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Received: 11 August 2019    Revised: 3 October 2019    Accepted: 23 November 2019

DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.14352

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Improving the texture of healthy apple snacks by combining

processing and technology (high pressure and vacuum frying)

Irene Albertos | Daniel Rico  | Ana B. Martin-Diana

Agricultural Technological Institute of

Castile and León (ITACyL), Government of
Castile and León, Valladolid, Spain
Correspondence
Daniel Rico, Agricultural Technological
Institute of Castile and León (ITACyL),
Government of Castile and León, Ctra. de
Burgos Km.119, 47071, Finca Zamadueñas,
Valladolid, Spain.
Email: ricbarda@itacyl.es
Funding information
Agricultural Technological Institute of
Castile and León (ITACyL), Grant/Award
Number: NUGAFU 2011-769
Abstract
Fried snacks are highly appreciated in the consumer's diet because of their unique
flavor and texture. However, it is difficult to combine fried foods with the current
consumer trends toward healthier and low-fat products. Vacuum frying is a healthier
option to develop snacks with differentiated nutritional and organoleptic properties.
However, pretreatments are required to obtain products with better properties. This
study investigated the effect of processing (whole, peeled, peeled, and sliced) and
pressurization (100, 200 and 300 MPa) prior to vacuum frying. The study showed
that peeling and slicing, prior to pressurization, produced microstructural stress
which affected significantly moisture and oil uptake; meanwhile, pressurization pre-
treatment in whole apples did not produce any negative effects, thus enhancing the
textural properties of the vacuum-fried product.
Practical applications
Vacuum frying has a potential to produce healthy snacks. In order to obtain fried
fruits, pretreatments are required, which enable the production of products with
adequate sensory qualities. The use of HPP in fruits has not been investigated as a
pretreatment prior to vacuum frying. This study investigates structural and mechani-
cal effects of processing (whole, peeled and peeled and sliced) and pressurization
(100, 200 and 300 MPa) prior to vacuum frying. These factors play an important
role in the snack microstructure and oil uptake. Results showed that HPP applied on
whole or peeled apples at low pressures (100 and 200 MPa) enhanced the textural
properties before frying. HPP can be a feasible alternative to osmotic pretreatments,
considering additional advantages, such as improving the nutritional composition of
the final product.

1 |  I NTRO D U C TI O N cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic syndrome (Boffetta et al.,

Snacking habits are changing and snacks are not only becoming
healthier, but also wholesome, satisfying, and nutritious, blurring
the boundaries between snacks and meals. Moreover, besides con-
venience and clean labels, consumers demand for healthy snacks
rich in antioxidants and fiber is increasing, as this is associated with
the prevention of chronic diseases, including obesity, diabetes,
2010; Brannon, Feist, & Updegraff, 2010).
Dried fruits can be considered a good alternative for consum-
ers looking for healthier snacks (Lucas-González, Viuda-Martos,
Pérez-Álvarez, & Fernández-López, 2016). Apple is one of the most
frequently consumed fresh fruits in Europe (Hertog et al., 1993);
it is related to nutritional and health benefits and constitutes an
important part of dietary monosaccharides, minerals, fiber, and

