energies

Article
A Methodology for Determining Permissible
Operating Region of Power Systems According to
Conditions of Static Stability Limit
Van Duong Ngo 1 , Dinh Duong Le 2, *, Kim Hung Le 2 , Van Kien Pham 2 and Alberto Berizzi 3
1 The University of Danang, 41 Le Duan st., Danang 59000, Vietnam; nvduong@ac.udn.vn
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, The University of Danang—University of Science and Technology,
54 Nguyen Luong Bang st., Danang 59000, Vietnam; lekimhung@dut.udn.vn (K.H.L.);
pvkien@dut.udn.vn (V.K.P.)
3 Department of Energy, Polytechnic University of Milan, via La Masa, 34, 20156 Milan, Italy;
alberto.berizzi@polimi.it
* Correspondence: ldduong@dut.udn.vn; Tel.: +84-905-320-755

Received: 6 April 2017; Accepted: 4 August 2017; Published: 17 August 2017

Abstract: For power systems with long-distance ultra-high-voltage (UHV) transmission lines, power
transmission limits are often determined by static stability limits. Therefore, the assessment of
stability and finding solutions to improve the stability reserve are essential for the operation of the
system. This article presents an analytical approach to construct limit characteristics according to
static stability conditions on a power plane. Based on the approach proposed, a program is developed
and tested on a system with long-distance UHV transmission lines, showing a good performance.

Keywords: static stability limit; power system; power plane

1. Introduction
The rapid development of economies, science, and technology in the world has led to an increasing
demand for energy consuming in general and electricity in particular. Power systems are growing
and expanding to link power systems of regions or to connect large power plants to consumers
using ultra-high-voltage (UHV) or extra-high-voltage (EHV) transmission lines. Large interconnected
power systems with long UHV or EHV lines have different features to small ones. The presence of a
large amount of reactive power generated by a high voltage line during its operation influences the
transmission capacity of the line and the stability of the system.
The definition and classification of power system stability are given in detail in [1]. Power system
stability is broadly classified into three categories [1]: rotor angle stability [2–4], frequency stability [5,6]
and voltage stability [7]. Voltage stability is defined as the ability of a system to maintain steady
voltages at all buses in the system after being subjected to a disturbance from a given initial operating
condition [1,7]. In voltage stability analysis, it is useful to further classify voltage stability into two
subcategories, i.e., large disturbance and small disturbance voltage stability. The former refers to the
ability of the system to maintain stable voltages followed by large disturbances such as system faults,
loss of generation, or circuit contingencies. On the contrary, the latter refers to the capability of the
system to continue steady voltages when subjected to small perturbations such as incremental changes
in system load. Generally, the analysis for small disturbances is done as a steady-state stability analysis.
In the present paper, static voltage stability is considered. In static stability analysis, the system is
assumed to be operated in an equilibrium state. Static analysis evaluates the feasibility of the operating
point to provide the system operators with a permissible region where the system can operate normally.
It is of great importance to operators of the system to identify how far the power system is
from voltage collapse in order to carry out appropriate remedial actions to avoid unexpected results.

Energies 2017, 10, 1163; doi:10.3390/en10081163 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 1163 2 of 15

The distance towards voltage instability can be obtained by using voltage stability indices. A detailed
review of the voltage stability indices can be found in [8]. Voltage stability indices could generally
be divided into two groups: Jacobian matrix and system variables based voltage stability indices [9].
Jacobian matrix based voltage stability indices could be used to predict the voltage collapse point and
determine the voltage stability margin. The main drawback of such indices is that they require high
computational time; hence, they are not suitable for online voltage stability studies. On the other hand,
system variables based voltage stability indices are obtained by using the elements of the admittance
matrix of the system and some system variables, e.g., bus voltages, power flows, etc., so they require
less computational time compared to the first group. Thanks to this advantage, the second group is
appropriate for online voltage stability assessment.
So far, many techniques for assessing voltage stability have been developed in the literature.
Among them, P-V and Q-V curves are still widely used both in the research and in industry [7,10–15];
with these curves, the maximum active and reactive power at a system load bus can be determined
when the voltage at that bus reaches the voltage collapse boundary. In particular, a P-V curve gives
the relationship between the real power load and bus voltage. It can intuitively provide the operators
of the system voltage stability criterion as the margin between the voltage collapse point and the
current operating point. On the contrary, a Q-V curve shows the change of bus voltages with respect
to reactive power injection or absorption. It gives the operators information on the maximum reactive
power at a bus when reaching the minimum voltage limit. In general, both procedures for building
P-V and Q-V curves are time-consuming since a large number of power flows need to be executed
using conventional methods and models [16]. Owing to this drawback, they cannot to be used for
online analysis. Moreover, P-V and Q-V curves could be used to analyze voltage stability only for
certain increasing modes and not for the whole view of the analysis. Commonly, those procedures
focus on individual buses by stressing the bus considered independently; hence, they are not able to
fully reflect the real stability condition of the system.
For determining the visual characteristics of the voltage stability limit and the operating region
for the system, a P-Q curve [7,17–20] is very useful. On a power plane, the operating region indicates
both the possible active and reactive power in which the load bus of the system can operate normally.
Once the boundary is determined, the distance to the voltage collape of the system can be directly
assessed. In [17], the curve is assumed to follow a circle. In [7,18–20], the P-Q curve is defined by a
parabolic equation. Those assumptions about the shape of the curve are not realistic and may lead to
the over-estimation of the reactive power limit.
In this paper, we develop an analytical method to construct a P-Q curve point-by-point, without
using any assumption about the shape of the curve on a power plane, and provide a visual operating
region for voltage stability studies. The technique can be applied to large-scale power systems to
assess voltage stability in real-time. In addition, the P-Q curves we build are realistic since there is no
assumption about the change of load used.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, a new technique for determining
the permissible operating regions of power systems according to static stability limit on the power plane
is represented. In Section 3, the testing of the proposed methodology on a system with long-distance
UHV or EHV transmission lines is described and the results are discussed. Finally, Section 4 concludes
the paper.

