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X body axis
“Roll axis”
+ right
α
X wind axis, Velocity
Vector
+ up
Z wind axis Y body axis
“Pitch axis”
+ right
For the aircraft below, the x-z
plane (plane of symmetry) is the
Z body axis surface of the paper.
“Yaw axis” z
x
If you didn’t much care for symbols, formulas, The dashed lines in Figure 1 describe an
and coefficients back in primary ground school, aircraft’s x-y-z fixed body axes, emanating from
the following may raise warning signals. Ignore the center of gravity. This system, with the
them and don’t be a wimp. You’ll want to mutually perpendicular axes in fixed reference to
understand the axis system and also to take a the aircraft, is the one most pilots recognize. The
look at the tables of aerodynamic derivatives exact alignment is a bit arbitrary. Boeing sets the
(which we’ll review in person, as well). The x-axis parallel to the floorboards in its aircraft.
derivatives break aircraft behavior down to cause
and effect, giving the engineers lots to calculate The geometrical plane that intersects both the x
and giving us the terms needed to evaluate and z body axes is called the plane of symmetry,
aircraft in an informed, qualitative way—a way since a standard aircraft layout is symmetrical
that links the demands of airmanship to the left and right (Figure 1, bottom).
specific personalities of our machines.
There are alternative axis systems (zero-lift body
axis, stability axis, for example). For pilots, the
wind axis system is the most useful, because it
best helps in visualizing how aircraft actually
behave.
Axes and Derivatives
X Figure 2
Plane of symmetry, Sideslip Angle, β
The wind axis system sets the x-axis in
x-z, viewed on
alignment with the aircraft’s velocity vector, edge
which points in the direction in which the aircraft V
is actually moving. Usually the velocity β
vector/wind axis lies on the aircraft’s plane of Velocity Vector
symmetry, but not always. If the aircraft is in a
sideslip, the velocity vector moves off the plane Y body
to some sideslip angle, β (“beta”), as Figure 2 axis
illustrates.
Y wind axis
The velocity vector also changes direction when
aircraft angle of attack, α (“alpha”), changes.
changes in moments applied around each axis. rates of change of moments in pitch, roll, and
You already know the primary moments yaw can vary with angle of attack, sideslip angle,
(ailerons produce rolling moments, elevators the presence of aerodynamic and/or inertial
pitching moments, rudders yawing moments), couples, control deflections, and with airspeed.
but there’s a further collection of direct and The derivatives in the tables that follow form the
cross-coupled moments essential to aircraft basic vocabulary of cause and effect that we’ll
control and often complicit in unusual attitudes. apply in analyzing departure modes and in
We’ll talk about them on the ground and observe learning to recover from unusual attitudes. Some
them in flight. will be new to you (as perhaps all the symbols),
and some you’ll remember, at least in general
For reference, the table above shows notations terms, from the days of primary ground school.
used for moments, angular velocities, angular Don’t worry about learning the symbols. We’ll
positions, moments of inertia, and control refer to things by name.
deflections about each aircraft axis. You don’t
need to memorize any of this for our course, but Initially, you might want to review the
you might find it useful for future technical descriptions—which are by necessity
reading. Notice the preference for arranging condensed—and then refer to the Flightlab
things by alphabetical order. Thus the letters Ground School texts for more explanation. We’ll
don’t always mean what your mnemonically also brief the material before flying. Don’t feel
inclined brain would like them to mean (“r” responsible for immediately understanding all of
doesn’t stand for roll rate; “p” doesn’t stand for the bulleted items. You’ll get there in stages.
pitch rate, and, while “L” stands for lift, a Top priority goes to acquiring new flying skills.
lowercase “l” stands for roll moment).
A note on signs: The derivatives carry signs that
might be confusing at first. A negative (–) sign
Stability and Control Derivatives doesn’t indicate the lack of stability, but rather
helps determine the direction of response.
