Biofuels

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A comprehensive review of biodiesel production

methods from various feedstocks

R. Selvaraj, R. Praveenkumar & I. Ganesh Moorthy

To cite this article: R. Selvaraj, R. Praveenkumar & I. Ganesh Moorthy (2016): A comprehensive
review of biodiesel production methods from various feedstocks, Biofuels, DOI:
10.1080/17597269.2016.1204584

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2016.1204584

Published online: 25 Nov 2016.

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Download by: [Athabasca University] Date: 26 November 2016, At: 03:59

BIOFUELS, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2016.1204584

A comprehensive review of biodiesel production methods from various

feedstocks
R. Selvaraja, R. Praveenkumara and I. Ganesh Moorthyb
a
Ann BioResearch Foundation, Department of Biotechnology, Arunai Engineering College, Tamilnadu; bDepartment of Biotechnology,
Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology, Tamilnadu

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This article reviews the performance of biodiesel production from various feedstocks and Received 12 October 2015
analyzes the associated challenges. The existing literature survey dealt with the potential and Accepted 7 June 2016
important feedstocks like edible oil, non-edible oil, animal fat and algae oil for the biodiesel KEYWORDS
production. The result shows that the various sources have different yield due to processes Feedstock; biocatalyst;
variables. The yield of biodiesel differs with the feedstocks due to physico-chemical properties microwave; ultrasonication;
of sources and the process variables. In order to increase the biodiesel yield, the novel transesterification;
technologies are warranted in the bioenergy research field. Recent research focuses on the immobilization
cheap, abundant feedstocks, novel production and purification technologies for biodiesel.
Transesterification by enzyme has advantageous in view of conversion, yield and reusability
whereas low yield of chemical catalyst catalyzed transesterification reactions in recent years.
Lipase mediated transesterification has increased the rate of reaction followed by high
conversion. But the activity of free enzyme is reduced as stability is low. In order to overcome
this drawback, the immobilized lipase mediated transesterification methodology has been
introduced in recent studies. Nanobiocatalyst focuses exclusively on the transesterification of
oils using methanol to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). Importantly, the lipase binds on
magnetic particles with various size ranges, confirming stability and giving more reactive
centers. Analytical methods such Fourier transform infrared spectra and transmission electron
microscopy are used to characterize the structure of nanoparticles which exhibit better
resistance to temperature and pH, stirring speed, enzyme loading, viscosity of oil and alcohol/
oil molar ratio and free fatty acid. For the analysis of FAME, Gas Chromatography Mass
Spectroscopy (GC-MS) was extensively used. Nowadays microwave and ultrasound assisted
transesterification techniques increases the conversion rate of oils into biodiesel. These
methods may require less energy, compared to the conventional method. This method may
require less energy, compared to the conventional method. In addition, the statistical (response
surface methodology) and stochastical (artificial neural network and genetic algorithm)
optimization techniques are expected to provide the best process response to the highest acid
conversion and efficiency.

Introduction and glycerol [8 15]. Although there are a variety of

sources, vegetable edible, non-edible oils and waste
Alternatives to fossil fuel have been extensively
cooking oil (WCO) appear to have the most potential
researched. Pollutants from non-renewable sources of
for biodiesel production [16,17]. There are three gener-
fuel are associated with global warming, climate
ations of feedstock. First generation feedstocks are edi-
change and disease [1,2]. The exploitation of catalysts
ble vegetable oils, e.g. soybean and sunflower oils [18].
from natural sources to optimize biodiesel production
Second generation feedstocks (Table 2) are based on
[3] is important for energy worldwide [4,5]. The alter-
non-edible sources such as jojoba oil, waste oil, jatro-
nate fuel must be technically feasible, available and
pha and animal fats [18,19]. Development of these
meet pollution standards. Biodiesel, a sustainable, non-
feedstocks is limited by high cost, inefficiency and
toxic fuel, can be used in the current diesel engine
unsustainability [16,18,20,21].
without major engine modifications [6].
Research is now focused on the third generation
Transesterification of fats and oils with a mixture of
feedstock: microalgae. surveyed more than a hundred
alcohol and catalyst, and the resulting production of a
different seed oils as fuel source for the diesel engine.
fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) [7] or fatty acid ethyl
There are four categories of biodiesel feedstock [22]:
ester (FAEE), can be used as a biofuel in various coun-
(1) Edible oil: Coconut, Soybean, Rice bran, Sunflower,
ties as shown in Table 1. Transesterification is an equi-
Palestine, Corn, Olive, Palm, Pistachio, Rapeseed, Pea-
librium and reversible reaction during which oil from
nut, Safflower oil, Sesame seed; (2) Non-edible oil:
edible and non-edible sources is converted to biodiesel

