VCC = ICRC +VCE………………………………..(Eqn 5.8)
Hence VCE = VCC - ICRC………………………………(Eqn 5..9)
The Q-point (the operating point) is given by the coordinates of VCE and IC
Example
3KΩ
1MΩ +
15V
+
15V
Calculate and plot for the Q-point of the transistor circuit above given that VBE = 0.7V and β=100
Solution
VBB − VBE 15 − 0.7
IB = = = 14.3 * 10 − 6A = 14.3µA
RB 1 * 106
53
Ngetha H.T.
Ic(mA) 5
4
0
VCE(volts)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
54
Ngetha H.T.
which small changes in the input voltage and current cause changes in the corresponding output
quantities.
Before a transistor can be used as an amplifier it must have the correct d.c. bias. In the transistor
amplification circuits looked at so far, biasing is done with the aid of a battery, VBB, which is separated
from the battery VCC.
<Ic
RC
IB RB
> +
VCE
+ VCC
VBB VBE
IE
In the interest of simplicity and economy, it is desirable that the transistor circuit should have a single
source of supply i.e. the one in the output circuit, VCC. The following are some of the most common
methods of obtaining transistor biasing using one supply.
• Base resistor biasing
• Feedback resistor biasing
• Voltage divider
5.8.1 VOLTAGE DIVIDER
In the figure below VBB and VCC can be substituted by a potential divider R1 R2, this way only one d.c.
voltage is required, VCC. The ratio of R1:R2 is chosen so that the transistor is given the correct bias at
the base.
+VCC
R1
RC
R2 VBB'
R2
VBB ' = * VCC ………………………(Eqn 5.10)
R1 + R 2
We can also be able to estimate the equivalent resistance at the base which we shall call RB
equivalent(RB’)
R1 * R 2
RB ' = ………………………………( Eqn 5.11)
R1 + R 2
5.8.2 THERMAL RUNAWAY
Minority charge carriers from the leakage current ICEO will flow from the collector to the emitter. As
the temperature rises the leakage current increases, increasing the collector current and so on. The
process is known as thermal runaway and if unchecked could damage the transistor.
55
Ngetha H.T.
+VCC
R1
RC
R2 VBB'
RE
From this we realize that the equations to get the operating points of the transistor circuit change with
the inclusion of the emitter resistor.
So VBB=IBRB + IERE + VBE
=IBRB + (IC+IB)RC + VBE
=IBRB + (βIC + IB)RC + VBE
=IB(RB +RC +βRE) + VBE
VBB − VBE
and IB = ………………………….(Eqn 5.12)
RB + RC + βRE
IC =βIB
IE = IC + IB
And on the output loop
VCC = ICRC + IERE + VCE
VCE = VCC – IERE -ICRC……………………………………(Eqn 5.13)
A 10Vd.c A 10Vd.c
10mVa.c 0Va.c
56
Ngetha H.T.
Point A has a d.c. voltage of 10V and an a.c. voltage of 10mV. When a capacitor is connected across
the resistor ,the capacitor being open circuit to d.c. does not interfere with the d.c. voltage at point A .
However, if the value of C is such that at the operating frequency, its reactance is very small compared
to the resistance, all the a.c. will be effectively shorted to ground. Point A will thus have 0 a.c. signal.
R1
RC
Cc
Cci vo
~vi R2 Cc
RE
The figure above shows a single stage small signal common emitter amplifier. It is connected to an
open circuit a.c signal Vi
Biasing circuits: The resistance R1 and R2 form the biasing circuit. The biasing circuit must establish a
proper biasing point otherwise a part of the negative’s half cycle or positive half cycle of the output
signal maybe clipped.
1. Stabilization circuit: RE forms the stabilization circuit. It controls the amount of
collector current flowing in the circuit.
2. Input capacitor (Ccin): It’s a coupling capacitor approximately 10µF. Used to couple the
signal to the base of the transistor. If not used, the signal source d.c voltage components will cause
changes on the biasing conditions of the transistor.
3. Decoupling/Bypass/Emitter capacitor(Cce): Is used in parallel with RE to provide a low
reactance path for the amplified a.c signal. If not used, then the amplified a.c signal flowing
through RE will cause a voltage drop across it.
4. Output capacitor (CCO): It is also a coupling capacitor. Couples one stage of the
amplifier to the load e.g. loud speaker, siren etc. or the next stage of amplification. If not used the
biased conditions of the next stage will be drastically changed.
