Dimensional Micro and Nano Metrology

H.N. Hansen1(2), K. Carneiro2, H. Haitjema3(2), L. De Chiffre1(1)

1
Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Management, Technical University of Denmark,
DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
2
Danish Fundamental Metrology Ltd., Matematiktorvet 307, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
3
Mitutoyo Research Center Europe, De Rijn 18, NL-5684 PJ Best, Netherlands

Abstract
The need for dimensional micro and nano metrology is evident, and as critical dimensions are scaled down
and geometrical complexity of objects is increased, the available technologies appear not sufficient. Major
research and development efforts have to be undertaken in order to answer these challenges. The
developments have to include new measuring principles and instrumentation, tolerancing rules and
procedures as well as traceability and calibration. The current paper describes issues and challenges in
dimensional micro and nano metrology by reviewing typical measurement tasks and available instrumentation.
Traceability and calibration issues are discussed subsequently. Finally needs and gaps are identified based
on these observations.

Keywords:
Dimensional metrology; Micro technology; Nano technology

1 INTRODUCTION manufacturing technologies being applied to micro and

The emergence of micro and nanotechnologies has set
new agendas for discussions in almost all scientific
societies during the last 10-15 years. Consequences for
existing technologies and development of new solutions
have been debated in parallel with societal and ethical
issues. The increasing economic importance of these
areas is beyond any doubt. Also within CIRP, micro and
nanotechnology has been the subject of intense work. A
series of prior keynote papers on these issues discuss
specific technologies as well as more generic problems
and challenges [1]-[7]. Furthermore the creation of a
working group on micro and nanotechnology within CIRP
has concentrated the discussions during the last couple of
years [8].
Miniaturisation has been one of the driving forces of
technology during the last 20 years. As predicted by
Taniguchi in 1983 by now the technologies have moved
into the nano-processing era and even for precision
machining processes sub-µm precision is achievable [9].
Fig. 1 illustrates Taniguchi’s prediction. This development
has been made very clear in the semiconductor industry
during the last 30 years, where the number of
components on a chip has been doubled each 18 months
approximately. This phenomenon is usually referred to as
Moore’s law. Today the semiconductor industry is moving
below 90 nm in pitch and need for proper process and
quality control is evident [10]-[12].
The emergence of micro-electro-mechanical systems
(MEMS) has mainly been based on the advances of the
semiconductor technologies allowing mechanical based
systems manufactured using production systems
developed for electronics. The number of new products
based on these technologies is increasing and some of
the main areas of application have been collected in
Figure 2. The development has furthermore been pushed
into non-semiconductor materials like polymers and
metals, and this has resulted in more traditional
nano manufacturing. Integration of micro scaled features
and components on meso or macro scale devices as well
as nano scale integration on micro scaled devices push
all technologies to the limits of their capability, and at the
same time the integration over several orders of
magnitude on the length scale poses enormous problems
for quality assurance and control.
Metrology in general is traditionally regarded as a key
discipline in making industrial manufacture of components
possible. In particular metrology enables process control
on the basis of measurands either defined on the
components or on some specific process characteristics.
In this way parts are described using absolute values
combined with tolerances. Dimensional metrology covers
measurement of dimensions and in principle also
geometries based on distance measurements. The
traditional manufacturing environment dimensional
metrology is an integral part of all quality assurance
systems, and the available tools in terms of
instrumentation, calibration artefacts, standards and well
established procedures all support the increasing
demands for production in global networks of highly
complex components and products.
As absolute dimensions are decreased to micrometer or
even nanometer level metrology becomes even more
challenging.
It is the scope of this paper to describe state-of-the-art in
dimensional micro and nano metrology. In this paper
dimensional nano metrology is considered to be the part
of dimensional metrology that concerns measurement
and calibration of dimensional quantities on components
with at least one critical dimension or functional feature
below 100 nm for which the uncertainty can be usefully
expressed in nm. Dimensional micro metrology is in this
paper defined in a similar way considering at least one
critical dimension or functional feature in the micrometer
range.

Annals of the CIRP Vol. 55/2/2006 -721- doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2006.10.005

 Figure 1: The development of achievable machining accuracy by Taniguchi [9].
The current keynote paper will focus on the following
points:
• Metrology tasks and metrology requirements in nano
and micro technology (dimensions, geometries,
tolerancing, quality assurance needs)
• Technical solutions for micro and nano metrology
(quantitative and qualitative solutions, traceability and
calibration, production related solutions)
The paper will deal with these overall topics in the
following structure: Section 2 describes various
measurement tasks in these relatively large scientific
areas. Section 3 deals with instruments and set-ups
capable of measuring dimensions of micro and nano
systems. Section 4 contains a discussion on
establishment of traceability in micro and nano metrology:
Finally section 5 discusses issues connected to
dimensional micro and nano metrology such as
tolerancing.
2 MEASUREMENT TASKS IN MICRO AND NANO
TECHNOLOGY
A discussion about various measurement tasks in micro
and nano technology inevitably will contain elements of
classification. The most straightforward classification is
based on dimensions only. Such a classification is often
used when referring to nanotechnology as research and
technological development at the atomic, molecular or
macromolecular levels, in the length scale of
approximately 1-100 nm. Other definitions as for example
given in [13] are somewhat broader and encompass also
integration into larger systems (“the production and
application of physical, chemical and biological systems
at scales ranging from individual atoms or molecules to
submicron dimensions, as well as the integration of the
resulting nanostructures into larger systems”). However,
due to the large diversity of “components” and the span
over several decades of the length scale, we feel that a
definition based purely on dimensions in some cases may
be less than adequate.
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In the micro regime a classification according to product
groups has been proposed previously [6]. It can be
supplemented by additional information about specific
components types that can be characterised by size in
three dimensions as well as geometry. Figure 2 illustrates
such a classification inspired by [6].
The generic measurement tasks to be performed in micro
and nano metrology are [37]:
• Distance as defined between two surfaces oriented in
the same direction. Example: distance between two
lines of a line grating or two planes in a
microstructure.
• Width as defined by the distance between two
opposing surfaces. Example: width of a channel.
• Height as defined by the distance between two
surfaces of same orientation but placed in a vertical
direction. Example: depth of microfluidic channel.
• Geometry (or form) as defined by the distance
between the surface of the object and a pre-defined
reference. Example: flatness of wafer.
• Texture and roughness defined as geometries of
surface structures whose dimensions are small
compared to the object under investigation. This
poses a particular challenge for micro or nano sized
objects because the surface becomes dominant with
respect to object volume.
• Thickness of layers
• Aspect ratio as defined by the depth of a structure
divided by its width.
In the following sections typical measurement tasks are
described based on examples in the following fields:
• Semiconductors
• Microsystems
• Nanotechnology
 Figure 2: Micro product categories. Inspired by [6].

2.1 Semiconductor related measurement tasks capability are identified. Selected requirements are given
in Table 2. It is not possible to go into a detailed
The International Technology Roadmap for description of all possible requirements. Further details
Semiconductors describes expected development trends are given in [12]. Precision values in the roadmap are
in this particular sector over the next 15-20 years [10]. An mostly specified as 3σ standard deviation values and
executive summary is the main document [11], and a should include metrology tool-to-tool matching influences.
special issue on metrology describes relevant information Moreover materials, shapes and density are not
for this particular paper [12]. specifically defined, and the measurement tool
The basic manufacturing sequence for integrated circuits performance should be stated independently from these
contains a series of subsequent patterning and error sources. This fact further increases the demand for
processing steps. The patterning steps usually are based the metrological capability. Nevertheless, Table 2 gives
on photolithography where a mask is projected onto a an indication of the requirements set by the foreseen
photoresist on a silicon wafer thereby creating the desired development. In [12] indication is given as to known
pattern. Wafer steppers or scanners are usually employed solutions for these requirements. In general no solutions
to be able to cover the entire surface of the wafer. exist at the moment for the requirements beyond 2010.
Processing steps include photoresist development and Other references already have described and commented
bake, etching, doping, deposition and planarization. By this general trend [38]-[39].
applying different combinations of photolithography and
processing steps, integrated circuits are formed in a layer-
by-layer manner. The obtainable resolution of structures Size in nm 2005 2007 2010 2015 2020
produced by photolithography is defined (and thereby DRAM ½ pitch 80 65 45 25 14
limited) by the type and wavelength of the light, the MPU/ASIC ½ 90 68 45 25 14
numerical aperture of the optics used and local settings of pitch
process conditions. Dimensional metrology in relation to
this manufacturing setup is, besides the fact that the Flash uncontacted 76 57 40 23 13
dimensions are in the nanometer range, complicated by Poly Si ½ pitch
the fact that metrology has to be in-process. MPU printed gate 54 42 30 17 9
The parameters of interest related to dimensional length
metrology in the semiconductor field are the following MPU physical 32 25 18 10 6
[12]: gate length
• Critical Dimensions (CD) referring to the width of the Table 1: Key lithography-related characteristics by
smallest structures in an integrated circuit. product. Adapted from [12]. DRAM = Dynamic Random
• Overlay referring to precision of mask repositioning. Access Memory. MPU = MicroProcessor Unit. ASIC =
Application Specific Integrated Circuit.
• Film thickness and profile.
Size in nm 2005 2007 2010 2015 2020
• Line width roughness.
CD control (wafer 8.8 6.6 4.7 2.6 1.5
Besides these obvious dimensional metrology dense line)
measurands, fields such as material and contamination
analysis, dopant profile, in situ sensors for process Wafer CD 0.67 0.52 0.37 0.21 0.12
control, reference materials as well as correlation of metrology tool
physical and electrical properties are dealt with in the precision (isolated
metrology roadmap [12]. Furthermore, the repeatability lines)
and process stability across the wafer is a critical quality Line width 2.6 2.0 1.4 0.8 0.5
parameter which needs to be considered for all types of roughness
measurands. Wafer overlay 15 11 8 4.5 2.5
The roadmap identifies development trends for specific Table 2: Selected metrology requirements for
products as illustrated in Table 1. It is clear that the semiconductor products based on lithography wafer
critical dimensions to be measured are foreseen to metrology technology. Adapted from [12].
decrease dramatically during the next 15 years. On this
basis the derived needs for dimensional metrology