2. Algorithm for Determining Permissible Operating Region of Power Systems According to

Conditions of Static Stability Limit on Power Plane

2.1. Determining Points on Stability Boundary

For assessing the stability of a power system, stability margins are often used, i.e., KP = [(Plim −
P0 )/P0 ] × 100% and KQ = [(Qlim − Q0 )/Q0 ] × 100%, where KP and KQ are the stability reserve ratios,
Plim and Qlim are the values of limitation, and P0 and Q0 are the values at the operating points for
active and reactive power, respectively (see Figure 1). The determination of Plim and Qlim for buses
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 3 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 3 of 15
and reactive power, respectively (see Figure 1). The determination of Plim and Qlim for buses is based
on completely conventional conditions; for example, Pj of bus j is considered to ascend to the limit,
is based on completely conventional conditions; for example, Pj of bus j is considered to ascend to
while all remaining parameters are constant [13]. Such determination is different from the actual
the limit, while all remaining parameters are constant [13]. Such determination is different from the
variation of parameters in operation. Suppose that the characteristics of stability limit of bus j is
actual variation of parameters in operation. Suppose that the characteristics of stability limit of bus j is
assumed to be determined in the power plane, as in Figure 1, in which if Qj is constant, the reserve
assumed to be determined in the power plane, as in Figure 1, in which if Qj is constant, the reserve
capacity according to Pj is proportional to distance a, or if cos ϕi is constant, it is proportional to
capacity according to Pj is proportional to distance a, or if cos ϕi is constant, it is proportional to
distance b, while the parameters may vary with distance c in reality. Thus, for the evaluation of the
distance b, while the parameters may vary with distance c in reality. Thus, for the evaluation of the
stability reserve, it is needed to determine the reserve according to the shortest distance d from the
stability reserve, it is needed to determine the reserve according to the shortest distance d from the
operating point to the stability boundary. The challenge is to calculate and draw the characteristics
operating point to the stability boundary. The challenge is to calculate and draw the characteristics
curve under static stable limit conditions to determine the operating region on the power plane,
curve under static stable limit conditions to determine the operating region on the power plane, taking
taking into account nonlinearities.
into account nonlinearities.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. P-Q
P-Q curve
curve on
on power
power plane.
plane.

In thissection,
In this section,thethe pragmatic
pragmatic criterion
criterion dQ/dV dQ/dV presented
presented in [21] in [21] to
is used is construct
used to the construct
permissiblethe
permissible operating region on a power plane under the conditions of a
operating region on a power plane under the conditions of a static stability limit. The operating states static stability limit. The
operating
of a powerstatessystem of can
a power system based
be assessed can beonassessed
dQ/dV,based
i.e., ifon dQ/dV,
dQ/dV i.e., if dQ/dV
is negative, is negative,
the system the
is stable;
system is stable;
otherwise, otherwise,
the system the system
is unstable. Based is unstable. Based onwe
on this criterion, this criterion,
develop we develop aformulation
a mathematical mathematical to
formulation to determine points on the boundary (i.e., determine
determine points on the boundary (i.e., determine a curve on the power plane) between stable a curve on the power plane)
and
between
unstable stable
states ofandtheunstable
system, states
and thenof thewe system,
use this and then we
boundary use this the
to separate boundary
operatingto separate
regions intothe
operating
two regions, regions into two
i.e., stable and regions,
unstablei.e., stable
regions onand
the unstable
power plane, regions
andon the power
assess plane, and assess
its stability.
its stability.
Suppose that a power system has n buses in which there are k generation buses (among k
Suppose
generation buses, that Bus
a power
1 is the system has of
slack bus n buses in which
the system). Thetheresystemareiskrepresented
generation by buses (among k
an equivalent
generation buses, Bus 1 is the slack bus of the system). The system is
diagram, and then an adopted Gaussian elimination method [22] is used to simplify the diagram to arepresented by an equivalent
diagram,
simple one andthatthen an adopted
includes Gaussian
k generation elimination
buses method
and the load bus[22] is used toassimplify
considered, shown in the diagram
Figure 2. Ittois
aworth
simple one that
noting that,includes
thanks to k generation
this technique, busestheand the loadmethodology
proposed bus considered, in thisas paper
showncan in Figure 2. It is
be effectively
worth
appliednoting that, thanks
for large-scale to this
power technique, the proposed methodology in this paper can be effectively
systems.
applied for large-scale
In Figure 2, power systems.
In Figure 2,
•• EEii isisthe
the electromotive
electromotive force force of
of generators
generators connected
connected at at the ith generation
the ith generation bus (i == 11 ÷÷k);
bus (i k);
.
Zi == Ri ++j jXi isis the
the equivalent
equivalent impedance
impedance ofof the
the branch
branch connecting
connecting generation
generation bus
bus ii and
and the
the
considered load at
considered load at bus t; bus t;
•• PPid and Qid are the real and reactive power transferred from generation bus i to the considered
id and Qid are the real and reactive power transferred from generation bus i to the considered
load at bus t and before equivalent impedance . , respectively;
load at bus t and before equivalent impedance Zi , respectively;
• Pic and Qic are the real and reactive power transferred from generation bus i to the considered
• Pic and Qic are the real and reactive power transferred from generation bus i to the considered
load at bus t and after equivalent impedance . , respectively;
• Pload at bus t and after equivalent impedance Zi , power
t, Qt, and St are the real, reactive, and apparent
respectively;
of the considered load at bus t;
•• Pt , isQtthe
, and S are the real, reactive, and apparent power
equivalent admittance-to-ground at the considered
t of theload
considered = 1/
bus t, load at bus t;
, where =
. . .
• Y 0 is + jthe isequivalent
the corresponding equivalent impedance;
admittance-to-ground at the considered load bus t, Y 0 = 1/ Z0 , where
.
• PZ0, Q =0,Rand S0 are
+ jX the corresponding
is the real, reactive, and apparent
equivalent power transferred through .
impedance;
0 0 0
.
• P0 , Q0 , and S0 are the real, reactive, and apparent power transferred through Y 0 .
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 4 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 4 of 15

Figure2.2.Simplified
Figure Simplified equivalent
equivalentdiagram.
diagram.

The mathematical formulation for determining points on a stability boundary is as follows.

