General Principles of Design; Drawing and Importance of Safetyft publishing is booGeneral Principles of Desi and Importance of Safety 90D eae Chapter 1 Engineering Design Process 1 if Introduction. 1.2 Engineering Design Process 13 Design Method versus Scientific Method......3 14 Stepsin Engineering Design process v....3 15 Description of Design Process 4 16 Sequential and Concurrent Engineering.....7 Objective Brain Teasers. 8 Chapter 2 Problem Definition and Information Gathering 2.1 Introduction.. ip 22 Preliminary Research on Customer Needs ..10 23 Customer Requirement... tell 24 Establishing the Engineering Characteristics 13 25° Quality Function Deployment (QFD)ssminoou 1d 26 Product Design Specification 16 27. Gathering Information... 16, 28 Information Gathering fora Particular PDS._.17 Objective Brain Teasers... 20 Chapter 3 Generate Multiple Solution: BA MPO UCtHION nmnneiennnromman, 3.2 Introduction to Creative Thinking 3.3. Creativity and Problem Solving... 23 34 Concept Generation Methods... 26 Objective Brain Teasers. Chapter 4 Analyse and Select a Solution 4.1 Introduction... 42 Decision Making... 4.3 Evaluation Process... 44 Pugh Chart (Datum Method)..oun 4.5 EVAD (Design Evaluation) Method... 46 a7 Weighted Decision Matrix. Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), Objective Brain Teasers . Chapter 5 Embodiment Design & Detail Design 34 36 Introduction. 5.2 Product Architecture 5.3 Configuration Design 54 Parametric Design 5.5 Industrial Design... 5.6 Prototyping... 5.7 Testing. 5.8 Detail Design Objective Brain Teasers What is engineering drawing: 62 Classification of Engineering Drawing, 63 Drawing Instruments, 6A Engineering Scales. 65 Drawing Standards 6.6 Layout ofa Drawing Sheet. 67 Lines, 68 Letering. 6.9. Dimensioningsmnn p62 610 Geometric Constructions and Curves.......68 Objective Brain Teasers. Chapter 7 Orthographic Projections 7.1 Introduction... 78 7.2 Methods of Projection 78 7.3 Planes of Projection... 74 Types of Orthoaraphics Objective Brain Teasers.Preface ‘The compition of this book General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety was motivaied by the desire o provide @ concise book which can benefit sudenis toundersiand the concepts ofthis spectic topic of General Studies and Enginecting Aptitule section ‘This textbook provides all the requirements of the students, ie. comprehensive coverage of theory, fundamental concepts and objective type questions articulated in a lucid language. The concise presentation will help the readers grasp the theory of this subject with clarity and apply them with ease to solve objective questions quickly. This book not only covers the syllabus of ESE in a holistic manner but is also Useful for many other competitive examinations, Allthe topics are given the emphasis they deserve 0 that mere reading ofthe book clarifies all the concepts. ‘We have putin our sincere efforts to present detailed theary and MCQs without compromising the accuracy of answers. For the interest of the readers, some notes, do you know and interesting facts are given in the comprehensive manner. At ho end of each chapter, sets of practice question are. - retercer he o ph ‘sharpen their question solving skis. ‘Our team hias made their best effons to remove all possible errors of any kind. Nonetheless, we would highly appreciate and acknowledge if you find and share with us any printing and conceptual errors. {is impossible to thank all the individuals who helped us, bul we would like io sincerely thank all the authors, editors and reviewers for putting in thelr efforts to publish this book With Best Wishes B. Singh CMD, MADE EASYChapter 8 Projection of Points.. 81 Introduction 89 82. Projections of a Point in the First Quadrant ..89 83 Projections of a Point in Second Quadrant ...90 84 Projections of a Point in Thicd Quadrant ouu.90 85. Projections of a Point in Fourth Quadrant....91 8.6 Projections of Points Lying on Horizontal Projection Plane 87 Projections of Points Lying on Vertical Projection Plane... seonG2 Objective Brain Teasers cio8 Chapter 9 Projection of Lines.. 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Positions ofa Line with Respect to HP and VP = 9s 9.3. Projection of a Line Parallel to Both HP and VP but Contained in Neither. 95 9.4 Projection of a Line Contained in HP and Parallel to VP. 96 9.5 Projection of a Line Contained in VP and Parallel to HP 7 9.6 Projection of a Line Perpendicular to the HP and Parallel to VP. 97 9.7 Projection of a straight line perpendicular to the VP and Parallel to the HP. 9B 98 Projection of a Line Contained in the HP and Inclined to the VP. 98 99 Projection ofa Line Contained in the VP and Inclined to the HP. 99 9.10 Projection of a Line Contained in both the HP and the VP sso assis AOD, 9.11 Projection of a Line Inclined to the HP and Parallel to the VP 100 9.12 Projection ofa Line inclined to the VP and Parallel to the HPincesmnnnnvnrnece 101 9.13 Projection of a Line Inclined to both the VP and the HP. 02 9.414 Determining True Length and True inclinations ofa Line. 103 9.15 Different Positions of a Line for its Traces wart. the HP and the VP. 104 Objective Brain Teasers. 106 Chapter 10 Projections of Planes. 10. Introduction a. 108 10.2. Traces of Planes... 108 10.3 Types of Planes sos 108 10.4 Projection of Planes. 4 is 108 Objective Brain Teasers sn 10 Chapter 11 Projections of Solids. e012 11.4 Introduction. 12 11.2 Types of Solids 12 11.3. Projection of Solids 115 Objective Bain T20S045 nnn nnnes VON Chapter 12 Sections, Development & Intersection of Solids... 12.1. Section of Solids..... 12.2 Intersection of Solids... 123 Development of Surfaces Objective Brain Teasers Gio Chapter 13 Safety and Its Importance.. 13.1 Introductior 157 13.2 Need for Safety ann 157 13.3. Important Terminology sno 158 13.4 OSHA Safety and Health Program ‘Management Guidelines... Sea a59, 135 Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) xan. 160 13.6. Safety Policy... 162 13.7. Occupational Health and Safety in Indi. 164 Objective Brain Teasers crnsnercmaernnnen 170. Gite.Chapter 14 Accidents, Hazards and Risks Ubihetdens. ose 142 Hazards ee sects 179 143 Risks... veeioeeaie os 187 Objective Brain Teasers... wtinmrsiemnstsenene POR Chapter 15 Work Study and Ergonomics .. 154 Introduction... Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) 152 15.3 Risk factors inherent in the Worker... 154. Riskfactors inherent in the Task 197 15.5 Risk factors inherent in the Environment... 201 156. Conttolling Risk FaCtOFS cr 202 Objective Brain Teasers, 208 Chapter 16 Fire Safety... 209 16.1 Physics and Chemistry of Fre 209 162. Fire Properties of Solid, Liquid and Gas... 209 163 164 Fire Containment,, 165 Chi Safe 11 172 173 174 175 176 127 Fire Escape. Fite Extinguishing Agents.. Objective Brain Teasers apter 17 fety in Other Industries... Safety in Construction Safety in Demolition rom 236 Worker Safety for Highway and Road Construction Work Sites... aA Hazarclous Waste Manag@mentinacssnsne242 Electrical Safety. 245 Safety in Engineering industry 247 Safety in Agriculture.. 251 Objective Brain Teasers |11 1.2 INTRODUCTION What is Engineering? According to The American Engineers’ Council for Professional Development, engineering is defined as: “The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or ‘manufacturing processes, or works utiizing them singly or in combination; or fo construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design, orto forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, econamics of operation or safety to life and property.” So basically engineering deals with building something or improving the design of something that already exists. The discipline of engineering is extremely broad, and contains a range of more specialized ficids cof engineering, each with a more specific focus on particular areas of applied science, technology and application types. What Engineers Do? + Engineers apply the principles of science and mathematics to develop economical solutions to technical problems, Their work is the link between scientific discoveries and the commercial applications that meet the needs of consumer as well as society as a whole, + Many engineers develop new products. During this process, they consider several factors. For example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers precisely specify the functional requirements; design and test the robot's components; integrate the components to produce the final design; and evaluate the design's overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to the development ‘of many different products, such as chemicals, computers, power plants, helicopters, and toys. * This process of solving a design problem includes creating a new product or developing an existing product for better functioning. This process is called "The Engineering Process’ or ‘The Engineering Design’. This process includes a methodical series of steps that all kinds of engineers use in creating functional products and processes. ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS ‘The engineering design process can be used to achieve several different outcomes such as: + Designing of products, whether they be consumer goods such as refrigerators, power tools, or DVD players, © Designing of highly complex products such as a missile system or a jet transport plane. * Designing of a complex engineered system such as an electrical power generating station or a petrochemical plant The emphasis of this course is a product design because its an area in which many engineers will apply their design skillsGeneral Principles of Design, Drawing and tmportance of Safety STAM Geni Saucies a RU cnginvoring Aptitude 1.2.1 Importance of the Engineering Design Process (Goods or services are basis for an organizations existence. A company’s growth and survival depends on the profits eamed by the company through its proclucts and services, in a highly comettiva m: engineering design process becomes very important owing to following factors 0} & ore Manufacturing 60: 40 Percentage of procuct cost commited Tune (nontinear) Fig. 1.1 Product cost commitment during phases ofthe design process * Only smal action ofthe costo produce a produet (approximately 6%) is involved with the design | ronutara acne aman 95% of costs consumed by the materials, capital and labour to | manulacture fe product. the design proves 1 be faulty ust before the product goos to merket | will cO8t a great deal of money to correct the problem, | * One ofthe aspect of quality isto incorporate within the product, the performance by the customer that are truly derived by the oy m ‘The ote-woncepror product quality was that Itis achieved by inspecting the product as it come of the production line Today we realize that true quality is designed into the product. * Another important area where engineering design determines product ‘competitiveness is product vole time, Cycle time refers othe development time required to bring a new product to market, Not only does the reduced eye tine in-rease the marketabilty ofa procluct, butt reduces the cost of Product developments. Furthermore, the longer a product is available forsale, the more sales and profits there will be 1.2.2. Types of Designs Engineering design can be undertaken or many diferent reasons, and it may take diferent forms. * Original design or innovative design: This form of design is at the top of the hierarchy. 4 truly criginal design involves invention. Successful original design's occur rarely, but when they occur, they disrupt and overtake existing markots, * Adaptive design: This form of design occurs when a known solution is applied to satisfy a different need and a completely new application is produced, * Redesign: This type of design is employed much more frequently. in this, engineering design is employed to improve an existing design. Its obtain accomplished without any, ‘change in the working Principle or concept of original design. * Selection design: Mast designs employ standard components such as bearings, small motors or Pumps that are supplied bby vendors specialization in their manufacture and sale Therefore, in this, | | | | imape easy General rinciplesof Design 3 ‘case the design task consists of selecting the components with the needed performance, quality, and cost from the catalogs of potential vendors, © Industrial design: This form of design deals with improving the appeal of a product to the human senses, especially its visual appeal, While this type of design is more artistic than engineering, itis avital aspect of many kinds of design. 1.3. DESIGN METHOD VERSUS SCIENTIFIC METHOD While scientists study how nature works, engineers create new things, such as products, websites, environments, and experiences. As engineers and scientists have different objectives, they follow ifferent processes in their work. Scientists perform experiments using scientific method; whereas, engineers follow the creativity based engineering design process, Scienceis concemed with creating knowledge about naturally occurring phenomena and objects, while design is concerned with creating knowledge about phenomena and objects of artificial, Artificial objects are those made by humans (or by art) rather than, nature. Fig. 1.2 Steps in Scientific method 1.4 STEPS IN ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS ‘The Steps Used for Solving Design Problems are, 1. Define the Problem 2. Gather Pertinent Information 3. Generate Multiple Solutions 4. Analyze and Select a Solution 5. _Testand Implement the Solution 1. Define the Problem / ENGINEERING \ | prsIGn Fig. 1.3 Steps in Engineering Design Processeneral Principles 1, Dray an ortance of Saf General Studies & (ec ples of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety ans ca ais 8 1.5 DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN PROCESS = _OONCEPTUALDESIGN + Random api Teh. + Synectics + Concept map: + Prelimanary slscion ot ‘Materials and manufacturing * DFM, DEA, DFE _ Processes + Tolerances + Modelling - | Fig. 1.4 The design activities that make Up the first three phases of the engineering design proces { "TRE Steps Mentioned in previous article can be broken down further to what we call as description of design process or morphology of design, Figure given above shows the various activities that make up the first three phases of design: conceptual design, embodiment design, and detail design. This eight Step set of design activities is representation of the basic. design process. 1.5.1 Phase-I: Conceptual Design Conceptual Design is an umirelia term given to all forms of non-aesthetic design management disciplines. I's an early phase othe design process, in which the broad outines of unctic, and forms are articulated, ILincluces the design of interactions, experiences, processes and Strategies. involves an understanding ot People’s needs ~ and how to meet them with products, services, and processes. Common artifacts of Conceptual design are concept sketches and models, The following are the discrete actives that we consider under conceptual design: *_[Gentitication ofcustomer needs: The goal of this activity isto completely understand the customers’ needs and to communicate them to the design team, * Problem defrition: The goal of this activity is to create a statement that describes what has to be Eccomplshed to satisy the needs of the customer. This involves analysis of Competitive products, the establishment of target specifications, and the listing of eonetraints any trade-offs, Quality Function Deployment (QFD)is a valuable tool for linking custome needs with design requirements. A detailed listing ofthe product requirements is called a product design specification (PDs), * Gathering information: Engineering design presents special requirements over engineering research in the need to acquire a broad spectrum of information,MADE ERSY General Principles of Design 15.2 © Conceptualizetion: Concept generation involves creating @ broad set of concepts that potentially satisfy the problem statement. Tearn-based creativity methods, combined with efficient information gathering are the key activities. + Concept selection: Evaluation of the design concepts, modifying and evolving intoa single preferred concept, are the activities in this step. The process usually requires several interaction. © Refinement of tha PDS: The product design specification is revisited after the concept has been selected. The design team must commit to achieving certain critical values of design parameters, usually called critical-to-quality (CTQ) parameters and to living with trade-offs between cost and performance * Design review: Before committing funds to move to the next design phase, a design review will be held, The design review will assure that the design is physically realizable and thatitis economically worthwhile, Itwil also look at a detailed product-development schedule. This is needed to devise a strategy to minimize product cycle time and to identify the resources in people, equipment, and money neaded to complete the project. Phase- mbodiment Design The embodiment process is the bridge between the conceptual stage of the design process and the detail design stage. A more detailed analysis of the selected concepts is undertaken in the embodiment stage ofthe design process. Subjects covered include a definitive layout, preliminary form design (component shapes and materials), preliminary production information (design for manufacture and assemiiy), materials and process selection and industrial design. However, the main aimis to establish concept development to refine concept sketches as a distinct stage in the design process by identifying the steps and rules employed, The input to the embodiment stage is often little more than an outline sketch and associated project controlling documentation such as PDS or design requirements, The output is a definitive scheme ‘drawing accompanied by documentation, such as calculations, required dimension and tolerances and suggested materials and manufacturing processes. It also includes appearance, shape, style and size. Materials and process details are not included in this stage. Embodiment design is not solely the achieving of technical solutions but also creating useful products, which satisty and appealto the users. This design phase is sometimes called as preliminary design. Embodiment design is concerned with three major tasks - product architecture, configuration design, and parametric design. «© Product architecture: Product architecture is concerned with dividing the overall design system into subsystems or modules. in this step we decide how the physical components of the design are tobe arranged and combined to carry out the functional duties of the design. * Configuration design of parts and components: Parts are made up of features like holes, ribs, splines, and curves. Configuring a part means to determine what features will be present and how those features are to be arranged in space relative to each other. While modelling and simulation may bbe performed in this stage to check out function and spatial constraints, only approximate sizes are determined to assure that the part satisfies the PDS. Also, more specificity about materials and manufacturing is given here. The generation of a physical model of the part with rapid prototyping processes may be appropriate. © Parametric design of parts: Parametric design starts with information on the configuration of the part and aims to establish its exact dimensions and tolerances. Final decisions on the material and manufacturing processes are also established if this has not been done previously. An important aspect af parametric design is to examine the part, assembly, and system for design robustness. Robustnessreiers to how consistently a component performs under variable conditions in its service153 154 Fr — ERRRETETG . Serer stcies Engineering Aptitude ena nment. Parametric design also deals with determining the aspects of the design that could lead fo failure. Another important consideration in parametric design is to design in such away that Manufacturability is enhanced Phase-til: Detail Design translation to source is a precise mapping instead of a fought interpretation, This is the phase where the ‘esign is refined and plans, specications andestimates are created, Detailed design will include outputs Such as 2D and 3D models, cast bulld up estimates, procurement Plans etc. This phase is where the full Cost Of the project is identiied, In the detail design phase the following activities are completed and documents are prepared: * Detailed engineering drawings suitable for, ‘manufacturing, Routinely these are computetgenerated Srewings, and they often include three-dimensional CAD models *_Neilication testing of prototypes is successfully completed and verification data is submitted, Ail crileal-to-quality parameters are confirmed to be under contro! Usually the building and testing of Several preproduction versions ofthe product willbe accomplished * Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also will be completed. The bill of materials for ali assemblies will be completed, * Adotaited product specification, updated with all the changes made since the conceptual design phase, will be prepared * Decisions on whether to make each part internally o to. buy from an external supplier will be made. * With the preceding information, a detailed cost estimate for the roduc! will be carried out. nally detait design conctades with a design review botore the decision is made to pass the design information on the manufacturing, Phase-IV: Planning for Manufacture A great deal of detail planning must be done to provide for the Production of the design. A method of Manulacture must be established for each component in the system. As a usual first step, a process sheetis created; it contains a sequential list of al ‘manufacturing operations that must be performed on the is important at this step The other important tasks performed in phase IV are the following: * Designing specialized tools and fixtures * Specifying the production plant that willbe used (or Gesigning @ new plant) and laying out the production lines. * Planning the work schedules and inventory controls (production control) * Planning the quality assurance system, * Establishing the standard time and labor costs for each operation * Establishing the system of information flow necessity fo Gontrol the Manufacturing operation, Allof these tasks are generally considered to fall within industrial of Manufacturing engineering,mane EASu GeneralPrinciples of Design 1.5.5 Phase-V; Planning for Distribution The economic success of the design often depends on the skill exercised in marketing the product, Ifitis a consumer product, the sales effort is concentrated on advertising in print and video media, but highly technical products may require that the marketing step be a technical activity supported by specialized sales brochures, performance test data, and technically trained sales engineers. 1.5.6 Phase-Vi: Planning for Use The use of the product by the consumer is all-important, and considerations of how the consumer will react to the product pervade all step of the design process. The following specific topics can be damnified as being important user-oriented concerns in the design process: ease of maintenance, durability, reliability, product safety, convenience inuse (human factors engineering), aesthetic appeal, and economy of operation, Obviously, these consumer oriented issues must be consicered in the design process at its very beginning. They are not issues to be treated as after afterthoughts. 1.5.7 Phase-VIl: Planning for Retirement of Product The final step in the design process is the disposal of the product when it has reached the end of ts useful life. Useful life may be determined by actual deterioration and wear to the point at which the design can no ‘onger function, or it may be determined by technological obsolescence, in which a competing design performs the product's functions either better or cheaper. In consumer products, it may come about through changes in fashion or taste. 1.6 SEQUENTIAL AND CONCURRENT ENGINEERING Taditional engineering, also known as Sequential Engineering, is the process of marketing, engineering design, manufacturing, testing and production where each stage of the development process is carried out separately, and the next stage cannot start until the previous stages finished. Therefore, the information flows only in one direction and itis not until the end of the chain that occurs changes and corrections can be relayed to the start of the sequence, causing estimated costs to be under predicted. This can cause many problems; such as time consumption due to many modifications being made as each stage does not take into account the next, This method is hardly used today, as the concept of Concurrent Engineering is more efficient. Concurrent Engineering brings together muttidisciplinary teams, in which product developers from different functions work together and in parallel with the intention of getting things right as quickly as possible, and as early as possible, Sometimes, only design engineers and manufacturing engineers are involved in Concurrent Engineering, Inother cases, the cross-functional teams include representatives trom purchasing, marketing, production, quality assurance, the field and other functional groups. Sometimes customers and suppliers are also included in the team. In the Concurrent Engineering approach to development, input is obtained from as ‘many functional areas as possible before the specifications are finalized Concurrent Engineering provides benefits such as reduced product development time, reduced design’ rework, reduced product development cost and improved communications. Concurrent Engineering is greatly facilitated by the use of computer aided engineering. Concurrent engineering is a team based approach in which all aspects of the product development process are fepresented on a closely communicating team. Team members perform their jobs in an overlapping and Concurrent manner so as to minimize the time for product development. A computer database in the form of a solid model that can be accessed by all members of the design team,8 Gene Sof Design Drawing and importance of Safety EER | Genera stuciesa a nance 1g and import aay ~ fagineering Aptitude Computer aided engineering became a reality when the Power of the PC work station, and later the laptop PC, became great enough at an acceptable cost to free the design engineer from the limitations of the ‘mainirame computer. Bringing the computing power of the Mainframe computer to the desktop of the design engineer has created great opportunites for more creative, reliable, and cost-etlective designs, Example 1, i Consider the following steps which are used while Solving the design problems: 1. Analyze and select optimum solution 2. Identity the problem and gather pertinent information 3. Test and implement the solution 4. Generate multiple solutions What ls the correct sequence of order for the design process? (a) 2, 1,4 anda (b) 1,4, 3.and2 () 2,4, 1and3 (d) 4,4, 2and3 {Sample Question for ESE 2017: Released by UPSC] Ans. (c) ean tery Q.1 Concurrent engineering is implemented by involving a cross-functional tearm for design, production, testing and operational work (a) During the project execution (b) Long before the Project execution (c) Towards the end of the Project execution (qd) After completion of the project execution Ans. (b) [Q,ovictive sean teary Q.1 What is the first step in technological design (©) Implementing the design process? {d) Evaluating the solution Or product ithe if it ir 2 ae a ee Q4 Duringwhich Step of the design process do: you i 2 (©) Coming up with ideas for a new product feat Ie solution or product (©) Recognizing the need for a solution to a {3} Identity a problem or need problem (b) Design @ solution or product (4) None of these (©) Evaluate the solution or product (@) Implement the design Q.2 What is the last step in engineering design process? {@) Identity a problem or need (0) Evaluate the solution or the product (©) Design a solution (d) Implement the design Q.5 Which sentence describe a way scientific investigation and technological design are similar? (@) Both start with a hypothesis (0) Both produce a product to make life easier (¢) Both involve analyzing results of tests 3 When engineers develop a model, which step in (@) All of the above the engineering process is taking place Q6 | Ita design flaw is discovered, what is the next (@) Identifying a problem or need logical step for the design team? (b) Design a solution or product (@) Test the prototype againmmoe east az a6 (b) Scrap the project and start again (6) Modify the design to solve the problem (A) Obtain more money to support continued research is the simultaneous design and development ofallthe processes andinformation needed to produce a product, to sell it, to distribute it, and to service it (a) Concurrent engineering (6) Simultaneous engineering (©) Integrated product development (d) Allof the above ‘Statement (I): Concurrent engineeringis superior tosequential engineering Statement (Il): Concurrent engineering decreases product development time as well as cost. General PrinciplesofDesign 9 {a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and Statement (Il) is the correct explanation of Statement (1). (b) Both Statement (|) and Statement (I!) are individually true but Statement (II) is NOT the correct explanation of Statement (I). (c) Statement (|) is true but Statement (II) is false. (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true. (c) 7. (d) 8. (a)2.1 2.2 INTRODUCTION This chapter emphasizes the customer satisfaction aspect of problem definitan, an approach not always {aken in engineering design. This view turns the design problem definition process into the identification of ‘what outcome the customer or end user othe procuct wants to achieve, Therefore, product development, the problem definition process is mainly the need identification step. The need identification methods in inis chapter crew heavily on processes introduced and proven effective by the total quality management (TQM) movement. TQM emphasizes customer satisfaction, The chapter ends by proposing an outine ofthe product design specification (POS), which serves as the Governing documents for the product design. A design team must generate a starting PDS al this point in the design process to guide its design generation, However, he PUS is an evolving document that will not be finalized unti the detail design phase of the POP process PRELIMINARY RESEARCH ON CUSTOMER NEEDS Aproblem can be regarded as a difference between the actual situation and the desired situation This means that in order to identify a problem the team must know where itis meant to be and have a clear understanding of where it currently isin relation to the perceived problem. The Team Purpose, the Taam —__ perational Plan’ can be used to identify where the team should be. if an organized and structured planning process has been followed then the desired position and performance of the tearm should be clear. However, when a problem arises itis always worthwhile to involve the lear members in identlying and understanding the gap between the actual situation and the desired situation ‘This helps to ensure that al team members understand that a problem exists and that they are an inegral art in relying the situation in this step it's important to clearly describe and document whal you and the team consider the problem to be, This helps to ensure that agreement is reached as tothe problem and provides a starting point for resolving the problem. Describing the problem also ensures that any confusion about the problem is identified and resolved, Gathering Information from Customers: tis the customer's desires that ordinarily drive tho development Of the product, not the engineer’ vision of what the customer should want. Information on the custemer's needs is obtained through a variety of channels. interviews with customers: Active marketing and sales forces should be continuously meeting with Current and potential customers. Some corporation have account teams whose responsibil o visit key Customer accounts to probe for problem areas and to cultivate and maintain friendly contact, They report information tocurent product strengths and weaknesses that willbe helpful in product upgrades. An even better approachis fr the design team to interview single customers in the service environment where tho product will be used, Focus groups: A focus group is a moderated discussion with 6to 12 customers or targeted customers of & Product, The moderator isa facilitator who use prepared questions to guide the discussion about themane EAs General Principles of Design W 2.3 merits and disadvantages of the product. Often the focus group occurs in a room with a one way window that provides for videotaping of the discussion. In both the interviews and the focus groups itis important to record the customer's response in his or her own words. Allinterpretation is withheld unil the analyses of results. Customer complaints: A sure way to learn about needs for product improvement is from customer complaints, These may be recorded by communications (by telephone, letter or email) to a customer information department, service centre or warranty department, ora return centre at a larger retail outlet Third party Internet websites can be another source of customer input on customer satisfaction with a product. Purchase sites often include customer rating information. Savvy marketing department monitor these sites for information on their products and competing product. Warranty data: Product service centres and warranty departments are a rich and important source of data on the quality of an existing product. Statistics on warranty claims can pinpoint design defects. Customer survey: A written questionnaire is best used for gaining opinions about the redesign of existing products or new products that are well understood by the public. (Innovative new products are better explored with interviews or focus groups.) Other common reasons for conducting a survey are to identity or prioritize problems and to assess whether an implemented solution to a problem was successful. A survey can be done by main, e-mail, telephone or in person CUSTOMER REQUIREMENT Information gathered from customers and research on products from market literature and experimentation contributes to creating a ranked listing of customer needs andwants, These are the needs that form the ends user's opinion about the quality of a product. As odd asit may seem, customers may not express all their requirements of a product when they are interviewed, Ifa feature has become standard on a product {e.g., a temote control on a TV) itis stil a need but no longer excites the end user, and they may forget to mention it. To understand how that can happen and how the omissions can be mitigated, itisnecessary to reflect on how customers perceive “needs.” From a global viewpoint, we should recognize thet there is a hierarchy of human needs that motivate individuals in general + Physiological needs such as thirst, hunger, sleep, shelter and exercise, These consitute the basic needs of the body, and until they are satisfied, they remain the prime influence on the individual's behavior. * Safety and security needs, which include protection against danger, deprivation, and threat. When the bodily needs are satisfied, the safety and security needs become dominant. * Social needs for love and esteem by others. These needs include belonging to groups, group identity, and social acceptance. + Psychological needs for self-esteem and self-respect and for accomplishment and recognition + Self-fulfillment needs for a realization of one's full potential through self-development, creativity and self-expression As each need in this hierarchy is satisfied, the emphasis shifts to the next higher need. Our design problem should be related to the basic human needs, some of which may be so obvious that in our modern technological society they are taken for granted. However, within each basic needs there is a hierarchy of problem situation. As the type | problem situations are solved, we move to the solution of higher-level problems within each category of basic need. Itis characteristics of our advanced affluent society that, as we move toward the solution of type II and III problem situations, the perception of the need by society as a whole becomes less universal12 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety eazy oe studs ~ = Engineering Aptitude 231 Differentiating Views of Customer Requirements From a dosign team point of view, the customer requirements ftinto a broader picture of the POP. requirements, ‘which include product performance, time to market, cost, and quality * Performance deats with what the design should do when itis completed and in operation, Design teams do not blindly adopt the customer requirements set determined thus far. However, that set is the foundation used by the design team. Other factors may include requirements by intemal customers (e-g., manufacturing) or large retail distributors, * The time dimension includes ail time aspects of the design. Currently, much effort ia being given to ‘educing the POP cycle time, also known as the time to marke, for new products. For many consumer Products, the first to market with a great product captures the market * Cost pertains to all monetary aspects of the design. It is a paramount consideration of the design team, When all other customer requirements ate roughly equal, cost determines most customers" buying decisions. From the design team’s point of view, cost is a result of many design decisions and most often be used to make trade-offs among features and deadlines. * Quality is ¢ complex characteristic wth many aspects and definitions. A. good definition of. quality for the design team is the totality of features and characteristics ofa product or service that bear on its ability of satisfy stated or implied needs, Amore inclusive customer requirement than the four listed above is value. Valu is the worth of a product of service. It can be expressed by the function provided divided by the cost, or the quality provided Givdded by the cost. Studies of large, successful companies have shown that the return on investment Correlated with high market share and high quality According to Joseph Juran, the term quality of part (or product or component) should refer tothe product ‘eatures that meet customers’ needs and satisfaction, and to avoidance from deficiencies that would minimize the chance oH failure of the-p: Table 2.1 Quality Characteristics Dimensions Description Performance . | Does the product perform to Its standards? Does the product Provide the interned service? Features | what adatinal benefits may be added othe product? Wil there be any tangible ornon-tangible benefit? Reliability {s the product consistent? Will it perform well over its lifetime and performconsistentty? Durabiticy How durable isthe product? Willitlastwith daily use? Conformance | Does your product meet with any agreed intemal and national specifications? Serviceability | isthe product easyto service? ‘Aesthaties jpealing tothe eye? Perceived Qualiy| What sort of quay perception does the marketing eam wan io ‘convey in the marketing message? Will price charged reflect the {quality ofthe product? 2.3.2 Classifying Customer Requirements Not al customer requirements are equal. This essentially means that customor requirements (or their Baseline level of Joseph Juran’ dimensions fora quality product) have diferent values for citerent people,mAOE ERS General Principles ofDesign 1B 2.4 The design team must identify those requirements that are most important to the success of the product ints target market and must ensure that those requirements and the needs they meet for the customers are satisfied by the product, A Kano diagram is a good tool to visually partition customer requirements into categories thal will allow for their prioritization, Kano recognized that there are four levels of customer requirements Designed 1 High satisfaction Performancelinear Exciters and delighters, Fully implomentect high gualty performance Absent Quality fr performance eee Thresholdlbasic (must haves) Low satisfaction Disgusted Fig, 2.1 Kano diagram 1. Expecters: These are the basic attributes thal the one would expect to see in the product, i. Standard fealure. Expecters are frequently easy to measure and are used often in benchmarking, 2. Spokens: These are the specific features that customers say they want in the product, Because the customer defines the product in terms of these attributes, the designer must be willing to provide them to satisfy the customer. 3, Unspokens: These are product attributes the customer does not generally talk about, but they Yemain important to him or her. They cannot be ignored. They may be attributes the customer simply forgot to mention or was unwilling to talk about or simply does not realize he or she wants. It takes great skillon the part of the design team to identify the unspoken requirements 4. Exciters: Often called delighters, these are product features, that make the product unique and distinguish it from the competition. Note that the absence of an exciter will not make customers unhappy, since they do not know that is missing. ESTABLISHING THE ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS Establishing the engineering characteristics isa critical step toward writing the product design specication, ‘The process of identifying the needs thal a product must fillis a complicated undertaking, Earlier sections Of this chapter focused on gathering and understanding the total picture ol what the customer wants {rom @ product. A major challenge of this step is to hear and record the fullness of customer ideas without applying assumptions. Just knowing what a customer or end user wants from a product is not sufficient for generating designs. The design process only proceeds into concept generaition once the product is so welll described that it meets with the approval of groups of technical and business discipline specialists and managers. The description fashioned for the approval to start design generation must be a set of all known design14 General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety EEIATERY real suds . ig 9 1p y ED engincering Aptitude 24.1 24.2 243 2.5 aerena ets: Constraints and variables. This set is comprised of solution neutral specilications, meaning {hat the specification at this time should not be so complete as to suggest a single concept or class of concepts Customers cannot descrive the product they want in engineering characteristics because they lack the knowledge base and expertise. Engineering and design professionals are able to doseribe Products in solution neutral form because they can imagine the physical parts and components that oreate specific, behaviors, Benchmarking Benchmarking is a process for measuring a company/s operations agains! the best practices of ‘companies both inside and outside of their industry, Benchmarking operates most effectively on a quid pro quo basis as an exchange of information between Companies that are not direct competitors but can learn from each othe's business operations. Other Sources or ciscovering best practices include business partners (e.g.,amajr supplier to your company), business in the same supply chain (og, automobile manufacturing suppliers), companies in collaborative And cooperative grouns, orindustry consultants, Sometimes trade or professional associations can facile Benchmarking exchanges, More often, requires good contracts and offering information trom your own company that may seem useful to the companies you benchmark. Competitive Performance Benchmarking Competitive performance benchmarking volves testing a company's ploduct against the best in class thal can be found in the cutrent marketplace, Its an important stap for making comparisons'in the design andl manufacturing of preducts. Benchmarking is used to develop performance data needled to set functions pxPeblations for new products and to classify competition in the marketplace. Compatitive performance Benchmarking Compares the performance of company’s product to the market's leading products Benchmarking is a logical starting point in determining engineering characteristics { ” Reverse Engineering Aprocess siilar fo but more narrow than benchmarking is reverse engineering, Reverse engineering is another name for product dissection. In its most unsavory embodiment, reverse engineering is done for {he sole purpose of copying a product, Reverse engineering gives a snapshot of haw other designers have combined purts to meet customer needs. Product dissection entails the dismantling of a product to determine the selection and arrangement of Component parts and gain insight about how the productis made. The “teardown” of a product is often a arto! product benchmarking, but without the intent of copying the destan. However, the collection o ths ‘ype ol Benchmark information provides a better understanding ofthe solutions selected by the, ‘competition. Engineers do reverse engineering to discover information that they cannot aocess anyother way. The best Information about @ product is the complete product development file. This would include the product sign specification and all other detail design document, Reverse engineering can showa design team ‘what ine competition has done, butt will not explain why the choices were made. Designers doing reverse Fee tild Should be careful not to assume that they are seeing the best design of their competition Factors other than creating the best performance influence all design processes and are not capturedin the physical description of the product. QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT {QFD) Gualy Function Deployment QD), often refered to as listening to tho voice othe customer isa structured method for ransiating customer equitements into appropriate engineering characteristics lor each stagemape ensy General Principlesof Design 15 of product development and production. Itis a way to develop a design aimed at satisfying the consumer and translate the consumer's demands into design targets and major quality assurance points to be used throughout the production stage. Traditional quality systems focus on reducing negative quality, (Are there any defects? Is aur service oor?) QFD is different because it looks for customer requirements and maximizes positive quality that creates value. (Is the product fun and easy to use?) QFD can be used in product development, business, site and test planning, and problem solving. Itis used in the aerospace, manufacturing, software and IT, defense, government, healthcare and service industries, The QFD Matrix: The QFD matrix has typically two parts 1. The horizontal part, which contains customer information. It ists the customer's needs and wants and determines their relative importance. It also lists customer feedback and complaints 2. The vertical part, which contains technical information that responds to customer input. It ranslates ‘customer needs and wants into language that can be measured, examines the relationship between Customer and technical requirements, and contains competitive technical data, the targets or goals set by a company to achieve competitiveness. Reon Customer Requiremonts “Reone ‘Target Values: Fig. 2.2 A Basic Quality Function Deployment Matrix The target value - the level of performance that needs to be achieved to meet the perceived outcome of an organization's QFD project is determined by comparing the customers’ evaluations to the competitive technical assessments. The co-relationships of the technical requirements are then examined. The objective is to locate any requirements that conflict with each other. Other sections can be added io the matrix depending on a company's needs and the services it provides. Benefits of QFD: There are several benefits to using QFD. Besides requiring fewer resources than other quality tools, it can: * Improve a company's processes, products or services, + Produce a faster outcome than other methods can, * Give definition to the design process.i i i Generat Stucios 16 General Pringles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Sefety ETRE, Ceotstudins + Help ateam stay focused, * Allow for easy management and peer review of design activities, * Help present the information graphical “Leave ihe team well positioned in case it needs to improve upon its results for luture processes, products or services. 2.6 PRODUCT DESIGN SPECIFICATION ‘The product design specification (POS)is a document created during the problem definition activity very Carly inthe design process. i details he requirements thatmust be mein order or the product or proces, to be Successil, The document iays the groundwork or all engineering design activin andl anstros that allrelevant factors are accounted for and all stakeholders are heard from, Guidlines for writing a PDS: * Start wring your PDS eatlyin the design process, typicllyas soon as youhave established engineering requirements and done sutticient research, * The PDSisallving document, thats, it will get larger as more about the design isknown. That being S210, you should not change existing specifications unless a major design change is encountered * emomber the PDS represents what you are trying to achiove, you should NEVER change it to what has already been achieved + Write a PDF in list format, not as an essay. * Quanity your parameters. Use target goals. So not “Light Weight” but rather ‘weight 1 be less than Bklograms”. If you are unsure ofa specific parameter, estimate a value and adjust your PDF al 2 later date, 2.7 GATHERING INFORMATION The need for information permeates th gineering desigrror process design process. By placing the Gathering Information step between the Problem Definition and Concept Genotation steps, we are emphasizing the critical nee for information to achieve a crealive concept solution, The gathering of Cesian information Is not atvial task. requires knowledge ofa wide spectrum of information sources These sources are, in increasing order of specificity * The World Wide Web, and its access to digital databases * Business catalogs and other trade literature * Government technical reports and business data * Published technical iterature, including trade magazines * Network of professional fiends, aided by e-mail * Network of professional colleagues at work * Corporate consultants Wen stating to define a problem and develop a specication the frst flood of information wil cour in a ranclom mari. tis essential, therefore, hat everything is recorded, inespectve of whether or not the Televance of the information is immediately recognized. The lis of questions and answore shoule Subseqvenl be examined, organized under broad headings and expanded as thought appropriate In effect, intial thoughts and information should be recorded in an organized manner. 2.7.1 Continuous information Gathering ‘The average designer devotes 10% of their time to searctiing for information, Searching for information is G necessary el ahough regarded as the major nonproducive part ofa designers working hours, The arn {herefore must be to carry out the information seeking taskas eficiently as is possiblemace EASY General PrinciplesofDesign 7 2.8 ‘There must be a clear identification of the purpose of the search and the type of information which is required. Then the search is carried out, information located and obtained. The next stage is extremely important. A search will often identify many potential sources of information ang an inevitable consequence is that at least some of this information will not prove relevant to the problem at hand, This information should be discarded, Itis essential that all information is filed for easy retrieval and highlighting potentially interesting areas will greatly assist this retrieval process. Any professional person should ensure that they keep up to date with developments in their sphere of interest. This is particularly true for scientific and technical disciplines since these subject areas develop rapidly. However, the problems faced by a design engineer can be so diverse that itis impossible to read all the relevant literature. Therefore, the designer ‘must optimize reading time and be as efficient as possible ‘The sources of information most useful in tackling a particular problem are impossible to predict. They will vary with the depth of knowledge and experience of the engineering designer concemed, with the timescale of the project and the amount of data provided in the design brief or PDS. The list of sources following should not be considered as comprehensive since there are an almost infinite number of such sources. Anote should be made of all sources of information searched even ifthe result is that no relevant information is found. This will prevent a future repeat of the exercise. Otten a zero result is as valuable as a positive result since the major problem with any search is confidence that all avenues of investigation have been followed. INFORMATION GATHERING FOR A PARTICULAR PDS The information required cannot easily be categorized but falls mainly under the following brosd headings. Context Specifications SS a | Design Briet (Compettion Confidentiality Performance Patents Copyright Market Financial Company Security Environment Documentation ‘information Required for Specification Company | Requirements Thy Procedures Teetaology base Resources Fruits Dovelopmont plan Fig. 2.3 Wilting for a particular POS ‘The Design Brief Within this document itis necessary to outline the four broad categories of requirements: © Performance requirements such as loads, speeds and strength + Market requirements such as whether the product is targeted at mass markets, a group of specific people, individuals or a single customer © Company requirements such as the use of in-house or external resources and the use of specific processes. itis inevitable that some overlap occurs in the categories of information search. Company requirements are usually contained in the brief but offen require more detailed attention for @ PDS. + Environmental requirements such as noise levels, emissions and recyclabiliy18 Sener Princiies of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety (ESEENSTRGR! Se sucess Engineering Aptitude Context {n examining the context ofthe product answers are sought to questions such as: * Donational or international specifications already exist? * Are the customers external or internal and who are they? + Willanyone else read the PDS and do they require different information? * Are you fully aware of the customers needs? * Doyou have up to date knowledge of competitors’ products? * Are there any patents restricting product development? Confidentiality The nature of the information to be included in the POS may dictate certain levels of, confidentiality, Again, answers toa series of questions such as those listed should be sought * [8 the information required available or confidential? ° Are there copyright issues? * Ate there matters of financial confidentiality? * Are there matters of national or organizational security that may be relevant? * Arethere company procedures with respect to the documentation of such information? Product Development It's an advantage to have knowledge of the product history, such as previous failures or particularly successful features, Questions which should be considered include * Inthe history ofthe product or simiar product is there knowledge of * faults which have occurred? * the causes of faults? + manufacturing or assembly difficulties? * _Isknowledge of current technological capabiltis ofthe required level? * _Isthe product development programme clearly explained and understood? Company Requirements 2.81 Again, the definition of any specific company requirements is best accomplished by attempting to answer 4 series of questions such as: * Arethere any company procedures for writing specifications? * Are there adequate company resources in terms of © land? * buildings? * plantand equipment? * _ !sthe manpower available adequate in terms of levels of expertise and training? ¢_[Sthe level of financial investment and revenue linked tothe project adequate? * What is the expected financial or added value on this investment? * _ ISalist of materiais currently stocked and traditionally used available? * sit likely that external suppliers will be used? Sources of Design Information Just as design requires a variety of types of information, so there is a Variety of sources in which to find Unis information. The diferent types of desig information required are given in Tablo > 2, Various sources of information are given in Table 2.3.mabe EASY General Principles of Design 19 Table 2.2 Types of Design Information ‘Sarvoys ned feedback. Marketing data Customer ‘Specs and drawings for previous versions ofthe product Related desions | sinter designs of competirs (reverse engineeting) “Technical pers Analysis methods | Spociaizod computor programs, for example, tte Le clement analysts “Materials | Portormance in past designs (ire analysis) Properties ss Capability of processes oO > Manufecturing Capacity analysis . Manufacturing sources Assembly methods ‘Cost Watery os i: Current material and manutactring casts ‘Availabilty and quality of vendors Size an tecnical data ‘50 ast Company speciic Standard components Technical standaras zat regulations | Peromones based Safety Mairtenancelservice feedback Life eyete issues ay Wiaranty data Table 2.3 Sources of Design information Dictionaries and encyclopedias Engineering handbooks Texts end monographs Petodicls (echnical journals and magazines, and newspapers) Internet ‘Armassive depository of information. | Technical reporis Databases -Boyeranent Search engines Laws ana Regulations Engineering professional | Tochicaljourals and news magazines, elles