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https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14352
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2 of 11       ALBERTOS et al.
biologically active compounds, such as vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
and phenolic compounds (Massini, Rico, & Martín-Diana, 2017).
Dehydration is an effective way to increase both shelf-life and
convenience of fruits, in order to be used as snacks. Nevertheless,
traditional dehydration processes, for example, hot air-drying, pro-
duce poor snack quality, resulting in high levels of browning, poor
texture (Schulze, Hubbermann, & Schwarz, 2014), and scarce flavor
(Krokida & Philippopoulos, 2006). Other types of dehydration such
as microwave vacuum drying, freeze-drying (Devic, Guyot, Daudin,
& Bonazzi, 2010), and ultrasounds-assisted air drying (Fernandes,
Rodrigues, Cárcel, & García-Pérez, 2015) achieved high quality ap-
ples. Nevertheless, dehydration processes have an important limita-
tion on essential properties in snacks such as texture, appearance,
and mouthfeel.
Moreover, fried snacks are highly appreciated in the consumer's
diet because of their unique flavor and texture. However, it is diffi-
cult to combine fried foods with the actual consumer trends toward
healthier and low-fat products. In this regard, vacuum frying is a
frying process below atmospheric pressure (~100 kPa). At reduced
pressure, the boiling point of water is lowered, as compared to that
at atmospheric pressure (Garayo & Moreira, 2002); due to this ef-
fect, frying at a lower tempera ture is possible. Due to a lower pro-
cessing temperature and absence of oxygen, vacuum frying better
preserves the nutritional value, aroma, and color of the fried product
compared to atmospheric frying (Akinpelu et al., 2014).
The use of vacuum frying is a healthy option for the development
of fruits and vegetables snacks with natural color, flavor, and texture
desired characteristics (Garayo & Moreira, 2002). In this context,
different studies have investigated the use of vacuum frying in the
development of fried apple snacks (Mariscal & Bouchon, 2008; Shyu
& Hwang, 2001).
The texture is a critical sensory attribute that can dominate the
overall quality of a product, especially for delicate products such
as fruits. Microstructure changes are the main contributing factor
to textural properties including cellular turgor and cell wall integ-
rity (Trejo-Araya et al., 2007). In many cases, it is necessary to apply
specific pretreatments to provide an adequate final texture (Shyu &
Hwang, 2001). Although extensive research has been reported on
vacuum drying of fruits and vegetables, a limited number of studies
has been dedicated to pretreatments, with most of these studies fo-
cused on osmotic dehydration (Diamante, Savage, Vahanen, & Ihns,
2012). One important disadvantage of osmotic dehydration and
subsequent penetration of osmotic solution inside the food matrix
is that this influences product quality, increasing sugar content and
the caloric value of the final product, and reducing the natural flavor
of the fruit.
Crispness, which can be considered a textural characteristic of
some vegetables and fruits, depends on the disposition of the cells,
the adherence between them, and their turgidity. Different cell struc-
ture analyses of the potato chips confirmed that numerous and small
air-filled cells are less crispy than bigger cells. The thickness of the cell
wall plays a similar role; matrices with large cells, obtained by melting
the small cells, have thicker walls and turn out to be crispier. These
modifications can be produced by processing and also using pressure
technologies such as high-pressure processing (HPP), which induces
changes in vegetables tissues, such as cell wall and membrane dis-
ruption and pectin methylesterase liberation and contact with its
substrate, pectin (Basak & Ramaswamy, 1998; Oey, Lille, Van-Loey,
& Hendrich, 2008). In addition, HPP application has been reported as
the technology that improved the texture and bioactive properties of
vegetables after vacuum frying (Albertos et al., 2016). The feasibility
of using HPP as pretreatment should not be impeded by the cost of
this type of technology, which according to Yamamoto (2017), pro-