The mathematical formulation
Based on the power for determining
balance conditions points
at the load bus, on
we ahave:
stability boundary is as follows.
Based on the power balance conditions at the load bus, we have:
 k

Qt + Qo = Q1c +  Qic

  i = 2k
 Q = Q +k ∑ Q
 Qt +
 (1)
0 1c
 P + P = P + i= ic


Pic2
 t o 1c
i=2 k
(1)
Pt + P0 = P1c + ∑ Pic



so: i =2

so:  k

Qt = (Q1c − Q0 ) + kQic


 ( Q − Q ) +i = 2 Q
 Qt =
 0 k ∑

 1c ic (2)
 P = ( P + P ) − iP

=2 (2)
 1c t 0 k ic
P1c = ( Pt + P0 ) −i = 2 ∑ Pic



i =2
where:
where: 2 2
= GG⋅ V· tV; 2 ;QQ
PP0o = o ==B ⋅B
Vt · V 2
t 0 t
RR0o XX (3) (3)
; B==−
0
GG = = R2 + X 2; B − R2 + Xo2
20 0 2 02 2
R +Xo o R + 0X
o o

The power transferred from generation bus i to the considered load bus can be calculated using
The power transferred
. from generation bus i to .the considered load bus can be calculated using
electromotive force
electromotive Ei andand
force voltage
voltageatatthe
theload bus V i .. The
loadbus Theequations
equations
forfor calculating
calculating the active
the active and and
reactive power transferred to the end of branch i are as follows
reactive power transferred to the end of branch i are as follows
 2V
2
EVt

 Pic =V−t t sin αi + Ei i V t δ i + αi )
sin(
= − Zsin

 Pic

 i
α i + Zi sin(δi + αi ) (4a) (4a)
 Z i 2
Z i
Q =V−2Vt cos α + EV (4b)
 − t δ i + αi )
Ei tVcos(
αi + Zii cos(δi + αi )
ic t Z i

 Qic = cos (4b)

 i
Zi Zi
where, Ei and Vi are magnitudes of . and . , respectively; δi is the angle difference between and
.
where,; Eand αi isVthe
i and phase
i are angle of of. Ei and V i , respectively; δi is the angle difference between Ei and
magnitudes
. .
V i ; and αi is the phase angle and
From Equations (4a) of Z(4b),
i.
Qic is deduced as follows:
From Equations (4a) and (4b), Qic is2 deduced as follows: 2
E i Vt 2  Vt 2  Vt 2
Q ic = 2
− P
 ic + sin α i  − cos α i (5)
v
u Zi  Zi 2 Z i
u E2 V 2 
V2 V2
where: Qic = t i 2 t − Pic + t sin αi − t cos αi (5)
Zi Zi Zi

where:
X
q
π
Zi = R2i + Xi2 ; αi = − arctg i
2 Ri
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 5 of 15

From Equations (2), (3), and (5), the reactive power at the load bus is computed as follows:
s  2
E12 Vt2 k
2 sin α1 2
Qt = Z12
− ( Pt + G · Vt ) − ∑ Pic + Z1 Vt +
r 2   (6)
k k
Ei2 Vt2 sin αi 2 2
 
cos α1 cos αi
+∑ Zi2
− Pic + Zi V t − Z1 + B + ∑ Zi Vt2
2 2

From the formula to calculate the active power at two endings of branch i, Pic , corresponding to
the parameters of the operation modes, can be deduced as:

Ei2 E Vt
Pid = sin αi + i sin(δi − αi )
Zi Zi
so:
Ei2 Z
sin(δi − αi ) = ( Pid − sin αi ) i (7)
Zi Ei Vt
We perform some trigonometric transformations as follows:

sin(δi + αi ) = sin[(δi − αi ) + 2 · αi ]
⇒ sin(δi + αi ) = sin(δi − αi ) · cos 2αi + sin 2αi · cos
q (δi − αi ) (8)
⇒ sin(δi + αi ) = sin(δi − αi ) · cos 2αi + sin 2αi · 1 − sin2 (δi − αi )

From Equations (4a), (7), and (8), we can determine Pic as:
v
u !2
Vt2 Ei2 u E2 V 2 E2
Pic = − sin αi + ( Pid − sin αi ) cos 2αi + sin 2αi t i 2 t − Pid − i sin αi (9)
Zi Zi Zi Zi

As can be seen from Equations (4a) and (6), the reactive power at the load bus Qt is a function of
the voltage at load bus Vt :
Qt = f (Vt )

If there is a fluctuation of voltage at the load bus, it will lead to an imbalance of power. The amount
of imbalance of reactive power can be identified as follows:

∆Q = Q∑ G − Q∑ T = f (Vt ) − Qt

where QΣG is the total reactive power transferred to the load bus from all generators in the system;
QΣT = Qt + Q0 .
Taking the derivative of both sides of the above equation with respect to Vt , we obtain:

d∆Q d f (Vt ) dQt

= −
dVt dVt dVt

Suppose that Qt varies very little with the variation of Vt , so:

dQt d∆Q d f (Vt )

=0⇒ =
dVt dVt dVt

According to pragmatic criterion dQ/dV in [14], the system reaches its static stability limit when:

d∆Q d f (Vt )
= =0 (10)
dVt dVt

The process for determining points on a stability boundary is implemented step by step as follows.
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 6 of 15

Step 1:
Suppose:
Qimin ≤ Qid ≤ Qimax ,∀i = 2, k (11)

in which, Qimin and Qi max are the regulating limits for generating the reactive power of source i (limits
of the regulator of an excitation system) and Qid is the reactive power at the first point of branch i. The
nonlinear equations in Equation (10) are solved for voltage at the load bus in limited state Vt ,lim . Qt
is calculated by putting Vt ,lim and a given value Pt into Equation (6). In order to conclude whether
the point M (Qt , Pt ) is located on the static stability limit of the system or not, it is needed to verify
Hypothesis (11).
The reactive power at the first point of branch i can be calculated by using the following formula:
v
u 2 !2
Ei2 u EV
i t,lim E2
Qid = cos αi − t − Pid − i sin αi (12)
Zi Zi Zi

If all the generation buses satisfy Hypothesis (11), point M (Qt , Pt ) will be located on the static
stability limit of the system. In case there are m generators within their regulating limits and (k-m)
ones exceeding their regulating limits,

Qimin ≤ Qid ≤ Qimax ∀i = 2, m

Q jd ≤ Q jmin or Q jd ≥ Q jmax ∀ j = m + 1, k

Step 2:
For source j exceeding its regulating limit:

• Qjd ≤ Qjmin set Qjd = Qjmin

• Qjd ≥ Qj max set Qjd = Qj max

In this case, the reactive power transferred to load bus can be approximately determined:
 2 + Q2
Pjd jd
 Q jc = Q jd − X j = const

 2
Uj,rated
2 + Q2
Pjd
(13)
jd
 Pjc = Pjd − R j = const

 2
Uj,rated

where Uj,rated denotes the rated voltage at bus j.