and trade Technical eorference proceedings associations: Codes and standard, in some cases PPatons, both national and nirnatonal Intellectual property | Copyrigrs Trademarss Buidup of inowledge trough work experince and study Contacts wih coteagues Personal network of professionals Contacts win suppliers an vendors [Atendance at conferences, trade shows, exhibiions ists to other companies Personal activities. . © | Direct invatvenent “Customers | Surveys Feedback rom warranty payments and returned products Note that these lists are not exhaustive as there can be infinite number of sources.20 Qt a2 as General Principles of D gy Obiective Brain’ Teasers” The process of taking something (a device, an electrical component, a software program, etc.) part and analyzing its working in detail is (@) Software engineering (®) Concurrent engineering (©) Sequential engineering (2) Reverse engineering Which best describes the process of benchmarking? (@) Comparison of actual performance with budget (b) Comparison of the costs of one product with another () Comparison of direct competitors’ performance (d) Comparison of the performance of one operation or business with another Which of the following statements about benchmarking is net correct? (@) Benchmarking can be used by a retailer to standard (©) Benchmarking applies only to sales, not operating efficiency. (©) Aretailer can benchmark tsett against high performance retailers, (0) None of the above it, Drawing and importance of Safety a4 as a6 EIU _ Seneca! stuiese, = # Engineesing Aptitude Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is largely focussed on (@) Testing the robustness of a design (b) Reducing costs and preventing unnecessary costs prior lo production. (©) To reduce number of parts in a product (9) Ensuring that the eventual design of a Product or service meets customer needs, ‘The Quality Function Deployment (QFD) isrelated to (a) Technical design parameters, (b) Customer wants and needs (c) Quality control and needs, (d) Target component characteristics Body of PDS consists of (a) Performance requirements (b) Manufacture requirements (c) Acceptance standards (d) allof these3.1 3.2 321 INTRODUCTION Innovation in design depends on successful concept generation. The ideation stage of design is intended to produce multiple, varied concepts from which to develop and choose. Often, instruction on idea generation methods is not offered in engineering classes; however, when taught, itis commonly through techniques like brainstorming, which lacks specific ways to generate designs. Further, existing ideation strategies aro not based on evidence from designers or rigorous testing through empirical studies. This is a creative phase of the design process, where several ideas or concepts are generated. It is the divergent phase where many possibilities are considered without too much judgement. For a typical design project, at least three conceptual design alternatives should be generated. These concepts should be well documented, using sketches and descriptions. There is no formula or set of rules to generate ideas out of thin air! Rather, a set of practical strategies to help designers to enhance their inherent creativity, and to facilitate the generation of new ideas. INTRODUCTION TO CREATIVE THINKING Society's view of creativity has changed over time. During the 19th century creativity was seen as a romantic and mysterious characteristic. Scholars believed creativity to be an unexplainable personal talent resent at the birth of an artist, It was thought that creativity was unable to be taught, copied, or mimicked. Individual creativity was a kind of genius that was nurtured and developed in those with the natural gift The rising popularity of the scientific approach in the 20th century changed the perception of creativity, Creativity was measurable and therefore, controllable. That perspective grew into the progressive notion that creativity is a teachable skill for individuals and groups. Today's managers recognize that the same kind of psychological and physiologically based cognitive processes that produce artistic creativity are used in the deliberate reasoning about and development of solutions. Models of the Brain and Creativity Unfortunately, t is not possible to observe and exarrine the steps that a creative persons’ brain follows while solving a problem or imagining a potential design. One can only study the results of the process and any commentary on how they developed, While technology is helping scientists to investigate the physical workings of the brain, cognitive scientists are still at work on investigating the workings of human mind so that the best thinking skills and methods of thought can be learned and taught for the benefit of al Cognitive psychology is the more specialized study of the acquisition and use of knowledge by humans in their activities. The psychological aspects of human behavior must be considered in helping us to understand a person's thinking because cognitive processes are naturally influenced by an individual's Perceptions and representations of knowledge, Skills for developing creative thinking come from sciences that study human thinking, actions, and behavior.22 General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety EET Sener! Swrese Engineering Aptitude Freud's Model of Levels of the Mind Psychologists have developed several models of how the brain processes infomation and creates thoughts, Siomund Freud developed a topographical model of the mind consisting of thres tovels: * Conscious mind: The part ofthe mind where our current thinking and objects of altention take place, You can verbalize about your conscious experience and you can think aboutitin a logical fashion The conscious mind has relatively small capacity for storage of information in its memory. This memory Gan be categorized as immediate memory, lasting only milliseconds, and working memory lasting about a minute, * Preconsclous mind: The long-term memory, lasting anywhere from about an hour to several years This fs a vast storehouse of information, ideas, and relationships used on past experience and education, While things stored here are not in the conscious, they can be readily brought into the conscious mind, * Subconscious mind: The content ofthis mind level is out of reach of the conscious mind. Thus, the Subconscious acts independently of the conscious mind. It may distor the relation of the conscious and preconscious through its control of symbols and the generation of bias. Freud developed his model to explain personality ypes and their behaviors based on his own training, xPerionce, and beliefs about cognition. Freud's work ledto the important conclusion that much behavior is driven directly from the subconscious mind, and these actions cannot be controlled by the conscious ‘mind. One needs to be clear that Freud’ levels ofthe mind are nat necessarily physical locations in the Drain. They are a model ofthe brain that helps to explain the ways that the brain appears to work when judged only by observing the actions of its owner. Nobel Prize winner Roger Sperry studied the relationships between the brain's right and lft hemispheres He found thatthe airrtends to turction by processing Information in an analytical, rational, logical, sequential way, ‘The right half of the brain tends to function by recognizing relationships, integrating and synthesizing information, and arriving at intuitive insights. Thinking that utlizes the left hemisphere o the brain is called ciical or convergent thinking. Other terms for left-brained thinking are analytic or vertical thinking. Its generally associated with persons educated in the technical disciplines. {Thinking that ulizes the right hemisphere ofthe brains called creative or aivergent thinking. Other terms foright-brained thinking are associative o lateral thinking, Its found most often with persons educated in the arts or social sciences. Lon Brain Right Brain Responds well to verbal instruction Likes to learn in stop-by- step format Profers writing |s planned and structured Does well on multiple choice tests Analyte Recalls poople’s names Responds well to demonstrated instructions Likes to loarn general concept and ten specitios Prefers open-ended questions Responds to tone of wice Impulsive Recalls people's faces Fig. 3.1 Brain Dominance Model Holistic or gba |MADE EASH General PrinciplesofDesign 23 3.3 33.1 The brain-dominance model of thinking seems to fall short of giving concrete steps that one can follow to think up @ creative idea when itis needed, However with study and practice, there is no reason that you cannot become facile with using both sides of your brain, This model also provides support for having a team of members with diverse thinking styles working on problems requiring creativity and invention. Information Processing and Computational Modeling Another model for understanding how the brain works is a computational model. In today's world, itis natural to compare the workings of the brain to those of a computer. This comparison is valid in some respects. For example, like the computer, the brain has different types af memory storage (short term and long term). Like the computer, the brain stores information according to a scheme of categories or classes and uses those memory structures to retrieve information when queried. It is known that the mind is inferior to modern computers in its information-processing capacity in tasks such as logical operations like mathematics. The human brain can picture or grasp only about seven or eight things at any instant. Thus, the ming can be characterized as a device with extremely low inforrnation-processing capacity combined with @ vast subliminal store of information. This comparison of the brain to a computer explains how our attempts at problem solving are often stymied by the mind's low data-processing rate. It is impossible to connect with the information stored in the Preconscious mind, Thus, an important step in problem solving is to study the problem trom all angles and in.as many ways as possible to understand it completely. Most problems studied in thal way contain more than the seven or eight elements that the mind can visualize at one time. The human brain is much superior to the computer in other aspects of cognition. Afterall, he human brain created the computer and all the superhuman procedures it performs, The human brain has more input devices and is constantly processing more types of information than @ computer. Humans process visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and emotional input, at nearly the same time, and can also perform output activities like speaking or writing while processing input. Human can make more associations between thoughts, experiences, and memories that are effective in problem solving but are not purely logic based. ‘There is an approach to creativity enhancement called associationism. Associationism suggests that when you learn more associations, you will be able to increase your level of general creativity. This idea- generating activity uses the model of creativity as the application of learned behaviors, most importantly associating unlike or unconventional things. CREATIVITY AND PROBLEM SOLVING Creative thinkers are distinguished by their ability to synthesize new combinations of ideas and concepts into meaningful and useful forms. A creative engineer is one who produces a lot of ideas. These can be completely original ideas inspired by a discovery. More often, creative ideas result from putting existing ideas together in novel ways. A creative person is adept at breaking an idea down to take a fresh look at its pacts, or in making connections between the current problem and seemingly unrelated observations or facts. Aids to Creative Thinking Creative cognition is the use of regular cognitive operations to solve problems in novel ways. One way to increase the likelihood of positive outcomes is to apply methods found to be useful for others. Following are some positive steps you can take to enhance your creative thinking, 1, Develop a creative attitude: To be creative it is essential 10 develop confidence that you can provide a creative solution to @ problem, Although youmay not visualize the complete path through33.2 Sensfal Fincpies of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety EARNER General Sues [2 the fina! solalion at the time you frst tackle a problem, you must have self-confidence; you mu Believe that solution will develop before you are finished. Of course, confidence comes with costs so start small and build your confidence up with small successes. 2. Unlock your imagination: You must rekindle the vivid imagination you had as a child, One way to do 80's fo Begin to question again, Ask “why” and “what if even at the risk of displaying a bit of navvele, Scholars ofthe creative process have developed thought games that are designed to provid? Practice in unlocking your imagination and sharpening oreatve ability 3. Be persistent: We already have dispelled the myth that creativity occurs with a lightning strike. On the Contrary it offen requires hard work. Most problems will not succumb to the first atteok They ‘Tustbe pursued with persistence. Afterall, Edison tested over 6000 materials belore he discovered the sharies of bamboo that acted as a successful lament for the incandescent light bulb, I wes also Edison who made the famous comment, “Invention is 85 percent perspiration and 8 percent inspir 4. Develop an open mind: Having an open mind means being receptive to ideas trom any and ail Sources, The solutions to problems are not the property ofa particular discipline, nor there any rule ‘an come only from persons with college degrees. Ideally, problem solutions should Ted with company politics. Because ofthe NIH factor (not invented here), many creative ideas are not picked up and followed through, ‘Suspend your judgment: We have seen that creative ideas develop slowly, but nothing inhibits the Srseva process more than eriical judgment of an emerging idea. Engineers, by nature, tend tomar Gcaleltludes, so special forbesrance is required to avoid judgment at an early stage of conceptual design 8. Set problem boundaries: We place great emphasis on proper problem definition as a step toward problem solution, Establishing the boundaries ofthe problem isan essential part af problem detition Experience shows that setting problem boundaries appropriately, not too tight or not too open, is Critical to achieving a creative solution, Some psychologists describe the create thinking process and problem solving in teams ofa simple four. stage model. {Preparation (stage 1): The elements ofthe problem are examined and theiintor-elatons are stucied * Incubation (stage 2): You "sleep on the problem.” Sleep aisengages your conscious mind, allowing the unconscious mind to work on a problem freely £ Inspiration (stage 2): A solution or @ path toward the solution emerges * Verification (stage 4): The inspired solution is checked agains! the desired result Barriers to Creative Thinking Before we look at formal methods of enhancing creativity, itis important to understand how mental blocks interfere with creative thinking. A mental block is a mental wall that prevents the problem solver trom Correctly perceiving a probiem or conceiving its solution. There are many different iypes of mental blocke Perceptual Blocks Perceptual blocks have to do with not properly defining the problem and not recognizing the information needed to solve it * _Stereotyping: Thinking conventionally on a formulaic way about an event person, or way of doing Something. Not thinking "out ofthe box. tis dificult to combine apparently unrelated images into an entirely new creative solution for the design * Information overioad: You become so overloaded with minute details that you are unable to sortout Ihe criical aspects of the problem. This scenarios termed “not being able to see tho forout fo tho trees,‘ mabe ERSY General PrinciplesofDesign 25 Limiting the problem unnecessarily: Broad statements of the problem help keep the mind open to a wider range of ideas. Fixation: People's thinking can be influenced so greatly by their previous experience or some other bias that they are not able to sufficiently recognize alternative ideas. Since divergent thinking is critical to generating broad sets of ideas, fixation must be recognized and dealt with, A kind of fixation called memory blocking is discussed in the section on intellectual blocks. Priming or provision of cues: Ifthe thinking process is started by giving examples or solution cues, it is possible for thinking to stay within the realm of solutions suggested by those initial starting Points. This is known as the conformity effect. Emotional Blocks ‘These are obstacles that are concerned with the psychological safety of the individual. They reduce the freedom with which you can explore and manipulate ideas. They also interfere with your ability to conceptualize readily. They also interfere with your ability to conceptualize readily Fear of risk taking: This is the tear of proposing an idea that is ultimately found to be faulty. This is inbredin us by the educational process. Truly creative people must be comfortable with taking risks. Unease with chaos: People in general, and many engineers in particular, are uncomfortable with highly unstructured situations. Unable or unwilling to incubate new ideas: In our busy lives, we often don't take the time to let ideas lie dormant so they can incubate properly. It is important to allow enough time for ideas to incubate before evaluation of the ideas takes place Motivation: People differ considerably in their motivation to seek creative solutions to challenging problems. Highiy creative individuals do this more for personal satisfaction than personal reward. However, studies show that people are more creative when told to generate many ideas, soit shows that the motivation is not all self-generated. Cultural Blocks People acquire a set of thought patterns from living in a culture. Most of us have experienced an educational system that has valued knowledge and suppressed our childhood procivity to ask "why" and “how.” Certain industries are tradition bound and are reluctant to char profitability Countries even differ in their attitudes toward creative problem solutions. This can be traced to differences in political and educational systems, and business culture. ge, even in the face of decreasing Intellectual Blocks Intellectual blocks arise from a poor choice of the problem-solving strategy or having inadequate background and knowledge. Poor choice of problem-solving language or problem representation: It is important to make a ‘conscious decision concerning the “language” for your creative problem solving, Problems can be solved in either a mathematical, verbal, ora visual mode, Often a problem that is nol yielding readily to solution using, for example, a verbal mode can be readily solved by switching to another mode such as the visual mode. Memory block: Memory holds strategies and tactics for finding solutions as well as solutions themselves. Therefore, blocking in memory searches is doubly problematic to creative thinking. Insufficient knowledge base: Generally, ideas are generated from a person's education and experience, Thus, an electrical engineer is more likely to suggest an electronics-based idea, when a3.4 341 342 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety EERIE] _ Sener! studies & Engineering Aptitude Cheaper and simpler mechanical design would be better. Thisis one reason why persons with broad backgrounds tend to be more creative, and it is a stiong reason for working in interdisoiplinary design teams * Incorrect information: It is obvious that using incorrect infarmation can lead to poor result. One form Of the creative process is the combining of previously unrelated elements or ideas (information); if part of the information is wrong then the result of creative combination will be flawed. Environmental Blocks These are, blocks that are imposed by the immediat2 physical or social environment * Physical environment: This is a very personal factor in its effects on creativity. Some people can ‘work creatively with all kinds of distractions; others require sic! quiel and isolation. Itls Important for each person to determine their optimum conditions for creative work, and to try to achieve this in the workplace + Criticism: Non-supportive remarks about your ideas can be personally hurtful and harmful to your creativity. CONCEPT GENERATION METHODS Brainstorming Brainstorming is a team creativity activity that helps generate a large number of potential solutions to a problem. In this activity, designers participate in a group brainstarming activity to generate possible solutions to their engineering design problem Brainstorming is meant to encourage creative thinking; however, some basic ground rules make it more successful, Brainstorming s a group creativity technique used to generate a large numberof ideas for the solution to a problem. The process itself can boost morale, enhance work enjoyment, and improve team ‘dyna 1g ing guidelines include: + Focus on quantity: The first ground ruleis to focus on quantity. You want to capture as many ideas as you can — even if they seem sil. + Withhold criticism: Not only should you refrain from criticizing the ideas of others, you should make sure not toctcize your own ideas as they emerge during the brainstorming process. Encourage wild ‘ideas: We know from experience that (with @ bit of reworking and refinement) wild ideas usually lead to the most innovative designs. + Record all ideas: During a brainstorming session its helpful to designate a person on your tear to write down each idea as itis thrown out. Sentence structure, speling and grammar do not matter for this list, 6o wait until later to review or edit anything you write down, Just make sure to capture all the ideas. + Combine and improve ideas: in the midst of brainstorming, try to build upon the ideas of others. The best ideas in engineering are generally a team effort * Stay focused on topic: Although brainstorming is meant tobe creative and free flowing, make sure you focus your ideas on the topic at hand, This helps you later when you are organizing al the ideas generated in the brainstorming session. Beyond Brainstorming Some methods are developed to aid brainstorming and to break up the normal thought pattern. Theses methods aid in brainstorming, (2) SCAMPER Checklist: This is used as a stimulant when the flow of ideas begins to fal off during the brainstorming activity. The questions in the SCAMPER checklist are applied to the problem in the following way.mane EASY General Principles of Design 27 Produet Ingyedionts alors Resources ray Objectives Context Emulate ini Fig. 3.2 SCAMPER Technique to Aid in Brainstorming Table 3.1 SCAMPER Checklist fo Aid in Brainstorming Proposed Change Description Substitute What if used in a different material, process, person, power source, place, or approach? Combine Could | combine units, purposes or ideas? Adapt What else is like this? What other idea does it suggest? Does the past offer a parallel? What can | copy? Modify, magniy, minity Could ladd a new twist? Could I change the meaning, color, mation, form, or shape? Could l add something? Make stronger, higher, longer, thicker? Could | subtract something? Put to other uses ‘Are there new ways to use this as is? If| modify it, does it have other uses? Eliminate Can | remove a part, function, person without alfecting outcome? Rearrange, reverse Could | interchange components” Could | use a different layout or sequence? What if transpose cause and effect? Could transpose positive and negative? What if | turn it backward, upside down or inside out? (b) Six key questions: Journalism students are taught to ask six simple questions to ensure that they have covered the entie story. These same questions can be used tohelp you approach the problem from different angles eS © Who? Who uses it, wants it, will benefit by it? Ny. x * What? What happens if X occurs? What resulted in success? %, & What resulted in failure? © When? Can ithe speeded up or slowed down? Is sooner better than later? = © Where? Where will X occur? Where else is possible? Sy28 343 3.44 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety (EASTER _ Snes stues neering Aptitude * Why? Why is this done? Why is that particular rule, action, solution, problem, failure involved? * How? How could it he cone, should it be done, prevented, improved, changed, made? (c) Five Whys: The Five Whys technique is used to get to the root of a prob! Premise that itis not enough to just ask why ane time. For example * Why has the machine stopped? 4 fuse blew because of fan overioad. ‘+, Why was there an overload? There was inadequate lubrication for the hearings. lem. It is based on the * Why wasn't there enough lubrication? The lube pump wasn't working * Why wasn’tthe pump working? The pump shaft was vibrating because ithad worn due to abrasion, * Why was there abrasion? There was no fier on the lube pump, allowing debris into the pump. (d) Checklists: Checklists of various types often are used to help stimulate creative thoughts. Checklists are used often in design in a completaly different way. They [echt a Toc ogiat Seeing are usedin a way to remember important functions or 28kS Vins nappene lf we a @ complex operation. Table given below indicates a | ” torainat rane mee representative checklist that can be used to aidin brainstorming | « Temperature, up or down? as + Pressure, up or down? + Concentration, up or down? (8) Fantasy or Wishful Thinking: A strong block 1 creativity is | © impurties up or down?” | the mind's tenacious grip on reality. One way to stimulate — Creativity is to entice the mind to think ia flight of fancy, in the hope of bringing out really creative ideas. This can be done by posing questions in an “invitational way” so as to encourage an upbeat, positive climate for idea generation. Random Input Technique Edward de Bono is a longtime developer of creativity methods, He stresses the importance of thought pattems, and he coined the term lateral thinking the act of cutting across thought pattems. One ofthe k ‘enets of ateral thinking is the concept that an act of provocation is needed to make the brain switch from one patter of thought to another. The provocative event interrupts the current thinking process by introducing new problem representation, providing a new probe for a memory search, o leading to a restructuring of the solution plan. In order to force the brain to introduce a new thought, all you have to do isto introduce a new random word, The word can be found by turning at random to a page in a dictionary, arbitrarily deciding to take the ninth word on the page, or turning randomly to a page in any book and at random selecting a word. Now, the Provocation is to find how the chosen word is related to the problem under consideration. This forced relationship from a rendom word works because the brain is a sell-organizing patterning system that is very good at making connections even when the random word is very remote fromn the problem subject. Synectics Snectics (from the Greek word synektiktein, meaning joining tagether of different things into unified Connection) is @ methodology for creativity basedl on reasoning by analogy. Itassumes that the psychological Components of the creative processes are more important in generating new and inventive ideas than the intellectual processes, * Direct analogy: The designer searches for the closest physical analogy to the situation at hand, This is 2. common approach that we have all used al one time or another. In describing the motion of electrons about the nucleus of an atom it is common to use the analogy of the moon's rotation about Earth or Earth's rotation about sun,mane ERSY General Principlesof Design 29 B45 ° Fantasy analogy: The, designer disregards all problem limitations and laws of nature, physics, or reason. Instead, the designer imagines or wishes for the perfect solution to a problem. * Personal analogy: The designer imagines that he or she is the device being designed, associating his or her body with the device or the process under consideration. * Symbolic analogy: This is perhans the least intuitive of the approaches. Using symbolic analogy the designer replaces the specifics of the problem with symbols and then uses manipulation of the symbols to discover solutions to the original problem A particularly intriguing source of direct analogies is those that are inspired by biological systems. This subject is called biomimetics. The mimicking of biological systems Concept Map Avery useful tool for the generation of ideas by association, and for organizing information in preparation {for writing a report, is the concept map. A concept map is good for generating and recording ideas during brainstorming. Because itis a visual method instead of a verbal one, it encourages right-brained thinking Becauseil requires the mapping of associations between ideas it stimulates creative thought. Thus, it also can be very useful in generating solution concepts. A concept map is made on a large sheet of paper. A Concise label for the problem or issue is placed at the center of the sheet. Then the team is asked to think about what concepts, ideas, or factors are related to the problem. * Write down team-generated thoughts surrounding the central problem label. * Underline or circle them and connect them to the central focus, * Use an arrow to show which issue drives what. + Create new major branches of concepts to represent major subtopics. itt 2 process develops a secondary or separate map, label it and connect itto the rest of the map. Gees ot oid) of produ (irs 0 Regulators Subsicization Fig. 3.3 An example of a Typical Concept Map30 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety Engineering Aptitude eA ase) Qt Ans. With reference to problem solving-fixation refers to (a) Focused approach ta problem solving (b) Planned approach to problem solving (©) Inability to see a problem from fresh perspective (d) Inability to comprehend the goal to be achieved (c) Objective Brain Teasers Q.1 Brainstorming guidelines include all of the List-l following except A. Perceptual blocks {a) nocriticism B. Cultural blocks (b) encourage freewheeling C. Emotional blocks (©) state your opposition clearly D. Intellectual blocks (@) seek quantity List-l 1. When person does not have sufficient a2 _ is a group technique for generating knowledge of topic. new, useful ideas. 