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2.2 Microsystems related measurement tasks
Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)
MEMS can be defined as small components having both
an electrical and a mechanical functionality [40].
Traditionally MEMS have been designed based on the
semiconductor manufacturing platform as already
described briefly in section 2.1. However during the last
decade new products have emerged being labelled
MEMS in some way. This section contains a presentation
of different microproducts including traditional MEMS and
a discussion of the dimensional measurement tasks
connected to these products.
Traditional MEMS products are usually characterised by
higher aspect ratios than conventional integrated circuits.
Due to the relatively small absolute dimensions, high
aspect ratios pose metrological challenges. Furthermore,
the presence of mechanical and moving parts increases
the sensitivity towards mechanical deformations due to
measurements. Typical measurands are dimensions and
step heights as well as surface texture [41]. The
geometries under consideration are essentially 2½
dimensional, but will contain free-standing beams and
possibly also voids and inclusions (example Figure 3). As
indicated in [42] the MEMS technique(s) itself might play
a role in the challenge to measure such features.
Microfluidics
Products for chemical and biochemical analysis of fluid
have become a major research topic during the last
decade. These so-called lab-on-a-chip components are
manufactured both in silicon and polymer material.
However, a trend is seen towards polymer based
products and therefore new manufacturing schemes are
developed. Manufacturing of tools for micro injection
moulding and hot embossing of microfluidic systems can
be realized by several different process sequences. When
classified according to the substrate material and whether
the pattern is obtained by means of additive or subtractive
processes, four main fabrication schemes are identified.
Three are based on combinations of photolithography,
etching and electrodeposition and the fourth uses thermal
or mechanical processes for material removal [44]. As
indicated previously standard manufacturing processes
for semiconductors are essentially 2 or 2½ dimensional.
With the introduction of processes from the precision
engineering domain, real 3D features can be generated,
removing the main limitation of the other manufacturing
schemes. Table 3 contains an overview of obtainable
features with different manufacturing schemes thereby
also implying the metrological requirements for quality
assurance [45]-[46].

Figure 3: Example of electroplated comb-drive fingers
(nickel), before dissolution of the sacrificial layer (copper)
[43]. Scale indicates 2 μm.
(a) (b)
Figure 4: (a) Example of micro milled inserts for injection
moulding of microfluidic device. Dimensions of functional
area of plastic part 32 mm x 28 mm (Technical University
of Denmark). (b) Corresponding polymer part with
channels of cross section 600 μm x 600 μm.

Substrate material Metal Silicon Metal or polymer

Method Photoresist Advanced Si etch. Milling or laser
Fabrication scheme 1 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a 4b 4c
Geometry 2½D 2½D 2½D 2½D 2½D 3D 3D 3D
Number of layers that can be
1-3 1-3 1 1-3 1-3 ∞ ∞ ∞
stacked
Features accuracy XY in µm 2 2 2 5 5 1-10* 1-20* 1-10*
and alignment Z in µm 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 3-10 3-10 3-10
Min. channel width in µm 5 5 5 10 10 20-200 20-200 20-200
Max. channel depth in µm 200 200 200 500 500 ∞** ∞** ∞**
Max. aspect ratio 20 20 20 10 10 7.5 7.5 7.5
Range in ° 0-20 0-20 0-90 0-90 0-90
Side angle
Accuracy in ° 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-2 1-2 0.3 0.3 0.3
Surface roughness Sq Rms in nm 200-300

Table 3: Comparison of the capabilities of 4 basic fabrication schemes for mould inserts for injection moulding of microfluidic
devices. Values refer to the average capabilities of the single schemes. Table adapted from [44].
* For micromilling this value strongly depends on the type of material and feature (concave or convex).
** For micromilling this value depends on the tool diameter.

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Micro optics
Micro-optics ranging from tens to hundreds of μm in
absolute dimensions are key enabling technologies for
telecommunications, medical imaging/diagnostics etc. For
optics three-dimensional form accuracy is a key
measurand and furthermore precision assembly is critical
to the performance of the component. Manufacturing of
micro-optics has so far been dominated by lithography
based methods resulting in 2 dimensional structures with
relatively low aspect ratios. Other manufacturing
techniques such as ultraprecision machining enable the
production of 3 dimensional structures for optical
applications [47]. To be cost effective, ultraprecision
machining must be combined with a bulk parallel process
such as moulding, - either directly of glass at high
temperatures or of polymers. Some characteristic
measurands are, depending on the type of optical
component: surface roughness (Ra required to be less
than 5 nm), grating characteristic distances, alignment
accuracy (for fibres) etc.
Micro tools
Real 3-dimensional micro metrology problems occur for
example when micro tools for machining have to be
verified. The absolute values and variability of the tool’s
geometrical parameters directly influence the
performance of the milling process. Conventional
measuring methods face strong limitations already for
conventional size milling tools and tool size reduction
greatly increases the difficulties in the dimensional and
geometrical characterization of milling tools. In [45] and
[48]relevant properties of micro milling tools are identified
and discussed. They include effective tool diameter,
cutting edge radius, helix angle rake face roughness.
Figure 5 illustrates typical SEM pictures of a Ø 200 μm
ball nose end milling tool. Also in connection with the
detection and quantification of wear of such tools,
dimensional metrology needs to be developed [49]
Figure 5: Tool radius, helix angle, rake face roughness
and cutting edge radius on a 200 μm ball nose end mill
[45].
Hard disc drive suspension
The evolution of the suspension assembly for hard disk
drive (HDD) has seen many changes driven by constant
improvements in drive design due to area density
constant growth. The metrology in the data storage of
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hard-disk-drive industry has made a fundamental
transition from a laboratory-based instrument to an in-line
production control: the trend today is to use up to 100%
in-line metrology testing, whereby manufacturing
parameters such as pitch and roll are being brought in to
tighter tolerances. Integrated systems are capable of
measuring height, thickness, profile, pitch, roll etc. in
order to verify hard disc drive suspensions [50].
2.3 Measurement tasks in nanotechnology
The definition of nanotechnology was briefly touched
upon previously. However, nanotechnology emerges from
a broad range of scientific fields that converge due to the
continuous miniaturization. Figure 6 depicts some of the
essential features of nanotechnology as a continuation
and eventual merging of several traditional disciplines,
namely mechanics, biology, and chemistry. Following the
trend of miniaturisation, mechanics passed a landmark
“fine mechanics” in the 1960’s when critical dimensions
reached the level of 100 μm; and 20 years later
“micromechanics” reached 1 μm. During this evolution
fabrication tools were changed significantly, and models
of our understanding developed into finer and finer
details. But the basic understanding was based on
continuum mechanics, where the atomic structure of
matter is mostly neglected or at most implicitly imbedded
in theoretical models, for instance through the varying
macroscopic mechanical properties of different crystalline
phases. When critical dimensions reached the 100 nm
level around year 2000, traditional machining became
technically problematic. The concept of continuum
mechanics broke down as the atomic structure of ma-
terials becomes directly relevant for the mechanical
properties of materials. This is the scientific challenge of
nanotechnology: the traditional concepts break down, and
so do the terminology and parameters that we use to
describe the phenomena. New concepts and terminology
have to be developed, and these are likely to be
significantly more complex than we have been used to.
This aspect is further amplified when the second
evolutionary trend in Figure 6 is analysed. Traditionally a
macroscopic science, the basis of cellular biology was
developed more than 150 years ago; but it was only when
the electron microscope became available around 1960
that it became a quantitative science. Subsequently,
molecular biology has developed, and recently, due to
modern biochemical synthetic techniques molecular
engineering has been established. And as biology and
mechanics are currently merging in the nano-era,
common concepts and terminology will have to be
developed, possibly with significant cross-linking between
the two sciences from which they originate.
Thirdly, Figure 6 depicts the evolution of chemical
science. Here the building blocks are atoms of sizes
between 100 nm to 200 nm, so that molecules of some
nm diameter contain about 1000 atoms, leading to
considerable complexity in the theoretical understanding
based on first principles. Hence, also here when
molecules enter the nanometre range, our theoretical
understanding becomes complicated.
These considerations illuminate some of the challenges in
the development of a proper scientific terminology to
describe the phenomena of importance for understanding
nanotechnology. These challenges are currently
addressed in standardisation committees, where proper
terminology for nanotechnology is being worked out.
Nanotechnology includes the investigation and
manufacture of any mechanical, electronic, chemical, and
biological system by molecular assembly, the so-called
bottom-up approach, as well as the so-called top-down
approach by miniaturization of processes and products,