The formula to calculate the reactive power at load bus (6) can be changed as follows:
s  2
E12 Vt2 m k
sin α1 2
f (Vt ) = Z12
− Pt + GVt2 + Z1 Vt − ∑ Pic − ∑ Pjc
r 2 m +1
m Ei2 Vt2
 2 n
sin αi 2 (14)
+∑ Zi2
− Pic + Zi Vt + ∑ Q jc
2
  k +1
k
− B+ cos α1
Z1 + ∑ cosZiαi Ut2
2

where, Pic is calculated in Equation (9) and Pjc and Qjc are obtained from Equation (13).
Solving nonlinear Equation (10) we can obtain Vt ,lim and f (Vt ) (see (14)); continue to check m
adjustable sources if there is any source violated. If there is no source violated, M(Qt , Pt ) is located on
the stability limit; otherwise, we recalculate Step 2.

2.2. Development of Algorithm for Drawing Characteristics of Stability Limit

From the calculation for determining points located on the stability boundary in Section 2.1,
we can build an algorithm for drawing the characteristics of the stability limit, as in Figure 3.
adjustable sources if there is any source violated. If there is no source violated, M(Qt, Pt) is located on
the stability limit; otherwise, we recalculate Step 2.

2.2. Development of Algorithm for Drawing Characteristics of Stability Limit

From
Energies 2017,the calculation
10, 1163 for determining points located on the stability boundary in Section 2.1,
7 ofwe
15
can build an algorithm for drawing the characteristics of the stability limit, as in Figure 3.

Start

Input Data

Calculate parameters for

equivalent diagram and
simplity the diagram

Set value of Δ P
Pt = 0; i = 1

Comput Mi(Qti,Pti)
Pt = Pt + Δ P
using equations from (2) Save Result
i=i+1
to (14)
to (15)

Qti <= 0

Plot characteristics of
stability limit on power
plant

End

Figure 3. Algorithm for drawing the characteristics of the stability limit.

Figure 3. Algorithm for drawing the characteristics of the stability limit.

3. Application to Building a Program for Determining Permissible Operating Region of Power

3. Application to Building a Program for Determining Permissible Operating Region of Power
Systems on Power
Systems on Power Plane
Plane
Based
Based on on the algorithm developed
the algorithm developed in in Section
Section 2,2, we
we build
build aa procedure
procedure and and then
then a computer
a computer
program to determine the operating region of power systems using Delphi
program to determine the operating region of power systems using Delphi programming language. programming language.
For the illustration,
For the illustration, we
we run
run itit for
forsix-bus
six-buspower
powersystem,
system,as asshown
shownininFigure
Figure4,4,ininwhich
whichPower
PowerSystem
System2
(PS2) is connected to Power System 1 (PS1) with an unlimited capacity via a long-distance 500
2 (PS2) is connected to Power System 1 (PS1) with an unlimited capacity via a long-distance 500 kV
kV
UHV transmission line, in the middle of the line at Bus 6, to which a power plant
UHV transmission line, in the middle of the line at Bus 6, to which a power plant (G2) is connected. (G2) is connected.
In
In addition,
addition, there
there are
are two
two regional
regional electricity
electricity networks
networks with
with low
low capacity
capacity that
that are
are represented
represented asas two
two
loads connected to Bus 5 and Bus 6. There is also a load connected
loads connected to Bus 5 and Bus 6. There is also a load connected to Bus 3. to Bus 3.
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 8 of 15

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Six
Six bus
bus power
power system.
system.

PS1 has an unlimited capacity so the voltage at Bus 1 (U1) can be considered constant, and Bus
1 is considered the slack bus in the system. PS2 is represented by an electromotive force Eeq and an
equivalent impedence Zeq. Therefore, the system considered can be represented by an equivalent
diagram, as shown in Figure 5. From this equivalent diagram, the algorithm in Section 2 is applied to
construct the characteristics of the stability limit on the power plane. The program is run for the test
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 8 of 15
Figure 4. Six bus power system.
Figure 4. Six bus power system.
PS1 has an unlimited capacity so the voltage at Bus 1 (U1) can be be considered
considered constant,
constant, and Bus
11 is PS1 has an unlimited capacity so the voltage at Bus 1 (U1) can be considered
is considered the slack bus in the system. PS2 is represented by an electromotive force
considered the slack bus in the system. PS2 is represented by an electromotive constant,
force EEeqeqand
andBus
an
1equivalent
is considered the
impedence Zslack bus in the
Zeq.. Therefore, system.
Therefore, the PS2
the system is represented
system considered by
considered can an electromotive force E
can be represented by an equivalent and
equivalent
eq an
equivalent
diagram, asimpedence
shown
diagram, shown Figure 5. in Z .
Figure
eq Therefore,
5. From the
this system
equivalent considered
diagram, can
the be represented
algorithm in by
Section
algorithm Section an
2 isequivalent
applied to
diagram,
constructas theshown in Figure of
characteristics 5. From this equivalent
the stability diagram,
limit on the powerthe algorithm
plane. in Section
The program 2 is for
is run applied to
the test
construct
system with theitscharacteristics
its initial of the
initial interface,
interface, as stability
as in Figurelimit
in Figure 6. on the power plane. The program is run for the test
6.
system with its initial interface, as in Figure 6.

Figure 5. Equivalent diagram of the six bus power system.

Figure 5. Equivalent diagram of the six bus power system.
Figure 5. Equivalent diagram of the six bus power system.