cessing cost of HPP is estimated to range from 0.14 to 0.071 €/kg,
which may be assumable in products such as apple snacks, expected
to have a retail price well over this range. Since the production of
crispy apple chips with low fat and high fiber content is expected to
be appreciated by consumers, the aim of this study was to evaluate
the effect of processing, a combination of high pressure and vacuum
frying, in order to produce apple chips with improved textural attri-
butes, lighter and more natural color, and an improved fruity flavor.
2 | M ATE R I A L S A N D M E TH O DS
2.1 | Material
Golden Apples (Malus domestica, cv. Golden Delicious) with an initial
dry matter of 14.8 g 100 g−1 fresh weight basis and water activity
(aw) of 0.989 were purchased from a local supermarket (Hipercor,
Valladolid, Spain) and stored at 4ºC and 80%–95% of humidity for
12 hr until processing. Apples were processed at their commer-
cial maturity stage and those visually damaged were previously
discarded.
2.2 | Pretreatment (high hydrostatic pressure)
Apples were washed with chlorinated water (100 ppm) and rinsed
with tap water. Afterward, apples were peeled (2 mm depth) and
sliced in a longitudinal direction (parallel to the apple's main axe) with
an automatic vegetable cutter (Fimar S.p.a, Villa Verucchio, Italy) set
for 5 mm thickness. For reproducibility purposes, only four slices per
apple were used, selecting the bigger ones with no visible signs of
endocarp tissue in them.
High hydrostatic pressure was applied at three different levels
(100, 200, and 300 MPa; 2 min holding time) using an HPP commer-
cial-scale high-pressure system (Hyperbaric, S.A., Burgos, Spain) with
a maximum capacity of 135 L and a potential maximum pressure of
600 MPa. The pressurization pretreatment was carried out at differ-
ent stages of the peeling and slicing processing; those samples where
the HPP pretreatment was applied before carrying out peeling and
slicing were labeled PBP. Samples where the HPP pretreatment was
carried out after peeling, but not yet sliced, were labeled PBS, and
samples where the HPP pretreatment was applied after peeling and
slicing were labeled PBF. A nonpressurized control was also vacuum
ALBERTOS et al.
fried (NPC). In order to carry out pressurization, samples were vacu-
um-packaged immediately after the corresponding processing, that is,
none (PBP), peeling (PBS), or peeling and slicing (PBF) using a coex-
truded polyamide/polyethylene (30/130 μm thickness) flexible bags
(oxygen permeability: 30 ml mm−2 day−1 bar−1; water vapor transmis-
sion: 1.4 g m−2 day−1). After pretreatment, samples were stored at 4 ºC
for further studies.
2.3 | Vacuum frying
The experiments were performed using an electrically heated vac-
uum fryer (GASTROVAC), with modifications. The frying stainless
steel vessel was connected to a rotary vacuum pump (Model RA
0025 F, BUSCH Ibérica SA, Granollers, Spain). The samples were fried
at 106ºC, 80 mmHg, for 9 min, with high-oleic sunflower oil (Casado
Group, S.L.U, Valladolid, Spain). Once the oil reached the tempera-
ture, the samples placed in the frying basket were immersed in the
frying oil, in a ratio of 25 g/L oil. After frying, samples were allowed to
cool down and the surface oil was removed. Three frying procedures
for each pretreatment were randomly carried out and the resulting
products with the same pretreatment pooled together. The assay was
repeated on a different day with a different batch of apples.
2.4 | Quality parameters
Different quality parameters were evaluated in order to measure the
effect of processing and pretreatment on apple snacks. Based on
quality results, snacks produced with optimal processing and pre-
treatment conditions (PBP 100 MPa) and control snacks (NPC) un-
derwent further sensory descriptive analysis.
2.4.1 | Water activity (aw)
The water activity of the apple snacks was measured with a fast
water activity meter (AquaLab 4TE; Decagon Devices Inc, Pullman,
WA, USA), as explained in De la Fuente, Folgueral, Prieto, Fresno,
and González-Raurich (2013). At least 6 samples were measured per
treatment and per storage day.
2.4.2 | Nutritional parameters
The moisture content was measured by drying apple snacks at
100ºC for 24 hr (AOAC, 1997). The oil content was evaluated from