Figure 6: Development of the traditional scientific fields
such as Physics, Biology and Chemistry into nano-
science and technology. Inspired by [51].
like machining and multi step processes of bulk materials,
e.g. optical components of form precision and surface
integrity with nanometer and even sub-nanometer
accuracy for ultra violet (UV) and extended ultraviolet
(EUV) lithography.
In nanotechnology the critical dimension is to be read as
that interesting dimension of a specimen that is important
for its function, and not necessarily restricted to very
small-sized samples. Examples of critical dimensions are:
• Roughness of a sheet metal for car body production
where paintability is the required function
• The edge in an optical filter for telecommunication,
where the edge itself may be several μm
• Porosity of polymer molecular membranes for
advanced drug delivery
• Distances in molecules, where the function is
associated with a particular configuration
Nanotechnology products are now found in
pharmaceutical industry, microelectronics, and in
precision engineering. Nanotechnology is not only a
simple continuation of micro technology. It marks the
ultimate end of materials science, namely the dimensions
where materials properties stop and molecular properties
start. One can also say that nanotechnology is where
molecular features (including atoms) and materials meet.
However, the relevance of molecular features is often
implicit. Whereas the study of DNA is obviously related to
nanotechnology, the “nano”-aspects of sheet metal for its
paintability, and the “nano”-aspects of a honed car-engine
cylinder easily escaped the uninitiated eye. Nevertheless
the two latter examples have been projects within
measurement and testing under previous framework
programs in the European Union [51].
Many measurement tasks in nanotechnology are related
to surfaces as described in [7]. This concerns not only
dimensional and geometrical properties but as well
chemical properties. With respect to pure dimensional
metrological tasks Table 4 has been compiled to illustrate
typical problems. A comprehensive overview is
complicated by the nature of nanotechnology as
discussed above. A specific example is given in Figure 7.
Here a photonic nano structure is shown that allows to
manipulate light with a very little loss of signal. The
geometry as well as distribution of nano structures have
been determined using topology optimisation as
introduced in [6].
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Structure Material Dimensional
measurement
task
Hard disc layer Organic, Layer thickness
inorganic Roughness
Magnetic Metal Dimension
structures on Form
hard discs
Nanopowders Metals, oxides, Dimension
carbon Form
Nano optics Semiconductor, Distance
insulators Roughness
Table 4: Examples of dimensional metrology tasks in the
nano regime.
Figure 7: Nano photonic structure containing topology
optimised Y-junction and 60° bends. Typical dimensions
are less than 1 µm [52]-[53].
2.4 Summary
Features with aspect ratios below 1, will, in the following,
be referred to as 2D techniques. An example of two
dimensional tasks is given by surface metrology in three
dimensions. Measurement of features with aspect ratios
of one or bigger, is referred to as 2½D. An example of
such measurement task is given by high aspect ratio SU-
8 MEMS structures. Measurement of undercuts, free-
forms or features within cavities, will be described as 3D
measurement tasks.
Two important characteristics are connected to the wide
range of tasks just discussed. The first one considers the
level of miniaturisation. The smaller the absolute scale,
the more challenging the measurement task. The second
important feature considers the geometrical complexity,
i.e. the complexity will increase when going from 2D to
2½D and subsequently 3D measurement tasks.
Furthermore the integration of several orders of
magnitude of length scale into a component increases the
complexity of dimensional metrology. For example,
consider a microfluidic system that is based on analysis
using an array of cantilevers (with dimensions in the nm-
range). The fluidic channels might be several 100s of μm
wide and deep, and the overall polymer chip including
fluid connection devices several mm large. The required
dimensional measurements, in order to secure a proper
functionality of such a device, span over at least 4-6
orders of magnitude and it is clear that not one single
instrument will be able to cover this range.
Figure 8 shows a proposed illustration of selected
measurements tasks based on the classification in Figure
2. Figure 8 is based on the principles of a typical Stedman
diagram, and therefore it holds no information about
geometrical complexity.

