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Recognizing The Contribution Of Female Entrepreneurs In

Economic Development In Sub-Saharan Africa: Some
Evidence From Ghana
Article in Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship · April 2015

DOI: 10.1142/S108494671550003X
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Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship
Vol. 20, No. 1 (2015) 1550003 (24 pages)
© World Scientific Publishing Company
DOI: 10.1142/S108494671550003X
RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTION OF FEMALE

ENTREPRENEURS IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: SOME EVIDENCE FROM GHANA
KWAME ADOM
University of Ghana Business School
J. Dev. Entrepreneurship Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com
University of Ghana
P. O. Box LG78, Legon Accra
by Dr Kwame Adom on 05/06/15. For personal use only.
kadom@ug.edu.gh
Received November 2014

Revised January 2014
Published April 2015
In recent decades, female entrepreneurs have been seen to contribute to the economic development of
nations especially in developing countries. Until now the contribution of female entrepreneurs to
economic development in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has been relegated to the background or ignored
in development circles. Part of the reason is because female entrepreneurs mainly work in the informal
economy and are necessity driven and marginalized. The main research question the study poses is
‘what is the contribution of female entrepreneurs to socio-economic development in SSA?’ This paper
seeks to answer this by examining critically the contribution of female entrepreneurs from Ghana as a
means to achieve economic development. The study employs a qualitative approach using multiple
case study design. To examine female entrepreneurship, a 2014 survey involving face-to-face inter-
views of 60 female entrepreneurs from Accra in Ghana is analyzed. The key finding is that, although
male entrepreneurs contribute significantly more to economic development than their female coun-
terparts, there remains untapped potential for female entrepreneurs becoming key players for achieving
economic development. This and other findings of the study have some implications for policy on
female entrepreneurship. Therefore, there is a call to harness these potentials through policies that
would promote female entrepreneurship on an equal wavelength as their male counterparts. This is the
first known study of female entrepreneurship as a catalyst for economic development in Ghana.
Keywords: Female entrepreneurship; gender; economic development; sub-Saharan Africa; Ghana.
1. Introduction
The importance of entrepreneurship for economic development has been documented
(Adom, 2014; Adom and Williams, 2012; Williams, 2008). It is true that the concept of
entrepreneurship in general has gained wide purchase globally in the development dis-
course over the past two decades or so. Many uinversities and colleges today across the
globe are pursuing entrepreneurship education and training with some paying particular
attention to female entrepreneurship (Bechard and Gregoire, 2005; Martin et al., 2013;
Oosterbeek et al., 2010). This trend is fuelled by the recognition that entrepreneurship
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K. Adom
plays an important (even critical) role in economic growth and employment (Martin et al.,
2013). It is also true that the contributions of female entrepreneurs to the socio-economic
development of nations cannot be misjudged. Essentially, women represent huge human
capital needed for sustainable economic development of nations. Most of these entre-
preneurs operate small and medium size enterprises (SMEs), especially in developing and
emerging economies. A large number of SMEs in Ghana for example are female-owned
(Abor and Quartey, 2010; Adom and Williams, 2012). Until recently, especially in SSA,
entrepreneurship was not seen as an important channel for socio-economic development of
nations. The contribution of female entrepreneurs was in fact relegated to the background
until recently. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM, 2012), as also highlighted by
De Vita et al. (2014), acknowledge the contribution of female entrepreneurs is significant
worldwide. As De Vita et al. (2014) explain, it is a recent phenomena to find the role of
female entrepreneurs in emerging economies appearing in some international journals. In

Ghana for instance, literature on female entrepreneurship is emerging significantly (Safu

and Manu, 2004; Dzisi, 2008; Chea, 2008; Mumuni et al., 2013). Female entrpreneurs in
SSA face many problems such as socio cultural, economic, legal, political, technological
and so on (Amine and Staub, 2009).
Therefore, entrepreneurs have been acknowledged as agents of economic growth and
development globally, who, despite such global challenges, can give a nation a compet-
itive edge through innovation and creativity (Bawauh et al., 2006). However, until now the
contribution of female entrepreneurs to economic development in SSA has been relegated
to the background or ignored in development discourse. Part of the reason is because
female entrepreneurs mainly work in the informal economy and are mostly necessity
driven and marginalized (Adom, 2014; Adom and Williams, 2012). Using a qualitative
approach, this study examines 60 key female entrepreneurs from Accra, the capital of
Ghana.
To do this, the second section reviews the existing literature on entrepreneurship along
with the literature on motivations and the theoretical perspective. Section 3 then reports a
2014 survey conducted in Accra in Ghana with 60 female entrepreneurs. The main finding
is that female entrepreneurs have the potential to ensure economic development if properly
nurtured and encouraged. The consequence is a call for a more nuanced understanding of
female entrepreneurship and its contribution to economic development. However, a
working definition of entrepreneurship is necessary to begin with. This paper adopts the
entrepreneur definition by Williams and Nadin (2011): ‘somebody actively involved in
starting a business or is the owner/manager of a business less than 36 months old’ (see
also, Harding et al., 2005; Reynolds et al., 2002).
2. The Concept of Entrepreneurship