dried samples using petroleum ether (BP 40–60ºC) for over 4 hr of
extraction, in an extracting unit (Soxtec System 2055 Tecator, FOSS,
Hillerød, Denmark) and gravimetrically determined. The protein
content was determined by the Dumas method (AOAC, 2005) using
a CN-2000 elemental analyzer (Leco Corp., St. Joseph, MI, USA).
Protein was calculated from nitrogen using the conversion factor of
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6.25. The ash content was determined by heating samples at 550°C
in a furnace for 24 hr (AOAC, 1990). The total dietary fiber content
was evaluated using a kit provided by Sigma-Aldrich (TDF100A, St
Louis, MO, USA) according to manufacturer instructions based on
AOAC method 985.29.
2.4.3 | Color
CIE L*a*b* parameters were measured as explained in Albertos et al.
(2016) using a colorimeter (Minolta CM-2600d, Osaka, Japan) with
D65 as illuminant and 10º observer. Hue (arctan b*/a*) and Chroma
(a2 + b2)1/2 were calculated using CIELAB (L*, a*, and b*) parameters.
Colour determination was carried out on six apple snack samples per
pretreatment and storage day.
2.4.4 | Image analysis
Images were analysed as explained in Martin-Diana et al. (2005),
with modifications, using RGB colour space instead of L*a*b*. Color
changes were evaluated using image analysis program Photoshop
(Adobe System, 2002 software). Due to the homogeneity of the
apple slices, no previous segmentation was considered, and five
points (4 mm2) per image were selected and their RGB histograms
obtained. Six apples slice images per pretreatment were analyzed.
2.4.5 | Instrumental texture
Hardness was determined in the apple snacks as explained else-
where (Albertos et al., 2016), with modifications. A texturometer
(TA XT2, Texture Analyzer, Texture Technologies Corp., Scarsdale,
NY) equipped with a fracture rig probe (1/4” ball probe P/0,25S) was
used. The probe runs at a speed of 10 mm s−1 for 10 mm. Hardness
was considered as the maximum force (N) used to break the sample.
The force–deformation curve to the rupture point was monitored
from the puncture test. Ten measurements were performed for each
treatment.
2.4.6 | Microstructure
Scanning electron microscopy was carried out using a scanning elec-
tronic microscopy (SEM) (FEI QUANTA 200). Samples were cut in
square pieces approximately 5 mm long and 5 mm wide, either with or
without previous defatting. Defatting was performed by immersion in
hexane for 24 hr in continuous agitation. After this, samples were soni-
cated for 45 min and air-dried. For all the samples, images were taken
using two standard magnifications, 150 and 1,000 magnifications for
surface and section. Voltages between 5 and 15 kV have been used
depending on the detector and the topography of the sample and spot
sizes (between 3 and 6) suitable for it.
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2.4.7 | Sensory analysis TA B L E 1   Water activity (aw), moisture (%), and oil uptake (%)
of PBP, PBS, and PBF snack apples pressurized at 100, 200, and
300 MPa after vacuum frying
Preliminary tests were used to discriminate between the sensory
quality attributes of vacuum fried apples. The panel consisted of 12 Treatment Water activity (aw) Moisture (%) Oil content (%)
trained judges from the Agricultural Technological Institute of Castille PBP 100 MPa 0.225 (±0.006)a 4.39 (±0.08)a 23.70 (±0.02)c
and León (ITACyL). Before starting the sensory experiments, panelist
PBP 200 MPa 0.251 (±0.017)a 9.46 (±0.43)b 30.13 (±0.14)e
was familiarized with the product and scoring methods.
PBP 300 MPa 0.270 (±0.018)a 7.68 (±0.51)ab 30.25 (±0.16)e
Two different tests were reported in this study. The selection of
PBS 100 MPa 0.259 (±0.023)a 6.22 (±0.18)ab 20.09 (±0.03)a
processing and HPP pretreatment conditions was based on a ranking
PBS 200 MPa 0.460 (±0.007)b 5.88 (±0.52)ab 28.07 (±0.16)d
test. The ranking test was carried out on PBP and PBS snacks, and PBF
PBS 300 MPa 0.270 (±0.001)a 6.36 (±0.34)ab 29.09 (±0.10)d
snacks were discarded due to the lack of minimal sensory acceptance.
PBF 100 MPa 0.900 (±0.002)e 23.22 (±3.92)c 21.77 (±1.31)b
Sample sets were randomly presented to the judges, who were asked
to rank the samples based on three different attributes: Texture (crisp- PBF 200 MPa 0.724 (±0.005)c 29.11 (±4.07)d 22.56 (±1.28)b