2, Feeling discouraged to consider new ideas. enorme 3. Prevents clear understanding of design (b) Paretodiagram problem or information regarding it. 6. 4, Restriction strictly applied by society Q.3 Which of the following statement is false A BCD regarding a Rrainstorming session? 2 3 4 4 (@) twill ignore ‘rubbish’ idea 3 4 24 (0) Aleader will ead the session @4 2 34 {6) Normally it will be a shart session 3 4 12 (d) Itis one of the creative design methods Q.6 In synectios, which of the following types of Q.4 Concept generation is a process analogies also called as “thinking outof the box"? (a) convergent (a) Fantasy analogy (b) divergent (b) Symbolic analogy (©) continuous (c) Personal analogy (d) iterative (d) Direct analogy Q.5_— Match List-| (Barriers to creative thinking) with List-II (characteristics) and select the correct ‘answer using the cades given below the lists:4d 42 424 INTRODUCTION Creativity, he ability to acquire information, and the ability to combine physical principles into working concepts are orticaly important in making wise design decisions. Equally important are understanding of the psychological influences on the decision maker, the nature of the trade offs embodied in the selection of different options, and the uncertainty inherent in the altermatives. During any stage of the design process selecting among alternatives requires: + asetof design selection criteria * asset of alternatives believed to satisfy the set of criteria + ameans to evaluate the design alternatives with respect to each criterion. Earlier we have seen strategies and methods to set design specification and design criteria, and to generate design alternatives that are likely to meet the criteria. In this section we will focus on determining ‘a decision strategy appropriate to both the design environment and the phase of the design process, creating models to access design alternatives on decision criteria, and using evaluation process to reduce a set of alternatives to a few or a single best alternative. DECISION MAKING Making a decision is a stressful situation for most people when there is no way to be certain about the information about the past or the predictions of the future. This psychological stress arises from at least two sources: 1, Decision makers are concerned about the material and soc’al losses that will result rom either course of action that is chosen. 2. Decision makers recognize that their reputations and self-esteem as competent decision makers are atstake, These psychological stress brought on by decisional conflict can be a major cause of errors in decision making. A decision should be made on the basis of available facts. Great effort should be made to evaluate possible bias and relevance to the facts. Its important to ask right questions to pinpoint the problem When getting facts from subordinates, itis important to guard against as same set of facts may be open to many interpretations of course, respected, but blind faith in expert opinion can leadto trouble. It is good practices to check your opinions against the counsel of experienced associates. Before a decision can be made, the facts, the knowledge, and the experience must be brought together and evaluated in the context of the problem, The last and most important ingredient in the decision process is judgment. Good judgement cannot be described, but itis an integration of a person's basic mental processes and ethical standards. Judgement is a highly desirable quality, as evidenced by the fact that itis one of the factors usually included in personal evaluation ratings. Judgement is particularly important because most decisional situations are422 4.3 44 General es of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety SEITE, Soest ae gineering Aptitude shades of grey rather than either black or white. An important aspect of good judgement is to understand Clear the realities of the situation, To conclude the discussion, certain sleps can be taken, preferably in given sequence, in making a good decision 1. The objectives of a decision must be established first 2. The objectives are classified as to importance (sort out musts and wants) 3. Alternative actions are developed 4. The alternatives are evaluated against the objectives, 5. The choice of alernative that holds the best promise of achicving all of the objectives reprusuns the tentative decision 6 The tentative decision is explored for future possible adverse consequences, The effects of the final decision are controlled by taking other actions to prevent passible adverse consequences from becoming problems and by making sure thal the actions decided on are carried out. Decision Trees Decision trees are a graphical and mathematical method under uncertainty. The construction of a decision trees a useful technique when a string of decisions must be made in succession and probabilities of each ‘outcome are known or can be estimated, EVALUATION PROCESS Evaluation is a type of process in which atternative are first appraisal according to some standard. Their Scores or rank as determined by that standard are compared to make the decision as to. whichis best. Thi evaluation steps discussed here are not confined to the conceptual design phase of the design process. They are just as applicable, and should be used, in embodiment design whan deciding which of several component designs is best or which material should be chosen, Design Selection based on Absolute Criteria 1. Evaluation based on functional feasibility: The initial screening is based on the overlall evaluation of the design team as to the feasibility of each concept 2. Evaluation based on assessment of technology readiness: Technology used in a desgin must be mature enough that it can be used in the product design without addition research effort. Product design is not the approprate place to do R & D. 3, Evaluation based on go/no go screening: After a design concept has passed above mentionad ‘wo filters, the emphasis shifts to establishing whether it satisies the constraints of the problem. A detailed examination is not required bul the concepts that are clearly unable to meet the constraints are eliminated. PUGH CHART (DATUM METHOD) Pugh's method compares each concept relative to a reference or datum concept and for each criterion determines whether he concept in question is better than, poorer than, or about the same as the referenceMADE 45 4.6 RSS General Principles of Design 33 concept, Thus, itis a relative comparison technique. The steps in the concept selection method are: 1. Choose the oriteria by which the concepts will be evaluated, 2. Formulate the decision matrix. 3. Clarify the design concepts. 4, Choose the datum cancept 5. Complete the matrix entries, 6. Evaluate the ratings. 7. Establish a new datum and rerun the matrix & Examine the selected concept for improvement opportunities. A major advantage of the Pugh method is that is helps the team to develop better insights into the types of features that strongly satisfy the design requirements. EVAD (DESIGN EVALUATION) METHOD The EVAD method of concept selection was developed at the university of Twente. As with Datum method no attempt is made at ramping of weighting the criteria, It is @ method particularly recommended for the evaluation and it can also be applied to concept selection. Incommon with all other methods, itis first necessary to reduce the usual long list of generated concepts to manageable proportions. If is recommended that a maximum of six concepts should be chosen for further investigation and that a few major criteria should be chosen from the specification to assist this process, The selected concepts are subjected to a formal evaluation procedure, according to a modified form of what is known as the Harris method. In this method a list of evaluation criteria is established and each criterion is standardized according to the strategic objectives of the company. For example one criterion, stability, would have standards set as very stable (++), stable (+), neutral (-), unstable (--). From the concept description scores for each criterion are established. These results are entered on a diagram iving an evaluation protite for each idea. The profiles are compared in a qualitative rather than quantitative way, WEIGHTED DECISION MATRIX A decision matrix is a method of evaluating competing concepts by ranking the design criteria with weighting factors and scoring the degree to which each design concept meets the criterion. To do this itis necessary to convert the values obtained for different design criteria into a consistent set of values. The simplest way of dealing with design criteria expressed in a variety of ways is to use a point scale. Determining weighting factors for criteria is not an exact process. Systematic methods can be followed for determining weighting factor. Three are listed below: * Direct assignment: The team decides how to assign 100 points between the different criteria according to their importance. Dividing each score by 100 normalizes the weights. This method is only recommended for design teams where there are many years of experience designing the same product line. * Objective tree: Weighting factors can be determined by using a hierarchical objective tree. Better decisions regarding preferences will be made when the comparisons are made at the same level in the hierarchy. This method again relies on some experience with the importance of the criteria in the design process.34 General Principles of Desigh, Drawing and importance of Safety ERISZRTAEH _ Cor! Salons ith HUE engineering Apitud * Analytic Heirarchy Process: Its the least arbitrary process for determining weightage factors. Itis discussed in detail below. 4.7 ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS (AHP) The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AMP) is a problem solving methodology for making @ choice fram among a solof alternatives when the selection criteria represent muttiple objectives, have a natural hierarchical structure, or consist of qualitative property of these matrices is that there principal eigen vector can generate legitimate weighting factors. Not only is AHP mathematically sound, but it is also intuitiveiy correct. AHP Process AHP leads a design team through the calculation of weighting factors for decision criteria for one level of hierarch ata time. AHP also defines a pairwise, comparison based method for determining relative ratings for the degree to which each of a set of options fulfils each of the criteria. AHP includes calculation of an inconsistency measurement and threshold values that determine if comparison process has remained consistent Table 4.1 Relative Rating of importance of Selection Criteria Rating Relative rating of importance of Tae Factor ‘two selection criteria A and B ee Rating 1 | and have eq opnance ‘ang Ban coms eal oe poate —r—,~—r——C— ©esC==——_—=—_———— oan SS 5 Ais thought to be strongly more importai Tais strongly more important to product success: Son 7 [than Bos domonstieate be more moran) FS dominance ovr B has nen demonstvated ene 7 rr—~—~—_—P a | Alsdemonsratedto nave much mere imporance| mes Aine vasa ela ces " tant | Objective Brain Teasers Q.1 Decision trees are decision making graphical and mathematical method under (2) certainty (©) uncertainity (©) tisk (d) conflict Q.2_ Which ofthe following methods of determining weightage factors follows most logical approach? (@) Direct assignment (6) Objective tree (6) Analytic Hierarchy Process {d) None of these Q.3_ Pugh’s concept selection method is based on (a) datum concept (b) evaluating concepts on a four point scale (6) visual inspection (d) graphical approachmAoe EASY a4 ‘A good decision maker should (always trust and expert opnion (il) havea sound judgement (ii) understand realities of the situation (iv) make decision based on facts Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (@) (0. (iiand (7) (©) (0,4), andl i) (©) (i), (ii) and (ivy (2) @,(iand (iv) General Principles of Design 35 Q5 In EVAD method the results are entered on diagram giving an evaluation profile for each idea. The profiles are compared in a (@) Qualitative (©) Quantitative (©) Both (a)and (b) (d) None of the above Answets’ (c) 3. (@) 4 1. (b)5.1 5.2 INTRODUCTION The next phase of the design process is often called embodiment dasign. Itis tha phase where the cesign concepts invested with physical form, where we “put meat on the bones.” We have divided the embodiment phase of design into three activities + Product architecture: Setting the arrangement of the physical elements of the design into groupings, called modules. + Configuration design: Designing special purpose parts and the selection of standard components, 4ike pumps or motors. * Parametric design: Determining the exact values, dimensions, or tolerances of the components or ‘component features that are deemed critical-to-quality, Itis important to understand that writers about engineering design do not use the same nomenclature to label the phases of the design process. Nearly everyone agrees that the first step in design is problem definition or needs analysis, Some writers consider problem definition to be the first phase of the design process, but in agreement with most designers we consider it tobe the first step of the conceptual design phase. The design phase that we consider in this chapter, which we call embodiment design, is also often called preliminary design. PRODUCT ARCHITECTURE Product architecture is the arrangement of the physical elements of a product to carryout its required functions, Product architecture begins to emerge in the conceptual design phase from such things as dliagrams of functions, rough sketches of concepts, and perhaps a proof-of-concept model. However, itis in the embodiment design phase thatthe layout and architecture of the product must be established by defining the basi building blocks of the product and their interfaces. (Some organizations refer to this as system-level design) There are two entirely opposite styles of product architecture, modular and integral + Integral Architecture: In an integral architecture the implementation of functions is accomplished by only one or a few modules. inintegral product architectures, components perform mulliple functions, This reduces the numberof components, generally decreasing cost unless the integral architecture is Obtained at the expense of extreme part complexity. Integral product architecture is often adopted ‘when constraints of weight, space, nor cost make it dificult to achieve required performance. Anather strong driver toward integration of components isthe design for manufacturing and assembly (DFMA) strategy, which calls for minimizing the number of parts in a product * Modular Architecture: A roar architecture makes it easier to evolve a design overtime. The | Product can be adapted to the needs of different customers by adding of deleting modules. | Obsolescence can be dealt with by replenishing components as they wear out, and at the end ofits | useful life the product can be remanufactured. Modular design may evan be carried to the point of using the same set of basic components in multiple products, creating a product family. There are | {our distinct strategies for using modularity in product design and manufacturing,MADE ERSY General Principles of Design 37 ()) Component-sharing modularity: This type of modularity exists when a family of dissimilar products Uses the same assembly or component (i) Component-swapping modularity: This ‘ype of modularity exists in a product that is differentiated only by a single component or assembly. (li) Cut-to-fit modularity: This is a customization strategy whereby a component's parameters or features can be adjusted within a given range to provide a variety of products. (iv) Platform moduterity: This form of modularity describes products that consist of different Combinations of modules assembled on the same basic structure Steps in Developing Product Architecture 5.3 Establishing the product architecture is the first task of embodiment design. Product subsystems, called modules or chunks, are defined and details of integration with each other are determined. To establish a Product's architecture, a designer defines the geometric boundaries of the product and lays out the proposed elements of the design within its envelope. ‘A four-step process has been proposed for establishing product architecture. * Create a schematic diagram of the product + Cluster the elements of the schematic * Create a rough geometric layout ‘+ Identify the interactions between modules Create a Schematic Diagram of the Design: The schematic diagram ensures that the tea understands the basic elements of the product needed to produce an operating design. Cluster the Elements of the Schematic Diagram: The purpose of this step is o arrive at an arrangement Of design elements (clusters) that will become modules, Create a Rough Geometric Layout: Making a geometric layout allows the designer to investigate whether there is likely to be geometrical, thermal, or electrical interference between elements and modules Define Interactions and Determine Performance Characteristics: The most ertical task in determining @ product's architecture is accurately modelling the interactions between the modules and seiting the Performance characteristics for the modules, Function happens primarily at the interfaces between modules, and unless modules are carefully thought out, complexity can build up at these interfaces. CONFIGURATION DESIGN 'n configuration design we tend to realize the shape and the general dimensions of components although the exact dimensions and tolerances would be finally established during paramettic design in later stages, The configuration design is developed from the functions and it strongly depends on the availabilty of the Materials and production techniques that would be used to create the form from the material, Usually the ecisions about the design of a component cannot proceed further without making the decisions about the material rom which the product (or the components) will be made and the manufacturing process that will convert a raw material to a functional part of component or product. There is a close interrelationship ‘among the functions and form and the dependency between the material and the method of production. The configuration design should involve the following steps. 1. Review the product design specifications and any subassembly specifications developed. 2. _ Determine the spatial constraints that are related to the product and the subassembly being designed Most of these constrains would have been addressed in the product architecture. In addition to the Physical spatial constraints, the constraints pertaining to the human interaction with the product, Produets life cycle, and the constraints related to providing access for maintenance and repair should also be addressed at this stage.38 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety EETSTPIGPS Several tuates oR Engineering Aptitud: 3. Create and refine the interfaces and connections between the components. Special design efforts are required at the point of connection between the components. It is necessary to identify and offer special attention to interfaces where the most critical functions would finally be carried out. 4, {tis quite essential to maintain functional independence in the design of an assembly or the components, It means that changing of a critical dimension should affect only a single function 5. Following questions should be answered before the initiation of the configuration design, (a) can some parts be eliminated or combined to give fewer parts and components? (b) can a standard part, assembly or module be used? Best Practices for Configuration Design The general objectives of the embodiment phase of design are the fulfllment of the required technical functions, at a cost that is economically feasible, and in a way that ensures safety to the user and to the environment, The basic guidelines for embodiment design are: * Clarity of function: It pertains to an unambiguous relationship between the various functions and the appropriate inputs and outputs of energy, material, and signal flow. ‘+ Simplicity: itrefers to a design thet is not complex and is easily understood and readily produced. + Safety should be guaranteed by direct design, not by secondary methads such as quards or warning labels. © Minimal impact on the environments of growing importance, and should be listed as a fourth basic guideline, Design Guidelines 5.4 From the extensive list of principles and guidelines for embodiment design, four stand out for special mention: Force Transmission: In mechanical systems the function of many components is to transmit forces and Toments between two points. This is usually accomplished through a physical connection between ‘components. In general, the force should be accommodated in such a way as to produce a uniformly distributed stress on the cross section of the part. Division of Tasks: A component should be designed for a single function when the function is deemed critical and will be optimized for robustness. Assigning several functions to a single component (integral architecture) results in savings in weight, space, and cost but may compromise the performance of individual functions, and it may unnecessarily complicate the design Self-Help: The idea of selt-help concems the improvement ofa function by the way in which the components interact with each other. A selt-reinforcing element is one in which the required effect increases with increasing need for the effect Stability: The stability of a design determines whether the system will recover appropriately from a disturbance to the system, PARAMETRIC DESIGN In configuration design the emphasis was on starting with the product architecture and then working out the best form for each component. Dimensions and tolerances were set tentatively, and while analysis was used to “size the parts” it generally was not highly detailed or sophisticated, Now the design moves into parametric design, the latter part of embodiment design. The objective of parametric design is to set values for the design variables that will produce the best possible design considering both performance and cost (as manifested by manutacturabilty),mane easy General Principles of Design 39 5, Mt 542 Design for Manufacture (DFM) and Design for Assembly (DFA) During embodiment design decisions concerning shape, dimensions, and tolerances must be closely integrated with manufacturing and assembly decisions. Often this is achieved by having a member of the manulacturing slalf as part of the design team. Since this is not always possible, all design engineers need to be familiar wth manufacturing and assembly methods. To assist in this, generalized DFM and OFA guidelines have been developed, and many companies have specific guidelines in their design manuals. Design software, to aid in this task, has been developed and is being used more widely. Design for Assembly Design for Assemblyis an exercise to facilitate ease of assembly when manufacturing a component with multiple parts. Obviously, the reduction in the total number of parts for an assembly has the added benefit of reducing the total cost of parts in the assembly. Design for Assembly should ideally be considered at various stages during the selection of material, shape and processes so that the overall manufacturability and assembly of the component are facilitated Design for Manufacturing DFM describes the process of designing or engineering a productin order to facilitate the manufacturing process in order to reduce its manufacturing costs. DFM will allow potential problems to be fixed in the design phase which is the least expensive place to address them, Other factors may affect the manutacturabiliy such as the type of raw material, the form of the raw material, dimensional tolerances, and secondary processing such as finishing. Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is a step-by-step approach for identifying all possible failures wufacturing or assembly process, of a product or service. ina desi ‘Failure modes” means the ways, or modes, in which something might fail. Failures are any errors or defects, especially ones that affect the customer, and can be potential or actual “Effects analysis" refers to stuclying the consequences of those failures. Failures are prioritized according to how serious their consequences are, how frequently they occur and how easily they can be detected. The purpose of the FMEA is to take actions to eliminate or reduce failures, starting with the highest-priority ones, Failure modes and effects analysis also documents current knowledge and actions about the risks of failures, for use in continuous improvement. FMEA is used during design to prevent failures, Later it's Used for control, before and during ongoing operation of the process. Ideally, FMEA begins during the earliest conceptual stages of design and continues throughout the life of the product or service. FMEA is used: * when a process, product or service is being designed or redesigned, after Quality Function Deployment + when an existing process, product or service is being applied in a new way. + before developing control plans for a new or modified process. ‘* when improvement goals are planned for an existing process, product or se ‘+ when analyzing failures of an existing process, product or service. * periogically throughout the life of the process, product or service. General FMEA procedure: 1. Assemble a cross-functional team of people with diverse knowledge about the process, product or service and customer needs. Functions often included are: design, manufacturing, quaily, testing, mag40 General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety ESERPERE ree States reliability, maintenance, purchasing (and suppliers), sales, marketing (and customers) and customer service. 2. Identify the scope of the FMEA. Is itfor concept, system, design, process or se at are the boundarics? How detailed should we be? Use flowcharts to identify the scope and to make sure every team member understands it in detail 3. _ Fillin the identifying information at the top of your FMEA form. Given figure shows a typical format of FMEA form, The remaining steps ask for information that will go into the columns of the form. 4, Identify the functions of your scope. Ask, “What is the purpose of this system, design, process or service? What do our customers expect it to do?" Usually you will break the scape into separate subsystems, items, parts, assemblies or process steps and identify the function of each 5, For each function, identify all the ways failure could happen. These are potential failure modes. If necessary, go back and rewrite the function with more detail to be sure the failure modes show a loss of that function. 6. _Foreach ailure mode, identiy all the consequences on the system, related systems, process, related processes, product, service, customer or regulations. These are potential effects of failure. Ask, ‘What does the customer experience because of this failure? What happens when this failure occurs?" 