CONTACT I. Ganesh Moorthy igmoorthy@yahoo.co.in

© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 R. SELVARAJ ET AL.

Table 1. Non-edible and edible vegetable oils by production Table 3. Comparison of properties of waste cooking oil, biodie-
country [98]. sel from waste cooking oil and commercial diesel fuel [65].
Edible oil Biodiesel
USA, China Corn Waste from waste Commercial
Canada Canola Fuel property cooking oil cooking oil diesel fuel
Philippines, Thailand Coconut Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s, at
China, India Groundnut 313 K)
Europe, China, Canada Mustard 36.4 5.3 1.9 4.1
Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia Palm Density (kg/L, at 288K) 0.924 0.897 0.75 0.840
Finland, France, Germany, Rapeseed Flash point (K) 485 469 340 358
Russia, Sweden, UK, Italy Pour point (K) 284 262 254 260
Soybean Cetane number 49 54 40 46
China, Argentina, Brazil, Sunflower Ash content (%) 0.006 0.004 0.008 0.010
Russia, USA Sulphur content (%) 0.09 0.06 0.35 0.55
Carbon residue (%) 0.46 0.33 0.35 0.40
Non-edible oil Water content (%) 0.42 0.04 0.02 0.05
China, India Cotton seed Higher heating value (MJ/kg) 41.40 42.65 45.62 46.48
China, India, Philippines, Jatropha Free fatty acid (mg KOH/g oil) 1.32 0.10
Thailand, Indonesia
USA Jojoba
South Asia Karanja
Canada, China, Russia Linseed Table 4. Reported oil yields (% of contained oil) for different
India Mahua chemical and enzymatic extraction techniques and different
South Asia Neem
India Polanga reaction parameters [61].
Malaysia Rubber seed Reaction Time
China, India, Brazil Tobacco temperature consumption Oil yield

Mexico, Central America, Kapok Extraction technique ( C) (h) (%)
Africa, Indonesia Solvent oil extraction 24 95 99
Asia Silk cotton Aqueous oil extraction 2 38
Australia, India, Sri Lanka Sandalwood Ultrasonication without enzyme 50 6 67
Enzymatic oil extraction 60 2 86
Three-phase partitioning 25 2 97

Cottonseed, Jatropha, Algae, Neem, Orange, Linseed,

Mahua, Jojoba, Kusum, Rubber seed, Karanja or Ponga-
mia, Deccan hemp, Sea mango; (3) Waste cooking oil;
and (4) Animal source. WCO as feedstock are avail-
able around the world and are listed in Table 3. The
annual amount of WCO depends on the consump-
tion of oil from various countries: UK (annually
0.2 million tons of WCO), Canada (annually 0.135 mil-
lion tons of WCO), China (4.5 million tons) and Japan
(0.6 million tons) [20,21,23]. In addition, WCO feed-
stock reduced the production cost by 60 90%. [24]
It is clearly evident from the Table 3, the WCO will
be a promising feedstock for the biodiesel
production.
Operating parameters such as temperature, alcohol
to oil molar ratio, water content concentration of cata-
lyst, agitation speed, and reaction time influence the
transesterification process [24 29]. Different oil
extraction techniques for the biodiesel production are
shown in Table 4. Also, various non-edible and edible
oil sources and their yields are given in Table 5. Both

