DIRECTORY 335 that only particulars exist, Suérez also maintained that between ‘Thomas Aquinas's two types of divine knowledge—the knowledge cof what is actual and the knowledge of what is possible—there exists “middle knowledge” of what would have been the case had things been different. He believed that God has “middle knowledge" of all ‘our actions, without this meaning that God caused them to happen cr that they are unavoidable. ‘See also: Plato 50-56 » Aristoile 56-63 » Thomas Aquinas 88-95 BERNARD MANDEVILLE 1670-1733 Bernard Mandeville was a Dutch philosopher, satirist, and physician, who made his home in London. His best-known work, The Fable of Boss (1729) concems a hive of industrious bees which, when suddenly made virtuous, stop ‘working and go and live quietly in a nearby tree. Its central argument is that the only way any society can progress is through vice, and that virtues are lies employed by the ruling elite to subdue the lower classes. Economic growth, stated ‘Mandeville, stems only from the individual's ability to satisfy his greed. His ideas are often seen as the forerunners to the theories of ‘Adam Smith in the 18th century. ‘See also: Adam Smith 160-63 JULIEN OFFRAY DE LA METTRIE 1709-1751 Julion Offray de la Mettrie was born in Brittany. He studied medicine and served as an army physician, ‘The atheist sentiments expressed ina thesis he published in 1748, stating that emotions are the result of physical changes in the body, ‘caused outrage, forcing him to flee from France to Holland. In 1747 he published Man a Machine, in which he expanded his materialist ideas land rejected Descartes’ theory that the mind and body are separate. ‘The book's reception caused him to flee again, this time to Berlin. See also: Thomas Hobbes 112-15 « | René Descartes 116-23 NICOLAS DE CONDORCET 1743-1784 Nicolas, Marquis de Condorcet, was ‘an early exponent of the French ‘tradition of approaching moral and political issues from a mathematical perspective, His famous formula, known as Conciorost’s Paradox, drew attention to a paradox in the voting system by showing that majority preferences become intransitive when there are more than three candidates. A liberal thinker, he advocated equal nights and free education forall, including women. He played a key role in the French Revolution, but was branded a traitor for opposing the execution of Louis XVI, and died in prison. ‘See also: René Descartes 116-23 + Voltaire 146-47 « Jean-Jacques. Rousseau 164-69 JOSEPH DE MAISTRE 1753-1821 Born in the French region of Savoy, ‘which was then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Joseph de Maistre was lawyer and political philosopher He was a ruling senator when the French revolutionary army invaded ‘Savoy in 1792, and was forced to flee, He became a passionate ‘counterevalutionary. Mankind ‘was inherently weak and sinful, he declared, and the dual powers of ‘monarch and God were essential to social order. In On the Pope (1819), De Maistre argues that government should be in the hands of a single authority figure, ideally linked to religion, such as the pope. See also: Edmund Burke 172-73 FRIEDRICH SCHELLING 1775-1854 Friedrich Schelling started out as ‘a theologian but, inspired by the ‘ideas of Immanuel Kant, he turned to philosophy. Born in southern Germany, he studied with Georg Hegel at Tahingen and taught at the ‘universities of Jena, Munich, and Berlin. Schelling coined the term “absolute idealism’ for his view of neture as an ongoing, evolutionary ‘process driven by Geist, or spint He argued that all of nature, both mind and matter, is involved in one continuous organic process, and that purely mechanistic accounts of teality are inadequate. Human ‘consciousness is nature become ‘conscious, so that in the form of ‘man, nature has arrived at a state of seifawareness. See also: Benedictus Spinoza 126-29 « Immanuel Kant 164-71 « Johann Gottlieb Fichte 176 = Georg Hegel 178-85 AUGUSTE COMTE 1798-1857 ‘The French thinker Auguste Comte is noted for his theory of intellectual ‘and social evolution, which divides ‘human progross into three key .ges. The earliest stage, the336 DIRECTORY theological stage, represented by the medieval period in Europe, is characterized by belief in the ‘supernatural. This gave way to the metaphysical stage, in which speculation on the nature of reality developed. Finally, there came the “positivist” age—which Comte saw as emerging at the time he ‘was writing—with a genuinely scientific attitude, based solely on observable regularities. Comte believed this positivism would help to create a new social order. to redress the chaos generated by the French Revolution. ‘See also: John Stuart Mill 190-93 + Karl Marx 196-203 noted philosopher. Inspired by the ‘Romantic movement, he believed {in the unity of nature, with every ‘single particle of matter and each individual mind being a microcosm of the entire universe. Emerson was famous for his public lectures, Which urged the rejection of social conformity and traditional authority. ‘Emerson advocated personal integrity and self-reliance as the only moral imperatives, stressing that every human being hes the power to shape his own