BUS 6 BUS 2 G2
BUS 6 BUS 2 G2
P2f = 360 [MW]
Q2max = 700 [Mvar]
P2f = 360 [MW]
BUS 1 BUS 4 BUS 5 BUS 3
Q2max
PS2 = 700 [Mvar]
BUS 1 BUS 4 BUS 5 BUS 3
PS2
PS1 P3f = 200 [MW]
Q3max = 700 [Mvar]
PS1 P3f = 200 [MW]
S5 = 200 + j120 [MVA] S6 = 400 + j240 [MVA] S3 = 600 + Q3max = 700 [Mvar]
j360 [MVA]

S5 = 200 + j120 [MVA] S6 = 400 + j240 [MVA] S3 = 600 + j360 [MVA]

BUS 3
BUS
BUS35
BUS
BUS56
BUS 6
EXIT
EXIT

Figure 6. Diagram of the six-bus power system in the program.

Figure 6. Diagram of the six-bus power system in the program.
Figure 6. Diagram of the six-bus power system in the program.
For example, when clicking on Bus 3, the resulting P-Q curve is obtained, as shown in Figure 7
For example,
in which when
the circular clicking
point on Bus
represents the3,operating
the resulting P-Q
point. In curve is obtained,
this case, as shown
the operating pointinbelongs
Figure to
7
in For example,
which the when
circular clicking
point on Bus
represents the3,operating
the resulting P-QIncurve
point. this is obtained,
case, the as shown
operating in belongs
point Figure 7 to
in
the stable region (the region covered by two axes and the P-Q curve), indicating that the system is
which
the the region
stable circular point represents theby
operating point. In
thethis case, the operating
indicatingpoint belongs to the
stable. If the load(the
at Bus region covered
3 is increased, two axes
exceeding andcurve
P-Q P-Q curve),
(stability boundary), athat the system
warning messageis
stable
stable. region
If the to (the
load region
at Bus covered by two axes and the P-Q curve), indicating that the system is stable.
will appear notify the3user
is increased, exceeding
that the system P-Q curve
is unstable, as (stability
in Figureboundary),
8. a warning message
If the
will load at
appear toBus 3 isthe
notify increased, the systemP-Q
user thatexceeding curve (stability
is unstable, boundary),
as in Figure 8. a warning message will
appear to notify the user that the system is unstable, as in Figure 8.
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 9 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 9 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 9 of 15

BUS 6 BUS 2 G2
BUS 6 BUS 2 G2
P2f = 360 [MW]
P2f = 360
Q2max [MW]
= 700 [Mvar]
BUS 1 BUS 4 BUS 5 BUS 3Q2max = 700 [Mvar]
BUS 1 BUS 4 BUS 5 BUS 3 PS2
PS2
PS1 P3f = 200 [MW]
PS1 P3f = 200
Q3max [MW]
= 700 [Mvar]
Q3max = 700 [Mvar]
P: BUS 5
P: BUS 5 S5 = 200 + j120 [MVA] S6 = 400 + j240 [MVA] S3 = 600 + j360 [MVA]
Q: BUS 5 S5 = 200 + j120 [MVA] S6 = 400 + j240 [MVA] S3 = 600 + j360 [MVA]
Q: BUS 5
P: BUS 6
P: BUS 6 P-Qlimited
Plot stability curve for BUS 3for BUS 3
curver
PRINT
Q: BUS 6 1400 P-Qlimited
Plot stability curve for BUS 3for BUS 3
curver
PRINT
Q: BUS 6 1400
EXIT
P: BUS 3 1200 The system is stable
EXIT
P: BUS 3 1200 The system is stable
Q: BUS 3 1000

Q: BUS 3 1000

P: BUS 2 800
P [MW]

P: BUS 2 800
P [MW]

Qmax: BUS 2 600

Qmax: BUS 2 600

400
P: HT 2
400
P: HT 2 200
Qmax: HT 2
200
Qmax: HT 2 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
Q [MVAR]
EXIT 0 200 400
[Mvar]
600 800 1000 1200
Q [MVAR]
EXIT [Mvar]

Figure 7. P-Q curve plotted for Bus 3 in a stable state.

Figure7.7.P-Q
Figure P-Q curve plotted for
curve plotted forBus
Bus33ininaastable
stablestate.
state.

BUS 6 BUS 2 G2
BUS 6 BUS 2 G2
P2f = 360 [MW]
P2f = 360
Q2max [MW]
= 700 [Mvar]
BUS 1 BUS 4 BUS 5 BUS 3Q2max = 700 [Mvar]
BUS 1 BUS 4 BUS 5 BUS 3 PS2
PS2
PS1 P3f = 200 [MW]
PS1 P3f = 200
Q3max [MW]
= 700 [Mvar]
Q3max = 700 [Mvar]
P: BUS 5
P: BUS 5 S5 = 200 + j120 [MVA] S6 = 400 + j240 [MVA] S3 = 600 + j360 [MVA]
Q: BUS 5 S5 = 200 + j120 [MVA] S6 = 400 + j240 [MVA] S3 = 600 + j360 [MVA]
Q: BUS 5
P: BUS 6
P: BUS 6 Plot
Plotstability
P-Q
stabilitylimited
P-Q curver
curvefor
curve
limited for BUS3for
BUS
curver 3for BUS
BUS 33
PRINT
PRINT
Q: BUS 6 1400
1400
Plot
Plotstability limited
P-Q
P-Q
stability curver
curvefor
curve
limited for BUS3for
BUS
curver 3for BUS
BUS 33
Q: BUS 6 1400
1400
The system is unstable PRINT
PRINT
EXIT
EXIT
P: BUS 3 1200
1200 The system
The system is stable
is unstable
EXIT
EXIT
P: BUS 3 1200
1200 The system is stable
Q: BUS 3 1000
1000

Q: BUS 3 1000
1000

P: BUS 2 800
800
P [MW]
P [MW]

P: BUS 2 800
800
P [MW]
P [MW]

Qmax: BUS 2 600

600

Qmax: BUS 2 600

600
400
P: HT 2 400

400
P: HT 2 400
200
Qmax: HT 2 200
200
Qmax: HT 2 200
0
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
EXIT 0
0
0 200
200
400
400
Q [MVAR]
Q [MVAR]
[Mvar]
600
600
800
800
1000
1000
1200
1200
EXIT Q [MVAR]
Q [MVAR]
[Mvar]

Figure 8. P-Q curve plotted for Bus 3 in an unstable state.