Table 5. Oil yield for major non-edible and edible oil sources
Table 2. Feedstock categories of second-generation biodiesel [13,100].
production [99]. Type of oil Oil yield (wt%)
Non-edible oil seed
Non-edible oil
Jatropha, Karanja, Mahua, Linseed, Cotton seed, Neem, Camelina,
Putranjiva, Tobacco, Polanga, Cardoon, Deccan hemp, Castor, Jojoba, Jatropha 35
Moringa, Poon, Koroch seed, Desert date, Eruca sativa gars, Sea mango, Rubber seed 40
Pilu, Crambe, Syringa, Milkweed, Field pennycress, Stillingia, Radish, Castor 53
Ethiopian mustard, Tomato seed, Kusum, Cuphea, Camellia, Paradise, Pongamia pinnata 30
Terminalia, Michelia champaca, Garcinia indica, Zanthoxylum bungeanum Sea mango 54
Algae Neem 20
Botryococcus braunii, Chlorella sp., Chrolella vulgaris, Crypthecodinium
chonii, Cylindrotheca sp., Dunaliellaprimolecta, Dunaliella salina, Isochrysis Edible oil
sp., Haematococcus pluvialis, Monallanthus salina, Muriellopsis sp.,
Nannochlorissp., Neochlorisoleoabundans, Nitzschiasp., Soybean 20
Phaeodactylumtricornutum, Porphyridium cruentum, Schizochytrium sp., Palm 20
Spirulina, Arthrospira platensis, Tetraselmis sueica Rapeseed 37
Waste materials Coconut 6
Canola 43
Vegetable oil soapstocks, acid oils, tall oil, dried distiller’s grains (DDG), Hemp 30
pomace oil Sesame 41
Moringa 35
Animal fats Mustard 30
Peanut 45
Beef tallow, pork lard, yellow grease, waste salmon, melon bug, Olive 45
sorghum bug, chicken fat and by-products from fihi oil Castor 45
 BIOFUELS 3