destiny. ‘See also: Henry David Thoreau 204 » William James 206-09 » Friedrich Nietzsche 214-21 HENRY SIDGWICK 1838-1900 ‘The English moral philosopher Henry Sidgwick was a fellow of ‘Trinity College, Cambridge. In his key work Methods of Ethics (1874), he explored the problems of free will by examining intuitive principles of ‘conduct. The pursuit of pleasure, he Claimed, does not exclude altruism, or the providing of pleasure for others, since providing pleasure for others is itself a pleasure. A liberal philanthropist and a champion of women's rights to education, Sidgwick was instrumental in setting up Newnham, Cambridge's first college for female students. See also: Jeremy Bentham 174 » John Stuart Mill 190-93 FRANZ BRENTANO 1838-1917 Born in Prussia, the philosopher Franz Brentano is best known for establishing psychology as a discipline in its own right. Initially a priest, he was unable to reconcile himself with the concept of papal infallibility, and left the Church in 1873, Brentano believed that mental processes were not passive, but should be seen as intentional acts, His most highly regarded work is Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint. Its publication 1n 1874 led to him being offered a professorship at the University of Vienna, where he taught and inspired a host of illustrious students, including the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud. See also: Edmund Husser! 224-25 GOTTLOB FREGE 1848-1925 ‘A professor of mathematics at Jena University, the German philosopher Gottlob Frege was a pioneer of the the analytic tradition in philosophy. His first major wotk Begritfsschrift (1879), meaning “conceptual notation’, end The Foundations of Arithmetic (1884) effected revolution in philosophical logic, allowing the discipline to develop rapidly. In On Sense and Reference (1892) he showed that sentences ‘are meaningful for two reasons— for having a thing that they refer to, and a unique way in which that reference is made. See also: Bert1annd Russell 236-39 « Ludwig Wittgenstein 246-51 « Rudolf Camep 257 ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD 1861-1947 ‘An English mathematician, Alfred North Whitehead had a significant influence on ethics, metaphysics, ‘and the philosophy of science. With his ex-pupil Bertrand Russell, he wrote the landmark study on ‘mathematical logic, Principia ‘Mathematica (1910-19) In 1924, at the age of 63, he accepted a chair in philosophy at Harvard. There he developed what became known as process philosophy. This was based (on his conviction that traditional philosophical categories were inadequate in dealing with the interactions between matter, space, and time, and that “the living organ cr experiance is the living body as ‘a whole" and not just the brain. See also: Bertrand Russell 236-39 « Willard Van Orman Quine 278-79 NISHIDA KITARO 1870-1945, Japanese philosopher Nishida Kitaro studied Daoism and Confucianism at school and Western philosophy at Tokyo | University. He went on to teachIN CONTEXT IDEOLOGY. Positivism FOCUS ‘The family BEFORE, ‘14th century [bn Khaldun's ‘Mugaddimah uses scientific reasoning to examine social ‘cohesion and conflict. 1821 In France, early socialist Henri de Saint-Simon argues ‘that the new industrial society ‘will bring forth a new Utopia, ‘with a new kind of politics led. ‘by men of science. 1835 Belgian philosopher Adolphe Quetelet puts forward ‘the idea of a social science to ‘study the average man. AFTER 1848 Kari Marx argues for the ‘abolition of the family in the (Communist Manifesto, 1962 Michael Oakeshott ‘aigues that society cannot be understood rationally. REVOLUTIONARY THOUGHTS 165 THE TENDENCY TO ATTACK “THE FAMILY” IS A SYMPTOM OF SOCIAL CHAOS AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857) tench philosopher Auguste Comtsdstonse tthe | tary inti couse in} Pesto Pibsopy (850-48) isbusedon morethan mere | sentimental attachment. Comte's F Families become tribes iow turinenytweundestanding | 80 wibes become nations. Auguste Comte of society, tho oly valid daca comes from the senses, and from the = logical analysis of this data, Society, og he argues, operates according to lao juste the piyteal werd of hatural science. kis the ‘ack of = | scientist of society to study it and vease out these laws. individual whims are harnessed for the good of society. Humans Family is the social unit | are driven by both personal instinct [kis crucial, believes Comte, to and social instincts. “In a family, look at general laws and not the social and the personal become obsessed by idiosyncratic | instincts are blended and individual views. “The scientific | reconciled; ina family, oo, the spirit forbids us to regard society | principle of subordination and as composed of individuals.The | mutual cooperation is exemplified.” true social unit is the family" Itis | Comte's position stresses social ‘on the basis of families that society | bonds, but is in conflict with 1s constructed—a social science —_| socialism—Marxists who argue for that starts with the demands of |_| the abolition of the family are, in individuals is doomed to failure. | Comte's view, arguing for the very It is also within the family that destruction of human society. See aleot Ibn Khaldun 72-73 » Kat! Marx 188-3 ‘Max Webor 214-16 « Michael Oakeshott 276-77 » Ayn Rand 280-81SCIENCE CAN BE USED TO BUILD A BETTER WORLD AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857) IN CONTEXT FOCUS Positivism and the study of society KEY DATES 1813 French theorist Henri de Saint-Simon suggests tho idea of a science of society. 