Figure 8: Selected components for dimensional micro and
nano metrology.
3 SOLUTIONS FOR DIMENSIONAL MICRO AND
NANO METROLOGY
The description of available technologies for carrying out
dimensional micro and nano metrology will follow in this
section. The technologies will be described summarising
working principle, range, resolution, degree of industrial
application, examples of applications etc. The description
is divided into the following sections based on the main
measurement principles:
• Technologies based on interferometric solutions
• Microtopography measuring instruments
• Scanning electron microscopy
• Micro and nano coordinate metrology
• Other techniques
Scanning probe microscopy and scanning force
microscopy will only be described shortly since the STC S
2006 keynote paper will deal with the use of SPM/SFMs
for dimensional metrology.
3.1 Interferometric solutions
Primary length standards are usually Iodine stabilised
lasers that produce a stable optical frequency that can be
used for interferometry [54]. The laser cavity itself usually
consist of two high-reflectance mirrors, so this laser itself
obtains its stable frequency actually from a Fabry-Perot
cavity [55]. This illustrates that interferometry appears
anywhere where the accurate and traceable
measurement of displacements and dimensions is
concerned. Capacitive and inductive sensors can also
achieve sub-nm resolution in a small range and linear
scales rival the interferometric techniques at longer
ranges; still when it comes to uncertainty and traceability
also these sensors need to be calibrated by some
interferometric technique. Nevertheless, also in
interferometric techniques there are sources of systematic
deviation that can give unexpected deviations in
measurements when uncertainties at the nanometer-level
are concerned. In this section the most often used
interferometric measurement techniques - displacement
interferometry and surface interferometry - will be treated
and their major sources of errors will be discussed.
Displacement interferometry
Displacement interferometry is based on the light-dark
transitions corresponding to constructive and destructive
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interferences in a classical Michelson interferometer set-
up, where the plane mirrors are replaced by
retroreflectors, also called corner-cubes. In Figure 9 the
common set-up is displayed, together with the common
variations in the realisation. The optics can be polarizing
and non-polarizing, where polarizing is most common. In
that, the major distinction is the system working with one
frequency, called the homodyne interferometer, and the
system working with two frequencies, called the
heterodyne interferometer. Manufacturers can have long
arguments about the advantages of the one system over
the other [56], but here it is important to note that both
systems finally measure a displacement d which is
counted as a number N of half wavelengths λ plus a
fraction that is usually called the phase change ∆φ. The
displacement d is given by
λ ⎛ Δϕ ⎞
d= ⋅⎜N + ⎟ (1)
2 ⎝ 2π ⎠
This equation indicates already the major error sources:
the wavelength, the count number and the phase
difference. In modern systems, the resolution will be
between 10 and 0.1 nm.
This resolution does not readily mean that nano
metrology can be carried out with these systems. The
beams concerned in Figure 9 are mm in diameter, thus
macroscopic. The nanometer resolution is only obtained
in the direction of beam-propagation. Therefore
displacement laser-interferometry is a 1-D technique. For
the final measurement and detection of micro- and nano-
sized features laser-interferometry always must be
combined with mechanisms and probe/detection
techniques.
1 or 2 wavelengths
polarizing/non polarizing
Figure 9: Basic set-up of a displacement interferometer
system.
The range depends on the coherence length of the
source used and can be of the order of 300 nm for white
light, cm’s for spectral lamps, one to tens of metres for
commercially available laser interferometers, and further:
e.g. km’s for interferometric gravity wave detection.
Atmospheric effects
The wavelength λ depends on the frequency f and the
refractive index of air n as
c
λ= (2)
n⋅ f
where c is the speed of light. The refractive index of air
depends on the air pressure, temperature, humidity and
CO2-content. Once these data are known, there are
standard equations that calculate the refractive index with
-8
an uncertainty of a few times 10 [57]-[60]. The deviation
in each of the environmental parameters to get a
deviation of 1·10-6 in length are for the pressure 4 hPa, for
air temperature 1.1 °C, for humidity 100 % and for CO2
content 0.6%. The latter two are unrealistic values; these
factors only become important for relative uncertainties
far below 1·10-6. In this area, the direct measurement of
the refractive index of air can be useful; this field is
commonly referred to as air refractometry [58]-[64].
The frequency f is usually obtained from a stabilised He-
Ne laser source with a stability below 1·10-8, the
commonly used stabilisation techniques are well
developed and seldom give problems. If the source is a
laser diode this can be a point of concern.
Periodic errors
Periodic errors are errors in determining the fraction of a
wavelength; the phase ∆φ, that are periodic as they
repeat for each value of N in (1) with the same phase ∆φ.
These kinds of errors are also called nonlinearities.
Usually the phase is determined by taking the in-phase
and out-of phase measurement of signals measured in
phase-quadrature. In heterodyne interferometry this
comes down to an electronic phase measurements. In
homodyne interferometry, the intensity is measured where
at the same time the intensity is measured where the
phase is shifted 90°. Errors occur when the contrast of the
interferometer signal is not perfect and also when the
phase-shifted signal is not shifted with exactly 90
degrees. In general, homodyne interferometers are
somewhat more sensitive to this effect. On the other
hand, correction is easier for homodyne interferometers.
The general error model and a compensation method that
became commonly used were given by Heydemann [64].
Other error sources that give this kind of periodic
deviations are imperfect polarization beam splitters and
retarders, and imperfectly polarised incoming beams in
the case of heterodyne interferometry. Without measures,
these can give deviations up to some tens of nanometres
for homodyne and a few nm for heterodyne systems.
Extensive research into the modelling and correction for
these effects is carried out in the literature [66]-[79].
A problem with these methods is that they take the
‘Heydemann-ellipse’ as complete model and give as such
a traceability ‘in itself’ that is appealing but is difficult to
verify independent and can be incomplete, e.g. when
ghost-reflections occur [80].
Therefore also alternative routes for determining, or
calibrating the ‘∆φ ’ were exploited; such as sharpening
the interference peak by using a Fabry-Perot
interferometer and using either a capacitive transducer
[81], or a frequency-shift of the laser source [73], [82].
Also frequency shifting a laser and using its changing
cavity length was exploited [83]-[86].
Another field of interferometry with sub-nm resolution is
X-ray interferometry. Here the effective wavelength is
shortened to 0.2 nm by using an X-ray interferometer,
achieving picometer resolution. The range of this very
sensitive and delicate instrument is usually limited to a
few hundred micrometers, therefore it is often combined
with other techniques, e.g. the above mentioned laser
interferometry [87]-[92].
Applications of displacement-interferometry
Laser interferometers are used in numerous applications
where uncertainties down to the sub-nm level are
required. Their most straightforward application in nano
metrology is the calibration of 1-D scales. This can take
place on the microscopic scale with sub-nm resolution
[93], but also at larger length-scales a nm-resolution and
uncertainty can be obtained [94]-[96]. In wafer-steppers
and scanners, laser interferometers form the
measurement basis for the chip-production that is nano
metrology and technology in mass volumes. If nanometre-
uncertainty must be kept at scanning speeds of metres
per second, even relativistic effects may become relevant
[97]. In micro- and nano coordinate metrology they can
deliver direct traceability when detecting the displacement
of the axes. When it comes to traceability to international
standards, laser interferometers systems are almost
always the link to primary (laser) standards [98]. In [99] a
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XYθz surface encoder with 20 nm resolution based on
displacement interferometry is described.
Surface interferometry
Surface interferometry can be considered as a kind of
displacement interferometry, just in this case a whole
array of photodetectors, i.e. a CCD-camera, is used and
the (static) phase difference between several areas on
the surface is considered to represent the surface
features. Surface interferometry can be carried out in the
classical Michelson and Fizeau set-ups. Now, equation
(1) is valid for the distance between the reference surface
and the surface to be measured. For an optimum
contrast, the intensity is proportional to:
2π
I ∝ 1 + cos (Δz ); I ( x, y ) ∝ 1 + cos[ϕ ( x, y )]
λ
(3)
2πz( x, y )
with ϕ ( x, y ) =
λ
As in displacement interferometry, the z-coordinate in the
beam direction can be detected with sub-µm up to sub-
nm resolution.
This is a research field of its own and is already covered
in previous CIRP keynote papers [100]-[101]. Here some
aspects related to micro- and nano metrology are
mentioned.
When it comes to macroscopic mirrors (100 mm up to
metres diameter) of which a form deviation (from flatness,
sphericity, parabolicity, etc.) is calibrated with nanometre
uncertainty it might be questioned whether this should be
called nano-metrology. One parameter, form deviation,
can be usefully expressed in nanometres, but the lateral
resolution may be many millimetres in such cases.
Therefore this issue is discussed briefly; also in relation to
the measurement of mirrors for deep-UV applications
where sub-nm deviations from an ideal form are required,
that must be calibrated at the edge of the technological
possibilities, but still macroscopic sizes are involved with
lateral resolutions of many micrometres.
When it comes to interferometric microscopy, a sub-nm
resolution can be achieved in the direction of the beam
propagation, however if sub-micrometer and sub-
nanometer resolution in the x- and y lateral directions are
required, direct optical detection methods fail because of
the diffraction limit. The diffraction limit is given by
λ (3)
d≈
2 ⋅ NA
with d the resolution, λ the wavelength and NA the
numerical aperture of the objective. This illustrates that in
visual light, where lateral resolution is needed, optical
microscopy can be just used for micro metrology, but
certainly not for nano metrology. In contrast to the
displacement interferometry, the range is small here
because of a limited focal depth. This range can be
reduced on purpose in order to get a higher and