FAME and FAEE preparation methods have unique mer- Table 6. Estimated cost and primary feedstock of biodiesel in
its and demerits [30]. Methanol is less expensive than different countries [55].
Country Cost (US$/L) Feedstock
ethanol, but oil is less soluble in methanol than ethanol
Malaysia 0.53 Palm oil, jatropha
[31], and the mass transfer limitation is not as great. Indonesia 0.49 Wastes, jatropha
Enzymes from Bacillus sp. [32], Penicillium expansum Argentina 0.62 Soybean
USA 0.70 Soybean
lipase [33], Burkholderia [34], and Candida sp. 99 125 Brazil 0.62 Soybean, palm, sunflower and
[35] have lower operating costs and higher product castor
Netherlands 0.75 Soybean
purity than do chemical methods. Ultrasound and micro- Germany 0.79 Rapeseed,
wave assisted lipase mediated transesterification for the Philippines 0.53 Coconut oil
biodiesel production were reported elsewhere [36 40]. Belgium 0.78 Rapeseed, animal fat
Spain 1.71 Rapeseed
Celite, acrylic resin, and ion exchange resins are India 0.63 Jatropha, karanja
used for attaching lipases through adsorption. Immobi- Latvia 0.56 Rapeseed, sunflower
Lithuania 0.54 Rapeseed, sunflower
lization can be completed through nucleophiles [41], Hungary 0.86 Rapeseed, sunflower
cross-linking, entrapments, and encapsulation in silica Poland 0.99 Rapeseed, sunflower
Slovakia 0.93 Rapeseed
aerogel [42 44]. The immobilized lipase resists the Thailand 0.84 Palm and coconut oil, waste
inhibitory effect of methanol and glycerol [45,46]. Iron cooking oil and animal fat
Greece 0.77 Sunflower
nanoparticles have been considered as an alternative Taiwan 0.90 WVO, sunflower, soybean
for biological applications due to low toxicity [47], high UK 0.46 WVO
mass transference, the large surface area, and stability
under storage and operational conditions [48]. Immo-
bilized enzyme technology broadens industrial applica-
tions [49,50]. Synthesis of nano particles (NPs) using around 7 12. Methyl ester from soybean oil is unsatu-
plant extracts is cost effective, so can be produced by rated [58]. Viscosity and specific gravity surface tension
bioreduction [51,52.] The best combination of varia- of the soybean oil methyl ester is relatively higher than
bles can be determined with the help of methods of diesel [59]. Rice bran oil is a traditional edible oil as are
Response Surface Methodology [40,53,54]. soybean, cotton and sunflower. China contributes
about 6,000,000 t/year [60] (see Table 7). Non-edible
oils with high mono-unsaturation values are Neem oil
Feedstocks for biodiesel (Azadirachta indica), Caper spurge oil (Euphorbia lathy-
About 34% of edible oil is estimated for biodiesel pro- ris L.), Honge oil (Pongamia pinnata), Putranjiva oil
duction and it will be increased in future. Waste cook- (Putranjiva roxburghii), Yellow Oleanderoil (Thevetia
ing oil and non-edible oils in biodiesel production peruviana M.), Mahua oil (Madhuca indica), Tamanu oil
could be alternative sources [55]. A mono-unsaturation (Calophyllum inophyllum), Crambe oil (Crambe abyssin-
percentage is the best choice of oil for biodiesel pro- ica Hochst), Linseed oil (Linum usitatissimum), Castor oil
duction [3,56,57]. They are Groundnut oil (Arachis hypo- (Ricinus communis), Rubber seed oil (Hevea brasiliensis),
gaea), Hazelnut kernel oil (Corylus avellana), Almond Tobaccoseed oil (Nicotina tabacum L.), Argemone oil
kernel oil (Prunus dulcis), Olive kernel oil (Olea euro- (mexicana), Azedarach oil (Melia azedarach L) and
paea), Moringa oil (Moringa oleifera), Sesame seed oil Kusum oil (Schleichera triguga) (see Table 8). Oil con-
(Sesamum indicum) and Canola oil (Brassica campestris). tent of Jatropha ranges from 30 to 40% by weight, and
Canola contains approximately 40% oil. Ester from is non-edible due to toxic components [61]. The kernel
transesterification of canola oil increase lubricity of of Rubber seed constitutes 50 60% of seed, 40 50%
biodiesel ( Lang et al., 2001). Edible oils with a high per-
centage of polyunsaturation are Sunflower oil (Helian-
Table 7. Fatty acid compositions of vegetable oils [55].
thus annuus), Soybean oil, Cottonseed oil (Gossypium
Feedstock C14:0 C16:0 C16:1 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3
spp.), Corn oil (Zea mays), Poppy seed oil (Papaver som-
Coconut oil 18.5 7.5 3.0 5.0 1.0
niferum), Safflower seed oil (Carthamus tinctorius), Wal- Palm 1.0 42.8 4.5 40.5 10.2 0.2
nut kernel oil (Juglans regia) and Chinese tallow tree oil Cottonseed 0 28 11 13 58 0
Peanut 0.0 11 2 48 32 1
(Sapium sebiferum L.). High saturation edible oils are Soybean 0.0 13.9 2.1 23.2 56.2 4.3
Palm oil (Elaeis guineensis), Bay laurel leaf oil (Laurus Corn 0.0 12 2 25 6 1
Sunflower 0.0 6.4 2.9 17.7 72.9 0.0
nobilis) and Coconut oil (Cocos nucifera) (see Table 6). Safflower 7.3 1.9 13.6 77.2
Among all plants, palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.), popular Rapeseed 0.0 3.5 0.9 64.1 22.3 8.2
in Malaysia and Indonesia, is ideal for cultivation [18] Jatropha 0.1 15.1 0.9 7.1 44.7 31.4 0.2
Jojoba 16 6.5 43.5 34.4 0.0
with about 10 35 t/ha of palm fruits. Palm oil contains Linseed 0.045 6.21 5.63 20.17 14.93 51.12
about 40% of palmitic acid, linoleic acid (10%) and Karanja 11.65 7.5 51.59 16.64 0.0
Castor oil 0.01 0.7 1.85 2.8 4.4 0.2
stearic acid (5%). Rubber seed 10.2 8.7 24.6 39.6 16.3
Coconut oil (saturated, 90% of fatty acids) belongs Sesame 13.1 3.9 52.8 30.2
Mahua 24.2 25.8 37.2 12.8
to the lauric oil group which contain iodine value
4 R. SELVARAJ ET AL.