Figure8.8.P-Q
Figure P-Q curve
curve plotted
plotted for
for Bus
Bus33ininan
anunstable
unstablestate.
state.
Using the program, the permissible operating region at Buses 3, 5, and 6 can be investigated.
Using the program, the permissible operating region at Buses 3, 5, and 6 can be investigated.
Using the
Moreover, program,
factors the permissible
that affect the operatingoperating
region at region at Buses
a load bus can be3,examined
5, and 6 suchcan be as investigated.
the power
Moreover, factors that affect the operating region at a load bus can be examined such as the power
change atfactors
Moreover, other load
that buses
affect in
the the system, the
operating change
region at a in power
load bus generated
can be (e.g., P2f),
examined the as
such number of
the power
change at other load buses in the system, the change in power generated (e.g., P2f), the number of
working
change units (change
at other in Q2maxthe
load buses ) of system,
the power plant connected to Bus 6, the change
(e.g.,inPpower generated
working units (change in Qin the change in power generated
2max) of the power plant connected to Bus 6, the change in power 2f ), the number of
generated
(P3f), and
working the(change
units limit of in
adjusting
Q ) the
of thereactive
power power
plant Q 3max of PS2.
connected to In
Bus order
6, theto identify
change in the
powercritical bus
generated
(P3f), and the limit of adjusting 2max the reactive power Q3max of PS2. In order to identify the critical bus
and
(P3f factors
), and affecting
theaffecting the stability
limit of adjusting theof the system, the operating parameters
Q3max of parameters are assumed to be set in the
and factors the stability of reactive power
the system, the operating PS2. In order areto identifytothe
assumed critical
be set in thebus
program,
and as in
factors affectingTable 1.
the
program, as in Table 1. stability of the system, the operating parameters are assumed to be set in the
program, as in Table 1.
The operating regions at Buses 5, 6, and 3 are plotted in Figures 9–11, respectively. By comparing
the distances from the operating points to the P-Q curves for all load buses in the system, the most
dangerous bus can be identified. In this system, Bus 3 is found to be the most dangerous one that
needs to be carefully supervised during the operation of the system.
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 10 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 10 of 15
Table 1. Operating parameters for the six-bus test system.
Table 1. Operating parameters for the six-bus test system.
Bus 3 Bus 5 Bus 6
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 Q2max P2f Q3max P2f 10 of 15
P Bus 3 Q P Bus 5 Q P Bus 6 Q
Q2max
(Mvar) P2f
(MW) Q3max
(Mvar) P2f
(MW)
P
(MW) Q
(Mvar) P
(MW) Q
(Mvar) P
(MW) Q
(Mvar)
(Mvar) (MW) (Mvar) (MW)
(MW)
600 (Mvar) (MW)
360 Table (Mvar)
2001. Operating (MW)
120 parameters
400 (Mvar)
240 700 test system.
for the six-bus 360 700 200
600 360 200 120 400 240 700 360 700 200
The Bus
operating
3 regions at Buses
Bus 55, 6, and 3 are plotted
Bus 6in FiguresQ 9–11,
2max respectively.
P2f By comparing
Q3max P2f
The operating
theP distances from regions
the at Buses
operating 5, 6, and
points to 3 are
the P-Qplotted
curves infor
Figures
all 9–11,
load respectively.
buses
(Mvar) in
(MW) the By comparing
system,
(Mvar) the most
(MW)
(MW) Q (Mvar) P (MW) Q (Mvar) P (MW) Q (Mvar)
the distances
dangerous busfromcanthe
be operating
identified.points
In thistosystem,
the P-QBus
curves for all load
3 is found to bebuses in the
the most system, the
dangerous onemost
that
600 360 200 120 400 240 700 360 700 200
dangerous bus can be identified. In this system, Bus 3 is found
needs to be carefully supervised during the operation of the system. to be the most dangerous one that
needs to be carefully supervised during the operation of the system.

P-Q curve for BUS 5

P-Q curve for BUS 5 PRINT
1400
PRINT
1400
1200
EXIT
1200
EXIT
1000
1000
800
P [MW]

800
P [MW]

600
600
400
400
200
200
0
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0 200 400 Q [Mvar]
600 800 1000 1200 1400
Q [Mvar]

Figure 9. Operating region at Bus 5.

Figure 9.
Figure Operating region
9. Operating region at
at Bus
Bus 5.
5.

P-Q curve for BUS 6

1400 P-Q curve for BUS 6 PRINT
1400 PRINT
1200 EXIT
1200 EXIT
1000
1000
800
P [MW]

800
P [MW]

600
600
400
400
200
200
0
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0 200 400 600Q [Mvar]
800 1000 1200 1400
Q [Mvar]

Figure 10. Operating region at Bus 6.

Energies 2017, 10, 1163 11 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 11 of 15
Figure 10. Operating region at Bus 6.
Figure 10. Operating region at Bus 6.

P-Q curve
Plot stability limitedfor BUS
curver for3BUS 3
1400 PRINT
P-Q curve
Plot stability limitedfor BUS
curver for3BUS 3
1400 PRINT
1200 EXIT
1200 EXIT
1000

1000
800
P [MW]

800
P [MW]

600

600
400

400
200

200
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
0 200 400
[Mvar]
Q [MVAR]
600 800 1000 1200
[Mvar]
Q [MVAR]

Figure 11. Operating region at Bus 3.