unambiguous sub-nm resolution by extending the light
wavelength range: this is called white-light interferometry.
When the surface is moved relative to the objective along
the beam direction, a complete surface profile can be
obtained by recording the white-light interference position
for every pixel; thus extending the range. This is, next to
confocal microscopy, the most commonly technique in
optical surface profiling. As these techniques are already
extensively treated in the mentioned CIRP keynote-
papers, they will not be further treated here.
3.2 Microtopograhy measuring instruments
Next to the optical microscopic techniques mentioned in
section 3.1, the principal methods of surface topography
measurement are stylus profilometry, optical scanning
techniques, and scanning probe microscopy (SPM).
These methods, based on acquisition of topography data
from point by point scans, give quantitative information of
heights with respect to position. All these types of
instruments are well-known and therefore only a short
description will be given followed by examples of
application for dimensional micro and nano metrology.
For detailed information about the optical methods please
refer to [101].
In a stylus profilometer, the pick-up draws a stylus over
the surface at a constant speed, and an electric signal is
produced by the transducer. This kind of instrument can
produce very accurate measurements in the laboratory as
well as in an industrial environment, covering vertical
ranges up to several millimetres with resolutions as good
as nanometric, with lateral scans up to hundreds of
millimetres being possible. The stylus is typically provided
with a diamond tip with a cone angle (total included angle)
of 60° or 90° and a tip radius in the range 1-10 µm. The
maximum detectable slopes using a stylus instrument are,
respectively, 60° or 45°. The spatial resolution achieved
by this method, generally in the 2-20 µm range, is limited
by the tip geometry, and depends on the actual surface
slopes and heights in the neighbourhood of the point of
contact. Moreover, the force applied by the stylus on the
surface can generate plastic deformation on the surface,
making this method inapplicable to surfaces that are soft
or where even light scratches cannot be accepted.
Optical scanning techniques encompass most typically
optical profilometers, confocal microscopes, and
interferometers. The optical methods are non-contacting
which allows measurements on soft surfaces. However,
this kind of instrument is subject to measurement errors
related to achieving a useful reflection signal from
surfaces that are shiny or transparent to the light source.
Optical styli for profilometry can be based on the auto-
focusing signal of a laser beam detector. The beam has a
spot diameter of about 1 µm, and this kind of instrument
is similar in use to conventional stylus instruments, with a
vertical resolution of approximately 5 nm. The maximum
detectable slope of the surface or surface features using
an auto-focusing stylus instrument is approximately 15°.
Laser scanning confocal microscopy is another optical
technique based on the focus detection principle, where
one surface picture element (pixel) is imaged at a time.
Topography is reconstructed as a stack of vertical optical
sections, in a fashion similar to computer tomography.
Confocal microscopes allow steep surface details to be
assessed, the maximum detectable slope being up to 75°.
Confocal microscopes have a limited lateral resolution,
and some commercially available instruments even have
a limited vertical resolution. Interference microscopy
combines an optical microscope and an interferometer
objective into a single instrument. These optical methods
allow fast non-contacting measurements on essentially
flat surfaces. Interferometric methods offer a sub-
nanometre vertical resolution, being employed for
surfaces with average roughness down to 0.1 nm and
peak-to-valley heights up to several millimetres.
Interferometric microscopes are all limited with respect to
the surface slopes from the finite numerical apertures.
Moreover, the lateral resolution is limited by diffraction.
The maximum detectable slope using interferometry
amounts to about 30° [41].
General considerations about measurement capabilities
of these types of instruments can be summarised as for
example in Table 5. For all optical instruments the non-
contact nature is a clear merit. For the same type of
instruments a lack of traceable calibration specimens and
procedures is present. Few examples have been found
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where different instruments were actually compared on
the basis of measuring micro components. In [102] such a
comparison is reported involving a focus detection laser
scanning profiler, a confocal scanning laser microscope
and a white light interferometer for the measurement of
plastic surfaces. A more thorough investigation of the
focus detection profilometer was reported in [103] where
both random microstructures as well as deterministic
micro structures were investigated.
Laser confocal microscopy was reported in [104]-[105] for
3D analysis of microstructures such as die inserts for
micro injection moulding, lab-on-a-chip structure, micro
cavities, micro end mills etc. The dilemma of high
resolution requirements and desired large range was
solved by applying a three-dimensional stitching
procedure with high-magnification optics.
In [106]-[109] a method for 2D profiling of high aspect
ratio microstructures is reported. The instrumentation is
based on a specially developed silicon micro probe
(length 1 mm, cross section 20 μm x 20 μm) which is
vibrated by means of a piezo actuator. The method is
called vibro scanning, and a measurement resolution of
less than ±35 nm [106]. The length of the tip reported was
7.2 μm with a radius of curvature less than 50 nm. The
technique was used to probe micro holes of diameter 80
μm and depth 200 μm. See Figure 10 for an illustration.
Figure 10: Example of measurement of microholes (Ø 80
μm) with micro probe [106].
In [110] the description of an instrument based on a high
accuracy 3D positioning device combined with a fixed
optical focus detection sensor used for DVDs. Additionally
a stationary STM sensor is used as a so-called null-
indicator. The 3D positioning device is equipped with
laser interferometers and the probing systems only used
to trigger the read-out of the laser interferometers. The
3D positioning device has a range of 25 mm x 25 mm x 5
mm with a resolution of 0.1 nm.
3.3 Scanning electron microscopy
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a microscopy
method existing for several decades. It is based on
scanning an electron beam on the specimen. The
interaction between the beam and the specimen surface
leads to several emissions, which can be detected and
used to characterize physical and chemical properties of
the sample under investigation. Among others, it is
possible with the SEM, to obtain topography images. As
regards topography, SEM has some unique properties
that, combined together, are not matched by any other
microscopy technique. These include: magnification
levels (100x to 100.000x), resolution down to 2 nm (for
highest magnification), large depth of field, long working
distance (allowing multiple positioning measurement
strategies), elemental analysis capability and minimum
diffraction effects [112]. Some disadvantages compared
to optical microscopy include usually high vacuum
requirement, relatively low throughput, potential for
sample charging, electron beam/sample interaction etc.
[112]. The principle is illustrated in Figure 11.
 2D SEM
Principle Merits Limitations Examples of The use of SEM for highly accurate dimensional
application measurements is reliant upon the interpretation of the
Stylus Traceability Mechanical Industrial electronic representation of the sample (the image or
Large range contact surfaces micrograph). This means that all distortions of the image
(XY and Z) force directly influence the measurement accuracy. In the case
Tip of a 40 nm transistor gate the industry specifies a
geometry measurement bias of less than 4 nm and a repeatability of
0.7 nm. In a SEM the edge bloom is typically tens of
Autofocus Point by Limited Soft nanometers wide and of course this calls for specific
point lateral materials actions.
probing resolution
SEM images generally show lines such as photoresist on
Max. silicon with characteristically bright edges. Much of the
detectable uncertainty in linewidth or critical dimension (CD)
slope appr. measurements is due to the fact that the bright regions
15° that represent a line's (or gate's) edge in a SEM image
White light Fast Limited Roughness are not sharp at the nanometer scale. Each edge "zone"
interferom. High vertical lateral of flat may be tens of nanometers wide, and the variation of
resolution resolution surfaces image intensity within this region depends upon
(sub-nm) Max. Film characteristics of the edge shape and instrument
detectable thickness parameters [114]. Several instrument parameters
slope appr. influence this performance [115]. The position of the
Low aspect electron probe ideally needs to be known within less than
30° ratio MEMS 1 nm in order to make possible accurate measurements
Confocal High aspect Limited High aspect of small sample sizes. Vibrations and drift determine the
ratio lateral ratio MEMS obtainable accuracy. The brightness of the electron
structures resolution source determines the maximum amount of current
Max. Limited capable of being focused into the spot. Finally the
detectable vertical electron source size determines the level of resolution.
slope up to resolution For this reason nanotips were developed and tested as
75° electron sources (Figure 12).
SPM nm Slow “nano” In order to be able to optimise measurement accuracy
resolution modelling of the electron gun performance as well as the
Limited electron beam/sample interaction is necessary. As
range (XY compared to macro scale objects the amount of physical
and Z) matter that can generate the electron signal is limited for
Table 5: Surface microtopography instruments and their nanostructures. In [115]-[116] a simulation approach
use for dimensional micro and nano metrology. Inspired based on a model based library is described. The model
by [41]. comprises physical models for electron beam interaction
with the sample, a library of pre-computed models for
interaction as well as a capability of performing a non-
linear least squares best match between observed
intensity profiles and the library contents. In a comparison
of the simulation method with analysis of cross sections,
agreement within 2 nm for line width and 0.2° for sidewall
angles were observed (Figure 13). Other approaches to
the prediction of edge effects are described in [117]-[118].
A further development towards elimination of un-desirable
effects is the use of variable pressure/environmental
scanning electron microscopes. This type of
instrumentation offers the advantage of higher landing
energies (imaging at higher resolutions), different contrast
mechanisms and charge neutralisation (imaging of non-
conducting specimens without metallic coatings) [119]-
[120].