Table 8. Estimated oil content and yields of various non-edible Table 10. Comparison of homogenously and heterogeneously
vegetable oil sources [101]. catalyzed transesterification [60].
Seed (wt%) Non-edible feedstock Homogeneous Heterogeneous
20 30 Azadirachta indica Parameters catalysis catalysis
15 20 Annona squamosa Reaction rate High conversion Moderate conversion
20 Asclepias syriaca Presence of water/free Sensitive Not sensitive
42 Brassica carinata fatty acids
18 26 Bombax malabaricum Catalyst reuse Not possible Possible
65 Calophyllum inophyllum L. Cost High Cheaper
25 26 Cynara cardunculus
30 38 Crambe abyssinica
24 40 Ceiba pentandra [64]. It is stated that 50% of the weight of algae is oil,
54 Cerbera odollam converted into biodiesel, which is 30 times more oil per
30 45 Croton tiglium
20 38 Cuphea acre [65]. Algae require sewage or salt water for cultiva-
15 Crotalaria retusa L. tion [65].
35 Eruca sativagars
45.5 Garciniaindica Methyl ester from algae gives higher rate of heat
50 60 Guizotia abyssinica L. release and also residual alcohols possibly reduce the
40 60 Hevea brasiliensis
13 Hibiscus cannabinus
flash point of biodiesel [66].
26.26 Idesia polycarpa var. vestita
20 60 Jatropha curcas L.
35 45 Linum usitatissimum Transesterification of waste oil by catalyst
35 50 Madhuca indica
10 45 Melia azedarach Catalysts accelerate solubility and reaction rate [9,25].
45 Michelia champaca
35 50 Mesua ferrea Alkaline catalysts are KOH, NaOH, NaOCH3, and KOCH3
33 41 Moringa oleifera [67,68]. An alkaline catalyst is suitable for oils which
36 41 Nicotiana tabacum
25 50 Pongamia pinnata have below
41 42 Putranjiva roxburghii 3 wt% FFA [26,27] (see Table 10). The reaction is
33 Pongamia glabra
40 45 Raphanussativus slow [65,69] at high oil to alcohol molar ratios, temper-
45 50 Ricinus communis atures and pressures, and high acid catalyst concentra-
45 55 Simmondsia chinensis
45 Salvadora oleoides
tions [70]. This method is suitable for high FFAs
13 32 Sapium sebiferum L. Roxb. feedstock, which may be of low grade and is less
35 Samadera indica expensive. Catalysts include alkaline metal hydroxides,
51.8 Sapindus mukorossi
50 55 Sterculia foetida alkoxides and sodium or potassium carbonates. The
20 36 Thlaspi arvense L. production cost of catalysts is low with high perfor-
32 37 Tomato seed
35 40 Tung mance as feedstocks containing a low quantity of FFA
49 Terminalia catappa are used. A limit of <3% FFA level in oils has been
24 28 Zanthoxylum bungeanum
reported as acceptable for homogeneous alkaline
catalysis. If it is beyond this limit, the two-step process
can be used for alkaline catalysis to maximize overall
of pale yellow oil, and 17% free fatty acid (FFA) content yield [71] at room temperature.
[62,63].
The viscosity of the methyl ester of linseed oil is
equal to diesel. Cetane number and flash point is Enzyme catalyzed transesterification
decreased, but higher than that of diesel (see Table 9). Biocatalysts (see Table 11) are produced by animals,
The methyl esters from oil exhibited 4 and 53% higher microorganisms and plants [45,72]. Biocatalysis shows
density and viscosity respectively than other feedstocks an advantage over conventional chemical catalysis