According to Dzisi (2008) the concept of entrepreneurship can be well understood when
one identifies who an entrepreneur is, how the entrepreneur can be easily recognized as
well as the entrepreneurial process. While some contemporary researchers have built on
the above ideas, others have also developed their own view of the concept in their quest to
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Recognizing the Contribution of Female Entrepreneurs in Economic Development
answer the question: who is an entrepreneur? What are their characteristics? And what is
the entrepreneurial process? As Saxon (2003) noted, an entrepreneur can be perceived in
the eyes of the beholder.
To Hisrich (1990), an entrepreneur is “someone who demonstrates initiative and cre-
ative thinking and is able to organize social and economic mechanisms to turn resources
and situations into practical accounts and accepts risk and failure.” Pickle and Abrahamson
(1990) see an entrepreneur as “one who organizes and manages a business, undertakes and
assumes the risks for the sake of profit.” Drucker (1997), in his book “Innovation and
Entrepreneurship,” described an entrepreneur as someone who searches for change,
responds to it and exploits changes as an opportunity. Therefore, entrepreneurs have been
identified in the literature as having diverse characteristics, which empower them to make
a difference in their society. Quaye and Acheampong (2013) believe an entrepreneur is
someone who possesses these three key characteristics: “innovativeness,” “proactiveness”

and “risk-taking.” It stands to reason that entrepreneurship, like management, is not a
unified field; different views depict the same phenomenon.
2.1. Explaining female entrepreneurship

Until the 1970s women became practically invisible as managers and entrepreneurs and
this absence was considered a non-issue (Kim and Ling, 2001) because the contributions
of female entrepreneurs were considered as marginal and insignificant. However, in
recent times the situation is changed. Globally, women have been identified as starting
their own business at a rate more than twice that of men (Safu and Manu, 2004). In
2012, an estimated 126 million women were starting or running businesses in 67
economies worldwide (GEM, 2012). Women are involved in productive activities
providing products, services and a means of employment to members of their families,
communities and their countries at large. Nearchou-Ellinas and Kountouris (2004) assert
that female entrepreneurs have a positive influence on the economic growth and em-
ployment creation in every economy. The contribution of these productive activities is
enormous in developed, emerging and developing economies (Hisrich et al., 1997). In
Africa for instance, women’s productive activities account for over 80 percent of food
production (UNIDO, 2003) and in Asia Tambunan (2009) argues that female-owned
enterprises have played a vital role in private sector development since the Asian
Financial Crisis till date.
Despite the contributions of women to the economy of their respective countries, issues
of women have been underrepresented in the entrepreneurship literature, especially in
developing countries (De Vita et al., 2014). Previous research in the field of entre-
preneurship from both the social sciences and the society at large, according to OECD
(2004), has been “men streamed” ignoring issues of female entrepreneurs. As De Vita
et al. (2014) explain, it is a recent phenomena to find the role of female entrepreneurs
in emerging economies appearing in some international journals. De Vita et al. (2014)
acknowledge that since 2000, literature on female entrepreneurship in and from devel-
oping countries has grown significantly. Female entrepreneural activity in develpoing
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K. Adom
countries is around 45 percent compared with developed countries (GEM, 2012). Women
entrpreneurs in SSA are faced with many problems such as socio cultural, economic, legal
political, technological and so on (Amine and Staub, 2009). However, OECD (2004),
argues that female entrepreneurship will relatively take a different phase if it is displayed in
the context of developing, transitional and developed economies because of the fact that
economic growth can be measured in different ways, which may include: job creation,
change in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, innovation, economies of scale,
levels of education and capital accumulation.
Despite the fact that evidence from the literature argues that the critical issues that
influence female entrepreneurs are, to some extent, similar globally; the extent of influence
of such factors to their business startup and performance, which in the long run have a
ripple effect in their country’s economy might differ with respect to the economic status of
the country. For this reason the critical issues in this literature will be discussed in the
perspective of a developed and developing country context.
2.2. Rates of women participation in entrepreneurial activity