Figure 11. Operating region at Bus 3.
Figure 11. Operating region at Bus 3.
In particular, while surveying the operating region at Bus 3, as in Figure 11, we decrease Q3max
fromIn In particular,
1150 Mvar to while
particular, surveying
1000 Mvar;
while the
the operating
operatingofregion
the characteristics
surveying at
at Bus
stability
region Bus 3,
limit as
asin
3,will inFigure
be changed,
Figure 11, we
11,aswe decrease
shown QQ3max
in Figure
decrease 3max
from
from 1150
12. In1150other Mvar
Mvarcases,to 1000
we adjust
to 1000 Mvar;
Mvar;Pthe the
2f from
characteristics
360 MW toof240
characteristics of stability
MW, limit
stability limit
for which will
will bethe be changed,
characteristics
changed, as
as shown shown in
ofinstability
Figure
Figure
limit
12. Inare12.
other Incases,
shown other cases,
in Figure
we weor
13,
adjust Padjust
2fwe
P360
adjust
from 2f from
the 360
MWload MW
at
to 240 Bus to6 240
MW, for MW,
from P6 + for
which jQthe which
6 = 400 + the
j240characteristics
MVAoftostability
characteristics P6 + jQof6
stability
=limit
500 are limit
+ j360 are
MVA,
shown shown
in so in Figure
that the
Figure curve
13, or 13, or we
will bethe
we adjust adjust
obtainedthe
load atasload at
in Figure
Bus Bus 6
6 from 14. from
P6 +Thus, P 6
jQ6 = by + jQ 6 = 400
400adjusting
+ j240 MVA+ j240
the to MVA
P6 + jQto6
operating
=P + jQ =
6500 + j360
parameters 6 500
and+
MVA, j360 MVA,
observing so that
thecurve
so that the change the curve
in be
will will
theobtainedbe
P-Q curve,obtained
weFigure
as in as
can findin Figure
14.effective 14. Thus,
Thus, bysolutions by adjusting
adjustingtothe
improve
operatingthe
the
operating
stability
parameters ofparameters
the
andsystem. and the
observing observing
change the change
in the in thewe
P-Q curve, P-Qcan curve,
find we can find
effective effective
solutions solutionsthe
to improve to
improve the stability
stability of the system. of the system.

P-Q curve for BUS 3

PRINT
1400 P-Q curve for BUS 3
PRINT
1400
1200
EXIT
1200
EXIT
1000
1000
800
P [MW]

800
P [MW]

600
600
400
400
200
200
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0
0 200 400 Q [Mvar]
600 800 1000 1200 1400
Q [Mvar]

Figure 12. Operating region at Bus 3 when adjusting Q3max.

Figure 12. Operating region at Bus 3 when adjusting Q3max.
Figure 12. Operating region at Bus 3 when adjusting Q3max .
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 12 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 12 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 12 of 15

P-Q curve for BUS 3

P-Q curve for BUS 3 PRINT
1400
PRINT
1400
1200
EXIT
1200
EXIT
1000
1000
800
P [MW]

800
P [MW]

600
600
400
400
200
200
0
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0 200 400 600 800
Q [Mvar] 1000 1200 1400
Q [Mvar]

Figure 13. Operating region at Bus 3 when adjusting P2f.

Figure
Figure 13. Operating region
13. Operating region at
at Bus
Bus 33 when adjusting P
when adjusting P2f
2f.
.

P-Q curve for BUS 3

1400 P-Q curve for BUS 3 PRINT
1400
PRINT
1200 EXIT
1200 EXIT
1000
1000
800
P [MW]

800
P [MW]

600
600
400
400
200
200
0
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0 200 400 600 800
Q [Mvar] 1000 1200 1400
Q [Mvar]

Figure 14. Operating region at Bus 3 when adjusting the load at Bus 6.
Figure 14. Operating region at Bus 3 when adjusting the load at Bus 6.
Figure 14. Operating region at Bus 3 when adjusting the load at Bus 6.
Extensive testing on the above six-bus system indicates the good performance of the proposed
Extensive
approach testing on the
in comparison withabove
the six-bus
results system
obtained indicates
by other thecommercial
good performance
software of that
the proposed
includes
Extensive
approach in testing on the
comparison with above
the six-bus
results system
obtained indicates
by thecommercial
other good performance
software of that
the proposed
includes
functions for power system stability studies. For example, Figure 15 shows the operating region at
approach
functions in
forcomparison
power with
system the results
stability obtained
studies. For by other
example, commercial
Figure 15 software
shows that
the includes
operating functions
region at
Bus 3 and the determination of values for calculating the stability reserve ratios, while Table 2 gives
for power
Bus 3 and system
the stability studies.
determination of Forfor
values example,
calculatingFigure
the 15 shows reserve
stability the operating
ratios, region
while at Bus2 3gives
Table and
the results obtained by the proposed method compared with the results from the Power System
the determination
the resultsfor
obtained of by
values
the for calculating
proposed methodthe stability
compared reserve
with ratios,
the whilefrom
Tablethe2 gives theSystem
results
Simulator Engineering (PSS/E) software. It should be noted that theresults
curve we build andPower
the stability
obtained
Simulator by the proposed
for Engineering method
(PSS/E)are compared
software. with the results from the Power System Simulator for
reserve ratios that are computed realisticIt because
should be wenoted that the
construct thecurve wepoint-by-point
curve build and the stability
without
Engineering
reserveany
ratios (PSS/E) software.
that are computed It should be noted that the curve we build and the stability reserve
using assumption about theare realistic
shape of the because
curve we or construct
assumption theabout
curve the
point-by-point
change of load. withoutAs
ratios
using that
any are computed
assumption are
aboutrealistic
the because
shape of we
the construct
curve or the curve
assumption point-by-point
about the without
change of using
load. any
As
illustrated in Figure 15, when surveying the operating region at a certain load bus (e.g., Bus 3), from
assumption
illustrated in about
Figure the
15, shape
when of the curvethe
surveying oroperating
assumption about
region at the
a change
certain of load.
load bus As illustrated
(e.g., Bus 3), fromin
the operating point of the load and the characteristics curve under the static stable limit built, the
the operating
stability reserve point ofcan
ratios thebeload and theas
computed characteristics
follows. At the curve underpoint,
operating the static
P0 andstable limit
Q0 are built,then
known; the
stability reserve ratios can be computed as follows. At the operating point, P0 and Q0 are known; then
S0 is calculated as = + . To determine the limitation of Q (Qlim in Figure 15), P is kept
S0 is calculated as = + . To determine the limitation of Q (Qlim in Figure 15), P is kept
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 13 of 15