ness), mouthfeel (oily), and general acceptability. The panelist ranked PBF 300 MPa 0.851 (±0.009)d 30.53 (±3.80)d 19.40 (±1.09)a
samples after each attribute’s intensity. For each treatment, the sum Note: Values (mean ± standard deviation, n = 3) followed by the same
of the ranks was calculated. A second descriptive sensory analysis lowercase letter in the same column are not significantly different
was used to compare snacks processed with optimal conditions (after (p > .05).

evaluation of the quality parameters) and control vacuum fried apples

(NPC). Crispness, mouthfeel (oily), and general acceptability were ana-
lyzed on a 5-point scale, where 1 indicated the lowest intensity of each
descriptor and 5 the highest intensity.
2.5 | Statistical analysis
Data were expressed as means ± standard deviation of independ-
ent experiments (n = 3). Statistical analysis was performed using
Statgraphics Centurion XVII, (StatPoint Technologies, Inc., Warrenton,
VA, USA). One-way ANOVA, using Fisher's least significant difference
(LSD) test, was carried out for the analysis of the data.
a textural point of view and, according to Adams and Moss (1995),
unsafe from a microbial point of view. However, the other process-
ing pretreatments tested (PBP and PBS) produced apple snacks with
acceptable quality and significantly lower aw values. Pressure level
used (100 to 300 MPa) or peeling previous to HPP had no significant
effect on aw, but slicing did; this may suggest an HPP effect on water
binding dependent on the dimension of the apple pieces or the inten-
sity of the previous manipulation, as slicing more intense process than
peeling). This could be attributed to enzyme liberation phenomena, as
suggested by Oey, Lille, Loey, and Hendrickx (2008), which may be a
result, as it occurred in tomatoes at pressures ranging 200 to 400 MPa,
of simultaneous activity of PME and PG, since PG is able to depolymer-
ize pectin that has been demethylated by PME.

3 |  R E S U LT S A N D D I S CU S S I O N
The effects of the pressurization pretreatment level (100, 200, and
300 MPa) and the processing step of pretreatment application (PBP,
PBS, and PBF) were evaluated in order to select the best pretreat-
ment combination to produce a vegetable vacuum frying apple snack
with differentiated quality properties, mainly high crispness and low
oil uptake.
3.1 | Water activity
Water activity was evaluated as a parameter to predict how water
migrate in a multi-component snack food like and how this will af-
fect moisture and other related quality properties, that is, texture as-
sociated with the pretreatment applied and after the frying process.
PBF snacks showed significantly higher water activity (aw) than PBP
and PBS snacks, regardless of the pressure applied after pretreatment
(100, 300, and 600 MPa) (Table 1). PBF snacks that reached aw values
from 0.7244 to 0.8998, which according to Katz and Labuza (1981),
were higher than those considered appropriate for quality snacks from
3.2 | Moisture and oil contents
The processing and pressurization had a significant effect on mois-
ture and oil contents (Table 1); meanwhile, other parameters such as
protein, ashes or fiber were not affected by the processing nor by
the pressurization applied.
Moisture content differences were not observed between PBP
and PBS snack apples (4.39%–9.46%), although significantly lower than
those observed in PBF apple snacks. The samples treated at lower
HPP (100 MPa) had also lower moisture than those treated at 200 and
300 MPa (significant in the case of PBP and PBF). There were no differ-
ences depending on the pressure treatment in peeling samples.
The pore size, length, connectedness, and permeability play
an important role in oil absorption (Moreira, Sun, & Chen, 1997).
In vacuum frying, the oil absorption occurs during vacuum pres-
surization and cooling. The oil content showed differences related
to the HPP pressure level used (Table 1). Samples pressurized at
100 MPa had the lowest oil content, meanwhile samples pressur-
ized at higher pressure had higher oil content; as expected, during
pressurization the pores of the apple slices are reduced and as
ALBERTOS et al. |
      5 of 11

consequence a driving force (capillary mechanism) is generated
for the oil of the surface to penetrate the pores, being this process
higher at higher pressure.
The processing previous to HPP also showed a significant ef-
fect on oil content, with PBF snacks presenting significantly lower
oil content. The oil content was related to the moisture content ac-
cording to the results published by Gamble, Rice, and Selman (1987),
who reported that the amount of oil absorption into the product was
directly proportional to the amount of moisture loss. PBF apples
showed the lowest losses of moisture during frying, as compared to
control samples.
According to this study, PBP and PBS snack apples did not show
significant differences in oil uptake. In general, the oil content values
obtained were significantly lower than the values obtained by Shyu
and Hwang (2001) in vacuum fried apple snacks pretreated by osmo-
sis (immersion in fructose solution) and freezing.
3.3 | Color
Pressurization exerted a significant effect on color parameters.
PBP snacks submitted at lower HPP pressure (100 MPa) were