The Total Early-Stage Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) index is a primary measure used by
GEM to gauge the level of dynamic entrepreneurial activity in an economy by considering
the incidence of startup and businesses (nascent entrepreneurs) and new firms (up to 3.5
years old) in an adult population. The GEM 2012 report used the TEA index to measure
the rate of participation of female entrepreneurs in their respective countries. According to
GEM (2012), TEA rates tend to be high in economies with low GDP per capita with
relatively high percentage of necessity-driven entrepreneurship. Although more women
participating in entrepreneurship are relatively necessity-driven, the few opportunity-
driven have the potential for sustainable economic development.
In the United States, eleven percent of women are entrepreneurs. In Asian developed
countries such as Japan and Korea, two percent of women are engaged in entrepreneurial
activities (GEM, 2012). It is not startling that Lituchy et al. (2003) stated that the concept
of female entrepreneurship is rare in Japan because the corporate world is viewed as a
man’s domain. Entrepreneurial activities among women in Taiwan measure a little above
five percent while in Singapore, ten percent of women are entrepreneurs. In developed
Europe, the situation is not much more encouraging. The majority of the countries, such as
Slovenia, Belgium, Italy, Denmark, Germany, Norway, Ireland, Spain, France, Finland
and Greece, all have a TEA index below five percent. On the other hand, female en-
trepreneurial activities in Sweden, Switzerland, Portugal, United Kingdom, Netherlands,
Slovakia and Austria are a little above five percent, with Austria leading with seven
percent (GEM, 2012).
A careful look at Table 1 above suggests that in SSA (e.g. Ghana), the entrepreneurial
attitude and perception are far higher than in Israel, Brazil and Malaysia, just to mention a
few. Carter (2000) argues that, despite the extensive rise in the number of female entre-
preneurs worldwide, low business start-up rate is recorded in the UK and across many
northern European countries.
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Table 1. Entrepreneurial attitude and perception in some selected GEM countries.
Economy Perceived Perceived Fear of Failure Entrepreneurial Entrepreneurship High status to Media attention
Opportunity Capability Intentions as a Good Career Successful for Entrepreneurs
Choice Entrepreneurs
SSA 79 86 18 60 84 91 82
Ghana
Mid East & North 31 29 47 13 59 72 47
Africa
Israel
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Latin America & 52 54 31 36 89 89 86
Caribbean
Brazil
Asia Pacific & 36 31 36 13 46 51 62
South Asia
Malaysia
Source: Adopted from GEM 2012.
K. Adom
Participation of women in entrepreneurial activities in developing countries is very

encouraging, especially in SSA. Bawauh et al. (2006), assert that approximately 50 per-
cent of businesses in SSA are owned and managed by women. The highest rates of TEA
index is recorded in SSA with countries such as Ghana, Botswana, Angola, Malawi,
Nigeria and Uganda recording rates above 25 percent apart from Ethiopia with a TEA
index of twelve percent (GEM, 2012). In Ghana for instance, Abor and Quartey (2010)
stated that 70 percent of SMEs are owned by women and according to Amu (2006),
women in Ghana manage 80 percent of all businesses in the private informal sector.
2.3. Motivations for female entrepreneurship

According to Bruni et al. (2004), the prevailing discourse vis-à-vis the reasons why
women decided to start up businesses can be distinguished between “compulsion” (push)

factors, which act as a constrain on women to act out of necessity rather than choice and
“attractive” (pull) factors that induce women to view entrepreneurship as an opportunity
(Adom and Williams, 2012). From the entrepreneurship literature, female entrepreneurs
have been identified as being more driven by push or necessity factors as compared to their
male counterparts (Adom, 2014; Adom and Williams, 2012; Orhan and Scot, 2001).
However, the GEM (2012) indicated the contrary for certain countries. In the Unites States
21 percent of both men and women are necessity-driven entrepreneurs while in developed
Asia, necessity-driven entrepreneurs were sixteen percent women and 22 percent males.
However, comparison between female entrepreneurs globally, shows these entrepre-
neurs in developed countries are more driven by opportunity than their female counter-
parts in developing countries (GEM, 2012). OECD (2004), female entrepreneurs in
developing countries have no other alternative than entrepreneurship. It is the norm rather
than exception. This is largely because of the weak position of women in such societies,
coupled with the weak economies of such nations. The report further stated that this
accounts for the high percentage of female entrepreneurs in such regions because in
developed countries women have other options because of the advancement of their
countries’ economies.
With respect to developed countries, Morris et al. (2006) identified the three most
important motives for female entrepreneurs in the United States after surveying 103 female
entrepreneurs which were, “the ability to do what I want to do,” “personal expressions”
and making a living.” In France, Orhan and Scot (2001) after interviewing 25 female
entrepreneurs, concluded that pull factors outnumbered the individual push factors that
motivated women to become entrepreneurs. Lee (1997) identified four basic motivational
factors when studying 53 female entrepreneurs in Singapore. These were: the need for
achievement, need for affiliation, need for autonomy and need for dominance. The study
concluded that female entrepreneurs in Singapore were motivated by a moderately high
need for achievement and a slightly high need for dominance, with moderate needs for
affiliation and autonomy.
As stated above, in developing countries, a vast majority of women engaged in en-
trepreneurial activity are driven by pure survival; that is to say out of necessity rather than
1550003-6
opportunity factors because there are limited jobs or options for income generation. OECD
(2004) again states, many women in developing countries are pushed into entrepreneurship
because there are no alternatives. This situation is not shocking because such countries are
hard pressed with poverty. Sixty percent of the world’s poor are women and girls
(UNIDO, 2003) and the majority of them are found in this region (Todaro and Smith,
2009).
Therefore, entrepreneurship becomes an avenue for many women in this region to
make a living. In Ethiopia for instance, Bekele et al. (2008) argues that micro, small and
medium enterprises (MSMEs) are a major source of livelihood for women. In Mali, a large
number of women interviewed by UNIDO indicated the main reason for starting their
enterprises was the need for money (UNIDO, 2001). In Lebanon, Jamali (2009) argues that
two macro levels push factors that cannot be isolated from women’s motivations for
starting a business venture are “economic stagnation” and “the need for a double income.”
Results from a study in Kenya, Ghana and Nigeria by Benzing and Chu (2009), indicated
that entrepreneurs in these countries were highly motivated by the desire to increase their
income. They further stated this is not astounding in developing countries because of the
low income and weak job market.
2.4. Theoretical foundations for study