Figure 15, when surveying the operating region at a certain load bus (e.g., Bus 3), from the operating
point of the load and the characteristics curve under the static stable limit built, the stability reserve
qbe computed as follows. At the operating point, P0 and Q0 are known; then S0 is calculated
ratios can
Energies
as S =2017,P10,
2+ 1163
Q2 .To determine the limitation of Q (Qlim in Figure 15), P is kept constant (P13= ofP015),
0 0 0
while Q is increased until it reaches the curve. Analogously, Plim is determined by increasing P until
constant (P = P0), while Q is increased until it reaches the curve. Analogously, Plim is determined by
it reaches, the curve whilst Q is held constant (Q = Q0 ). Maintaining constant cosϕ and increasing S
increasing P until it reaches, the curve whilst Q is held constant (Q = Q0). Maintaining constant cosϕ
(i.e., increasing both P and Q along the line that crosses the origin point and the operating q point in
and increasing S (i.e., increasing both P and Q along the line that crosses the origin point and the
Figure 15) until it reaches the curve, Pi and Qi are found out and Si is calculated as Si = Pi + Q2i .
2
operating point in Figure 15) until it reaches the curve, Pi and Qi are found out and Si is calculated as
Eventually, stability reserve ratios KP , KQ , and KS are computed:
= + . Eventually, stability reserve ratios KP, KQ, and KS are computed:
KP = [(P
KPlim − lim
= [(P P0 −)/P ] ×0] 100%;
P00)/P KQK=
× 100%; [(Q
Q = [(Q lim−
lim )/Q0]0 ]× ×
− Q00)/Q KSK=S[(S
100%;
100%; i − iS−
= [(S S00])/S
0)/S 0 ] × 100%
× 100%
Using the above
Using the above formulas,
formulas, results
results are
are obtained
obtained as
as shown
shown in
in Table
Table2.
2.

P-Q curve
Plot stability limitedfor BUS
curver for3BUS 3
1400 PRINT

1200 EXIT

1000

P
800 lim
P
P [MW]

600
P0
400

200

0
0 200 Q0 400 Qi 600
Q
800 lim 1000 1200
[Mvar]
Q [MVAR]

Figure 15. Calculating the stability reserve ratios for the operating region at Bus 3.

Table 2. Comparison of the results.

Comparison of Results
Paramaters Comparison of Results
Paramaters Proposed Approach PSS/E
P0 (MW) Proposed 600
Approach PSS/E 600
Q0P(Mvar)
0 (MW) 360
600 600360
SQ
0 (MVA)
0 (Mvar) 699.7
360 360699.7
S0 (MW)
Plim (MVA) 699.7
800 699.7833
Plim
Qlim (MW)
(Mvar) 800
800 833821
QPilim (Mvar)
(MW) 800
772 821791
Pi (MW) 772 791
Qi (Mvar) 448 475
Qi (Mvar) 448 475
Si (MVA) 892.6 923
Si (MVA) 892.6 923
KK P (%) 27.5 31.831.8
P (%) 27.5
KK Q (%) 33.4 38.838.8
Q (%) 33.4
KK S (%)
S (%)
122.3
122.3 128128

The proposed method is implemented on an Intel Core i5 CPU 2.3 GHz/4.00 GB RAM PC
The proposed method is implemented on an Intel Core i5 CPU 2.3 GHz/4.00 GB RAM PC
(Computer Dell Vostro 14-5459, Core i5 6200U, Manufacturer: Dell Inc., Chengdu, China), taking 3 ×
(Computer Dell Vostro 14-5459, Core i5 6200U, Manufacturer: Dell Inc., Chengdu, China), taking
10−3 s, 5 × 10−3 s, and 0.11 s for the above six-bus system, IEEE (The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers) nine-bus system, an IEEE 118-bus system [23], respectively. Hence, the
proposed approach can be run and can quickly provide results, showing that it can be used for real-
time analysis, thanks to the use of an analytical approach in developing the algorithm in this paper.
Energies 2017, 10, 1163 14 of 15

3 × 10−3 s, 5 × 10−3 s, and 0.11 s for the above six-bus system, IEEE (The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers) nine-bus system, an IEEE 118-bus system [23], respectively. Hence, the proposed
approach can be run and can quickly provide results, showing that it can be used for real-time analysis,
thanks to the use of an analytical approach in developing the algorithm in this paper.

4. Conclusions
In this paper, we present a methodology for constructing the characteristics of the stability limit
of the system according to the static stability conditions on a power plane. Based on the proposed
algorithm, a procedure and a program are built and real-time analysis can be performed; the program
can be run and quickly provide results (e.g., it needs only 0.11 s for an IEEE 118-bus system with an
Intel Core i5 CPU 2.3 GHz/4.00 GB RAM PC) thanks to our use of an analytical approach to develop
the algorithm.
With the above-mentioned attractive feature, the proposed approach and the program developed
based on it can be applied to a practical power system to monitor its stability reserve in a real-time
environment by using online data acquisition systems to provide the necessary information about the
system and its operating parameters.
When surveying the operating region of the load buses in the system, by observing the distances
from the operating points to the stability boundaries, the operator can easily identify the most critical
buses in the system, which should then be carefully monitored during the operation. For example,
for the six-bus power system considered in Section 3, Bus 3 is found to the most critical one (Figure 11
for Bus 3 compared to Figure 9 for Bus 5 and Figure 10 for Bus 6).
In addition, by observing the change in the characteristics of the stability limit (P-Q curve) when
adjusting operating parameters such as the consumption capacity at the load bus, the power output
from power plants, the number of operating units in the system, etc., the most efficient solution for
raising the stability reserve of the system can be indicated.
One more important point that should be noted about the proposed methodology is that the curve
we build, as presented in Section 2, is realistic since we construct it point-by-point without using any
assumption about the shape of the curve or any assumption about the change of load either.

Acknowledgments: All sources of funding of the study should be disclosed. Please clearly indicate grants that
you have received in support of your research work. Clearly state if you received funds for covering the costs to
publish in open access.
Author Contributions: Van Duong Ngo, Dinh Duong Le, Kim Hung Le, and Van Kien Pham developed the
algorithm for drawing the characteristics of the stability limit. Van Duong Ngo and Van Kien Pham created the
computer program for determining the operating regions of power systems. Van Duong Ngo, Kim Hung Le,
Van Kien Pham, Dinh Duong Le, and Alberto Berizzi analyzed the results. Van-Duong Ngo and Dinh Duong Le
wrote the paper. Alberto Berizzi coordinated the main theme of this paper and thoroughly reviewed the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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