TA B L E 2   Color parameters of PBP,

Treatment L* a* b* Hue Chroma
PBS, and PBF snack apples pressurized
at 100, 200, and 300 MPa after vacuum PBP 100 MPa 72.02 (±3.06)d 3.36 (±0.49)c 34.25 (±3.56)ab 10.19 34.41
frying PBP 200 MPa 68.34 (±2.31)bc 4.52 (±0.65)d 40.35 (±1.86)d 8.92 40.60
PBP 300 MPa 60.49 (±4.13)a 10.07 (±2.10)f 33.43 (±2.56)ab 3.31 34.91
PBS 100 MPa 69.37 (±3.80)cd 1.46 (±0.70)b 34.20 (±3.89)ab 23.42 34.23
PBS 200 MPa 65.30 (±5.84)b 4.72 (±0.40)d 35.99 (±3.96)cd 7.62 36.30
PBS 300 MPa 67.29 (±3.70)bc 4.82 (±1.93)d 38.59 (±2.51)ab 8.01 38.90
PBF 100 MPa 66.75 (±2.80)bc 0.02 (±0.06)a 31.66 (±5.36)a 15.83 31.66
PBF 200 MPa 66.62 (±2.51)bc 1.91 (±1.01)b 33.37 (±4.72)ab 17.47 33.42
PBF 300 MPa 59.08 (±4.53)a 6.35 (±4.22)d 33.29 (±5.39)ab 5.25 33.97

Note: Values (mean ± standard deviation, n = 3) followed by the same lowercase letter in the same
column are not significantly different (p > .05).

F I G U R E 1   Apple snacks pressurized at 100, 200, and 300 MPa for PBP, PBS, and PBF
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6 of 11       ALBERTOS et al.

significantly lighter than apple snacks treated at higher pressures
(200 and 300 MPa) (Table 2). Results were in agreement with those
reported by Kurenda, Zdunek, Schlüter, and Herppich (2014), who
also related to the decrease in luminosity to the pressure applied
in apples. This may have been caused by an increase in the contact
of polyphenol oxidase enzyme and its substrate (Vámos-Vigyázó,
1981), due to tissue disruption caused by pressure, and not fully
the inactivation of the enzyme (Sulaiman, Soo, Yoon, Farid, & Silva,
2015). Color a* values increased considerably with higher pressures
(200 and 300 MPa) which were well correlated to browning reac-
tions (Mariscal & Bouchon, 2008) and b* values decreased with the
increment of HPP used, except for PBP samples.
The pretreatment process applied (whole/no processed, peeling
or peeling, and slicing) also affected the color of final snack samples.
PBF snacks had lower yellowness values. The processing proce-
dures (peeling and slicing) previous to HPP application also exerted

F I G U R E 2   Textural profile (N)

parameters of PBP, PBS, and PBF snack
apples pressurized at 100, 200, and
300 MPa prior vacuum frying