The core purpose of this paper is to evaluate female entrepreneurs in Ghana as a means to
achieve sustainable development. The concept of entrepreneurship has over the years been
difficult for scholars to conceptualize. A single theory has not been identified in the
literature to explain the phenomenon. For this reason, a multi-theoretical approach
was adopted in this study. Two main theories are discussed to understand female
entrepreneurship.
2.4.1. Human capital theory

Human capital has been identified as a good competitive advantage that enhances firm
performance. For that reason, researchers in entrepreneurship have been concerned about
the relationship between human capital and business success (Marimuthu et al., 2009;
Ployhart and Moliterno, 2011). The human capital theory according to Lener et al. (1997)
suggests business performance is influenced by an individual’s level of education, area of
education, previous entrepreneurial experience, business experience and business skills
(see Ployhart and Moliterno, 2011).
According to Cassar (2006), some researchers in entrepreneurship have studied the
relationship between human capital and entrepreneurship outcomes at the individual level.
There are several studies that argue that formal education and business experience are vital
factors that determine the success or failure of a business (Wanigasekara et al., 2010; Van
der Sluis et al., 2008; Fairlie and Robb, 2008). According to Wanigasekara et al. (2010),
because SMEs are crucial to every economy, it is therefore essential to find the relationship
between the owner/managers’ education, business experience and success. However,
studies on female entrepreneurs have indicated that women, on average, face human
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K. Adom
capital constraints especially because of lower levels of education that limit their business
performance (Dolinskey et al., 1993; Fairlie and Robb, 2008).
The human capital differences may be attributed to factors such as innate ability,
schooling and the quality of school, training and experience. The innate ability is crucial to
entrepreneurship, especially female entrepreneurship. In Ghana as asserted by the Kwahu’s
from the Eastern Region, entrepreneurs are born not made (Adom and Williams, 2012).
For them, innate ability is an important factor in entrepreneurship whether female or male
entrepreneurship that differentiate the successful ones from others.
2.4.2. Networking theory

Entrepreneurial networks are a complex blend of multiplex social and professional ties, all
of which tend to contain both affective and instrumental elements, bonded by trust
(Anderson and Jack, 2002). According to Aldrich and Zimmer (1986), within these net-
works, entrepreneurship is aided or inhibited by linkages between aspiring entrepreneurs,

resources and opportunities. Kuada (2009) explains that these networks provide moral and
psychological support that reduces anxiety experience during business start-ups for new
entrepreneurs. Networks are vital because our social contexts, which consist of systems
and individuals with whom we interact, shape our actions. This provides a female en-
trepreneur with the emotional, social persuasions and vicarious experience that is essential
to whether she will succeed or not (OECD, 2004). The absence or presence of networks
plays a crucial role in an entrepreneur’s performance (Lener et al., 1997).
For Greve and Salaff (2003), family members are crucial agents in an entrepreneur’s
networks because they are present in all phases of the business. However, the African
concept of the family embraces both the nuclear and extended family. Hence, roles
and responsibilities to family members are not limited only to the nuclear family
(Dolphyne, 2001). The recent emergence of social network platforms like Facebook,
Twitter, Linkedin and the rest have highlighted the importance of networking. Such spaces
provide avenues for would be entrepreneurs to discuss and share ideas with existing
successful entrepreneurs.
3. Methodology
To examine female entrepreneurship, a 2014 survey involving face-to-face interviews of
60 female entrepreneurs in Ghana is analyzed. The study employed a qualitative approach
using multiple case study design and maximum variation sampling of four contrasting
neighborhood types ranging from affluent to deprived suburbs was selected from within
Accra. Within these suburbs, a spatially stratified sampling technique was implemented
(Kitchen and Tate, 2001) to select fifteen SMEs owned by women in each suburb to
interview. In developing countries, because of the absence of the Index of Multiple
Deprivation tool (Williams, 2006), a working criteria such as how well an area is serviced
with social amenities (e.g., access to electricity, telephone, pipe-borne water), environ-
mental sanitation, plot of land size, price for undeveloped plots, rent, number of rooms per
house, occupancy rate, number of people per household/house, number of households
1550003-8
per house and physical layout, among others, were used (Adom, 2014; Adom and
Williams, 2012) Certainly, it is also exceptionally challenging if not impossible to assess
personal incomes, especially of those engaged in the informal economy in Ghana and thus,
defining areas based on official income might not reflect the real situation.
In collecting the data for this study, a fairly structured face-to-face interview schedule
was implemented, which used a mixture of close and open-ended questions to collect data
on household working practices to secure their livelihood. To start with, data on their
backgrounds, which included age and gender, marital status, level of education and so on,
were collected. Additionally, open-ended questions were asked about the motivations for
entrepreneurship, their managerial competencies as well as business performance.
Respondents were also asked the type of business ownership, sector of operation and how
long they had been in this enterprise. The respondents again were given the opportunity to
highlight their key contribution(s) to the economy of Ghana. The interviews were recorded
and transcribed. The data collected were analyzed mainly qualitatively using the three-
stage iterative methodology developed by Miles and Huberman (1994); data reduction,
data display and drawing and verifying conclusions.
3.1. Limitation(s) of the study