7. Determine how serious each effect is. This is the severity rating, or S. Severity is usually rated on a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 is insignificant and 10 is catastrophic. Ifa fallure mode has more than one effect, write on the FMEA table only the highest severity rating for that failure mode 8. For each failure mode, determine all the potential root causes. Use the best knowledge and experience of the team. List all possible causes tor each failure mode on the FMEA form. 9. For each cause, determine the occurrence rating, or O. This rating estimates the probability of failure occurring for that reason during the lifetime of your scope. Ocourrence is usually rated on a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 is extremely unlikely and 10 is inevitable. On the FMEA table, list the occurrence rating for each cause, Ee z von |_ aston esate Potenaat | Powis! || Poventat | | Curent | | Pestenet ‘ F | Recommendea| and Target |Action| [0[D] | c Function | ‘Fate | EMtects) |s| Cause(s) Jo] Process |0| 2 Mode | offaitre || ottaiture | | Conrots | | x | {| Acton | completion | Tk le a i [Deponse [oars nor [customer falar ofeach [5 tarrtinw | & | 700 a0 lamin st |Sapense ess very coors fn [Stiles feqused byeusiomer Incarect erty | [tachi jams |] aman | 10] 240] 24 to domans | se’ ldepost syste | Fowse fois |2|none {10/160 16 lacing Dscrepancyin| [ransaction | isch rng 7 ‘Deponses oa|Sarkiossos [afoits suck [2 Leading po [7 | 84 | 12 imucneash |noney logemer cet io | es of stack eceperey | |pecaminatons|2|tepersen | 4 | 72 | 20 | incom fewwerajtage| | at | Pang [rtcaton Fakestoo [customer [a|nemy —|7[tone 10 210| | longo.” [samewnat |" |compsce Jisponso cast|anayed | [rework otc owe |2|iave 10] 60 | | ase | ining | fronton I Fig. 6.1 An example of FMEA formmane ensy _General Principles of Design 4t 543 10. For each cause, identify current process controls, These are tests, procedures or mechanisms that you now have in place to keep failures from reaching the customer. These controls might prevent the cause from happening, reduce the likelihood that it will happen or detect failure after the cause has already happened but before the customer is affected, 11, For each control, determine the detection rating, or D. This rating estimates how well the controls can detect either the cause or its failure mode after they have happened but before the customer is affected. Detection is usually rated on a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 means the contol is absolutely certain to detect the problem and 10 means the control is certain not to detect the problem (or no control exists). On the FMEA table, list the detection rating for each cause. 12. (Optional for most industries) Is this failure mode associated with a critical characteristic? (Critical characteristics are measurements or indicators that reflect safely or compliance with government regulations and need special controls.) If so, a column fabeled "Classification’ receives a Y or N to show whether special controls are needed. Usually, critical characteristics have a severity of 9 or 10 and occurrence and detection ratings above 3 13. Calculate the risk priority number (RPN), which equals $ x O x D. Also calculate Criticality by multiplying severity by occurrence, S x O. These numbers provide guidance for ranking potential failures in the order they should be addressed 14, Identity recommended actions. These actions may be design or process changes to lower severity or occurrence. They may be additional controls to improve detection. Also note who is responsible for the actions and target completion dates, 18. As actions are completed, note results and the date on the FMEA form. Also, note new S, 0 or D ratings and new RNs. FMEA Example: Abank performed a process FMEA on their ATM system. Figure given on previous page shows part of it- the function “dispense cash’ and a few of the failure modes for that function. The optional *Classification’ calurnn was not used. Only the headings are shown for the rightmost (action) columns. Notice that RPN and criticality prioritize causes differently. According to the RPN, “machine jams” and “heavy computer network traffic" are the first and second highest risks. One high value for severity or occurrence times a detection rating of 10 generates a high RPN. Criticality does not include the detection rating, so it rates highest the only cause with medium to high values for both severity and occurrence: "out of cash”. The team should use their experience and judgment to determine appropriate priorties for action, Design for Reliability and Safety Reliability is a measurement of the ability of a component or system to operate without interruption of service or failure in the service environment. Itis expressed as the probabilly of he component functioning for @ given time without failure. Durability is the amount of use that a person gets out of a product before it deteriorates—that is itis a measure of the product lifetime. While durability, like reliability, is measured by failure, it is a much more general concept than reliability, which is a technical concept using probabilities and advanced statistical modelling. However, itis more likely to be able fo estimate product lifetime than reliably, Safety involves designing products that will not injure people or damage property. A safe design is one that instills confidence in the customer and does not incur product liability costs, To develop a safe design ‘one must first identify the potential hazard, and then produce a design thet keeps the user free from the hazards.42 5.44 5.5 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety (ESSA Cereal Studies & 7 Engineering Aptitude Design for Quality and Robustness Achieving a quality design places great emphasis on understanding the needs and wants of the custome, but there is much more to it than that. Before 1980's there was common thinking that quality products were produced by careful inspection of the output ofthe manufacturing process. Later on it was realized that the only way to ensure quality products is to design quality into the product. A robust design is one whose performance is insensitive to variations in the manufacturing processes by which it has been made or in the environment in which it operates. It is a basic tenet of quality that variations of all kinds are the enemy of quality, and a guiding principle to achieving quality is to reduce variation, The methods used to achieve robustness are termed robust design. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN Industrial design, also often called just produot design, is concerned with the visual appearance of the product and the way it interfaces with the customer. The terminology is not precise in this area, Industral design deals chiefly with the aspects of a product that relate to the user, First and foremost is its aesthetic. appeal. Aesthetics deal with the interaction of the product with the human senses—how it looks, feels ‘smells, or sounds. For most products the visual appeal is most important. This has to do with whether the shape, proportion, balance, and color of the elements of the design create a pleasing whole. Otten this goes under the rubric of styling, Proper attention to aesthetics in design can instil a pride of ownership and a feeling of quality and prestige in a product. Appropriate styling details can be used to achieve product differentiation in a line of similar products. The second major role of industrial design is in making sure that the product meets all requirements of the User human interface, a subject often called ergonomics or usability, This activity deals with the user interactions with the product and making sure that itis easy to use and maintain. Human Factors Design Human factors is the study of the interaction between people, the products and systems they use, and the environments in which they work and live. This field also is described by the terms human factors engineering and ergonomics. A person provides energy to the system by applying forces and torques with human muscle power, People also provide signal information through their senses of sight, hearing, touch, and to a limited degree, with taste and smell. They provide material input when their body must be contained by the Product. Thus, it is important to understand more about human factors design to achieve a harmonious interaction with human functions. Products that rate high in human factors engineering are generally regarded as high-quality products since they are perceived to work well by the user. I Effort Human muscle output is typically applied to a machine at a control interface, like @ brake pedal or a selector switch, These control interfaces can take many forms: a hand wheel, rotary knob, thumbwheel, tollerball, lever, joystick, toggle switch, rocker switch, pedal, handle, or slide, These devices have been. studied to determine the force or moment needed for their operation, and whether they are best suited for on-off control, or more precise control Human Phy Sensory Input The human senses of sight, touch, hearing, taste, and smell are chiefly used for purposes of controling devices or systems. They provide signals to the user of the design. Visual displays are commonly usedmade EASY GeneralPrinciplesof Design User-Friendly Design Careful attention to the following design issues will create user-riendly designs: + Simplify tasks * Make the controls and their functions obvious * Make controls easy to use + Match the intentions of the human with the actions required by the system * Displays should be clear, visible, large enough to read easily, and consistent indirection + Provide feedback * Utilize constraints to preventincorrect action © Standardize Reaction Time The reaction time is the time to initiate @ response when a sensory signal has been received. The product should very quickly provide clear visual and auditory signals, To achieve this in simple products, th controls must be intuitive. Anthropometric Data Anthropomettics is the field of human factors that deals with the measurements of the human body. Humans varyin size. On average, children are smaller than adults and men are taller than women, Variations in such factors as height when standing, shoulder width, length and width of fingers, arm reach, and eye height on sitting need to be considered when designing products. Fig. 5.2 Some Anthropometric measurements (All dimensions are in mm) 5.5.2 Aesthetics Aesthetics is a study of the mind and how our brains interpret something as being beautiful or ugly. It is crucial for design because our first interaction with almost anything is based on how it looks, Good design44 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety ETT Seneral studies & Engineering Aptitude 's essential in new product development, as functional, visually and ergonomically attractive products can be clearly differentiated from the compaiition. Balance: Aesthetic balance is the unity between elements which, while they oppose or conflict with one ‘another, nevertheless need or supplement each other. Hostile things, enemies at war, business men thai ‘compete, persons that hate each other, have as great a need of their opponents, in order that there may be certain type of lite, as friends have, in order that there may be love between them; and in relation to each Other they create a whole in the one case as in the other, Alignment: Alignment is the adjustment of an object in relation with other objects. By alignment, we mean the way every element at workplace is positioned in compatison to the other element. The aligned objects always provide an aesthetic and neat look Emphasis: Emphasis creates a focal point in a design; it is how we bring attention to what is most important, Emphasis is what catches the eye and makes the viewer stop and look at the image. Without emphasis, without getting the viewer to look at the image, communication cannot occur, Emphasis can be created by contrast. An element in contrast with something else is more easily seen and understood: ‘something different attracts the eye. Proportion: Proportion isthe relationship of two or more elements in a design and how they compare with ‘one another, Proportion is said to be harmonious when a correct relationship exists between the elements with respect to size or quantity The effective use of proportion in designs often referred to as harmony, a relationship in which the various ‘elements of the composition appear as if they belong together in size and distribution. The Golden Rectangle was discovered by Pythagoras in ancient Greece. The golden rectangle has Proportion ofits sides such that when a square is cul from the rectangle, the remaining rectangle has the same proportions, esa Je o>} = (keeping b= 1) | The process of eividing subsequent rectangles into square and rectangle can continue tll infinity in both the directions. if a quadrant of a circle is drawn in all the obtained squares, an infinite spiralis obtained The golden rectangle can help engineers initially in sketching Concepts that have a greater chance of being realizable. When designing a machine, engineers can either start from outside , with a sketch of the overall envelop, and work inwards, or they ccan start fromwithin withthe critical module, and design outwards. ee | i The former tends to force the inner workings to be cramped, and Fig. 6.3 The Golden Spiral sometimes this leads to degradation of performance. The latter tends to result in machines that are too spacious. A compromise from the beginning can be achieved with either method by initially sketching concepts while keeping the proportions of the golden rectangle in mind. Saint-Venant's principle should be considered when initially eying out proportions and spacing of machine elements, whereas Golden Rectangle helps with overall proportions of systemsmane ERSY General Principlesof Design 45 Golden ratio has been used in design of structures from ancient times and is used til today in designing buildings with modem architecture. Fig. 5.4 Use of Golden Rectangle in Ancient Structure Fig. 5.5 Use of Golden Spiral in Modern Building 5.6 Movement: Using art elements to direct a viewer's eye along a path through the artwork, andlor to show movement, action and direction. Also, giving some elements the ability tobe moved or move on their own, Via internal or external power. Pattern: Repeating art elements in regular or cyclical fashion to create interest, movement, andor harmony and unity. Patterns can be random, regular, alternating, flowing, and progressive. Classes of pattern include mosaics, lattices, spirals, meanders, waves, symmetry and fractals, among others. Contrast: The difference in quality between two instances of an art element, or using opposing qualities next to each other. For example, black and white (contrasting values). organic/curvy and geometricfangular (contrasting lines/shapes/forms), and rough and smooth (contrasting textures). Unity: Harmonious elements have a logical relationship or progression - in some way they work together and complement each other. Unity is created by using harmonious similarity and repetition, continuance, proximity and alignment, and closure of design elements in different parts of the work so that the parts ‘relate’ to each other and create a unified whole, that can be greater than the sum of the paris, rather than an ill-fitting and meaningless assortment of elements, PROTOTYPING Prototypes are physical models of the product that are tested in some way to validate the design decisions that have been made up to that point in the design process. prototype is a physical model of the product, as opposed to a computer model (CAD model) of the product or ather simulation of the design. Models and prototypes are used throughout the design process. * Phase Zero: Product Concept Model -A full-scale or reduced-scale model of a new productis made to look like the final product. This often is prepared by technical designers and industrial designers working collaboratively, Emphasis is on appearance to gage customer reaction to a possible new product. + Conceptual Design: Proofof-Concept Prototype: This is a physical model to show whether the ‘concept performs the functions that satisfy the customer's needs and corresponding engineering specifications. There may have been a succession of proot-of-concept models, some physical and others rough sketches, that serve as learning tools until reaching the final proof-of-concept prototype. No attemptis mace to make the proof-of-concept model ook like the product as far as size, materials, or manufacturing methods are concemed. The emphesisis on showing that the concept will deliver the needed functions. Jaga46 5.6.1 5.6.2 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety EIRP Sopra sts piu _ om olen “a az Engineering Aptitude * Embodiment Design: Aipha-Prototype Testing: The end of the embodiment design phase is usually capped off by testing product prototypes. These are called alpha protolypes because while the parts fare madi to the final design drawings with the same materials as the product, they are not made using the same manufacturing processes as the production-run parts. Embodiment design makes frequent use of computer-aided engineering (CAB) tools for various design tasks. * Detail Design: Beta-Frototype Testing: This involves fullsize functional part or product testing using the materials and processes that will be used in production. This is a proof-ol-process prototype. Often customers are enlisted to help run these tests. The results of the beta-prototype tests are used to make any remaining changes in the product, complete the production planning, and try out the production tooling, * — Manufacturing: Preproduction Prototype Testing: This represents the first several thousand of units of production fram the actual production line using the assigned production warkers. Therefore, the output from the line represents the product that will shortly be shipped and sold to the customer. The tests on these products are made to verify and document the quality of the design and production and assembly processes, Prototypes help 10 verify the product but they have a high cost in money and time. As a result, there is a strong trend, particularly in large companies, to replace physical prototypes with computer models (Virtual Prototypes) because simulation is cheaper and faster. The opposing position, taken by many experienced engineers, is that computer modelling has been laken too far t00 fast, and that carefully planned and executed simulated service tests, and full-sized tests under extreme conditions should not be abandoned. Rapid Prototyping (RP) Rapid prototyping (RP) is a technology that produces prototypes directly from computer-aided design (CAD) models in a fraction of the time required to make them by machining or moulding methods. Another name for RP is solid freeform fabrication. RPis used for producing the final proof-of-concept model and is used extensively in embodiment design to check form, fit, and function. Note that the time to make a RP model may take from 8 to 24 hours the term rapid may be something of a misnomer. However, the time from detail drawing to prototype is typically shorter than if the part was. made in a model shop due to issues of scheduling and programming the machine tools. Also, RP processes are able to produce very complex shapes in one step, althauigh typically they are made from a plastic, not ametal Rapid Prototyping Processes There are a number of AP processes currently in use. They differ chiefly in whether they are liquid, solid, or powder-based systems, and whether they are capable of working with polymers, metals, or ceramics, Selective laser sintering (SLS) - It was developed to use stronger, higher-melting temperature materials than polymers in the RP process. In principle, any powder that can be fused together by sintering can be Used. A thin layer of powder is spread and sintered by the passage of a high- energy laser beam. Then the platform is lowered, a new layer of powder is spread and sintered, and the process proceeds, layer by layer. The SLS process is mostly used with thermoset polymer particles, or metal particles coated with plastic to facilitate bonding, Laminated object modelling (LOM): Itis an older method that continues to have useful applications because of the simplicity of the equipment that is needed. Thin layers of paper, polymer, or thin sheet steel that are cut with a NC knife or laser are glued together to form a laminate, After fabrication, preparation of the edges is required, All AP machines have definite size limitations, but LOM is most suitable for making prototypes of large components.mane EASY General Principles of Design a7 5.7 5.8 Fused-deposition modelling (FDM): Itis an example of several iquid-state deposition processes used to make prototypes. A continuous filament of thermoplastic polymer is heated and extruded through a nozzle, the movement of which is computer controlled along three axes. The polymer leaves the tip of the nozzle at just above the melting temperature of the polymer and rapidly solidifies when it strikes the previous layer. With proper control the extruded bead bonds to the previous layer. Strong and tough engineered polymers like ABS and polycarbonate can be used in the FDM process, and this produces prototypes with better mechanical properties than those made by stereolithography. Three-dimensional printing (SDP): It is a RP process that is based on the principle of the inkjet printer. A thin layer of metal, ceramic, or polymer powder is spread over a part-build bed, Using inkjet printing technology, fine droplets of a binder material are deposited on the power in the two-dimensional geometry defined by the digital slice of the three-dimensional part, The inkjet is under computer control as in the other AP processes described previously. The droplets agglomerate powder particles, bonding them together into a primitive volume element, or voxel. The binder droplets also bond voxels together within the plane and to the plane below i. Once a layer is deposited, the powder bed and part are lowered and a new layer of powder is spread out and the binder is applied by the jet. This layer-by-layer process is repeated Until the part is completed and removed from the powder bed TESTING Prototype tests are used to verify the design decisions that are made along the way to launching a product or installing an engineered system. The marketplace validates the acceptability for a consumer product, while for many other types of engineered products there is a set of prescribed acceptance tests. One of the important documents that is developed at the start of a major design program is the test plan, The test plan gives a description of the types of tests to be performed, when the test will be made in the design process, and the cost ofthe tests. It should be part of the PDS, All managers and engineers should be informed of the test plan because this is an important pacing activity for the design project. There are two general reasons for conducting a test, The first isto establish that the design meets some specification or contractual requirement (verification). The other broad category of tests are planned to generate failures. Most tests of materials carry out the test to a point of failure. Accelerated testing: This type of testing uses test conditions that are more severe than those expected tobe encountered in service. A common way to do this is with step testing, in which the level of the testis progressively increased by increments until failure occurs. Accelerated testing is the most economical form of testing. Design of Experiments (DoE): In testing, we may have to account effect of several factors ata time for ‘example parameters, such as stress, temperature, and rate of loading, which are critical and for which we would like to devise a test plan that considers their joint testing in the most economical way. Design of Experiments is facilitated by the use of many statistical design computer programs currently on the market, However, unless one is skilled in DOE itis advisable that a statistician be consulted during the development ofthe testing plan. Today's engineersneed a rudimentary understanding of DoE principles to make effective use of this software DETAIL DESIGN The boundary between embodiment design and detail design has become blurred and shifted forward in time by the emphasis on reducing the product development cycle time by the use of concurrent engineering methods (Design for x), enabled by computer-aided engineering (CAE). Detall design is the phase where all of the details are brought together, all decisions are finalized, and a decision is made by management to release the design for production.General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safet, Em General Studies & 48 eee cnn aa I inccngapatce Detail design is the lowest level in the hierarchy of design abstraction. Itis a very specific and concrete activity. Many decisions have been made lo yet to this point. Most of these decisions are fundamental to the designed product and to change them now would be costly in time and effort. Poor detail design can ‘in a briliant design concept and lead to manutacturing defects, high costs, and poor reliability in sorvioa. The reverse is not true. A brilliant detail design will not rescue a poor conceptual design, Thus, as the ame implies, detail design is mainly concemed with confirming details and supplying missing ones to ensure that a proven and tested design can be manufactured into a quality and cost-effective product. 5.8.1 Important Activities and Decisions The activities in the detail design phase are as follows: 1. Make/buy decisions: Even before the dosign of all components is completed and the drawings finalized, meetings are held on deciding whether to make a component in-house or to buy it roman external supplier. 2, Complete the Selection and Sizing of Components: There may be some components whose selection and size may not have been decided til this stage for various reasons. It is necessary to complete these activities before the design can be complete. 3. Complete Engineering Drawings: A major task in the detail design phaso is to complete the engineering drawings. Drawings of individual parts are usually called detail drawings. These show the geometric features, dimensions, and tolerances of the parts, 4. Complete the bill of materials: The bill of materials (BOM) or parts list isa list of each individual Component in the product. Its used in planning for manufacture and in determining the best estimate of product cost. 5. Revise the Product Design Specification: The PDS is a “living document” that changes as the design team gains more knowledge about the design of the product. In detail design the PDS should be updated to include all current requirements that the design must meet Complete Verificatic ie-builtand —— verification tested to ensure that the design meets the PDS and that itis safe and reliable, Beta- Prototypes are made with the same materials and manufacturing processes as the product but not Necessarily from the actual production line. Later, before product launch, actual products from the | production line will be tested. 7. Final Cost Estimate: The detail drawings allow the determination of final cost estimates, since knowledge of the material, the dimensions, tolerances, and finish of each part are needed to determine manufacturing cost. To make these calculations a bill of materials is utllzed. Cost analysis also needs specific information about the particular machines and process steps that will bo used to make each part 8. Prepare Design Project Report: A design project report usually is written at the conclusion of a Project to describe the tasks undertaken and to discuss the design in detail. This is a vital document for passing on design know-how toa subsequent design team engaged in a product redesign project, 9. Final Design Review: Many formal meetings or reviews will have preceded the final design review, These include an initial product concept meeting to begin the establishment of the PDS, a review at the end of conceptual design to decide whether to proceed with full-scale product development, and areview after embodiment design to decide whether to move into detail design. The purpose of the final design review is to compare the design against the most updated version of the product design specification (PDS) and a design review checklist, and to decide whether the design is ready for production. 10. Release design for Manufacturing: The release of the product design to manufacturing ends the main activity of the design personnel on thet product, The release may be done unconallionally, or under pressure to introduce a new product it may be done conditionally.mace easy General Principles ofDesign. 