Figure 11: Principle of SEM measurement [113].

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) can also be used
for qualitative surface topography analysis, primarily
based on the fact that SEM allows an excellent
visualisation achieved through the very high depth of
focus of this technique. However, SEM photographs are
still inherently 2D, and no height information can be
extracted directly from the images. Furthermore
calibration of scales and uncertainty estimation is a
prerequisite for the use of SEM pictures for quantitative
evaluations.
Figure 12: Tungsten nano-tip cold field emission electron
gun filament. The field-of-view is 500 μm and 500 nm for
the insert [115].

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Z [nm]
X [nm]
Figure 13: Graphical comparision of the modeled and the
experimental results of the cross section of polycrystalline
test strucures with the predicted shape [116].
3D SEM
SEM images are in fact purely two-dimensional as they
are built up of intensity variations displayed in an array of
pixels obtained as the electron beam is scanned
rectilinearly over the specimen surface. In order to
reconstruct the third dimension of surface features,
photogrammetry methods can be used. Photogrammetry
based on SEM, have been studied for some time [121]-
[126]. 3D information can be achieved by reconstruction
from stereo pairs or triplets of SEM image scan be used
for the evaluation of surface topography but is limited by a
number of factors. First of all, SEM measurements
require conductive sample materials, or sample
preparation through deposition of a gold layer on the
surface. A major limitation is that roughness parameters
should be calculated over a relatively large area while, in
the case of large magnifications, the area is relatively
small. Another limitation is that smooth surfaces are hard
to reconstruct due to few or no recognizable features. In
[41], [127]-[128] results of 3D imaging with SEM are
reported with focus on the establishment of traceability.
Figure 14 illustrates the results of the 3D reconstruction of
an ISO type C roughness standard. It was estimated that
the lateral dimensions were determined satisfactorily
while deviation of the order of 20% were observed for the
vertical dimensions [41].
Z Manufacturing Research. Its measuring volume is 100 x
Y
X measured by 3 flat-mirror laser interferometer systems
Figure 14: Example of 3D reconstruction of ISO type C
roughness standard measured with SEM [41]. Scales: X
520 µm, Y 60 µm, Z 16.5 µm.
3.4 Micro and nano coordinate metrology
Metrology frames
Once considering the common coordinate measuring
machines (CMMs) and thinking of micro and nano
metrology one would tend to miniaturize such a machine;
especially its probe, so that smaller sizes can be
measured. A smaller frame than the usual metre-sizes
might provide the necessary stiffness and stability to
achieve sub-um uncertainties in all 3 directions. Coming
from the other side and considering AFMs one might wish
these instruments to have millimetre ranges instead of
micrometres, and be more efficient in measuring specific
features instead of a total surface.
These two worlds come together in what we will call micro
and nano coordinate metrology. In the last few years
there is a trend in University groups but also at CMM
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manufacturers to build smaller CMMs and especially
smaller probes to enable a true 3-D measurement of
nanometre features. We mention true 3-D capabilities as
surface profiling instruments can however deliver data
points in 3 dimensions, but with these techniques have a
strong limitation in the maximum slope of a surface they
can measure. We speak of true 3D measurement when
features can be measured from aside and partly from
inside; e.g. small holes.
Already some years ago an ‘ultimate’ surface measuring
instrument was developed at the NIST, called the
Molecular Measuring Machine: M3 [129]-[130] This
instrument is basically an STM with a largely extended x-y
range of 50 x 50 mm. The x- and y-axes are read out by
laser interferometers. On a surface-area, molecules can
be identified individually, and after that, the distances
between any two molecules can be determined. When it
comes to measuring even micrometer-areas with
molecular resolution, measuring times become very large.
This sounds like the ultimate end of dimensional
metrology.
Of course there is always more to wish: measure in air, a
larger (z-) range, and an instrument that can be afforded
by larger industries, and measuring features rather than a
surface. Regarding a nano-CMM as a miniaturised CMM,
concerning accuracy there are some demands that are
hard to fulfil in a traditional CMM-size and structure.
Some set-ups have been developed that satisfy Abbe’s
principle in 2D and even in 3-D. For a high accuracy in
the coordinates, either laser interferometers or highly
accurate linear scales are used. Here a number of
measurement frames are listed with their characteristics.
Systems in universities and institutions:
Vermeulens Machine
Vermeulen, at the Eindhoven University of Technology in
the group of prof. Schellekens, made a design in which
the Abbe-principle is fulfilled in two axes: the use of linear
scales is enabled by using an intermediate body. Air
bearings are used [131]-[132]. The measuring volume is
100 x 100 x 100 mm.
Ruyls machine
Ruyl developed a 3-D CMM in the Philips Centre for
100 x 40 mm. It has a design that delivers measurement
according to the Abbe principle in all 3 axes. The
measurement reference is a solid zerodur block that
moves with the workpiece in 3 directions, while being
[133].
Van Seggelens machine (Eindhoven University)
As a further improvement and miniaturisation of the
Vermeulen machine, van Seggelen is developing a CMM
with a measurement volume of 50 x 50 x 4 mm. A major
difference is the use of a double flexible hinge system that
gives a strictly straight movement in the z-direction. It has
a feed-back loop and a positioning repeatability within a
nm was demonstrated. [134].
Ilmenau Machine
A nanomeasuring machine has been developed at the
Ilmenau University of Technology. Like the Ruyl machine,
it is equipped with 3 laser interferometers [135]-[136].
PTB
PTB has developed a 3D micro measuring device (3D-
MME), which allows coordinate measurements on
microstructures to be carried out with an uncertainty <100
nm. The range of measurement is 25 mm x 40 mm x 25
mm. The 3D-MME is based on a CMM which is available
on the market and whose accuracy is increased as high-
resolution scales (10 nm resolution) and improved air
bearings are used. The basic unit is supplemented by a
measuring system to determine the relative position and
location of measurement object and measuring system
during measurement and to correct the tracing
coordinates. [137]
University of Tokyo
This device has a measuring range of 10 x 10 x 10 mm
and a resolution of 10 nm. The measuring device has a
symmetrical construction with a double V-groove guiding
mechanism and employs a position sensing method using
an optical scale to achieve high stability [138].
Commercially available machines
Several of the above-mentioned machines are being
commercialised: The Vermeulen machine has appeared
as the F25 machine of Zeiss; the Ruyl machine is
produced by IBS and sold under the name ISARA. The
Ilmenau machine is related to the SIOS company.
Panasonic sells a measurement machine called UA3P for
measurement volumes up to 400 x 400 x 90 mm, with a
metrology frame and measurements based on laser
interferometers. It is mainly intended for surface
measurements.
Mitutoyo has developed the Nanocoord measuring
machine that covers a 300 x 200 x 100 mm measurement
volume with uncertainties starting at 0.2 µm. It can be
equipped by ball probes from 30 µm diameter on, by a
roughness measuring probe and by several kinds of
optical probes. The reason why it is difficult to cite
uncertainties with all these machines is that the
performance is almost fully determined by the used
probe.
Probes for micro-coordinate measuring machines
In general, the CMM-like frames in the previous section
establish a precision positioning and measuring base that
can be used for a variety of probes. Apart from optical
areal and point-sensing, also STM-like and conical-
shaped roughness probes can be used. For true 3-D
measurements the cone-shaped probes, that can have
sharp tip with 10 nm diameter, are not useful as they
cannot probe from ‘aside’. So for 3-D metrology the
typical probing element will be some kind of ball probe. An
overview of probing principles is given by Weckenmann
[139], here we restrict ourselves to a short summary of 3-
D probes that use a small ball as probing element. The
problems with reducing 3-D probes to small ball sizes are:
Stick-slip effects, uncertainty in the probe form and
diameter and low stiffness of the probing shaft. From the
metrology side to this the problem of determining the
exact probe position is added. Of the many approaches
we mention: making a hinge system with very low
stiffness so the shaft can be thin [140]-[143]. The problem
of orientation-dependent stiffness was rigorously treated
in [144] with a symmetrical set-up. The metrology problem
of shaft-bending was treated by Schwenke by measuring
the probe position independent optically [146]. A drastic
approach, leaving out the shaft, laser-trap the probe and
measure its position by optical microscopy was taken by
Takaya [147]-[149], with a 8 µm diameter probe. The
stick-slip problem is avoided by Mitutoyo’s UMAP-probe,
that is – like Takaya’s system - based on small vibrations
at its natural frequency, with triggering and probe removal
as soon as the amplitude changes near an object. Probe
diameters can be as small as 30 µm [150].
3.5 Scanning probe microscopy
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM), including scanning
tunneling microscopes (STMs), atomic force microscopes
(AFMs), magnetic force microscopes, near field optical
scanning microscopes, and others, is a powerful tool for
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sub-nanometric acquisition of topography data on very
fine surfaces. SPMs use a sharp probe scanning (the tip)
over the surface while maintaining a very close spacing to
the surface. SPMs allow measurements on surfaces with
an area up to approximately 100 µm x 100 µm and having
local variations in surface height which are less than
approximately 10 µm. SPM is a 2½D microscopy
technology in which the resolution is not limited by the
diffraction of light. The vertical resolution of SPMs is
about 0.1 nm while the horizontal resolution for most
AFMs is typically 2 nm to 10 nm, but can be atomic.
SPMs require minimal sample preparation [151].
Whereas the different SPM-techniques are based on
different force-fields, such as tunnelling current between a
conducting tip and the scanned surface, van der Waal’s
forces, magnetic forces etc, the scanning mechanism is
universally based on the piezoelectric effect that allows
positioning within fractions of a nm. In consequence, all
SPMs suffer from the intrinsic deficiencies of piezoelectric
materials such as hysteresis and creep. This has lead to
a number of correction techniques based on for instance
capacitive sensors as well as on specialised calibration
software.
Hence, SPM offers a range of possibilities, and even with
its limitations it is a most versatile tool for nano metrology.
It should be noted that SPM is a non-destructive
technique that works equally well on metals,
semiconductors and even on biological specimens.
Further it may be combined with other techniques; for
instance an SPM has successfully been mounted on a
ordinary CMM to extend the range, although with some
costs in resolution [152].
Readers are referred to the CIRP STC S keynote paper
2006 on this subject.
3.6 Other techniques
In this section other techniques reported for dimensional
micro and nano metrology will be shortly presented. The
description will not cover all possible methods, but is
limited to selected methods reported to the authors in
relationship with the preparation of the current paper.
Digital holography
The surface of typical micro systems consists very often
of flat, reflective material, e. g. aluminium, silicon or
copper. With the help of digital holography it is possible to
measure the topography of the micro system or their
behaviour under load [153]-[155]. The results can be
compared with numerical calculations and functional
parameters or the behaviour of the material can be
obtained. The advantages of using digital holography are
fast, planar and non-contact measurements with a
resolution of a fraction of the used wavelength.
By using digital holography the object is illuminated with
coherent light and the backscattered light interferes with a
reference beam on the CCD-target [156]-[157]. The
hologram can be numerically reconstructed in any depth
and hence the geometry of the object can be obtained by
analysis of the phase distribution in the reconstruction
plane. To get metrical results an adequate geometry