This study was conducted in only four suburbs of Accra — East Legon, Spintex, Ada-
braka and Maamobi. East Legon is regarded as an affluent community by the criteria for
delineating communities outlined above. Although Maamobi is not so deprived, formal
public and/or private job opportunities are limited. The outcome is that the findings of the
study may not be generalized across different regions. It is also important to emphasize that
the main goal of the study was not to generalize the findings, but rather to uncover what is
hiding from view regarding the contribution of these female entrepreneurs from Accra to
the overall economic development of Ghana. This is often neglected or swept under the
carpet with respect to the estimation of the GDP estimation of the nation. Although not
nationally representative, this study nonetheless provides one of the first insights into the
study of the contribution of female entrepreneurs toward economic development in SSA,
especially Ghana.
4. Data Analysis and Discussion

4.1. Women in Ghana
According to the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) (2012), there are 12,633,978 females in
the country representing 51 percent of the entire population of 24,658,823. Because the
female population includes those outside the working population, it is important to isolate
them to give a true meaning of the female dominance. Out of the 51 percent of females,
29.8 percent are economically active (15–64 year) as oppose to 27.1 percent males
according GSS. This gives a total of 56.9 percent that falls within the economically active
population. Table 2 depicts the various variations of the economically active population
for men and women as reported by the last population and housing census.
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K. Adom
Table 2. Cross tabulation of working population by age and gender (15–64).
Age Group Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

15–19 5.3 5.3 10.6
20–24 4.5 5 9.5
25–29 3.8 4.5 8.3
30–34 3.2 3.6 6.8
35–39 2.7 3 5.7
40–44 2.3 2.5 4.8
45–49 1.8 2 3.8
50–54 1.6 1.8 3.4
55–59 1 1.1 2.1
60–64 0.9 1 1.9
Total 27.1 29.8 56.9
Source: Author’s own construction with data from GSS (2012).

With respect to regional ratios of male and female, there is a predominance of females
in all regions in the country except the western region where the number of males is
approximately equal to that of females. Female-headed household represents 34.7 percent
of household heads in the entire country. Among the economic active women (15 years
and older) 65.3 percent represent self-employed with no employees, 11.4 percent are
employees, 4.2 percent are self-employed with employees, 14.2 percent are contributing
family workers, 2.9 percent are apprentice, 1.3 percent are casual workers, domestic house
helps are 0.9 percent while, 0.1 percent represents others (GSS, 2012).
Traditionally, women in Ghana have always lingered behind men when issues of
education are discussed. This is mainly because of the fact that customarily, women have
been identified as household keepers. Their activities have revolved around child caring,
cooking, processing and managing household resources. In rural Ghana for example, a
sizeable number of women carry out household subsistence work and major household
responsibilities for farming, food provision and health care and the utilization and man-
agement of enterprises (Ashford, 2008). For these reasons, the majority of women, es-
pecially in rural regions, have primary and junior high school as their highest level of
education in the country (GSS, 2012).
Women in Ghana, as in any other African country, are subjected to certain cultures,
traditions and beliefs, which in due course have a bearing on their potential to become
successful entrepreneurs. These prevailing norms, according to Mumuni et al. (2013),
affect the ability of female-owned businesses to function larger than that of their male
counterparts. The Ghanaian women must continually cope with these cultures, beliefs and
traditions to be accepted in their respective societies. According to Dolphyne (2001), such
aspects of culture include: the institution of marriage with its related issues of bride-wealth,
child marriage, polygamy, widowhood rites and property inheritance, high fertility, pu-
berty rites and so on. Despite these cultural hurdles, women in Ghana play an outstanding
role in the country’s economy. Their activities have not been solely concentrated on
household chores but have bridged all sectors of the economy, especially in the agricul-
tural and service sectors (Amu, 2005; Safu and Manu, 2004). Women in Ghana play a vital
1550003-10
role in the creation and management of SMEs, which are largely found in the informal
sector. It is not startling that 70 percent of businesses in the country are owned by
women (Abor and Quartey, 2010) and 90.9 percent of such female-owned businesses
are dominant in the informal sector (GSS, 2012). Hence, the contribution of Ghanaian
women to the economic growth and development of the country cannot be understated.
Women’s productive activities in the country provide employment for themselves and
those they employ, it also creates a platform for their economic emancipation and
improves their status in society.
4.2. Discussion
The result of the face-to-face interview conducted in Accra revealed a high potential of
female entrepreneurship especially around East Legon. Evidence from the study also
suggests that more women continue to start their own business from the previous year.
What is more interesting is that most of the respondents have operated their business for
over five years.
4.2.1. Personal information and business characteristics