49 ESE 2017 Prelims Question Q.1 Consider the following statements regarding Golden Ratio for positive integers: 1, It is the ratio of difference of two numbers and the smaller number 2. It is the ratio of sum of two numbers and the smaller number 3. Its the ratio of the sum of two numbers and the larger number Which of the above statements is/are correct? (@) 1,2and3 (b) 3only (©) 2only (@) 1only Ans. (b) ‘Objective Brain Teasers Q.1_ FMEA can beused Q.6 Statement (|): FMEA is also called as “listening 1. after Quality Function Deployment to the voice of customer’ 2. foridentitying effects of different variable in Statement (II): FMEAis a step-by-step approach process outcome for identtying possible failures in a design. {a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (Il) are individually true and Statement (Il) is the correct explanation of Statement (I) (©) Both Statement (I) and Statement (Il) are individually true but Statement (II) is NOT the correct explanation of Statement (I) Of the given statements a) 1iscorrect (b) 2is correct () both 1 and 2are correct (6) noneis corect Q.2 AFMEA team answers: (6) Statement ()is true but Statement (I) is false @) How can this product design or process (@) Statement (1) is false but Statement (Ii) is design fail to do what itis supposed to do? true (b) What should we do to preventthese potential @_7 Consider the following statements regarding failures? Ergonomic Design: (©) Both (a) and (b) 4. Reducing the stress on the spinal cord and (d) None of the above providing for lesser fatigue-causing sitting arrangements. 2, Arrangements of keys on the computer keyboard towards optimizing finger stress Q.3. Embodiment is the bridge between concept stage and @) Specification stage level (0) Detait design 3. Catering to increasing demand to produce (©). Manufacture mote pleasing objects. (@) None ofthe above Which of the above statements are correct? @ and 2on\ b) Zand 3 only a4 is concerned with ways of designing _ a oag machines, operations and work environments: _ (@) Aesthetics (b) Ergonomics (©) Sealing (@) None of the above Q.5 Risk priority number is calculated as (a) RPN=P*O"D (b) RPN=C*O*D (0) RPN=S*O*B (d) RPN=S*O*D6.1 WHAT IS ENGINEERING DRAWING? * Engineering drawing is the graphical representation of an object containing all necessary information like actual shape, size, etc., required for the manufacturing of an engineering component. * tis the language used to convey engineer's thoughts to a worker in a manufacturing firm, Hence, Engineering Drawing is also known as the Universal Language of Engineers or Engineer's Language. 6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING DRAWING (a) Geometrical Engineering Drawing: The art of representing geometrical object such as rectangle, square, triangle, cube, cylinder, sphere, elc.,on a paper is called Geometrical Engineering Drawing Itis further sub-grouped as: (i) Plain Geometrical Drawing: The art of representing geomettical objects (two dimensional) such as hexagon, pentagon, rectangle, square triangle, etc.,on papers called Plain Geometrical Drawing, (li) Solid Geometrical Drawing: The art of representing geometrical objects (three dimensional) such as, cubes, cylinders, spheres, pentagonal prism, hexagonal prism, pentagonal pyramid, exagonal icone, papers metricat Drawing, (b) Mechanical Engineering Drawing: The art of representing mechanical Engineering objects, such as, Machines, machine tool parts, IC engine parts, automobile parts, etc., on paper is called Mechanical Engineering Drawing or Machine Drawing, (c) Civil Engineering Drawing: The art of representing Cinil Engineering objects, such as, buildings, roads, bridges, ete., on paper is called Civil Engineering Drawing, | (d) Electrical Engineering Drawing: The art of representing Electrical Engineering object, such as, electrical Machines, motors, generators, transformers, etc.,.on a paper is called Electrical Engineering Drawing, {e) Electronics Engineering Drawing: The art of representing Electronics Engineering objects, such as electronic circuit, calculators, TV circus, computers, etc, ona paper is called Electronics Engineering Drawing, 6.3 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS (a) Drawing board (IS 1444 : 1989) * Drawing boards are used to provide support to the drawing sheets or papers. * Top working surface of the board should be smooth in order to prepare quality drawings. * Drawing boards are made in various sizes. Its selection depends upon the size of the drawing sheet to be usedmADE ERSY General Principles of Drawing 51 Table 6.1 Standard sizes of drawing boards Sie | eoaeon | OT |g ee El toe > aaa a z 7 lee _ ae (b) Drawing sheets (IS 10711 : 2001) ee rata i : | A4 B| (297 « 210) bl A2 A3 (420 297) r\ pip" AY 5 PW Al i Fig. 6.1 Standard sizes of drawing sheet * Standard sizes of trimmed drawing sheets recommended by IS 10711 : 2001 are shown in figure © The length to width ratio of these sheets is V2 :1 * The surface area of basic AO size drawing sheets nearly 1 m? (119mm x 641 mm) * The successive sheet sizes are obtainad in the same ratio by halving the length dimension such that its area is half of area of previous sheet.52 General Principles of Design, Dray ing and Importance of Safety ETSI Sener Stuesa iMate) : Engineering Aptitude (0). T-square: ‘+ [tis used for drawing horizontal parallel ines, * loan also be used as a base for drawing the various angles with the help of set squares. Drawing board [Ps Protractor Edge of the paper 1 ry Tesquare Fig. 6.2 Arrangement of F-square, set squares and protractor (a) Set squares: * Theyare usedto draw paralel, inclined and perpendicular lines, often in conjunction with T-square. + There are two types of set squares: (Thirty-sixty degree (30°-60") (i) Forty five degree (45°) (e) Protractor * They are used for measuring or constructing angles which cannot be obtained with set squares. + They are graduated in degrees, measurable with a least count of upto 0.5° (f) Compass and divider + Compass is used to draw circles and arch. Large compass is used for diameter greater than 50 mm and ‘small compass is used for diameter less than 50 mm, * Dividers used to divide the lines or curves into equal — wn parts and to transfer the lengths from one place to ® o other. a Fig. 7.3 Compass and dividermane EASY General Principles of Drawing 53 (g) Mini drafter © It is used for different drafting operations, viz., to draw horizontal, vertical and inclined lines, parallel and perpendicular lines and also for measuring lines and angles. ig a madern equipment that combines the advantages of T-square, set squares, protractors, \d scales which becomes a convenient drafting equipment. a Tab Drawing board P= 1 g { Deawing set Blades with scale Para Za felerepean Fig. 6.4 Fixing the mini drafter on the board (h) French curves Fig. 6.5 French curves «French curves are used for drawing curves thet have different radii and curvatures which cannot be drawn with a compass. * continuous smooth curve required through a set of points that do not lie on a straight line or on a circle can be drawn with the help of french curves. (i) Pencils These are the primary tools in engineering drawing, used by engineers to communicate their ideas through text ar drawing. + They are amenable for erasing and making alternations, without causing permanent impressions. * The grade of a pencil lead is usually shown by alphabets and letters marked at one of its ends,54 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety STEM eames * Gracie HB denotes medium soft. Grade H is harcier than HB and H, 2H, etc. denote hardness in increasing order, Grade B is used to denote softer than HB and B, 2B, etc. denotes softness in increasing order. Various grades of pencils available today are as follows SH, 8H, 7H, 6H, SH, 4H, 3H, 2H, H, F, HB, B, 28, 3B, 48, 58, 68,78, 88 and 98 * The lead may be sharpened to two different forms: () Conical point and (il) Chisel edge * The conical points used in sketch work and for lettering ete. * With the chisel edgo, long thin lines of uniform thickriesss can be easily drawn and hence, itis suitable for drawing work * The chisel edge is prepared by rubbing the lead on a Sandpaper block, making it lat, first on one side and then on the other by turning the pencil through a half circle * For making the conical end the pencil should be rotated between the thumb and fingers, while rubbing the lead. Other drawing instruments frequently used are sheet holding Gevices (drawing clips, cello tapes, pins, ec.) erasers, Wy ous cays ee sharpeners, sandpaper block, rolkn-draw, etc Fig. 7.6 | 6.4 ENGINEERING SCALES |tis not always possible or convenient to draw drawings of an abject to its actual size. For instance, Crawings of very big objects like buildings, machines, etc., cannot be prepared in ful size because they would be too big to accommodate on, the drawing sheet. Drawings of very small objects like pracisio instruments, namely, watches, electronic devices, micro processors etc., also cannot be prepared in ful size because they would be too small to draw and to read. The different types of scales ised so that object can be accommodated on drawing sheet and can comfortably be drawn and vead are as follows: (i) Full size scale "Fie show tho actual length of an object on a drawing, then the scale used full size scale. Designation of full size scale: Scale 1:1 (il) Reducing scale \Fwe reduce the actual length of an object so as to accommodate that object on drawing, then the Scale used is called Reducing scale. Such scales are used for the preparation of drawings of large ‘machine parts, buildings, architectural drawings, etc. Designation of reducing scale : Scale 1 : (Example : Scale 1 :20 represents size on drawing is reduced 20 times of actual size) (iil) Enlarging or increasing scale Drawing of instruments, watches, etc., aro made larger than their eal size, These are said to be drawn on an enlarging or inereasing scale. Designation of enlarging scale: Scale x: 1 , (Example: Scale 20: 1) (iv) Representative Factor {tis the ratio of the length of the element on the drawing to the actual length of the element Length of the abject in drawing FF = fetual length of he object ("827 units)mave EASY General Pinciples of Drawing 55 For full size scale, representative factor = 1 For reduce scale, representative factor < 1 For enlarged scale, representative factor > 1 CONVERSION FACTORS Length conversion factors Area conversion factors 10 milimeters (mm) = 1 centimeter (cm) 100 mm? = 1 em? 4Ocentimeter (cm) = t decimeter (dm) 100 om? = 1 dm? 10 decimeter (dm) = 1 meter (rn) 100 dm? = 1m? 10 meters (m) = 1 decameter (dam) 100 m? = 1 are 10 decameter (dam) = 1 hectometer (hm) 100 are = 1 ha (hectare) 10 hectorneter (hm) = 1 kilometer (km) 100 ha = 1 km? 254m inch 12inch = 1 foot S feet = yard 220 yard = 4 furlong Biurlong = 1 mite 1 mile = 1.61 km 1 Nautical mile = 1.85 km Scales on Drawings When an unusual scale is used, tis constructed on the drawing sheet. To construct a scale the following information is required 1. The RF of the scale 2. The units which is must represent, for example, millimeters and centimeters or feet and inches ete 3. The maximum length which it must show. The length of the scale is determined by the formula: Length of the scale = RF x Maximum length required to be measured. ‘Types of Scales The scales used in practice arc classified as under: ()) Plain scale (i) Diagonal scale (iil) Comparative scale (wv) Vernier scale (W) Scale of chords (i) Plain scale: A plain scale consists of a line divided into suitable number af equal parts or units, the first of which is subdivided into smaller parts. Plain scales represent either two units or a unit and its subdivision,al Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety ose 60 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety GESSREINEN ,Coree Stes - = ; 5 Porcelain, Stonaware, Marble, Slate, ote, Asbestos, Fel, Paper, Mica, Cork, Rubber, Leather, Wir, Insulating Materials a Wood, Plywood 0 | cm 2. | sito Maser Prete 10. Concrete 7 [ vi | vt OF Poor Kase, a 6.8 LETTERING + Letteringis defined as writing of titles, sublites, symbols, dimensions, etc. on a drawing to reveal all the details connected with the object. * Lettering should be made clean, unambiguous, legible, uniform style, and simple enough to be practised rapidly by freehand ‘+ Nominal size: the nominal size of lettering is defined by the height (h) of the outline contour of the uppercase (Capital) letters, Notes Lettering is just freehand drawing, Types of lettering * The letters are classified into two categories-single stroke and double stroke. * Indian standards recommends single stroke letters in the design practice. These are simplest forms of letters and are employed in most of the engineering drawing, Single stroke does not mean that lettering should be done in single stroke without lifting the Pencil; it implies that the thickness of the letter should be uniform such that it is ‘obtained in single stroke of pencil 3 * Single stroke letters are of two types viz. () vertical (ji) inclined. Inclined letters lean to the right, the slope being 75° with the horizontal (or 15° with vertical) ‘+ Indian standards further classify the lettering into four categories as: Lettering ‘A’ Lettering ‘B" Lettering CA Juse Bencil and ink drawing Lettering ‘CB Juse the applications of numerically controlied drafting through CAD,© mane ERSY General Principles of Drawing e 61 © In/ettering ‘4’ type, the height of the capital letter is divided into 14 parts and in lettering “B types, it is divided into 10 parts Table 6.4 Width of various letters as per Type A lettering “Typo of etter Letier wath Capital or upper case enters | 1 unit 5 units Bunits Bunks units units Tarits Vn Lowercase of smaittetters |i jue Suns fe Aunts m S units w | touts AlLother smal eters Bunits Numerals 1 | dunt 35 Sunits Allother numerals Tunis Table 6.5 Wiath of various letters as per Type B lettering Type of lotr Letier width] Capita or upper case loters | 1 Tune J | unis, CEL Sunits ALM, Q.V KY Tunits w Sunt All other capital letters 6 units Lowercase of smaltteters | i vant ' 2units chet | uns All other smal eters Sunits : Numerals 1 Suns 4 6 units Allother numerals 5 units Note: Letters and numerals in type B lettering are wider than those in to type Aand the line width js also more.62 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety STAPH] _enera! Stacles& - as Engineering Aptis!» wmbr7 6 5 6 5 § 6 614 6 5 7 6 hero VERTICAL CAPITAL & Lowercase LETTERS AND NUMERALS OF TYPE B Height of Letters (h) Table 6.6 Height of Letters Recommended height A of Letiersl Numerals by BIS MAIN TITLE OF DRAWING Smm or 7 mm or 10 mm NES : Sor § mir Dimensions, Numerals, Notes ete. :_2.5 mm, 3.5 mm or 5 mm 6.9 DIMENSIONING Indicating the sizes of the features of the abject and other details essential for its construction and funetion ona drawing by the use of ines, numerals, symbols, notes, etc. is called dimensioning, 6.9.1 Elements of Dimensioning 1. Dimension tine: itis a continuous narrow line, drawn parallel to edge or surface whose measurement should be shown, Extension line or projection line: It is a continuously narrow like drawn perpendicular to the outline to be dimensioned and without leaving a gap from the outline. Itis drawn extending slightly beyond the dimension line by about 2mm, Leader tine ion ine a Project Dimension Dimension line 4 Termination (Aerowead) (2) Dimension ne with arrowheadsmade EASY General Princip) 25 of Drawing 63 Projection tne Termination (oblique stoke) To mension: ine (©) Dimension ine with oblique strxkes, Fig, 6.8 Elements of Dimensioning 8. Leader line: It is a continuous narrow fine, connecting a dimensional value or a note with the Cortesponding features on the drawing. 4, Dimension line terminations: The dimension lines will have terminations in the form of arrowheads or oblique strokes. () Arrowhead: An arrowhead is placed at each end of a dimension line. Its pointed end touches an Outline, and extension line or a centre line, The arrowhead may be open, closed or closed an led inopen type arrowhead is preferable for fast execution. b+ RR (2) Representation of arowheads of —_(b) Representation of srowheads ‘suscessivo dimension ines ‘opening on space linstation Fig. 6.9 Representation of Dimension lines Length of an arrowhead is approximately three times the width. The size of the arrowhead should bo _ Proportional to the thickness of the outlin !) Oblique stroke: When space is too small for an arrowhead, the oblique stroke may be substituted. —} (©) Obtique stroke 0 O) i) ———_ w ai i | vant (6) Diterent arowheads (6) Atronivesd shape and its properties Fig. 6.10 Representation of oifferent types of Arrowheads “6.9.2 Methods of Dimensioning * The dimensions are indicated on a drawing as per one of the following methods as recommended in BIS(SP 46-2003) Method I: Aligned method * As per this method, the dimensions are placed parallel to the dimension line and above it preferable in the middle. * Dimensional values are marked so that they can beread either from the bottom or from the right hand side of the drawing,General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safet General Studies & ° serene YE pcincering Aptiude Method il: Unidirectional method Inthis method, the dimensions are indicated so that they can be placed in only horizontal direction. Non-horizontal dimension lines (vertical and inclined) are interrupted, and the dimension values are inserted in such lines. 30, | 20 129 Unidirectional system ofensioning Fig. 6.11 Methods of aimensioningROE SASH General Principles of Drawing 5 mi 5 69.3 Arrangement of Dimensions 4. Chain dimensioning/continuous dimensioning: When successive dimensions are arranged in a straight line, the method is known as chain dimensioning. ‘Note that the chain of dimensions shall b> arranged ina continuous straight ine. 150 210 220 Fig. 6.12 Chain dimensioning 2. Parallel dimensioning/progressive dimensioning: Parallel dimensioning is the placement of anumber of single dimension lines parallel to one another from a common origin. Itis used where a number of dimensions have a common origin. — 750 420 9 Fig. 6.13 Parallel dimensioning 3. Combined dimensioning: When chain dimensioning and parallel dimensioning are used in single drawing, itis called Combined Dimensioning, Fig. 6.14 Combined dimensioning 69.4 Dimensioning of Special Features Dimensioning of special features such as radius, arc radius, diameter, spherical radius, etc, are done by using special symbols. These symbols are given in table below and a few examples are shown.66 General Principles of Design, Drawing ond Importance of Safety SST oe ee ty Table 6.7 [dentificaticxy Symbols of Special Features ‘aime Gfthe shape G@). | entiation | Name ot te shape (on) | Wdenniation | jal eatures: ‘symbols. “Special features. symbols Radius R Pitch cece ciameter Pop Spherical radius se Equispaced asp Diameter 2 ‘Counter sun sk Spheres clameter so Counter bow cBoRE Square Boorse, | Mote toad ™ to 2s sy g 7 1 i Circle 250 eno, 4 AB of ke Ik. ‘Ace Radius #15 3025ASE EASY General Principles of Drawing los Square 6.9.5 Rules for Dimensioning 1 Mark the dimensions outside the view. (However, Diameter of circle/Radius of arc may be shown inside.) Do not repeat the same dimension must be shown, but none should be shown more than once. Also, dimensions should not be placed very near to the parts being dimensioned. A circle shall be dimensioned by its diameter symbol @ (and an arc by its radius symbol F). Convention @ or R shall be placed before the dimensional value. Also, Center Lines (Axes) should extend approximately 3 mm beyond the outline of the part whose symmetry they indicate Center line (axis) itself shall not be used as a dimension line with arrowheads at its ends, Dimensioning from a center line is incorrect, ‘except when the centre line passes through the centre of a hole, ‘Also, centerline may be extended to serve as an extension line as shown, Location or holes {ie., distance between the centers of the holes) shall be dimensioned in the view in which holes are visible. Also, Extension Line starts from the view and extend 2 mm beyond the dimension line, Dimensions shall be given to visible lines and not to hidden (invisible) lines. Also, (dimension value should be placed little (approximately 2mm) above the dimension line and not on the dimension line. 67 CorrectStudies & General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety EEEIRUIETS “ere uses 19 Aide Engineer 8. Taper on diameter shall be dimensioned as 25145" shown, D-a i Example: taper = 2-9-1 ample: taper = 7S = 8. If dimensioning inside @ hatched portion of a drawing is unavoidable, the hatching lines. should not cut the dimensional text. Taper | in 10 I 2x08 ee same dimensional value, (or? Hotes 28) Notes Should always be written horizontally. Leader line shall be inclined at an angle of 30°, ©) 45° or 60" to the horizontal shown, 10, Repeated features: Repeated features of the same size and marked to avoid repeating the 11, Overall dimensioning: Overall dimension shall be placed outside the intermediate dimensions, i.e., smaller dimensions shall be placed nearer the view and the larger further away so that extension lines do not cross-dimension lines. (Extension lines may cross each ather or the outlines of the drawing, such as the case of leader lines) 6.10 6.10.1 When an overall dimension is shown, one of the intermediate dimensions should not be marked, GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS AND CURVES * Geometrical constructions or plane geometry deals with plane figures such as lines, angles, tangles, quadirilaterals, polygons, circles ete. ‘* This chapter deals with some such important geometrical constructions which are frequently used in Engineering Drawing, Polygon Plane figure bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop. These segments are called its edges or sides, and the points where two edges meet are the verticals, When all the sides and angles of a polygon are equal, itis known as a regular polygon, otherwise irregular polygon. ti : Ute ss Equilateral Triangle 3 sides Square . 4 sidesmane EASY General Principles of Drawing 6.10.2 Regular Pentagon - 5 sides Regular Hexagon - 6 sides Regular Heptagon - 7 sides Regular Octagon - 8 sides Regular Nonagon - 9 sides Regular Decagon - 10 sides tc Properties of regular polygon () Allsides are equal (i) Allangles are equal (ii) Each exterior angle = 360%n n. (iv) Each interior angle = var(2=2) (¥) Sumof exterior angles = 360° (vi) Sum of interior angles = 180° x (n- 2) Quadrilaterals 69 Apolygon with 4 sides is called a quadrilateral. Different type of quadrilaterals with their properties are as shown below: Table 6.8 Different type of Quadritaterals SwNo, | Quadrilateral ype Properties Shape + Allsides equat @ | Square Opposite sides paratlet * Allangios equal (+ 90°) * Opposite angles equal (+ 90°) (| Rectangutar Opposite sides equal ‘Opposite sides parallel + Allangles equal © 90°) (| Rhombus + Allsides equal © Opposite sides paralet ‘© Opposite angles equal (90°) ow! + Opposite sides equal | oo | Brome + Opposite sides paraet | Teepezium + Only two sidos para! (wv) | Isocetes Trapezium ‘© Only two sides parallel Base angle equal © Square is the only regular quadrilateral, - Square, Rectangular and Rhombus are all special eases of parallelogram. HeGeneral Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safet) Tay . Serer! Stucies & 70 inciples of Design, Drawing Pp ol SaleMore aaa 6.10.3 Conic Sections ‘Aconic section is the intersection of a plane and a cone. By changing the angle and location of intersection, we can produce a circle ellipse, parabola or hyperbola, on the special case when the plane touches the vertex a point, ine or 2 intersecting lines. The conic may be defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane in such a way that the ratlo of Its distances from a fixed point and fixed straight line is always constant. The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line, the directrix, The line passing through the focus and perpendicular tothe directrix is called the axis and the point at which the conic cuts its axis is called the vertex «ais the angle between one of the generators and base of the cone. Bis the angle of inclination between cutting plane (section plane) and base of the cone. Gis angle of inclination between generators and is also called as vertex angle. Fig. 6.15 Conie sections The ratio of distance of the point from focus to the distance of the point from directrixis called eccentricity and is denoted by (e). () Ellipse : ¢< 1, B < and section plane passes through all the generators (i) Parabola : e = 1, B = a and section plane must be parallel to one of the end generators Hyperbek eee pl (iv) Rectangular Hyperbola : e = 2,8 = 90° and apex angle is 90°. Engineering Application of Conic Sections: Ellipse: Elliptica! shape is used in the construction of arches, bridges, dams, elliptical gears of textile machines and printing presses, ends of cylindrical tanks, tops or bottoms of utensils, main-holes, glands, | stutfing boxes, flanges of pipes, monuments, etc Parabola: Parabola is used for suspension bridges, reflectors for parallel beams such as head lights of automobiles, solar concentrators, including machine tool structures, etc. Path of a thrown object or missile | and path of a jet of water issuing from vertical orifice are of parabolic shape. | Hyperbola: Hyperbola is used in the design of cooling towers, hydraulic channels, electronic transmitters. | and receivers like radar antenna, ete. | Rectangular hyperbola: Rectangular hyperbola is used to represent the Boyle's Law expansion curve or the Theoretical Indicator Diagram of an Engine. | | 6.10.4 Curves : Cyoloidal Curves, These curves are generated by a fixed point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls without slipping along a fixed straight line or a circle. The rolling circle is called generating circle and the fixed straight line or circles termed directing line or directing circle. Cycloidal curves are used in tooth profile of gears of a dial gauge.mane easy General Principles of Drawing 71 cycloid Cycloid is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolis along a straight line. e cyclold a Trochoid Trochoid is a curve generated by a point fixed to a circle, within or outside its circumference, as the circle rolls along a straight line. When the point is within the circle, the curve is called an inferior trochoid and when outside the circle, itis termed a superior trochoid. Superior Epicyel The curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls without slipping along another circle outside it, is called an epicyotoid. Epleyctoid Hypocycloid The curve generated by a point on the circumference of acitole, which rolls without slipping along another circle inside it, is called an hypocycloid HypocyctoidGeneral Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety ESSARY Corea! tucios 72 i rT ig and Impor YE Gircoring Apeinicle ‘Note: When the diameter of the rolling circle is half the diameter of the direct gece, the hypocycioid ig a -straight line and is a diameter of the directing circle. Epitrochoid Epitrochoid is a curve generated by a point fixed to circle (within or outside its circumference, but in the ‘same plane) roling on the outside of another circle: 6 Epttrochoias Hypotrochoid When the circle rolls inside another circle, the curve is called a hypotrochoid. The curve is termed inferior 6 superior, according to the position of the point being inside or outside the rolling circle. Epirochois i Inferior Epitrochoid and Hypotrachoid Involute The involute is a curve traced out by an end of a piece of thread unwound froma circle or a polygon, the thread being kept tight. It may also be defined as a curve tracked out by a point in a straight line which rolls without slipping along a circle or a polygon. Involute ofa circle is used as teeth profile of gear wheelmage EAs General Principles of Drawing : 73 ai ely tvotue of a circle a 4 A, a—e aan Fe me of «square 7 nvotute of a pentagon Spirals Spiral is defined as the locus of a point which moves around a centre, called Pole, while moving towards or away from the center. The point will move along a line called Radius Vector while the line itself rotates about one of its end points, The locus of the point for one complete revolution of the radius vectoris called Spiral for one convolution. (a) Archimedian spiral: It is the locus of @ point moving with uniform linear velocity along the radius vector, while the radius vector itself rotates with uniform angular velocity. Fig. 6.16 Archimedian spiral (6) Logarithmic spiral: In this spiral, the ratio of the lengths of consecutive radius vectors enclosing equal angles is always constant, In other words, the values of vectorial angles are in arithmetical progression and the corresponding values of radius vectors are in geometrical progression,General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety (EETARRSTENE Sener stucis & ie ° s coe ” Engineering Aptitude The logarithmic spiralis also known as Equiangular spiral because of its property that the angle which the tangent al any point on the curve makes with the radius vector at that p: intis constant. Fig. 6.17 Logarithmic spiral Helices Helix is defined as a curve generated by @ point moving around and along the surface of aright circular cylinder or cone with uniform angular velocity about the axis and with a uniform linear velocity in the Gitection of the axis. Lead or Pitch is the axial distance moved by the generating point in one revolution, @) Cylindrical hetix (Helix) tis generated as the point moves on the surface of a cylinder such that i | Moves around the axis and simultaneously mi Fig. 6.18 Cylindrical helix (0) Conicat helix: itis generated as the point moves on the surface of a cone such that it moves around the axis and simultaneously moves towards vertex.mnne EASY General Principles of Drawing 75 Pitch or Lead Fig. 6.19 Conical helix ESE 2017 Prelims Questions Q.1_ Thelocus traced a point moving along a pendulum from one end to another, when the pendulum oscillates, is (@) Aspiral (b) An involute (©) Acycloid () Ahelix Ans. (a) “A spiral” AB is pendulum P,P, Py, Pa, P, are points on the curve and that is spiral76 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety [ESSRSTEY General studies Engineeiing Aptitude a2 Ans. as Ans. {f the radius of a generating circle which is moving inside the directing circle is half of the radius of the directing circle, the curve generated by a point on the circumference of the generating circle is, (@) Acircle (b) Anellipse (©) Astiaighttine (@) spiral | (c) A straight line. line A cone is resting with its base on HP. A section plane parallel to VP cuts the cone, The section plane is some distance away from the centre and does not pass through the apex. The true shape of the section is (@) Hyperbole (0) Rectangular Hyperbola (©) Parabola (0) Rectangular Parabola (a) When the section plain cuts both the parts of the double cone on one side of the axis the section is a Hyperbola Rectangular Hyperbola is @ curve traced out by a point moving is such a way that the product of a Pinal ‘Swaight ne "when the dia of directing circle is twice the dia of generating circle then hypacycloid is a straight a4 a2 a3 1 ight ang act other is constant-‘The fixed! tines are asymptotes, jets fra Teasers A drafter helps in engineering drawing tomake Q.4 _ Inthe drawing sheet sizes, which of the following (@) concentric circles is A2 size? (b) parallel and perpendicular lines (a) 594 mm x 641 mm (©) smooth curves (©) 420 mm x 594mm (@) All of the above (0) 841 mm x 189mm x28 A device which combines the function of a (@) 210mm x 297 mm T-square, set square, protractor and scale is @.