model and the properties of the object surface have to be
considered. For measuring deformations of objects under
load the phase distribution with and without load are
measured and subtracted. The typical size of micro
systems is less than 1x1 mm². Here the classical digital
holography is disturbed by the fact that all optical
components (illumination, beamsplitter) have to be
mounted between object and sensor.
Experimental measurements of shape and deformation of
a HF-switch show the potential of this technique: In Figure
15a the reconstructed intensity is shown. The used
wavelength is λ =532 nm and the microscope objective
has a numerical aperture of N.A.=0,25. By superimposing
the phase distribution with the transfer function of the
microscope objective the height distribution can be
determined. Figure 15b and 15c displays the height
profile after transfer in metric coordinates. The results
correspond well to the data of the manufacturer.
a b c
Figure 15: Shape measurement of test component HF-
Switch. a) reconstructed intensity plot b) height profile plot
c) unwrapped height profile.
Optical diffraction microscopy
Recently optical diffraction microscopy (ODM) has been
introduced as a novel tool in nano metrology. It is based
on white light diffraction, where both the direct beam (0th
order) and all orders of scattered light are analysed. With
no moving parts and based on optical signal processing, it
offers a fast and astonishing accurate tool for a variety of
optical gratings An example of a practical construction is
shown below [158].
The principle is as follows: White light is shone on to the
sample, and scattered light as well as the 0th order are
collected and analysed spectroscopically (Figure 16). The
spectra are analysed by simulating spectra from model
gratings and then fitting the model parameters to the
observed spectra. Hence, the ODM is a promising
technique for productions control of gratings, since it is
much faster than AFM techniques. Comparisons with both
AFM and cross-sectional SEM prove that the technique is
very selective and robust [159]. It shares with the SPM-
techniques that it is non-destructive.
Micro computer tomography
Based on existing Medical X-ray Tomography systems
(which have resolutions of 1 to 2mm), micro computer
tomography instruments have recently been developed.
State of the art systems have resolution down to 0.15 μm
[41], [160]. The unique feature of this measuring
technique consists in that it is fully three dimensional. It
has in fact no limitations related to probe access, because
of the high penetration power of x rays. A micro-focused
X-ray source illuminates the object of interest, which is
positioned on a precision manipulator. X-ray shadow
images are acquired by an X-ray sensitive camera. Such
x-ray radiographies consists of two dimensional shadow
images of the complete internal three dimensional
structures, but in a single two dimensional shadow
projection the depth information is not discernible.
Therefore, during image acquisition, the sample is rotated
stepwise through 180 degrees, and images are recorded
at each position. Based on the X-ray intensity 2D shadow
images are calculated for each position and a 3D model
of the object is finally achieved by combination of 2D
shadow images.
3.7 Summary
Methods for dimensional micro and nano metrology were
reviewed in the chapter. They can be divided into the
following categories, though a clear border line between
them is not always possible to draw.
• Technologies based on interferometric solutions
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Camera
Zoom
lens
Focusing
lens
Focusing
lens
Reflector
Grating
X-y table
Pinhole
Polarizer
Collimating
lens
Light
source
Spectrometer
Switch
0 Order
- Orders + Orders
Figure 16: Optical diffraction microscopy. Principle of set-
up.
• Microtopography measuring instruments
• Scanning electron microscopy
• Micro and nano coordinate metrology
• Other techniques
Especially many interferometric principles are being
applied in microtopography measuring instruments as well
as micro and nano CMMs. Interferometry in general is
capable of delivering accuracies and measurement
uncertainties in the nm range. However, the nature of
distance interferometry is one dimensional, so solutions
containing multiple interferometers are often seen.
Microtopography measuring instruments are capable of
delivering three dimensional topography data sets.
Surface topography measuring instruments are all
somewhat limited in their performance on the vertical axis
mainly due to the probe-specimen interaction (mechanical
contact probe) or the optical characteristics (optical
probe). High aspect ratio features, such as deep
trenches, are critical; moreover undercuts cannot be
measured.
SEM is a powerful tool for obtaining sharp images with
high magnification. These technologies are widely used
for dimensional metrology of 2D structures in the μm and
nm regime. However, proper care has to be taken with
respect to establishment of traceability for the use of SEM
for dimensional metrology.
Application of conventional CMMs to quality assurance in
the context of micro technology is limited either by lack of
accuracy or probe size. New machines equipped with
small, high accuracy probes are being developed for this
purpose.
Figure 17 shows a classification of measuring techniques
related both to dimension and complexity. In the figure,
surface topography measuring instruments are regarded
as a whole. Specific instruments may therefore actually
have capabilities not indicated in the figure. In general a
variety of 2D and 2½D metrology systems are currently
available. They are relatively expensive and slow. From
the standpoints of both robustness and inspection speed,
metrology systems lack the ability to be used in a
production setting. Measurement challenge increases
from left to right and from the top to the bottom of the
table. The field covered by compact - ultraprecision
CMMs is highly relevant in industry. Techniques as 3D
SEM and μ computer tomography are of great interest,
though their traceability is still not well established through
universal calibration procedures (please refer to next
chapter). There are a few truly 3D metrology systems in
this domain. Full three dimensional characterization in the
nm regime is not possible through the use of any of the
reviewed techniques. Figure 18 holds a comparison of the
discussed techniques in a Stedman-like diagram.
Figure 17: Classification of equipment. Inspired by [41].
Definition of 2D, 2½D and 3D according to section 2.4.
Figure 18: Measurement instruments for dimensional
micro and nano metrology. Inspired by [7].
4 CALIBRATION AND TRACEABILITY
Measurement standards and standard instruments have
turned out to being very important measures for
establishing reliability and confidence. This seems to be a
particular challenge and is combined with manifold
difficulties, because the nanometer range (0.1 nm till 100
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nm) is that area where the atomic world starts and
continuum mechanics ends. This transient area is the so-
called mesoscopic area, where it is extremely difficult to
describe the interaction of sensors with the measurand
precisely. But this is a necessary precondition to derive
from this interaction correct and reliable measurement
results.
The macroscopic world has its own traditions in achieving
traceability and normally uses artefacts such as scales,
laser interferometers, stepgauges, ball plates, straight
edges, optical flats etc. For linear dimensions, gauges or
laser interferometers are used, for form measurements
some form standard, if necessary combined with a
reversal technique. In the microscopic world far less
standard are in use: step heights, scales, 2D scales, and
for STM-measurements a crystalline mica or silicon
surface is usually considered as a suitable calibration
artefact for achieving traceability.
In order to illustrate some of the challenges, we consider
measurement of form accuracy in the mesoscopic world:
the reversal methods used in the traditional dimensional
metrology are practically hardly possible because the
artefacts cannot be handled so easy or can hardly be
prepared. For example, there is no microscopic
equivalent of a straight edge, and though one could
imagine one, how to calibrate such an object by some
reversal method is hard to imagine. There is no
microscopic equivalent of a ball plate that can be
calibrated by a reversal method as it can not be
approached from two sides. A 3-flat method for obtaining
an absolute flatness calibration can hardly be designed in
a mesoscopic world. Also for linear dimensions: there is
not yet a microscopic equivalent for a step gauge or for a
gauge block. The used step heights are equivalent to a
gauge block wrung on a platen. In the macroscopic world
that is considered a poor standard as the artefact is
always approached from the same side and 2-sided probe
effects do not become visible. Type-D roughness
standards exist down to Ra = 15 nm, however with a cut-
off length of 80 µm, but these do not exist for a typical
measurement area of an AFM of 20 x 20 µm.
Besides those standards made of inorganic materials,
equivalent standards are very desired for nanotechnology
in all kind of processes (manufacture, monitoring,
measurement) of organic materials including living cells in
special cases [51].
Although the issue of traceability has only been
addressed at a few specialised places, some attempts to
establish global traceability in the nm-range have been
made. However, they are mostly focused on SPM. Under
the consultative committee for length CIPM-CCL within
the metre convention, four global comparisons between
national metrology institutes have been initiated on step
height, line scales as well as 1D and 2D gratings with
between 11 and 14 participants. Three have been
finished, and one has been extended to Europe with five
participants. Some results are given in Figure 19. It shows
the results for a 1D grating where three techniques were
employed, namely optical diffraction, optical microscopy,
and SPM. The comparison demonstrates good
correspondence between the classical optical techniques
and SPM and it gives an impression of the uncertainties
associated with this technique. On a 290 nm grating the
95% confidence level corresponds to an uncertainty
U~0.5 nm.
 Figure 19: Comparison of one-dimensional grating.
Nominal value 290 nm. Uncertainty bars correspond to
the expanded uncertainty at a 95% confidence level [161].
More interestingly is the step height comparison shown in
Figure 20, since the traceability in the z-direction is
notoriously difficult for SPMs. Here a step height of
nominally 20 nm offers considerable scatter and relatively
large uncertainties. However, these results show
immense improvements between results obtained just a
few years ago, where even stepheights measured by
conventional stylus techniques were not comparable
within a few percent [162].
Few national institutes offer calibrations of artefacts or
standards for the use in production environments; and
only one offers measurements in accordance with
procedures that are accredited according to ISO/EN
17025. Hence, there is a need for standardised
procedures.
Figure 20: Comparison of step height measurements.
Nominal value 20 nm. Uncertainty bars correspond to the
expanded uncertainty at a 95% confidence level.
4.1 Calibration artefacts
A number of calibration artefacts have been produced
and characterised as a result of EU-sponsored projects;
and several commercial companies sell similar standards.
They are mostly based on semiconducting materials. But
there is no tradition for the maintenance of traceability
outside national metrology institutes.
The artefact that was used in the step height comparison
mentioned above is shown in Figure 21.
It is generally agreed that an optimum standard for use in
an AFM or a similar-sized instrument, can be calibrated
with an independent instrument that is designed for larger
dimensions. An example is the step-height standard of
Figure 21 that can be calibrated independently by an
interference microscope, as long as the surface does not
give phase change effects (as is the case between Si and
SiO2), and as long as the step width is larger than the
microscopes lateral resolution. Another example is
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Figure 21: Example of calibration artefact for step height
measurement used in an international comparison.
Nominal step height value 20 nm [163].
the pitch of a grid that can be calibrated by diffraction;
however diffraction is obviously averaging over many
gridlines and may say little about just a few gridlines
within the small range of an STM or AFM. In general it is
difficult for small area-measurement to have a traceable
reference in the literal sense that it can be calibrated and
reproducibly found at a specified location.
Available standards are groove depths and step heights,
1-D and 2-D grids and scarcely a flatness reference. A