The majority of respondents fall within the ages of 31–40 and 41–50 with a corresponding
percentage of 37 percent and 30 percent, respectively. This age group has potential for
economic growth. It is also surprising that most of the respondents have Akan origin of
over 60 percent, which exceeded the national average of about 50 percent. The demo-
graphic data are relevant because they offer vital clues to the dominant player in this area.
Although it is a myth to suggest entrepreneurs are young and energetic, young entrepre-
neurs (all things being equal) will have more time to grow their businesses than the older
folks. Nationally, the population of Ghana is youthful (i.e. 15–49 years registering 49.5
percent) according to the 2010 population and housing census (GSS, 2012) of which, the
majority are women, and this population has huge potential for economic development.
The rationale behind asking how long they have operated their enterprises in part is
because of the issue of sustainability. From the study, 64 percent of respondents have
operated their enterprises between 4–5 years or more. Therefore, this means there is low
propensity to enterprise failure during the first five years of operation, which is contrary to
what the entrepreneurship literature suggests (Barringer and Ireland, 2012). Among the
factors attributed to high enterprise survival rate are level of education, support from
spouse and vibrant economic environment. Since 2000 until recently Ghana enjoyed sound
economic environment, which also culminated in her lower middle income status by the
World Bank. Many businesses established during this period benefited from this. The
implication is that given the right environment and the needed support, these female
entrepreneurs could contribute significantly to economic development of Ghana. It is
also obvious in this study that most of them operate in the service sector; about 71
percent intersperse with some manufacturing activities. The service sector is the biggest
nation-wide as in the cities and other urban areas; although agricultural section is the
mainstay of the Ghanaian economy. This sector is attractive to women partly because it
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K. Adom
Table 3. Socio-demographic characteristic of

respondents.
Respondents Percentage (%)

Age
20–30 18
31–40 37
41–50 30
51–60 8
61þ 7
Marital Status
Never married 12
Married 75
Separated/divorced 8
Widowed 5
Level of education
Senior High School 23
Diploma 27
Degree 36
Masters and above 14
Type of business Ownership
Sole proprietor 76
Partnership 13
Limited liability 11
Sector of operation
Agriculture 12
Manufacturing 17
Service 71
Years of operation
0–1 11
2–3 25
4–5 64
Source: Field data 2013.
requires little capital to start a micro/small enterprise and because women traditionally
have limited access to finance in Ghana (Abor and Quartey, 2010; Arhin, 2000; Chea,
2008). Female entrepreneurs again tend to operate where there is high turnover and
frequent cash flow and the service sector offers the opportunity more than other sectors
like agriculture.
4.3. Motivations for starting a business

Many female entrepreneurs enter into micro-entrepreneurship out of economic necessity
because of inadequate or lack of other employment options. The other reason is that
because of the multiple responsibilities for the woman in the household, they normally
choose the type of business venture that would allow them to manage from home. Al-
though women are generally necessity-driven (determinism) (Adom, 2014; Adom and
Williams, 2012), in this study most of the women interviewed were not. These were
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women who have impacted positively on their communities through entrepreneurship and
have contributed immensely to the growth of the local and national economies. These
contributions range from employment creation, training and mentorship; above all
making goods and services available for their communities. These female entrepreneurs
are mainly found in the affluent communities (e.g. East Legon). This is not to say there
were no necessity-driven entrepreneurs (e.g. Maamobi). It is interesting to also know
that the motives of these female entrepreneurs (freewill and determinism) were not
different from previous findings from the literature (see, Adom, 2014; Adom and
Williams, 2012; Snyder, 2004). However, the main motivational factor for many was
to build something for themselves (pull factor). As a 38 year cosmetic manufacturer
acknowledged:
“My main motivation was to build this business for myself. This was
mainly because after my second child I noticed that combining childcare
and working formally in the public sector was very cumbersome. Hence,
I decided to start something on my own. I now realized it was the best
decision and now I combine family life and work in a more enjoyable
and efficient manner”.
When asked about her contribution to the economy she claimed that not only does she
employ some of the members of her community but also pays tax to the government,
which is used to provide some services for all the members of the community. She was
quick to say that “our taxes are not properly utilized because of the perceived corruption in
the country.”
There are a few who also share the same view. Until now, the Ghanaian woman is still
seen as the caregiver of the family and this has hugely influenced their choice to do their
own business because of the ‘freedom’ and ‘flexibility’ that come with managing your
own business as well as managing the home. Others also have taken the advantage of the
opportunity that existed in their community (pull factor). The story of a pharmacy owner
illuminates this situation as she proclaims:
“There was no pharmacy in this area and since my husband is a
pharmacist, we decided to set up one to meet the need of the people. We
have run this business for the past 5 years, I can tell you we are not
looking back.”
This is a case of pull factor that motivated her into entrepreneurship.
Table 4. Measuring female entrepreneurs’ motivation against business performance.
Motivation Level of Education Business Performance Income