Table 9. Fuel properties of different feedstocks.[102]

Density Viscosity Flash point Cetane Cloud Pour Calorific
(kg/l) (mm2/s) ( C) number point ( C) point ( C) value (MJ/kg)
Neem oil 0.912 0.965 20.5 48.5 34 285 51 N/A N/A 33.7 39.5
Rice bran 0.872 0.877 4.81 5.6 153 51.6 N/A N/A 36 39.6
Jatropha 0.864 0.880 3.7 5.8 163 238 46 55 N/A 5 38.5 42
Palm oil 0.856 4.56 167.3 61 N/A N/A 39.8
Rubber seed oil 0.860 5.81 130 37 4 -8 36.5
Karanja 0.890 4.85 180 58 13 15 -3 34 38
Honge oil 0.870 5.84 170 N/A N/A N/A 36.1
Cotton 0.912 50 210 41.2 59.5 N/A N/A 39.6
Pongamia pinnata 0.913 27.84 205 45 67 N/A N/A 34
Castor (Ricinus communis) N/A 297 260 N/A N/A N/A 39.5
Sunflower (Helianthus annus) 37.1 274 37.1 N/A N/A 39.575 N/A
Corn oil 0.884 0.890 4.17 4.21 88 192 60.9 N/A N/A 37.5
Mohr oil based 0.870 N/A N/A 56 N/A N/A 37.5
Canola oil 0.837 0.886 4.2 4.5 94 183 49 52.9 N/A N/A 36.55 40.5
Rapeseed oil 0.882 4.439 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
 BIOFUELS 5