Moments about the axes drive aircraft attitude. Review the sign system used with the axis
Stability is the tendency of an aircraft to generate notation in Figure 1. Then, in the derivative
the aerodynamic moments necessary to return it table, note for example that Clβ, the lateral
to its original equilibrium, when disturbed. stability derivative, carries a negative sign. When
During unusual attitudes, if an aircraft is left to a laterally stable aircraft slips to the right
its hands-off free response, those same moments (positive direction) it will roll to the left
can become destabilizing. At high bank angles, (negative direction). Algebraically, a negative
for example, directional stability (a yawing (the derivative) times a positive (sideslip
moment) causes the nose to descend below the direction) equals a negative (roll direction). If the
horizon and speed to increase. When an aircraft aircraft slips to the left, it will roll to the right,
is inverted, longitudinal stability (a pitching since a negative derivative times a negative
moment) causes the nose to fall below the direction equals a positive. For us, the signs will
horizon, as well. And at angles of attack past come in handy when analyzing spins, where they
stall, rolling moments that would ordinarily simplify the perplexity inherent in understanding
damp out can instead produce autorotation and a flight regime where an input in one axis can
spin departure. produce an output in another.
In normal maneuvering in a stable aircraft, a The flow chart at the end of this section shows a
pilot uses the controls to overcome the aircraft’s related way of describing the basics of aircraft
stabilizing moments and to establish a new response.
equilibrium, at least temporarily. This may be
easy or not so easy, depending on the degree of
inherent stability and the availability of control
power to do the job
-Cn Yawing moment When an aircraft has a yaw rate, opposing aerodynamic damping forces
r due to yaw rate. build up ahead and behind the center of gravity.
(Yaw damping) • Main contribution comes from the vertical tail, but the
n = yaw moment forward fuselage can also contribute (unlike Cn , in which
β
r = yaw rate the fuselage forward of the wing is destabilizing).
• Wings also contribute, since the advancing wing produces
more induced and profile drag than the retreating wing.
• Wing contribution to yaw damping increases with angle of
attack; the tail’s contribution may decrease due to disrupted
airflow at high α.
• Yaw damping decreases with altitude.
Cl Rolling moment A roll moment is produced if the lift generated by rudder deflection acts at
δr due to rudder a point above the roll axis. Right rudder, for example, produces a left
deflection. rolling moment. This can become apparent in aircraft without dihedral
effect.
l = roll moment • Diminishes as angle of attack increases.
δ = deflection
r = rudder
Cn Yawing moment An aileron deflected down creates more induced drag than the opposite
δa due to aileron aileron deflected up. The result is a yawing moment opposite the direction
deflection. of bank. Profile drag increases on both wings when the ailerons are
deflected, the difference depending on aileron design.
n = yaw moment (Adverse yaw)
• Adverse yaw increases with wing angle of attack, because drag
δ = deflection rises faster than lift at high α.
a = aileron • Spoilers for roll control can produce proverse yaw.
• Differential ailerons or Frise ailerons counteract adverse yaw
with opposing drag—although their primary function is to lower
aileron control force.
Pitch Damping
Geometric
dihedral
Increases Dihedral effect
Cl with α and
β
(lateral stability)
Primary
Control: Rolling Wing sweep
Aileron Moments
around x-axis Increases Roll due to yaw
with α , rate
yaw rate
(spiral instability)
Directional stability
Increases
with β (weathercock)
Cn
Primary
Control: Yawing Increases Aileron adverse
with a
Rudder Moments yaw
around z-axis
Increases
with a as
aircraft
Spiraling
slows slipstream
Asymmetrical Thrust
Thrust line
vs center of Power
gravity
Cm
Primary
Control: Pitching Camber
Flap setting
Elevator Moments change vs
downwash
around y-axis at tail
C.G.
location vs
Trim setting
Cm/α
Yaw rate
produces
pitching Propeller gyroscopics
moment
Increases
with pitch Pitch damping
rate