F I G U R E 3   SEM micrographs from control and pressurized fried apple snacks of the surface (before and after defatting) and section
ALBERTOS et al.
influence in Hue values. Peeling and slicing produced higher varia-
tion in Hue than peeling alone.
3.4 | Image analysis
Image analysis was used to obtain RGB values (Figure 1). A significant
increase in redness was observed in apple snacks submitting to higher
pressures (200 and 300 MPa). These results were in agreement with
the colorimeter results. Only PBF apple snacks showed lower levels of
the blue parameter with increasing the pressure applied.
Concerning the pretreatment process applied (PBP, PBS, and
PBF), PBS snacks showed higher levels of the red parameter, which
is an indicator of browning, in comparison with PBP snacks.
3.5 | Texture
The breaking force was used to measure the effect of HPP pre-
treatment on the texture of apple snacks in this study (Figure 2).
This breaking force was higher with the application of increasing
pressure in PBP and PBS samples. According to our results, a major
loss of hardness during HPP caused more hardness in the final
vacuum fried product. Basak and Ramaswamy (1998) described a
F I G U R E 4   SEM micrographs from control and pressurized fried apple snacks of the surface (before and after defatting). Pretreatments:
Pressure at 300 MPa on PBP, PBS or PBF apples
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discrete loss of firmness at 100 MPa, explaining that at low pres-
sures a compression of the cellular structure without serious dis-
ruption occurred, and more severe texture loss was observed at
200–300  MPa. Nevertheless, the difference in texture cannot
only be associated with physical cell disruption; also, the activa-
tion or inactivation of enzymes related to texture could affect. In
this sense, pectin methylesterase (PME) activity was suggested
as the major reason for the observed increased in hardness upon
HPP. At 200 MPa or above, contact of PME and pectin may have
been facilitated, increasing its de-esterification. Pectin can in this
form create networks with calcium ions, resulting in increased
hardness (Oey et al., 2008).
PBF snacks showed the lowest breaking force values. Although
it is widely accepted that lower breaking forces corresponding to
higher hardness values, in this case, a lower breaking force re-
flected softer tissue and loss of hardness. Pedreschi and Moyano
(2005) described that during frying first, a softening of the veg-
etable takes place, following hardness due to the crust develop-
ment. These results were in agreement with force–deformation
curves where PBF snacks differed from PBP and PBS snacks.
PBF snacks, regardless of the HPP pretreatment (100, 200, and
300 MPa), showed similar force–deformation curves. Before the
puncture force reached the maximum value, the slope had con-
tinuous swaying, showing the rubbery structure of the PBF snack
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8 of 11       ALBERTOS et al.
samples. In this sense, Shyu and Hwang (2001) found a correlation
between moisture content and texture properties in vacuum fried
apple snacks. It was described that the texture of apple snacks
was too soft due to the high moisture content, being consistent
with our results (Table 1). In fried snacks, a lower value of mois-
ture is required to achieve a crispy product (Perez-Tinoco, Perez,
Salgado-Cervantes, Reynes, & Vaillant, 2008).
3.6 | Microstructure
SEM was used to study the internal structure of the apple snacks.
Figure 3 represents the changes in the structure of the vacuum
fried products in combination with pressure pretreatment. The
frying process produced a removal of free water from the cel-
lular structure. Images show apparent cell structure alteration;
however, this effect seems to be more pronounced in samples
pretreated with HPP where the pores within the product became
more compressed and distorted due to the microstructural stress
inside the product associated with pressurization process, and
this effect was observed on the surface of the samples and in the
sections.
F I G U R E 5   SEM micrographs from control and pressurized fried apple snacks of the surface (before and after defatting). Pretreatments:
Pressure at 100, 200, and 300 MPa on PBP apples
The effects of preparation (whole, peeled or peeled and sliced) of
the apples before pressurization and frying are observed in Figure 4.
Samples submitted to peeling and slicing (PBF) before the frying suf-
fered higher damage on their structure, with evident compaction of
the cells. This extensive shrinkage may have prevented water diffu-
sion and heat transfer (Shyu & Hwang, 2001). The microstructure
results were in agreement with moisture content results (3.2), where
samples with pretreatment of peeling and slicing presented the high-
est moisture content (23.22 ± 3.92 to 30.53 ± 3.80).
In addition, the effect of HPP was proportional to the pressure
applied; samples treated at higher pressure had higher deformation
and microstructural stress than those pressurized at lower pressures
(Figure 5). Similar results were obtained by Trejo-Araya et al. (2007)
in carrot tissue. HPP causes plant cell disintegration and affects the
organization of parenchyma cells. A more loose and irregular ma-
trix was evident after processing, with increased cell separation;
however, at low pressures (100/200 MPa 2 min) cell walls were only
slightly disrupted and disorganized, as compared to raw samples
(Trejo-Araya et al., 2007). Basak and Ramaswamy (1998) pointed
apples as one of the most sensitive fruits to pressure treatments.
Pressure induces textural changes in apples due to the physical dis-
ruption of the tissues (Shayanfar, Chauhan, Toepfl, & Heinz, 2014),
ALBERTOS et al. |
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F I G U R E 6   Ranking test of PBP and PBS pressurized at 100, 200, and 300 MPa after vacuum frying for the following attributes:
Crispness, mouthfeel (oily), and general acceptability