5. Collector resistor (RC): It is also called the load resistor and is connected so that an
output can be produced at the collector.
Exercise
1. Draw the characteristic curves of a common-emitter transistor; label the axis correctly giving the units of the
various parameters used on the axis.
2. State the main reason as to why the common emitter configuration of a transistor is the most widely used.
3. Describe how the phenomena of thermal run away take place on an amplifier circuit.
4. With the aid of an illustrating diagram explain how the biasing of a transistor takes place.
5. An NPN transistor connected in the common emitter mode has the following parameters
57
Ngetha H.T.
RB=10KΩ, RC=1kΩ, VBB= 2V, VCC= 10V, VBE = 0.7V and β = 100.
i. Find the operating point (Q-point) of the transistor
ii. Draw the load line for the transistor circuit.
6. List the four operating regions of a bipolar junction transistor.
7. Define the following terms
i. Operating point
ii. Leakage current
iii. Thermal runaway
8. In a given bipolar junction transistor amplifier, explain the uses of the following components.
i. Coupling capacitor
ii. De-coupling capacitor
iii. Emitter resistor.
9. Draw the THREE bipolar junction transistor-operating curves.
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Ngetha H.T.
6. FAULT FINDING
6.1 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS TECHNIQUES
Voltage, current and resistance are measured using the voltmeter, ammeter and ohmmeter.
6.2 MULTIMETERS
A very useful piece of testing equipment. Can be used as an ammeter, voltmeter or an ohmmeter.
Switches are used to change between these functions.
+
Vs
A
R2
+
Vs +
R3
-
An ohmmeter measures resistance by measuring the current flowing from its own internal battery. The
scale of the ohmmeter is backward i.e. low resistance lets a large current flow. Because the e.m.f of the
internal battery can change with age, an ohmmeter is always zero before use. This usually means
connecting the leads (zero resistance) and adjusting a variable resistor until the ohmmeter reads exactly
zero.
Ω Adjust Zero
Digital meters have become more popular mainly because they are robust (no moving part), have no
problem with parallax error, are comparatively les expensive than equivalent analogue types, and they
can have other additional features e.g. frequency counter, capacitance meters, thermometers, diode and
transistor testers etc.
The only draw back is that when they sample voltage or current, they are reading at intervals of up to
0.5 seconds. This makes it difficult when carrying out adjustments in circuit or when a continuous read
out is desired.
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Ngetha H.T.
When an equipment is brought in for repair you can use the following methods to test it.
1. Check if all the components are in the correct position.
2. Check that there are no short circuits (excessively high current drains on the power supply may
indicate shorts).
3. Examine the PCB for solder splashes.
4. Carry out some basic electrical tests to ensure that power is reaching all parts of the circuit.
5. Check all components are functioning correctly.
6. Remove and test suspect components using the appropriate test equipment. Alternatively
substitute dubious components with tested and tried parts.
7. Make a thorough check of the circuits, voltage, current, and signals using the appropriate test
equipment.
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Ngetha H.T.
Used to generate voltage waveforms of differing amplitudes, shapes and frequencies. Many electronic
circuits are designed to process signals. However, under test conditions these signals are not always
available. Examples of generators available include
• Low Frequency Generators
offer a range of output frequencies from 15Hz to 1MHz.
• Radio Frequency Generator
can provide both amplitude and frequency modulated signals over a wide range of carrier signals.
• Television Pattern Generator
essentially tests equipment in any TV/VCR service department. It can generate a range of picture
displays useful in both fault finding and setting up/adjustment procedures.
6.10.8 FREQUENCY COUNTER
Used to measure frequencies of sinusoidal or square waves.
6.10.9 INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTER
Used to test the integrity of insulation of cables and components e.g. in transformers.
Exercise
1. Differentiate between analogue and digital meters and state one merit for each
2. Discuss the various methods used for fault finding.
3. State and give the uses of four instruments used for maintenance.
4. With the aid of a diagram explain the operation of an ohmmeter
5. With regard to measuring instruments
i) Explain the reason why the scale of an analogue ohmmeter is reversed
ii) Explain the reason why voltmeters have high internal resistances while ammeters
have low internal resistances
iii) Explain why the ohmmeter is adjusted to read zero (zeroed) before being used to
Measure the resistance.
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