1840s Karl Marx argues, that economic iseues are at the root of historical change. 1853 Harriet Martineau's abridged translation The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte introduces Comto's ideas to a wider public. 1865 Bnitish philosopher John Stuart Mill refers to Comte's early sociological and later political ideas as "good Comte” and "bad Comte” 1895 In The Rules of ‘Sociological Method, Emile Durkheim seeks to establish a systematic sociology, y the end of the 18th century, increased industrialization had brought about radical changes to traditional society in Europe. At the same time, France was struggling to establish a new social order in the aftermath of the French Revolution, Some thinkers, such as Adam Smith, had sought to explain, the rapidly changing face of society in economic terms; others, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, did so in terms of political philosophy. Adam Ferguson had described the social effects of modernization, but no ‘one had yet offered an explanation of social progress to match political and economic theories.‘See also: Harte: Martineau 26-27 « Kail Marx 28-81; 254-69 Ferdinand Tonnies 32-23 « Emile Durkheim 34-37 « Max Weber 38-45; 220-23 Knowledge of and by observing society can only be the laws that govern acquired through social stability scientific investigation and social change. these laws can biting about change Against the background of social | approach to philosophy. He made ‘uncertainty in France, however, _| a detailed analysis of the natural the socialist philosopher Henri de | sciences and their methodology, Saint-Simon attempted to analyze | then proposed that all branches of the causes of social change, and —_| knowledge should adopt scientific how social order can be achieved. | principles and base theory on He suggested that there is a observation. The central argument pattern to social progress, and | of Comte's “positivism” philosophy that society goes through a number | is that valid imowledge of anything of different stages. Butt was | can only be derived from positive, bis protégé Auguste Comte | scientific inquiry. He had seen who developed this idea into | the power of science to transform: ‘comprehensive approach to scientific discoveries had provided the study of society on scientific | the technological advances that ‘principles, which he initially called | brought about the Industrial *social physics” but later described | Revolution and created the modern as “sociology” world he lived in. ‘The time had come, he said, for Understand and transform | a social science that would not only Comte was a child of the give us an understanding of the Enlightenment, and his thinking —_| mechanisms of social order and. was rooted in the ideals of the social change, but also provide ‘Age of Reason, with its rational, | us with the means of transforming ‘objective focus. The emergence _| society, in the same way that the of scientific method during the physical sciences had helped to Enlightenment influenced Comte's | modify our physical environment. » __ FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIOLOGY 2324 AUGUSTE COMTE He considered the study of human society, or sociology, to be the most challenging and complex, therefore it was the "Queen of sciences.” Comte’s argument that the acientific study of society was the culmination of progress in our quest for kmowledge was influenced by an idea proposed by Henri de Saint-Simon and is set out as the “law of three stages.” This, states that our understanding of phenomena passes through three phases: a theological stage, in ‘which a god or gods are cited as the cause of things; a metaphysical stage, in which explanation is in terms of abstract entities; and a ppositive stage, in which knowledge 4s Verified by scientific methods. ‘Comte's grand theory of social evolution became an analysis of social progress too—an alternative to the merely descriptive accounts of societal stages of hunter- gatherer, nomadic, agricultural, and industrial-commorcial. Society in France, Comte suggested, was rooted in the theological stage ‘until the Enlightenment, and social ‘order was based on rules that were ‘ultimately religious. Following the revolution in 1789, French society entered a metaphysical stage, becoming ordered according to 66 Sociology is, then, not an auxiliary of any other science; it is itself a distinct and autonomous science. Emile Durkheim 99 Comte identified three stages of progress in buman ‘understanding af the world, Tho thoologicel stage came ‘to an end with the Enlightenment at the end ofthe 16th ‘century, Focus then shifted from the divine to the human in ‘a metaphysical stago of rational thought, from which evolved, {final stage in which soience provides