TA B L E 3   Hardness (N) of PBP, PBS, and PBF apples pressurized

at 100, 200, and 300 MPa after vacuum frying

Treatment Hardness (N)

PBP 100 MPa 466.93 (±27.42)c

PBP 200 MPa 650.200 (±176.80)d
PBP 300 MPa 844.04 (±297.50)f
PBS 100 MPa 521.39 (±79.23)d
PBS 200 MPa 565.39 (±24.66)d
PBS 300 MPa 1,096.09 (±283.05)f
PBF 100 MPa 38.77 (±6.82)b
PBF 200 MPa 23.01 (±1.07)a
PBF 300 MPa 18.09 (±6.75)a
F I G U R E 7   Descriptive test of PBP apple snacks pressurized at Note: Values (mean ± standard deviation, n = 3) followed by the same
100 MPa and NPC after vacuum frying for the following attributes: lowercase letter in the same column are not significantly different
Crispness, mouthfeel (oily) and general acceptability (p > .05).

being these changes proportional to applied pressure (Kurenda et
al., 2014).
3.7 | Sensory analysis
The judges ranked samples in accordance with preference.
Results (Figure 6) showed that the effect of using higher HPP
pressures caused less crispness in the apple snacks. The sensory
panel ranked PBP snack pressurized to 100 MPa with lower oily
perception, which correlated well with oil content results, show-
ing these samples significantly lower oil content than the rest of
the evaluated samples, except PBS-100 MPa snacks. In this study,
both snack samples (PBP and PBS) treated to 100 MPa had the
highest-ranking value for general acceptability (Figure 6). The
overall acceptability of the vacuum fried product was associated
with the color of the final product. In this sense, the use of low
pressure level (100 MPa) allowed to retain the original color and
reduced sample darkening that occurred with higher pressure
conditions (Table 2). These results indicated that snacks produced
 |
10 of 11       ALBERTOS et al.
from the whole apple before HPP (PBP) at 100 MPa had the high-
est ranking values for general acceptability, the higher crispness,
and the lower oily taste perception.
The snack produced using the optimal pretreatment (Whole,
HPP at 100 MPa, PBP) was compared to control vacuum fried
apples (NPC). Attributes like crispness (texture), oily (flavor after
taste perception), and acceptability were evaluated through the
descriptive test (Figure 7). PBP samples had more crispness than
NPC. This would suggest that changes produced during HPP-
induced structural modifications enough to be perceived by the
sensory panel. Furthermore, the panelists’ scores also indicated a
stronger preference for HPP pretreated apples snacks. It appears
that texture plays an important role in general acceptability results.
Dueik, Robert, and Bouchon (2010) stated that one of the most
appreciate texture properties of snacks is crispness, which denotes
freshness and high quality (Table 3).
4 |  CO N C LU S I O N S
The effect of the studied pretreatments (HPP at different process-
ing stages) significantly affected the quality of the final vacuum
fried products. The study showed that the application of HPP was
appropriate when applied in whole (before peeling) or whole and
peeled (before slicing) apples; however, the use of pressurization on
peeled and sliced apples produced a detriment of the organoleptic
properties of the final snack. HPP pretreatment applied at low levels
(100 MPa) and before peeling enhanced textural properties, while
limiting oil uptake in vacuum fried apple snacks.
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
We thank the National Institute for Food and Agricultural Research
(INIA) and Agricultural Technological Institute of Castile and León
(ITACyL) who financially supported personal grants and NUGAFU
2011-769 project, respectively.
C O N FL I C T O F I N T E R E S T
The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article.
ETHICAL REVIEW
This study does not involve any human or animal testing.
I N FO R M E D C O N S E N T
Written informed consent was obtained from all study participants.
ORCID
Daniel Rico  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0755-3033
Ana B. Martin-Diana  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5014-9848
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How to cite this article: Albertos I, Rico D, Martin-Diana AB.
Improving the texture of healthy apple snacks by combining
processing and technology (high pressure and vacuum
frying). J Food Process Preserv. 2019;00:e14352. https​://doi.
org/10.1111/jfpp.14352​