§ Which of the following pencil leads is hardest? called @H () HB (a) mini drafter {b) combination set @B (a) F ©) fast lates ae (@) templates Q.6 Todraw smooth curves of any nature, the dratting Sheet size A1 has an area of instrument used is alan (@) 1m? {o) 0.5m? (@) Template (0) Eraser shield (©) 0.25mi? (c) 075m? (©) Frenchcurve — (d)_ Minidrattermape ERSY General Principles of Drawing 77 az as a9 a.10 Parallel lines can be drawn with the help of (@) Fsquare (©). Mini drafter (6) Pairofset-square (d) Allof these Hidden lines are drawn as @ (©) ©) () Long dashed dotted thin line is used to represent (a) Centre tines {b) Line of symmetry (©) Pitch circle of holes and gears (@) Allof the above The length-to-height ratio of a closed filled arrow head is (@) 2:1 © 3:1 tb) 1:1 (d) 1:3 When dimensions are specified froma common, origin and spaced parallel to one another, it is called (@) Progressive dimensioning (6) Chain dimensioning (©) Superimposed running dimensioning (d) Coordinate dimensioning Qe Q.13 14 15 16 {faline intersects a circle at wo points and does not pass through the centre, the line segment inside circle is referred as (a) Chord (b) Quadrant (©) Sequent (d) Radial ine The intemal angle of ahexagon is (a) 108° (0) 120° (9 72 (a) 110° ‘A eight-sided polygon is called (a) Octagon {b) Decagon (c) Hexagon (d) Heptagon The representative fraction (RF) is always (a) equal to unity {b) less than unity (©) greater than unity (d) Any of above For drawing the component of a wrist watch, the scale used is (a) Fullsize scale (b) Enlarged scale {0) Reduced scale (d) None of these 5. ( (b) 2.(a) 3. (b) 4. (b) (c) 7. (dc) B.(c) 9. (d) 10. (ce) (2) 12.(a) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (a) (b)7.1 INTRODUCTION The word projection is of Latin origin which means ‘to throw forward’. Thus, projentian is defined as an image of an object thrown forward on to a plane by means of straight lines called visual rays projecting lines/projectors, The figure formed by joining various poinis thus obtained on the plane is termed as projection of the object 7.2 METHODS OF PROJECTION (a) Pictorial Projections: The projection in which the description of the object is completely understood in one view is known as Pictorial Projection. It has advantage of conveying an immediate impression of the shape of the object, but natits true sizes. lis types are: (i) Axonometric Projection: In this projection, only one view showing all the three dimensions of an Object is drawn on a plane of projection. The orientation of abject is kept in such a way that its three mutually perpendicular edges will remain inclined to the plane of projection. itis further Classified into three types: (1) Isometric (2) Dimetric and (3) Trimetric. (ii) Oblique Projection: Oblique means slanting, In this, projectors are not perpendicular to the plane of projection. The front face of the object is placed parallel to the plane of projection and . ontfacers ‘shape: (iil) Perspective Projection: in perspective projection, the projecting lines or visual rays converge at point, Herve ilis also termed as convergent projection, Perspective projections are not used by engineers for manufacturing, because the perspective view does not reveal the exact size and shape. Perspective may be used in marketing where anatural view of a product is desirable. (b) Orthographic Projection: in Orthographic projection, an objects represented by two or three views on the mutually perpendicular projection planes. Isometric projection: It is a pictorial projection in which three dimensions of a solid are nat only shown in one view. but also. their dimensions can be measured from it. In this type of projection, objectis inclined and tilted in such a way that allits mutually perpendicular planes are equally inclined to the observer. True length Isometric Jo: _ Base line 'somettic projection of a cube is shown in figure it gives 2 fait Fig, 7.1 Isometric projection of a cube idea of the pictorial form of the cube * Isometric axes: Lines AB, AD and AE meeting at a point A and making an angle of 120° with each other are termed Isometric axes, * Isometric lines: Lines parallel to the isometric axes are termed ssometric lines. Lines CD, CB alc., are examples of isometric lines.mane GASH General Principles of Drawing 79 + Non-isomettric lines: Lines which are not parallel to isometric axes are termed Non isometric lines, Line BD is an example. + Isometric planes: Planes representing the faces of the cube as well as other planes parallel to these planes are termed fsometric planes. + Non-isometric planes: Planes not parallol to isometric planes are Non-isometric planes. + Isometric scale: Isometric projection is drawn using Isometric scate, which converts tue lengths into isometric lengths which are foreshortened to 0.816 times their actualtrue lengths. Difference between Isometric View and tsometric Proje * Isometric View: Drawn to actual scale. ‘When lines are drawn parallel toisometric axes, the true lengths are laid off. + Isometric Projection: Drawn to isometric scale. When lines are drawn parallel to isometric axes, the lengths are foreshortened to 0.816 times the actual lengths. 7.3 PLANES OF PROJECTION The planes on which various projections are drawn are called planes of projections. There are two planes used for orthographic projections and are known as reference planes. These two planes are at right angle to each other as shown in figure. Fig. 7.2 Isometric Scale ee Xe. ‘Second quadrant sbove x Fest quaceart above oO HE. angin font of VP. Fest angle projection HP. ond boning VP. Second angle projection 7 Hoizonial Plane: oie, . Second angle ri raf Ties quacrant below HP. and behind Fourth ange Fourth quadrant below HP. and in frork VP. Thi angle projection Fourth angle projection Fig. 7.3 Planes of projection Note: The projections are obtained by drawing perpendiculars from the object to the planes.80 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety (SZAIPTiy oor! Stwiies@ Engineering Aptitude * Vertical Plane ( V.P.) : The plane, which is in vertical direction, is known as Vertical Plane. * Horizontal Plane (H.P.) : The plane, which is in horizontal direction, is known as Horizontal Plane. * Profile Plane (P.P.) : Sometimes some features of an object lie on its left or right side. Top and front views will not be sufficient to show these features in their true shape. In such cases, the object is projected either on aleft or right side plane, known as profile plane (PP) and the view projected on it is known as profile view or side view. * Auxiliary Plane (A.P.) : The plane, which is placed at any angle to the reference plane, is known as Auxiliary Plane * Auxiliary Vertical Plane (A.V.P.): The plane, which js placed at right angle to the H.P. and inclined to \P. at specitic angle, is known as Auxiliary Vertical Plane. * Auxiliary Inclined Plane : The plane, which is placed at right angle to the VP. and inclined to H.P. at specific angle, is known as Auxiliary inclined Plane. * Auxiliary View : Projection on an Auxiliary plane is called auxiliary view, Side view is a special case of Auxiliary view. * Ground Line: The line of intersection of two reference planes of projections (\he V.P. and the H.P.)is called Ground Line or Reference Line * Front View or Elevation: The projection of the object on the vertical plane is called front view or elevation * Top View or Plan: The projection of the object on the horizontal plane is called top view or simply plan, * Side View or Side Elevation or Profile View: The projection of the object on the Auxiliary Vertical Plane or profile plane is called Side View or Elevation. * Four quadrants: When the planes of projections are extended beyond their line of intersection, they form four quadrants or dihedral angles. These quadrants are numbered as |. Il, lil and! counterclockwise direction. TYPES OF ORTHOGRAPHICS There are two types of orthographic projections: (a) First Angle Projection: In this projection, the object lies in front of VP. and above HP. i.¢., is placed in the first quadrant, Front View Is drawn on the vertical piane. Top View is drawn on horizontal plane and Side View is drawn on the auxiliary vertical plane. In the first angle projection, views are placed as follows with respect to the front view. * The top view is placed below the front view. * Bottom view is placed above the front view, * Left side view is placed at right side of the front view. * Right side view is placed at left side of the front view. * Back view is placed left or right side of the front view as per convenience. ‘View willbe projected on ihe fights __ the front view, Likewise, right side view is projectec e left side pr drawn on the left side of the front view. henry cals 1y one of the quadrants, ___ Its position relative to the planes being described as “above or below the H.P" and "in front of or behind the VP.” : : eS 2 Drofile (RPP) and drawn on the right side of peed e (LPP) andmane EASY General Principles of Drawing 81 Fig. 7.4 Pictorial view of the first quadrant ve, PP. Fegnt vig ical He, ‘Top view Fig. 7.5 First angle orthographic projections82 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety Sunt Tid angle ‘jection VF Re TT ipa 7A | 1 | ack or ear vow elie i Fig. 7.6 Six views of he frst angle onhographic projection General Studies & Engineering Aptitude Note: BIS recommends use of First Angle Projection method in all institutions. (b) Third Angle Projection: In this projection, the object lies on the backside of VP. and below the HP. i.e, in the third quadrant. Front View is drawn on the vertical plane below the reference line, Top View is drawn on horizontal plane and side view is drawn on the auxiliary vertical plane. In the third angle projection, views are placed as follows with respect to the front view. The Top Views placed above the Front View. Bottoin Views placed below the Front View, Left Side View is placed at left side of the Front View. Right Side View is placed at right side of the Front View. Back View is placed left or right side of the Front View as per convenience. a ae Fig. 7.7 Pictorial view of the third quadrantmADe EASY General Principles of Drawing “Ted angle projection uke ‘Top view PP, vel 1 Side view Front view Fig. 7.8 Third angle orthographic projections Top view Third angle | | projection VP. pe P| ~ Pel Back ar rearview lL Side| | Front vw Side Bottom view i. 7.9 Six views of the third angle orthographic projection 8384 General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety EGER) Oetere/ cies : Engineering Aptinide Table 7.1 Distinct features of the first and third angle projection 'SwNo, | Feature ‘Third-angle projection 1. | Position ofthe object “The object is placed betow the HP and infront of VP he, inthe frst quackant, | behind the VP i. in the third quadrant. 2. | Location ofthe object, | The abject located in between the | The plane of projection (HP, VP or PP) is reference planes and’ | observer and tho plane of projecion | located in between the observer and the the observer (HP, VP or PP} object. lane of | | frscay~ Cena | [esc {ons[ }- Cod 3, | Nature otthe planes | the planes ot projections (HP, VP or PP) | The planes of projections (HP. VP ur PP) ‘of projection ‘are assumed oe nonsransparent. | afe assumed to be transparent. 4. | Layoutot views Front view: Above the reference line | Front view: Below the reference line | Top view: Below the reference ine | Top view: Above the reference ine Right-side view: Placed ta the let of | Right-side view: Placed to tho right of the front view snd above reference | te front view and below the reference line ‘ine Left-side view: Placod to the lt of the LLoft-side views Placed to the right of | front view and below the reference line. tne frank view and aoove reference tine, 6. | Counties in Britain, India and ther Countries USA and other European counties Q.1— Inorthographic projections, the xylineiscalled —Q.4_ The top view of an object is projected on the as (@) Vertical plane (a) Referenceline —(b) Horizontal line (b) Horizontal plane (©) Vertical line (2) Allof these () Auxiliary plane Profile pk Q.2 Anobject shown by more than one views in a (@) Profile plane drawing is called Q.5__ The side view of an object is obtained on the (@) Oblique projection @) Vertical plane (b)__Horizontal plane (©) Orthographic projection (6) Auxiliary plane (d)_ Profile plane (©) Perspective projection {(@ leomatic projection Q6 Minimum number of orthographic views necessary to shaw length, width and height of Q.3 In orthogaphic projections, the projectors are an object are assumed to be (a) 4 () 2 (@) perpendicular to each other 3 “@4 (b) parallelto each other (©) diverge froma point (d) None of these Q7 _ Inorthographic views, the height dimension of an object is seen inmane EASY as as a.10 aa 12 (a) Frontandtop —(b)._Frontandside (©) Topandside —(d)_-Front, top and side The top view of an object should be drawn (@) Right or left of the front view (b) Below or above the front view (©) Below or right of the front view (d) Above or left of the front view In third angle projection method, the relative positions of the object, plane of projection and observer are (a) Plane of projection is placed in between (©) Objectis placed in between (©) Observers placed in between (0) May be placed in any order For orthographic projection method, BIS recommends the folowing projection (@) First angle projection (6) Second angle projection () Third angle projection (0) Fourth angle projection Select the correct Front view of the given pictorial @ © General Principles of Drawing 85 (b) (d) fr 1 Q.13 For the given orthographic projections, identity the correct pictorial view. view. op vw ‘ita ve H 1 @ — &) Poot — r fo 1 © () 1 — — (a) Select the correct Top view of the given pictorial site view. Frontsasies % General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety SESASTEE * 86 7 a 2 e Z Engineering Aptitude . (o) [v0 @ List-t1 - we Sio T Front | = Q.14 Match List-1 (Pictorial view) with List-II (Orthographic projections) and choose the correct answer using the codes given below the (ee SSS ee eee VYMADE EASY General Principles of Drawing 87 Codes: Q.17 Find the correct Top view for the given pictorial A B C OD view. (a4 2 1 3 4 1 2 3 () 3 2 eo (ig ic Q.15 For the given Top view and Front view orthographic projections, identify the correct oO pictorial view. ° Top View Front View o| > ©) > > ° ° a (bo) t @]s @ ( (© @ | 6 Q.16 For Q.18 Find the correct Front view for the given pictorial view. <—_ (©) (a) A\ ‘S) the given Top view and Front view orthographic projections, identity the correct, pictor rial View, x] “Top View Front View fa) (b) Ke (b) : (@) C Torr) = ie88 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety ESS IEIEH _ Oenera! Studies = Ede (a) Q.19 Identify correct pictorial view of given orthographic projections Q.20 Whatwill be the correct Top view of glven pictorial view. = tb) | (a) (a) | (c) (a) 1. (a) 2 (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (ed) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8b) 9.(a)_ 10.(a) 11.) 12. (4) 13. (c) 14. (b) 18. (d) pL CC) e218 (0) 1 On (0) 20a) QQaga (tecto i ratie g.1 INTRODUCTION A point is defined as a circle of zero radius. Its represented by a dot. When two nonparallel lines intersect, a point is produced at the intersection. Point is also produced when three non-co-planar planes intersect. A point may be situated in space in any one of the four quadrants (ie., first quadrant, second quadrant, third quadrant and fourth quadrant) formed by the two principal planes of projection. The projection of point on projection planes are obtained by extending projectors perpendicular to the plane. One of the planes is then rotated so that the first and third quadrants are opened out. The projections are shown on a flat surface in their respective positions either above or belaw or in.y. 8.2 PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN THE FIRST QUADRANT Point Ais 30 mm above HP and 45 mm in front of VP. Draw its Front View and Top View, 1 2 If we look at the Pictorial View, in figure (i), we find that the point A lies in the first quadrant Front view: As point A is 30 mm above HP and Ad’ is the projector perpendicular to the VP, hence ais the Front View of the point A and itis 30 mm above the xy tine. Top view: As point Ais 45 mm in front of VP and Aais the projector perpendicular to the HP, hence ais the Top View of the point A and itis 45 mm in frant of xy. VP Front View 8 _ 0° 7 lo ve. 7 Uv HP Ae a a Top View 0 @ a, Fig, 8.1 ()) Point in ist quadrant (i) HP after rotation (ii) Orthographic projection90 8.3 3. Top General Studies & General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety (ESSAI ne = 2 uae a Engineering Aptitude 4, Toconvert projections a and a from Pictorial View into Orthographic Projections © Rotate HP about xyline through 90° in CW direction © Aiter rotation, the first quadrant is opened out and the HP occupies the position (dashed tines) vertically below the VP. «Also, the point aon HP will trace a quadrant of a circle with oas centre and oa as radius and a ‘occupies the position just below o PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN SECOND QUADRANT ‘A point Bis 45 mm above HP and 60 mm behind VP draw its projections 41. _ if welook at the Pictorial View, in figure (i), we find that the point Bllies in the second quadrant. 2. Front view: As point Bis 45 mm above HP and Bb’ is the projector perpendicular to the VP, hence b’is the Front View of the point Band it is 45 mm above the xy line yw: As point Bis 60 mm in front of VP and Bbis the projector perpendicular to the HP, hence is the Top View of the point B and it is 60 mm in front af xy line. ‘As point Bis 60 inm behind VP, hence b is the Top View of B and itis 60. mm behind xy. 4, Toconvart the projection bf and b obtained in the Pictorial View into orthographic projections. * Rotate the HP about the xy line through 90° in the CW direction. «After rotation, HP coincides with VP and both the Front and Top Views are seen above xy. © Now, bon HP will race a quadrant of a circle with os centre and ob as radius and b occupies the position above o. we y w Fig. 8.2 ()) Point in second quadrant (i) Orthographic projection 8.4 PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN THIRD QUADRANT ‘A point Cis 35 mm below HP and 25 mm behind VP. Draw its projections, 4. If we look at the Pictorial View, in figure (i), we find that the point C lies in the third quadrant. 2. Front View: As Cis 3 mm below HP, and Co’ iste projector perpendicular to VP. , hence cis the front view of point C and it les 35 mm below xy. Top View: As Cis 26 mm behind VP, hence cis 25 mm behind xy. To convert the projection ¢’ and c obtained in the Pictorial View into orthographic projections. «Rotate the HP about the xyline through 90° in the CW direction. After rotation, HP coincides with VP and both the Front and Top Views are seen above xy: ‘© Draw reference line xy and draw projection line perpendicular to itmane ERSH General Principles of Drawing 91 © Mark c’ 385 mm below xyon projection line to represent Front View. © Mark ¢25 mm above xyon projection line to represent Top View. w Fig, 8.3 (?) Point in third quadrant (i) Orthographic projection 8.5 PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN FOURTH QUADRANT A point Dis 45 mm below Pand 60 mm in front of VP. Draw its projections, 1. fwe look at the Pictorial View, in figure (i), we find that the point Dies in the fourth quadrant. 2, Front View: Dis 45 mm below HP, hence di’ is 45 mm below xy. 3. Top View: Dis 60 mm in front of VP. Hence dis 60 mm in front of xy. «Rotate the HP about the xyline through 90° in the CW direction, After rotation, HP coincides with VP and both the Front and Top Views are seen above xy. * Draw reference line xyand draw projection line perpendicular to it + Mark a 45 mm below xyon projection line to represent Front View. © Mark 60 mm below xy an projection line to represent Top View. "VPP, Cy Fig. 8.4 (i) Point in fourth quadrant (ii) Orthographic projection92 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety _omare Suis ingineering Aptitude 8.6 PROJECTIONS OF POINTS LYING ON HORIZONTAL PROJECTION PLANE Draw the projections of a point A lying on HP and 50 mm in front of VP. ‘i 2, 3. Front view: Point A is lying on HP, therefore its Front View 4 lies on xy line. ‘Top view: Point A is 50 mm in front of VP, hence its Top View alies on HP itself and in front of xy ‘To convert the projection @ and a obtained in the Pictorial View into orthographic projections. + Rotate the HP about the xyline through 90° in the CW direction. After rotation, HP coincides with \VP and both the Front and Top Views are seen above xy. © Draw reference line xyand draw projection line perpendicular to it. © Mark aan tha intersection of reference line xy and projection line to represent Front View. + Mark a0 mm below xy on projection line to represent Top View. ve a. HP 4 al w Fig. 8.5 (i) Point on HP (ii) Orthographic projection 8.7__ PROJECTIONS OF POINTS LYING ON VERTICAL PROJECTION PLANE Draw the projections of a point A lying on VP and 55 mm above VP. 1 2. 3. Front view: Point A is 55 mm above HP, therefore its Front View a’ lies on VP and 85 mm above xy. Top view: Point A is lying on VP, hence its Top View a lies on xy. To convert the projection and a obtained in the Pictorial View into orthographic projections. © Rotate the HP about the ay line through 90° in the CW direction. After rotation, HP coincicies with VP and both the Front and Top Views are seen above xy. * Draw reference line xy and draw projection line perpendicular to it © Mark a 55 mm above xyon projection line to represent Front View. «Mark aon the intersection of reference line xy and projection line to represent Top View. 55, as wo Fig. 8.6 (i) Point on VP (ii) Orthographic projectionmape EASY General Principles of Drawing at az a3 a4 as a6 a7 Qs Brain Teasers Appoint whose front view and top view are above reference line, is situated in (@) Fourth quadrant (b) Third quadrant (©) Second quadrant (d). First quadrant Appoint whose elevation is above the reference line, is probably situated in the (@) First quadrant (b) Second quadrant (c) Both(a)and(b) (d) None of these The line joining the front and top views of a point iscalled (2) Connector (¢) Projector (b) Reference line (d) Locus A point lying in the HP and its top view above reference line. its front view is @ Above reference line (©) Onreference tine (0) Belowreterence line (6) Any of the above A point is 30 mm below HP and 40 mm behind VP. Its top view is, (a) 30mm below reference line () 30mm above reference line {c) 40mm above reference line (d) 40mm below reference line The front view of a point is 50 mm above the reference line and top view is 20 mm below the front view. The point lies in @ Firstquadrant —(b) Second quadrant (0) Third quadrant (d) Fourth quadrant If both the front and the top views of a point lie con the same side of the reference line, the point is situated in which of the following quadrant? (@) Firstor second —(b) Second or fourth (0) Firstor third ——(d)_Thirdor fourth Ifthe front view is above the reference line and top view is below the reference line, the pointis situated in which the following quadrant? ag ant (a) First quadrant (0) Third quadrant (b) Second quadrant (d) Fourth quadrant The elevation ofa point is 40mm above reference line and the plan is 50 mm below reference line The point is () 40mmbelow HE (i) 40 mm above HP (i) 50 mm in front of WP (iv) 50 mm behind VP Of the above statements, true staternents are (@) (i) and (i) (6) (and tiv) (© fiyand(iv) (2) Giana (ii) Stale the position of the point if both the views lig on the reference line (@) Pointis situated in HP and VP {b} Point is situated in HP and in front of VP (c) Points situated in VP and above the HP (d) Point is situated in front of VP and above the HP For the given orthographic projection, what will be the position of point with respect to planes of projection? e Hpvwe. (b) Second Quadrant (d)_ Fourth Quadrant (2) First Quadrant (c) Third Quadrant For the given orthographic projection, what will be the position of point with respect to planes of projection? HP. VP,General Studies & 94 Sonera rincples of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety SEEGER, reo tes (@) FirstQuadrant (6). Second Quadrant (c) Third Quadrant (d) Fourth Quadrant Q.13. Match List-I (Position of point) with List-II 2 (Orthographic projection) and select correct : answer using the codes given below the lists: © » List! A. On HPin front of VP ee B. OnHP behind VP mW wD C. On VP above HP ee 2 D, OnVP below HP C3 2 List OP @2 2 14 1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (0) 4.(b) 5. (c) 6 (0) 7. (b) 8 (a) 9.(d) 10. (a) 14, (b) 12. (d) 13. (b)9.1 9.2 9.3 gr) sete Gabi. INTRODUCTION ‘straight line is the shortest distance between two points. Hence, the projections of a straight ine may be drawn by joining the respective projections of its end points. POSITIONS OF A LINE WITH RESPECT TO HP AND VP Aline may occupy an infinite number of positions in space with respect to HP and VP. The various positions may be classified into the following types: 4. Parallel to both the planes HP and VP. = Contained in one plane and parallel to the other. - Containedin both the Planes Parallel to both the planes and contained in neither. 2. Perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other. - Perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. - Perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP. Parallel to one plane and inclined to the other, Parallel to VP and inclined to HP. ~ Parallel to HP and inclined to VP - Containedin one plane and inclined to the other. 