Necessity driven (determinism) Low Low Low
Opportunity driven (freewill) High High High
Determinism but now freewill Moderate to high High High
Source: Field data 2014.
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K. Adom
Evidence from the study shows that motivation is positively related to level of edu-
cation, business performance and income. In other words, those who became entrepreneurs
because of the absence of other opportunities had a low level of education, which led to
low performance and low income. The reason may be that they are not passionate about
what they are doing and approach their business activity in a laisser-faire manner. The
opportunity entrepreneurs are highly motivated and passionate about the business. They
had high level of education, which influences the performance positively, and the outcome
is high income.
The influence of other motivational factors on business performance indicated the
following:
A major observation was that the desire to build ‘something’ on their own had a
positive impact on their incomes. This was mainly because it drove them to put in extra
effort to ensure the business grew financially, which according to some of them is the
foundation of any business that wants to grow and become sustainable. Notwithstanding
the fact that they wanted to build something on their own, the long-term effect was
somewhat rather negative. The outcome is that some of these enterprises still remain part
of the home and they find it difficult to have other outlets outside the home so as not to
compromise their family life. Part of the challenge has to do with the initial motivation to
combine entrepreneurship and child care. The idea of having an extra branch means
spending extra time away from their children. The women in this category stated that they
would rather operate just this business unit to have more time for their children.
About one-third of the women interviewed stated that their husbands support them as
well as their children. Not only did these husbands offer financial support but also, some
helped with home chores and encouraged them throughout their business endeavors. The
less educated also claim their husbands are their ‘accountants’ and help them with logistics
and advice on specific issues because of their education and experience in some of the
areas. In Ghana, there is the belief that a woman’s income is for her and the husband’s is
for the family (man, wife and children if any). With this mind-set some of the women said
they pay their husbands for the services rendered for the business. However, only a few
made this known. A probe also indicated that most of these men also accepted the reward
because their income is the family’s income.
About 80 percent of the respondents claim their husbands supported the idea of self-
employment because of the opportunity to earn more money and still have time for the
family. This is also evidenced by the fact that about 75 percent were married. Only 20
percent of the women claimed their husbands were not in support of self-employment.
These husbands think that the benefit of being an employee, which includes social se-
curity, health and other benefits outweigh the benefits of being self-employed. For some,
the responsibility extended to other family members outside their homes including cousins
and nephews and so on. The reason is not far-fetched; in the SSA family system, especially
in Ghana, as soon as you are a little financially independent other family members always
come to you for support. Your inability to help them could seriously undermine your
business. Hence, they mostly had to support these relatives financially.
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The assistance sometimes transcends financial to offering them a job in their business.
A sizeable number (over 65 percent) believes that the extended family member often
works toward the collapse of the business, especially if you happen to be the only one in
the family who is perceived to be ‘rich.’ Others also believe that “showing them how to
fish is better than giving them fish to eat all the time” and thus, employing them will make
them more financially independent. There is also the notion that when family members are
employed it reduces the pressure from other members of the family for financial assistance.
The simple reason is that the employed family members may be aware of the turnover of
the business and as a result may advise other members not to make unreasonable requests.
In relation to how the business activities influence family life, the majority indicated
that managing their own business gives them more room for family life, which they would
not have had if they were paid employees. Because they are the business owners they have
the privilege of deciding when to be with family and when to be at home. Family life is
essential to women, especially in SSA, where society still allocates family responsibilities
and child care as primary for women (see Dolphyne, 2001; Woldie and Adersua, 2004).
However, the only challenge, especially for those in retail businesses, was the fact that
they had to open their shops on weekends and holidays, which are days their husbands and
children are home. They believe this gave their counterparts in paid employment an upper
hand to have more time for family life on such days.
More than half of the women interviewed indicated that managing their own business
has a positive influence on family life. It was observed that many of the self-employed
women believe that having enough time to spend with family, especially in raising infants,
cannot be compensated with any amount of money any employer can give them. This is
not surprising because a woman’s worth in a society, especially in SSA is measured by
how well she raises her children and cares for her husband.
With respect to business location, findings from the interviews conformed to the
arguments in literature that the majority of female entrepreneurs have their businesses
located at home (see OECD, 2004). About 70 percent of the businesses were located at
home or very close to home. Out of these businesses, over 90 percent of the women
indicated that their work and family roles influenced their choice of business location.
Time management was essential to a majority of these women. The closer the business is
to home the more time to manage both roles of family and business. However, these
women also indicated that having their business closer to the home could be very frus-
trating at times. Some customers seek their services during odd hours and others complain
that their prices are too high. Out of the remaining 30 percent only five percent indicated
that their businesses are away from home because they want to be more focused on work.
However, the remaining 25 percent had their business away from home either because
their homes could not host their kind of business or they could not find any suitable
location close to home.
The influence of family roles on the following success criteria showed varied influ-
ences. With respect to income, a majority claimed that despite the positive influence of
having more time with the family, family roles had a negative effect on their business
income. They had to spend most of their hard earned income from their business on caring
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K. Adom
for the home. The social obligations of taking care of other extended family members
outside the home, which according to (Kuada, 2009) negatively affects African businesses,
could not be ignored. Many of these women have to send money to their dependent
relatives and indicated that they would be seen as irresponsible in society if they ignored
this role. One woman who manages a cold store (sells frozen fish and meat) stated that she
has to send her in-laws some of her products every month as well as some money too.
Further probed to find out why this was necessary every month she explained that:
I am an African and you know that in this part of the world we are
responsible to all the members in our family and husband’s family
as well.
Family roles also have a negative influence on business expansion in relation to opening
more branches/outlets for most. This is because the majority of the women indicated that
because self-employment encourages their work and family roles, an extra branch meant
they would have to spend less time at home to manage the additional location. Second,
others also claimed that although they wanted to expand, they had to hold back on some of
their expansion projects to make room for other pressing family needs such as paying
school fees of children.
Interestingly, about 90 percent of the women indicated that family roles have a positive
influence on the number of employees they will want to work with. This is because an
extra worker means an extra hand on the job, which will also mean more time for home
and family responsibilities. Only approximately ten percent who had their businesses at
home claimed they did not want more workers because it meant inviting more people into
their home.
4.4. Managerial skills