the explanations. NihLe unloseal —— sep seem a=: = core Early human eociety 1790 1800 10 1820 1830 Present day secular principles and ideals, especially the rights to liberty ‘and equality. Comnte believed that, recognizing the shortcomings of postrevolutionary society, st now had the possibility of entering the positive stage, in which social order could be determined scientifically. A science of society Comte proposed @ framework for the new science of sociology, based on the existing “hard” sciences. He ‘organized a hierarchy of sciences, arranged logically so that each ‘science contributes to those following it but not to those ‘preceding it. Beginning with mathematics, the hierarchy ranged ‘through astronomy, physics, and chemistry to biology. The apex ot this ascending order of “positivity” ‘was sociology. For this reason, Comte felt it was necessary to have a thorough grasp of the other sciences and thei methods before attempting to apply these to the study of society. Paramount was the principle of verifability from observation: ‘theories supparted by the evidence of facts, But Comte also recognized ‘that itis necessary to have a ‘hypothesis to guide the direction of ‘scientific inquiry, and to determine the scope of observation. He divided sociology into two broad fields of study: “social statics," the forces that determine social order and hold societies together; and “social dynamics,” the forces that determine social change. Ascientific understanding of these forces provides the tools to take society into its ultimate, positive stage of social evolution. Although Comte was not the first to attempt an analysis of ‘human society, he was a pioneer in establishing that it is capable of being studied scientifically. In addition, his positivist philosophy offered both an explanation of ‘secular industrial society and the means of achieving social reform, He believed that just as the 66 From science comes prediction; from prediction ‘comes action. 99sciences have solved real-world problems, sociclogy—as the final science and unifer of the other sciences—can be applied to social problems to create a better society. From theory to practice Comte formed his ideas during the chaos that followed the French Revolution, and set them out in his six-volume Course in Positive Philosophy, the first volume of which appeared in the same year that France experienced a second revolution in July 1830, Attar the overthrow and restoration of monarchy, opinion in France was divided between those who wanted order and those who demanded progress. Comte believed his positiviem offered a third way, a ational rather than ‘ideological course of action based (on an objective study of society. His theories gained him as many critics as admirers among his contemporaries in France. ‘Some of his greatest supporters ‘were in Britain, including liberal intellectual Jotn Stuart Mill, who provided him with financial support to enable him to continue with his project, and Harriet Martineau, who tanslated an edited version of his ‘work into English. Unfortunately, the reputation Comte had built up was tarnished by his later work, in which he described how positivism could be applied in a political system. An ‘unhappy personal life @ marriage breakup, depression, and a tragic affair) is often cited es causing a ;nge in his thinking: from an objective scientific approach that ‘The 1830 revolution in France coincided with the publication of ‘Cemte's book on positivism and ‘soumed to usher in an age of social progress that he had been hoping for FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIOLOGY 25 | examines society to 2 subjective and quasiteligious exposition of how it should be. ‘The shift in Comte's work from theory to how it could be put into practice lost him many followers. ‘Mill and other British thinkers saw his prescriptive application of positivism as almost dictatorial, and the system of government he advocated as infringing liberty. By this time, an alternative approach to the scientific study of society had emerged. Against the same backdrop of social turmoil, Karl Marx offered an analysis of social progress based on the science of economics, and a model for change based on political action rather than rationalism. Ics not difficult to see why, in a Burope riven by revolutions, Comte's positivist sociology became eclipsed by the competing claims of socialism and capitalism. Nevertheless, it was Comte, and to a lesser extent his mentor Saint- ‘Simon, who first proposed the idea of sociology as @ discipline based on scientific principles rather than ‘The philosophers have only interpreted the world... the point is to change it. Karl Marx 2a yy mere theorizing. In particular he established a methodology of observation and theory for the social sciences that was talon dizectly from the physical soiences. While later sociologists, notably Emile Durkheim, disagreed with the detail of his positivism and his application of it, Comte provided them with a solid foundation to ‘work ftom, Although today Comte's ream of sociology as the “Queen of sciences’ may seem naive, the objectivity he advocated remains a guiding principle. «