Table 11. Various extracellular lipases used for biodiesel pro- hour with conventional transesterification. The separa-
duction [103]. tion step was completed within 30 minutes compared
Biodiesel yield(Y)/
Lipase Feedstock (oil) conversion(C)%
to eight hours of the conventional technique. Liao and
Candida sp. 99 125 Glycerol Y=80.6 Chung also reported a conversion of 99% at a 1:6 oil-
Candida antarctica Sunflower Y=92.7 to-methanol ratio, 1 wt% NaOH catalyst loading and
Novozyme 435
Candida antarctica Palm C=100 3 mL/minute flow rate using a continuous microwave
Novozyme 435 system set at 80 W. Lin et al. reported a 99% biodiesel
Candida rugosa Soybean C=87
Thermomyces lanuginosus Crude palm Y=95.15
yield at one minutes, at 1:6 oil to methanol ratio, with
Lipozyme TL IM 0.75 wt% CH3ONa catalyst loading using a microwave
Rhizomucor miehei Lipozyme Soybean C=92.2 system set at 750 W, and 97% using conventional heat-
IM-77
Pseudomonas cepacia Soybean Y>80 ing at 90 minutes [60].
Pseudomonas cepacia Soybean C=90
Enterobacter aerogenes Jatropha Y=94
Burkholderia sp Olive C=70 Ultrasound mediated transesterification
Burkholderia cepacia amano Palm C=100
lipase PS
Ultrasonication has been widely used as this provides
Jatropha curcas Jatropha C=87.4 the mechanical energy for mixing to initiate a reaction
Candida antarctica Cottonseed Y=97
Novozyme 435
[86,87]. This method works with less energy consump-
Geotrichum sp. lipaseprotein Waste Y=85 tion, efficiency of cavitations which is dependent on
Candida antarctica Animal fat Y=53.3 irradiation frequency and conversion to FAME (99%)
Novozyme 435
within minutes [88]. Large amounts of catalyst have a
tendency to produce large amounts of an undesired
with FFA ranging from 0.5% to 80%. The kinetics of product [87]. Optimum condition is 1% (w/w) catalyst,
Rhizopus oryzae lipase indicates conversion of oil to 6:1 methanol to oil ratio and time of 9 min.
alkyl esters at temperatures in the range 30 40 C.
Employing R. oryzae lipase in soybean oil with
Optimization of biodiesel
methanol is a solvent-free system successive reac-
tion mechanism [73]. Optimizing by response is influenced by several
parameters to increase the production yield and
reduce production costs [12,13,89 94]. Parameters
Immobilized enzyme catalyzed such as oil/methanol molar ratio, temperature, catalyst
transesterification concentration and time having an effect on the con-
version to biodiesel have been evaluated using RSM.
The immobilization of lipases should be applicable in
ANOVA analysis explains the quality of process model
both batch and fixed bed processes with suitable sup-
with great significance [95 97].
ports [74] (magnetic nanoparticles) as hold up for
Response Surface Methodology is used to optimize
immobilization [75] by covalent linkage between the
process variables when potassium hydroxide as the
amino acid residue [76,77]. There may be drawbacks
catalyst shows 99% yield. Current research through
on a large industrial scale, such as cost, reuse and
RSM indicates the optimal values for the transesterifi-
denaturation of enzymes [5,78]. A likely alternative to
cation is about 60 C (temperature), 1%, KOH,1:3 meth-
overcome these drawbacks is the immobilization of
anol oil ratio, 45 min, with yield of 99.1%. R2 value of
enzymes on a different kind of support [79].
the models of RSM and artificial neural network (ANN)
shows deviations 0.3%, which shows that ANN is more
efficient than RSM.
Microwave mediated transesterification
The microwave irradiation method is an alternative to
Artificial neural network
the conventional heating system requiring less reac-
tion time [80 83]. Microwaves are electromagnetic Commercial ANN software, CPC-X Software (Neural
waves with frequencies between 300 MHz and Power version 2.5) is employed for the study. The
300 GHz. Microwaves activate polar molecules and learning algorithm such as genetic algorithm, batch
heat is generated due to molecular resistance back propagation, quickprob, and incremental back
[80,84,85]. The efficiency of using microwave irradia- propagation, use the multilayer feed system such as
tion shows about 98% conversion to biodiesel after full feed forward and multilayer normal feed forward.
five minutes of microwave assisted transesterification ANN architecture is composed of an input layer (four
with methanol at an oil-to-alcohol ratio of 1:6 with neurons), an output layer (h a hidden layer) and output
NaOH as a catalyst. Refaat and Sheltawy reported a layers (hyperbolic tangent [Tanh], Gaussian, sigmoid,
100% biodiesel yield through the microwave irradia- bipolar linear, linear, threshold linear) to explain topol-
tion application after two minutes, which took one ogy. The experimental data is composed of both
6 R. SELVARAJ ET AL.
training variable and testing variable. The variables
(Time, Temperature, Microwave power) are quantified
by Minitab. ANN is a tool with great applications in pro-
duction. Recently, Researcher assessed the perfor-
mance of ANN in the transesterification of oil which
shows that ANN is a better tool than RSM.
Conclusion
Renewable resources are alternatives to non-renew-
able sources for methyl ester production. An alterna-
tive method is mandatory to convert the biomass
(feedstock) to fuel energy. Various methods for biodie-
sel production were reviewed. Microwave and ultraso-
nication technologies have the advantage of
combining the reaction, thereby reducing costs in the
production process due to having purer FAME. An
increase in the amount of catalyst does not produce an
increase in the yield of biodiesel. The reaction time for
microwave irradiation is reduced from hours to sec-
onds when compared with the conventional transes-
terification method for oils from various sources.
Biodiesel optimization using modeling tools ANN and
RSM were evaluated. The cost evaluation in larger scale
production could be used to predict which methods
are best for future biodiesel production.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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