4, Inclined to both the planes HP and VP. PROJECTION OF A LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH HP AND VP BUT CONTAINED IN NEITHER + Let the length of jine AB be x, distance above HP be h and distance in front of VP. be a. * Front view: Draw projectors Aa’ and Bb’ from A and Bon the VP. Join a’b’ by a thick line. Line ab” is the required front view of given line AB. + Top view: Draw projectors Aa and Bb from Aand B respectively on the H.P. and mark projection of Aas aand Bas bon the HP. Join ab by a thiok line, + Line ab is the required top view of given line AB. + Toconvert projections ab and a/b’ fram Pictorial View into Orthographic Projections. - Rotate the HP plane in the clockwise direction by 90° so that the HP comes under the VP and in- lime with the VP. - Now take athin ine xyas reference line at the intersection of both the planes. ~ Draw front view a’b’ ine of length x at h distance above xy, parallel to xy. - Draw top view ab line of length x at d distance below xy parallel to xy. ~ In this way, we get front view as a’b’ and top view as ab.Engineering Aptitude 96 General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety (SSSAPUITH _“°! Stucien& We will get true length in both the projections as the given line is parallel to both the planes of projections. a v AB True enath 18 Front view = AB ‘ab Top view = AB w Fig. 9.1 Projections ofa line parallel to both the planes of projections 9.4 PROJECTION OF A LINE CONTAINED IN HP AND PARALLEL TO VP Front view: Draw projectors Ad’ and Bb’ from Aand Brespectively on the VP and mark projection of Aas af and Bas bon the VP. Join a’bf by a thick line. Line a/b’ is the required front view of given line AB. Top view: Draw projectors from A and Bon the HP since line AB is contained in the HP, therefore, projection of Aas a and projection of Bas b will be same as A and B respectively. ‘Top view will be same as line AB but denoted by line ab. Jo convert projections ab and -/H from Piatorial View into Orthographic Projections. = Rotate the HP plane in clockwise direction by 90° so that the HP comes under the VP and in line with the VP. ~ Now take a thin line xy as reference line at the intersection of both the planes. oxy. - Draw top view ab of length x at d distance below the xy parallel to.xy. We will get true length in both the projections as the given line is parallel to both the planes of projections. = Draw front view ab’ of tength x on referen: w Fig. 9.2 Projection of a straight line contained in HP and parallel to VP9.6 mane ERSY General Principles of Orawing 97 PROJECTION OF A LINE CONTAINED IN VP AND PARALLEL TO HP Front view: Draw projectors Aa’ and Bb’ from A and & respectively on the VP. Since line ABis contained in the VP, therefore, projection of Aas a’ and Bas b’ will besame as Aand Brrespectively. Hence, line AB will be represented in front view as a’b’. In front view, we get true length of line AB as line AB is parallel to the VP. Top view: Draw the projections Aaand 8b on the H.P. Since line ABis contained in the VP, therefore projection of A and & will be on intersection line of the VP and the HP. (Le., reference line xy). Join ab by a thick line. Line ab represents the top view of he given fine AB. To convert projections ab and ab’ from Pictorial View into Orthographic Projections. - Rotating the HP in clockwise direction by 90° will make no effect on top view, since top view abis on the reference line itseff ~ Now take @ reference line xy. Mark point aon this line, join ab to get top view and also mark a’, bf above the reference line, then join them to get front view #7 We will get true length in both the projections as the given line is parallel to both the planes of projections. ve | __1 HPA y Fig, 9.3 Projection of a straight line contained in VP and parallel to HP PROJECTION OF A LINE PERPENDICULAR TO THE HP AND PARALLEL TO VP Front view: Draw projectors Aa’ and Bb’ from A.and Brespectively on the VP and mark projection af Aas a’ and Bas t’ on the VP. Join at’ by a thick line. Line a/b’ is the required front view of given line AB. Top view: Draw projectors from Aand Bon the HP. Both these projectors will be colinear and meet the HP al 6, al the same point. Mark these projections by a point , b. Now the point a, bis the required top view of the given line AB. To convert projections ab and a'by from Pictorial View into Orthagraphic Projections. - Rotate the HP plane in clockwise direction by 90° so that the HP comes under the VP and in line with the VP. - Now take line xyas reference line, - Draw front view a’b’ above xy parallel to the VP. - Draw point a, b as top view below ay. Here, we get 2b’ as true length of the line AB in front view projection as AB is parallel to the VP. ‘A point is obtained as projection inthe plane to which the given fine is perpendicular anda line as @ projection in the plane to which itis parallel,General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety STARA Sener! Stuaies& = = ° “ Seen ¥ Engineering Aptitude 8 a vp, “Helo ba Fig. 9.4 Projection of straight fine perpendicular to the HIP and paraltel to the VP 9.7. PROJECTION OF A STRAIGHT LINE PERPENDICULAR TO THE VP AND PARALLEL TO THE HP + Front view: Draw projectors Aa’ and Bb’ on the VP. Both these projectors will meet the VP at same point; mark this point as a’, b’. © This point a, bis the required front view of the given line AB. © Top view: Draw projectors Aa and 8b from A and Bon the HP. These projectors will meet the HP at points @ and b respectively © Join ab to get required top view of the given line AB. * Toconvert projections aband 4b’ rom Pictorial View into Orthographic Projections. = Rotate the HP plane in clockwise direction so that the HP comes under the VP and in line with the VP. = Now take iexy as reference tine. - Draw front view a’, bf above xy as a point. - Draw ab line below xy as top view of the given line AB, © Here, we get ab as true length of given line AB in top view projection as line AB is parallel to the HP. + Further, point 2, fis the front view of line AB as it is perpendicular to the VP. Fig. 9.5 Projection of a straight line perpendicular to the VP and parallel to the HP 9.8 PROJECTION OF A LINE CONTAINED IN THE HP AND INCLINED TO THE VP © Here, line ABis parallel to the HP and contained in it and inclined to the VP at the angle (6). © Front view: Draw projectors Aa’ and Bb’ from A and 8 respectively on the VP.mane EASY General Principles of Drawing 99 9.9 * Since line ABis contained in the plane of HP, therefore projection points af and bY will lie on reference line xy. Mark projection of A as a’ and that of B as bon reference line xy. Join a’b’ by a thick line. © Line a’b’ is the required front view of the given line AB. © Top view: Draw projectors from 4 and B on the HP since line ABis contained in the HP, therefore, projection of A as a and projection of B as b will be same as A and B respectively * Top view will be same as line AB but denoted by line ab. ve. HPT Fig, 9.6 Projection of a straight fine contained in the HP + Toconvert projections aband 2'by from Pictorial View into Orthographic Projections. ~ Rotate the HP in clockwise direction by 90°, so that the HP comes under the VP and in line with the ve. - Nowtake line xyas reference line + Draw front view @’, b’ on xyas a thick tine. + Draw ab line below xy at an angle 6 to xy. + Here, we get ab as true length of given line ABin top view projection as line ABis parallel to the HP and contained in it. PROJECTION OF A LINE CONTAINED IN THE VP AND INCLINED TO THE HP + Here, line AB is parallel to the VP and contained in it and inclined to the HP at an angle (8). + Front view: Draw projectors Aa’ and Bb" from A and B respectively on the VP. ‘+ Since line ABis contained in the VP, therefore, projection of A as a’ and Bas f will be same as Aand B respectively. Hence, line AB will be represented in front view as ab’. In front view, we get true length of line AB as line ABis parallel to the VP, * Top view: Draw the projections Aa and Bb from Aand Bon the HP, Since line ABis containedin the Vp, therefore, projection of A and 8 will be on intersection line of the VP and the HP. (i.e., on reference line xy), Join ab by a thick line. * Line ab represents the top view of the given line AB. * Toconvert projections ab and a’b’ from Pictorial View into Orthographic Projections. - Rotating the HP in clockwise direction by 90° will make no effect on top view, since top view abis on the reference line itself. ~ Now take reference line xyand mark point ab on this line. Join ab to get top view: ~ Draw ¢b’ line above the reference line at an angle 6 to get the front view.General Studies & Engine-ving Aptitude 100 General Principles of De 18, Drawing and Importance of Safety [SRT WE a wey oe we Fig, 9.7 Projection of a straight ine contained in the VP and inclined to the HP 9.10 PROJECTION OF A LINE CONTAINED IN BOTH THE HP AND THE VP * Here, ine ABis contained in both the planes the HP and the VP. It means line AB lies on the intersection line xy of both the planes the HP and the VP. + When we draw projection of line ABon the VP and the HP, both the projections ab’ and ab wil ie on the reference line xy Here, when we say a'8y then we mean front view of the line ABand when we say ab, then we mean top view of the line AB. © To convert projections ab and 2’b’ from Pictorial View into Orthographic Projections. = Rotation of the HP in clockwise direction by 90° will have no effect on both the views as both views lie on reference line or intersection of both the planes. = Now, take reference line xy and mark points a, a’ and b, b’ and join them with a thick line. * Here, abis the required top view of the given line AB, While a’b’ is the required front view of given line © We get true length in both the views as fine is contained in both the planes, means ABis parallel to the VP as well as to the HP. a Frontview 2 Topview 6 Fig, 9.8 Projection of a straight line contained in both the H.P. and the VP. 9.11 PROJECTION OF A LINE INCLINED TO THE HP AND PARALLEL TO THE VP * Here, line ABis parallel to the VP and inclined to the HP at an angle (8), Also line ABis not contained in the plane of VP. It means the ling isin front of the V.P. and makes an angle (0) with the HP. + Front view: Draw projector Ad’ and Bir from A and B respectively on the VP. These projectors meet the VP in a and 6. © Join ab’ which gives the required front view of the line AB.mApE ERSY General Principles of Drawing 101 Top view: Draw projectors Aa and Sb from A and 8 respectively on the HP. These projectors meet the HP in aand b. Join ab which is the required top view of line AB. To convert projections aband a’b’ irom Pictorial View into Orthographic Projections. - Rotate the HP in clockwise direction by 90" so that the HP comes under the VP and inline with the vp. = Now take line.xyas reference line and making an angle (6) with the reference line, draw at b’ which represents front view, Exactly under front view 2’, draw ab line below reference line. This ine ab will epresent top view of given line AB, = Here, front view gives true length as line AB is paraliel to the VP. Fig. 9.9 Projection of a straight line inclined to the H.P. and parallel to VP. 9,12 PROJECTION OF A LINE INCLINED TO THE VP AND PARALLEL TO THE HP Here, ine ABis parallel to the HP and inclined to the VP at an angle (9). Aso line ABis not contained in the plane of HP. It means the line is above the HP and makes an angle (6) with the VP. Front view: Draw projectors Aa’ and Bb’ from A and Brespectively on the VP. These projectors meet the VP in a’ and b’ Join afb’ with a thick line which gives the required front view of the line AB. Top view: Draw projectors Aa and Bb from A and 8, respectively on the HP. These projectors meet the HP in a and b, Join ab with a thick line which is the required top view of line AB. To convert projections ab and a’b’ from Pictorial View into Orthographic Projections. Rotate the HP in clackwise direction by 90° so that the HP comes under the VP and in line with the vp. Now take line xyas reference line, Draw a’b’ above reference line which represents the front view. Exactly under the front view ab’, draw ab line below the reference line making an angle (8) with the reference line. This line ab will represent top view of the given line AB, Here, top view gives the true length as line AB is parallel to the VP.102 General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety EELIBTEE Sve ne 7 ‘ as : Engineering Ape 9.13 PROJECTION OF A LINE INCLINED TO BOTH THE VP AND THE HP ve: Fig. 9.10 Projection of a straight line inclined to both the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. In this case line, AB is above the HP and in front of the VP. Also line ABmakes an angle (8) with the HP and an angle ¢ with the VP. Here, neither its top view nor its front view will show true length and inclination of the line. Front view: Draw the projectors Aa’ and Bb’ from points A and Bon the VP. These projectors meet the VP in a’ and 6% Join af and b’ with a thick line. Line ab’ is the required front view of the given line AB. Top view: Draw the projectors Aa and Bb from points A and Bon the HP. These projectors meet the HP in a and b. Join @ and with a thick fine. Line ab is the required top view of the given line AB. Fig. 9.11 Projection of a straight line inclined to both the VP. and the H.R To convert projections ab and a’#y from Pictorial View into Orthographic Projections. ~ Rotate the HP in clockwise direction by 90° so that the HP comes under the VP and line with the VP. ~ Now, take line xyas reference line. - Draw af B line above reference line making an angle @ with reference line, hence, a’b’ is the required front view. ~ Exactly under the front view, draw a line ab making an angle @ with reference line - Line abis the required top view of the given line.made eAsy General Principles of Drawing 103 9.14 DETERMINING TRUE LENGTH AND TRUE INCLINATIONS OF A LIN ‘Some important terms: © True Length (TL): itis the physical length of the line in space, measured along the direction or orientation of the line itself. It is not generally visible in the projections. However, whan the line is parallel to one or both the reference planes, the length of view formed on that plane to which the line is parallel, is equal to the true length of the line. © True Inclination: itis the physical inclination of the line in space with the reference planes. Similar to the true length, these angles are not always visible in the projections. However, when a lines parallel to.areference plane and inclined to the other, true inclination can be seen in the projection that gives the true length. © Apparent Length: Itis the length of the projection of aline, when the line is not parallel to reference plane on which lenath is being and is always shorter than the true length. ‘* Apparent Angles: The inclination of the projections that represent the apparent lengths are known as apparent angles The various methods for determining true length and true inclination are: Rotation Method (i) Rotation of Top View: In figure shown below, ab and ab” represent the top view and front view of the straight line AB. Keep the end a fixed, rotate the top view ab to the position ab, parallel to reference line (xy). From b, draw a vertical projector to cut the iocus of b at bj Join a’ bj, then a’b{ is the true length of the line AB and angle (6) is the true inclination with the HP. Fig, 9.12 Rotation of the top view for finding true length (ii) Rotation of Front View: In figure, ab and a’b’ represent the top view and front view of straight line AB respectively. Keep g the end a fixed, rotate the front view a'6y to the position | w a/b, parallel to reference line (xy) From b3 draw a vertical projector to cut the locus of bat b,, Join ab,, Then ab, is the true length of the line ABand angle (6) s the true inclination with the VP. Coordinate Geometry Method [| Itis clear from figure that ra Pay? and ab = Seo Fig. 9.18 Rotation of he front view for finding true length 242 (ab)? = 2+ and (ab)?G I Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety General Studies & 104 eneral Principles of Design, Orawing and importance of Safety EETEURTENAL e/a We know that Pa rtyee » where, , Ne J = True length of the line AB ay x = Difference in.x coordinates of A and 8 Y y= Difference in y coordinates of A and B 0 > 2= Difference in z coordinates of A and B a == (i) Draw bb, perpendicular to ab at b and cut off bb, equal to y. | Join aby — Therefore, ab, is the true length of the straight ine AB because (ab, = (abr +P a eres . PT o Rae? ‘ +249 ie (ii) Similarly, draw &b, perpendicular to a’b’ at & and cutoff bb, equal to 2, Join ab, Y Peay ow ee2ey Fig. 9.14 Coordinate method for a finding true length Cc Trace of a Line + The pointimpression al which the straight line, if produced, meet the horizontal plane or vertical plane is called a trace. ‘© There are two types of traces normally used in Engineering Graphics: (i) Horizontal Trace (HT): When a straight line is inclined to the HP, then the point of intersection of the line to the line fo the HP is called its Horizontal Trace and represented byHT—_____| (ii) Vertical Trace (VT): When a straight line is inclined to the VP, then the point of intersection of the line to the VP is called its vertical trace and represented by VT. ® 9.15 DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF A LINE FOR ITS. TRACES WRT THE HP AND THE VP_ These positions are as follows: (i) Straight Line Parallel to Both the Reference Planes: a Straight ine paraleltoboth the reference planesneither Fig, 9.15 Traces of. line parallel to both ‘meet the HP nor the VP when produced, hence it has, the HP and tha VP. gotno traces. . (ii) Straight Line Inclined to the HP and Parallel to the VP: When alline ABis inctined to the HP and parallel to the VP. # (a) Extend the elevation a’ 5’ till it touches xy at point h. sd (b) Extend plan ab towards lett (©) From point h, drop a perpendicular on the extended ab and a obtain HT. (@) Since plan is parallel toxy, no VT will be found, Fig. 9.16 Traces of a line inolined tothe HP.maoe EASY __ General rincinis of Drawing 105 (iii) Straight Line Inclined to the VP and Parallel to the HP: When a line ABis inclined to the VP and parallel to the HP. (a) Extend elevation the plan ab till it touches xy at point wu. (b) Extend elevation a’b’ towards left. {c) From point u, drop a perpendicular on the extended ab’ and obtain VT. ° (a) Since elevation is parallel to xy, no HT will be found F (iv). Straight Line Inctined to both the HP and the VP: When Fig- 9.17 Traces ofa line inclined to a line AB is inclined to both the HP and the VP. Eola (a) Extend the elevation a/b’ til it touches xy at point h. (b) Extend the plan ab tlt touches 2y at point v. (©) From paint h, drop a perpendicular on the extended ab and obtain HT. (a) From point v, drop a perpendicular on the extended a’b’ and obtain VT. Hotizanal vace| Vertical ace +e y vr Top view Verical race! Horizontal race Fig. 9.18 Traces of fine inclined to both planes ESE 2017 Prelims Question Q.1__Ifaline is inclined to Vertical Plane and parallel to Horizontal Plane, then which of the following statements is always correct? (@) True length = Plane length (b) True length = Elevation length (©) Truelength < Plane length (d) Vertical Trace of the ine is above the XY plane Ans. (a) Elevation (Front view) True Length = Plan Length Pian Nt (Top view)106 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety PEE _ Corer! tutes A engineering Aptitude Objective Brain Teasers: Q.1__ {fa line is parallel to both HP and VP, its true Q.8 If both the front and top views of a line are L length will be seen in perpendicular to the reference line, the true (a) front view inclination of line with HP and VP may be (b) top view respectively {c) side view: {a) 30° and 60" (b) 20° and 70° {9) both front and top view (c) Both 45° (d) Any of these Q.2 Ifthe front view of alin is parallel to thexyilS G9 If the front view and top views of a tine are true length is shown in (a) top view inclined at 45° and 30° to the reference line xy, (b) front view the true inclination of the line with HP will be (©) side view {a) less than 45° (2) both front and top view {b) less than 30° (c) greater than 45° Q.3__ ifthe apparent and the true inclinations of a line @) greater than 30° with HP are equal, the line is (a) parallel to vertical plane Q.10 Consider the following orthographic projections (b) parallel horizontal plane ofaline (c) inclined to both reference planes: (d) parallel to profile plane Q.4 If top view of a ine is a point, its front view is 1. HB ” 4a endiculartoxyand of apparent length __ ee | (b) perpendicular toxy and of true length : (c) parallel to. xyand of true length (d) parallel toxy and of apparent length Q.5 The point at which the line intersects with the 2. HI y VP, extended if necessary, is known as (2) horizontal race ——_ (bo) vertical trace (©) profiletrace (d) auxiliary race Q.6 Horizontal trace of a line exist when the line is (a)_ parallel to horizontal plane 3 te » (b) inclined to horizontal plane (c) perpendicuiar to vertical plane {d) perpendicular to profile plane Q.7_— Foraline situated in the first quadrant, which of 4 ve oe : the following statements is not correct? (a) HT and VT may ie above xy (b) HT and VT may lie below xy (©) HT may lie above xy and VT below xy (a) HT may lie below xy and VT above xy Which of the above projections are not possible? (@) tand2 () tanda (©) 2and4 () 4,2and4mADE EASY Q.11. Match List- with List-I and choose the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: por Renn List-1 Line parallel to both HP and VP Line parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP Line inclined to both HP and VP Line parallel to VP and inclined to HP List-I HT exists but VT does not HT and VT both exists VT exists but HT does not Neither HT nor VT exists General Principles of Orawing Codes: AB @i 4 1 2 (las 44 (d) (b) 7. (¢) (c) 8. (d) 107 10. (c)10.1 INTRODUCTION + Aplane surface is defined as a surface with only two dimensions, i., the length and the breadth with negligible thickness. + The shape of the plane surface is bounded by straight lines, curves or their combinations. + Aunique plane is obtained by either of the following combinations. (Three non-cylinder points (i A straight line and a point. (ii) Two parallel ines. {iv) Two intersecting lines. 10.2 TRACES OF PLANES Lines in which the planes meet the reference planes (the HP and the VP) are called the traces of planes. There are two types of traces used in engineering practices: (i) Horizontal Trace (HT): The intersection of a plane with the horizontal plane is called the Horizontal Trace (HT). _ _ (i) Vertical Trace (V7): The intersection of a plane with the vertical plane is called the Vertical Trace (VT), 10.3 TYPES OF PLANES Based on the orientation with respect to reference axis, planes may be broadly divided into following two types (i) Perpendicular planes : These pianes can be subdivided into following categories. (a) Planes perpendicular to both the reference planes. (0) Planes perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the ather. (0) Planes perpendicular to one plane and inclined to the other. (ii) Oblique planes: Planes inclined to both the reference planes. 10.4 PROJECTION OF PLANES (i) Projection of plane perpendicular to both the reference planes. + A square ABCD is perpendicular to both the planes. Its H.T. and VT. are in a straight line perpendicular toxy. + The front view 6'¢’ and the top view ab of the square are both ines coinciding with the VT and the HLT. respectively,ave EASY Genera Principles of Drawing i i 109 Fig. 10.1 Projection of plane perpendicular to both the reference planes. (li) Projection of plane perpendicular to one and parallel to the other reference plane Plane, perpendicular to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P. + Atriangle PORis perpendicular to the H.P. and is parallel to the VP. Its H.T. is parallel toxy. thas no WT. ‘+ The front view pq’ shows the exact shape and size of the triangle. The top view pqris a line parallel to xy. itcoincides with the H.T. * Plane, perpendicular to the VP. and parallel to the H.P. + Asquare ABCDis perpendicualr to the VP. and parallel to the H.P. Its V.T. is parallel toxy. thas no HT. Fig, 10.2 Projection of planes perpendicular to one and parallel to the other reference plane (iii) Projection of plane perpendicular to one and inclined to the other plane (a) Plane, perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P. + Assquare ABCD is perpendicular to the HP. and inclined at an angle 6 to the WT. Its VI. is perpendicular to xy. Its H.T. is inclined at 6 toxy. * Its top view abs a line inclined at 6 to.xy. The front view a’b’¢'d is smaller than ABCD. j110 General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety [EREEUIS| (b) Plane, perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P. | + Assquare ABCD is perpendicular to the VP. and inclined at an angle @ to the H.P. tis HiT. is perpendicular to.xy. Its VT. makes the angle @ with xy. Its front view aby is aline inclined at@ toxy. The top view abcdiis a rectangle which is smaller than the square ABCD. 7 Fig. 10.4 Plane, perpendicular to the VP. and inclined to the HP. _ Objective Bri Q.1 Ifasquare plane is kept perpendicular ta both Q.2_ Planes which are inclined to both the HP and the the horizontal and vertical planes, its rue shape VP are called is seen in (@) Profileplanes —_(b)_ Oblique planes (@) vP (©) Auxiliary planes (d) None of these {b) HP Q3__ In orthographic projections, the front view of a PP x circular plane may be (d) Auxiliary inclined plane(b) Etiipse (@)_ Any of above a) Circle (0) Suaaightline {farectangular plane of 60mm and 30mm sides > jg inclined at an angle of 60° to the HP, its top view may be (@) Square of 80mm sides (b) Square of 60 mm sides (¢} Rectangle of 60 mm and 46 mm side (a) Rectangle of 45 mm and 30 mm sides Itboth top and front views of a plane are straight lines, the true shape will ie on (@) HP () VP {e) PP (d) Any of these ita circular plane is inclined at 30° with the HP and 60° with the VP, its side view wil be (2) Straighttine (b) Etipse (©) True shape (d) Circle General Principles of Drawing 11 Q.7 The front view of an elliptical plane may be (@) Circle (b) Straightline (©) Ellipse (@) Any of the above Q8 Thetrace of a hexagonal plane may be {@) Point (b) Hexagon (©) Tangle (@) Straightline Q.9 Apiane having neither HT nor VT will be (@) Perpendicular to both HP and VP (b) Perpendicular to HP and Parallel to VP (©) Inclined to both HP and VP (a) Not possible RnR 3 1. (ce) 2b) 3.) 4.fa) 5. (0) 6 (2) 7.(d) 8.(d) 9. (d)Projections of Sal te 11.1 INTRODUCTION | An object consisting of length, breadth and height, i«., all the three dimensions, is called a solid. At least two views are needed to represent a solid in orthographic projections: Top view for length and breadth and front view for length and height. in some cases, when two views are not sufficient to represent a solid then three views are required to represent, 11.2 TYPES OF SOLIDS Solids may be divided into two main groups (Polyhedra (ii) Solids of revolution (a) Polyhedra: The solid which is bounded by plane surfaces, known as faces is called polyhedra + Polyhedrais further divided into three groups: () Regular polyhedra (i) Prism (i_Pyrami _ - ‘+ When allihe faces are similar, equal and regular, and all the angles formed between the faces are | ‘equal to each other is called a regular polyhedra. * There are five types of regular polyhedra | | (ii) Octahedron | {iv) Dodecahhedon (¥) loosahedron Fig. 11.2 Regular polyhedramage EASY General Principles of Drawing 13 ‘© Prism: The polyhedral having two equal and similar and bases, parallel to each other and joined by rectangular or parallelogram facesis called a prism. Aprismis said to be a right regular prism when its axis is perpendicular to the bases and allits side faces are equal rectangles. Pontagonal Prism Square Prism Hexagonal Prism Fig. 11.2 Prisms © Pyramid: The polyhedral having a plane figure at its base and a number of triangular faces meeting ata point is called a pyramid, ‘The point at which the triangular faces meet is called an apex or vertex. When the axis of the regular pyramid is perpendicular to the base then itis called a right regular pyrar Pentagonal Pyramic Square Pyrami Hexagonal Pyramis Fig. 11.8 Pyramids (b) Solids of revolution: The solids formed by the revolution of the plane figures are known as solids of revolution. (i) Cylinder: The solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its sides which remains fixed is called a cylinder. The fixed line about which the rectangle revolves, is called the axis and the circle described by the opposite revalving side is called the base. Right crear cone Sphere Right ckeulareylinder Fig, 11.4 Solids of revolutionGeneral Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety ESERIES Serera! studies & 114 pl ig 9 pe 2 Engineering Aptitude (ii) Sphere: The solid generated by the revolution of a semicircle about its diameter which remains fixed Is called a sphere, The fixed line about which the semicircle revolves, is called the axis and ‘4 point within it from which all points on the surface are at equal distance is called centre of the sphere. }) Cone: The solid generated by the revolution of a right angled triangle about one of ts perpendicular sides which remains fixed is called a cone. The fixed line about which the triangle revolves, is called the axis and the circle described by the other side is called the base. (c) Frustum of square pyramid: When a pyramid is cut by a cutting plane parallel to its base, the remaining portion obtained after the remiovat of top portion, is called frustum, Fig. 11.5 Frustum of a square pyramid (d)_ Frustum of cone: When a cone is cut by a cutting plane parallel to its base, the remaining portion obtained after the removal of top portion, is called frustum of cone, Fig. 11.6 Frustum ofa cone (e) Truncated: When a solid is cut by a cutting plane which is not parallel to its base, the remaining portion obtained after the removal of top portion, is called truncated wi Fig. 11.7 (i) Truncated cylinder (ii) Truncated cone