traceable calibration can regularly be obtained for groove
depths/step heights and the pitch of 1-D grids e.g. [164]-
[168]. Straightness, flatness and squareness become rare
and squareness between all 3 axes of an STM or AFM
has to our knowledge only been reported in few cases
[41], [169].
In case of both 2D and 3D SEM calibration is also
challenging. The calibration is complicated by the fact that
SEM can span over many orders of magnitude in terms of
dimensions, and that the interaction between electron
beam and specimen is influencing the measurement
especially in the nanometer range e.g. [115]. Examples of
establishment of traceability for SEM instruments may
include magnification calibration, tilt angle calibration
(3D), vertical elevation calibration (3D), Lateral calibration
on three dimensional data sets (3D) etc. In [41], [127],
[128] a model for uncertainty estimation in 3D SEM was
proposed. In [41] a new calibration artefact containing
multiple step heights for the vertical elevation of 3D SEM
is presented. In the case of using pitch standards for
calibration the issue of measuring over one or many grid
lines and the related uncertainty might involve correlation
considerations or considerations similar to the Allan-
variance in frequency calibrations [92].
4.2 Summary
As already discussed establishment of traceability
through calibration is an important issue in micro and
nano metrology. Physical standards are urgently needed
along with calibration procedures. Furthermore modelling
of task specific uncertainties is an enormous challenge in
this dimensional regime. An important activity in order to
establish a coherent knowledge on traceability is the
organisation of interlaboratory comparisons.
Different calibration artefacts can be positioned into a
Stedman-like diagram as Figure 22. It is quite obvious
that relatively large areas of the diagram are uncovered
indicating the need for calibration artefacts. In particular
all standards seem to represent low aspect ratios hence
no real 3D standards are available in this regime.
Physical standards for surface roughness, subsurface
properties, form (flatness, sphericity, asphericity) glass,
ceramics and metals are therefore urgently needed. As
already discussed also standards made of inorganic
materials are needed.
Figure 22: Calibration artefacts for dimensional micro and
nano metrology. Inspired by [7].
5 DISCUSSION
In this section an identification of possible gaps will be
initiated based on the discussions in sections 2-4.
Furthermore, a discussion on tolerancing issues in micro
and nano metrology will be initiated.
5.1 Gap analysis
The structure of this paper is based on an identification of
relevant measurement tasks in the micro/nano regime.
Tasks were identified both in terms of industrially relevant
components and products and on the basis of research
initiatives. Then the paper addressed relevant measuring
techniques to use in this particular scale. Finally the
establishment of traceability through calibration or
intercomparisons was discussed. In this approach a
series of needs or gaps were identified (see below). In
[10]-[12] and [175] other gap analysis also connected to
neighbouring fields are found.
Measurement tasks (needs):
• Micro- and nanosized components constitute a very
heterogenic group including a large range of different
materials, different measurands and of course a large
dimensional span. This implies that the span of
metrology techniques also needs to be very large in
order to find the best suited method.
• High aspect ratio applications do exist, but many
applications are still with aspect ratios below 2.
Nevertheless, small absolute dimensions (<1 µm)
pose difficulties for dimensional metrology also with
aspect ratios around 1.
• The need for 3D analysis exists but is expected to
increase especially for absolute dimensions below
100 nm.
• It is rather typical that specifications for dimensions
and/or geometry of products or components in this
particular regime actually span over several orders of
magnitude.
-736-
• For many components and products in this regime
the use of tolerances is very poor if existing at all.
See section 5.2 for a more detailed discussion on this
issue.
Instrumentation (gaps):
• The review reveals a large number measuring
principles and instrumentation capable of performing
dimensional measurements in the regime under
consideration. However the different instruments
have merits and limitations. From this perspective it
is clear that no real solutions exist for rendering 3D
results in a scale below 1-10 μm.
• Probe developments are necessary in order to
overcome current manufacturing limitations and
subsequent performance limitations.
• At this scale the interaction between the probe and
the object becomes critical. Physical models are
needed to describe this interaction for various
measurement set-ups.
• There is an increasing need for performing
measurements in different length scales on the same
workpiece (i.e. nanoroughness, micro channel width,
mesoscopic alignment etc.). This results in the need
for using a larger variety of instruments because one
single instrument is not capable of covering the
needs. New developments integrating different
principles may be an alternative to this.
• Development of special equipment for measurements
in the nanometer regime with focus on traceability is
necessary.
• In-process capability of the measuring equipment will
become extremely important as micro and
nanotechnologies evolve into industrially
implemented manufacturing (IC industry is an
example).
• Cleaning technology of both samples and
instrumentation will become critical since the effect of
contamination in this length scale will totally distort
the measuring result.
Traceability (gaps):
• Suitable standards for transfer of traceability and
calibration of the same are needed. The standards
available today are all miniaturisation of macro-scale
standards. Especially for nanotechnology new
materialised standards will have to be developed
(also in in-organic materials).
• Models for uncertainty estimation need to be
developed for the different types of measuring
principles and instrumentation
• International comparisons need to be strengthened in
order to have a common basis for evaluation of new
technologies as well as uncertainties.
5.2 Tolerancing in micro and nano technology
A fundamental issue is that in the macro world the most
frequently occurring functions of construction elements
are the mating capability, the sliding and rolling capability,
the load rating and different surface finishes. To ensure
these functions the specifications are given in terms of
maximum deviations from an ideal geometric form.
Various ISO standards regulate this field in terms of
geometrical product specifications (GPS). Moreover, in
conventional machining processes the specifications of
the parts as well as the variables for adjusting the
dimensions and geometry of the manufactured part are
linear dimensions (for instance the correction to
compensate for deflections or tool wear), which means
that the primary closed loop control is based on linear
dimensions. For the tolerancing in micro- and nano
metrology it looks most straightforward to use the ISO
standards of the GPS-series even though some obvious
problems occur: for example tolerance grades have not
been defined for nominal sizes below 3 mm. In drawings,
micro-sizes and tolerances will be preceded by quite
some zeros when still expressed in mm, but that problem
can easily be overcome. More serious is the problem that
the ISO-GPS system is set-up with the traditional
workshop dimensional metrology in mind. This means
that at many places measuring elements are prescribes of
mm-size so obvious measuring smaller sizes is not
possible when interpreting these standards strictly. An
example is 2D roughness measurement, where the probe
size is set as 2 µm and where the bandwidth of surface
measurements starts at 2.5 µm at its smallest. This does
not keep manufacturers of AFMs from putting a Ra-value
in their analysis software, also where the whole area
under concern is just a few square µms. This leads to
confusion when Ra values obtained from these
instruments are compared to measurements taken by
instruments that measure according to the ISO-
standards. Also in other measurements, such as flatness
and roundness there is a tendency to prescribe sizes of
probes and workpieces.
In [170] an approach for the development of a tolerance
system for micro- and nano-sized features obtained with
the micromilling and sputtering. A limiting factor identified
in this work was the availability of calibration standards to
ensure traceability.
According to [171]-[173], three different integration
techniques can be distinguished in micro and nano
technology:
Hetero integration: the integration is based on the same
concept as for the macro mechanical assemblies.
Therefore, geometric tolerances are required to achieve
the functionality of the assembly.
Hybrid integration: in this category micro components are
placed, fixed and assembled on a substrate, resulting in
fully functioning micro systems. For the hybrid integration
technique, the positional accuracy of the components on
the substrate is the most important control parameter.
Monolithic integration: in this case, all the process steps
are integrated on one single substrate. This means that
the mating capabilities are no longer required since there
are no components to be mated. According to [171]-[172]
using this approach geometric measurements are not of
primary importance, neither to achieve the functionality of
the product nor to control the production process.
For monolithic micro products and to some extent also for
hetero integrated micro products, the manipulated
variables and the functionality parameters are no longer
linear or geometric dimensions. In the case of etching
processes the primary manipulated variables for the
approximation to the ideal geometric form are not
geometrical dimensions, but process parameters as for
instance composition of the etchant, etching time etc.
Based on these observations, Weckenmann et al.
suggest a function-oriented tolerancing concept.
According to this concept, a tolerance is associated to the
overall function of the micro component. If the calculated
performance deviations during the various process steps
are larger than the product tolerances, the parameters of
the currently active manufacturing step will be corrected,
so that the final product is situated within the expected
product tolerances as defined by the functional behaviour.
The use of GPS standards in nano metrology is
discussed in [174]. Here a top-down approach based on
the macroscopic GPS approach is evaluated in a nano-
context. It is proposed to adapt the traditional approach
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when applied to nano metrology. In particular this involves
fundamental studies regarding when surfaces begin/end
with respect to the “bulk” material. Single atoms of the
surface may become dominant and hence assumptions
based on continuum mechanics are no longer valid.
Tolerancing is linked closely together with metrology since
a general rule of thumb indicates that the measurement
uncertainty should be 1/10 of the specified tolerance. It is
very hard to comply with this rule when the absolute
dimensions are in the μm and especially in the nm range.
As discussed previously very few calibration artefacts and
methods exist at this scale and therefore a sound
evaluation of measurement uncertainty is difficult.
However, a prerequisite is that it is possible to specify a
tolerance, and there still is a long way to go with respect
to this issue.
6 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
The current paper has described issues and challenges in
dimensional micro and nano metrology. This has been
achieved by reviewing typical measurement tasks
followed by a discussion about available instrumentation.
Traceability and calibration issues were discussed
subsequently. Finally needs and gaps were identified
based on these observations.
The need for dimensional micro and nano metrology is
evident, and as critical dimensions are scaled down and
geometrical complexity of objects increased the available
technologies appear not sufficient. Major research and
development efforts have to be undertaken in order to
answer these challenges. The developments of course
have to include new measuring principle and
instrumentation, but an equally important issue is related
to tolerancing rules and procedures. Finally the issue of
traceability and calibration is of outmost importance if the
micro and nanotechnologies have an ambition of
developing into industrial environments.
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank to the following persons
who have contributed to this paper (alphabetical order,
CIRP members denoted by *):
E. Brinksmeier*
J. Corbett*
M. Davies*
C. Evans*
W. Gao*
C. von Kopylow
T. Masuzawa*
M. Postek
P.H.J. Schellekens*
P.T. Tang
E. Uhlmann *
A. Weckenmann*
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