Because this study is anchored on the human capital theory, education becomes crucial.
Some respondents claim their formal education enabled them to manage their businesses
effectively and efficiently, agreeing with arguments in literature that education has a
positive influence on business performance. The less educated explained that they can
write, read and make some calculation because of the formal education they have, which to
them would have made managing their ventures challenging in today’s world. A hair-
dresser who has a senior high school certificate explained that, “she has to always read
about the hair products before she uses them on customers. This would be very difficult if I
cannot read.”
The very educated women also claim that their formal education gives them an edge in
business because they can make critical analysis, easily identify opportunities, relate better
to all kinds of customers and can even carry out some of their business via the internet,
which is an option in business where many less educated women find challenging. The
area of education and its influence on business performance was relevant especially to the
highly educated. Many of them claimed that their studies in accounting, public relation,
sociology and education have influenced how they relate to customers, keep their business
1550003-16
records and identify business opportunities. One entrepreneur who has a postgraduate in
accounting explained that:
“my knowledge in accounting compliments my desire to manage this
business since the ability to grow this business is highly related to how
its finances are managed.”
Another woman with a degree in public relations also explained that:
“with a public relations background, I have learned how to manage
customers better. Despite the competition in my business location now,
my knowledge in public relations gives me an upper hand in terms of
customer service.”
About 70 percent were aware of business training for their kind of business. Most of them
had attended these training sessions a couple of times. A further probe on why they
attended such training highlighted that the business environment has become very com-
petitive; hence, they had to attend such training to gain knowledge and skills needed to
survive in such a business environment. Interestingly, both the highly educated and less
educated identified the need for such training and they also indicated that the business
training they have attended has influenced their business performance. According to a
florist:
“Attending business training makes her updated and competent enough
to work in a delicate business like operating a floral company.”
The owner of the pharmacy explained that:
“she has been trained to carry out extra customer service such as
checking a patient’s BP and sugar level, advice on family planning and
the like. This has made my business necessary for the community.”
Eighty-five percent claim that their current business is their first business venture and
fifteen are operating either their second or third business venture. With the perspective of
trying to find out why such businesses are no longer active, the majority of them indicated
that they either went bankrupt because of the inability to recover money from debtors or
they identified another business opportunity they believed would be more lucrative.
However, 35 percent had worked in other businesses or organizations and out of these,
only 20 percent worked in a business related to what they are doing now.
Over 50 percent of the respondents have worked in other businesses or related
businesses previously and their experiences have had much influence on their current
business. Most of them indicated that they learned a lot about keeping records, customer
service and managing credit customers from these past business experiences. Also when
those with prior entrepreneurial experience were further probed on how that experience
has influenced their current business, they also indicated similar benefits to that of those
with past business experiences. However, what was exceptional about the past entre-
preneurs was that they also indicated they are now more willing to take any risk to
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K. Adom
ensure that this business survives because of past experience. The influence of formal
education, business training, business experience and prior entrepreneurial experience
on business performance indicated it is in line with the human capital theory (Hisrich
et al., 1997).
However with the view of finding out which of the above dimensions of the human
capital theory has had the greatest positive impact on business performance, 57 percent
identified business training as having the greatest positive influence, followed by formal
education with 20 percent, area of education with twelve percent, past business experience
with five percent and prior entrepreneurial experience with six percent. The majority
believe that because of competitive nature of their business, the training they attended
periodically has helped them upgrade their services, easily identify and incorporate current
trends, gives them exposure and serves as a good platform for networking.
4.5. Business performance and economic development

Fifty-one percent of the female entrepreneurs interviewed believe that income is their
first success criterion. An increase in the number of employees followed (32 percent)
and an increase in the number of branches or outlets constituted seventeen percent. It is
important to explain that income is vital for economic development. As these women
earn income, they will also consume other goods and services from with the economy,
which may increase the production of other goods and services. The cumulative effect is
what is promoting economic growth. An enterprise that cannot generate enough income
could not promote economic growth and thus, recognizing female entrepreneurs’ con-
tribution means their businesses are generating enough income for economic growth.
However, some female entrepreneurs cherish family life more than business growth,
which is why most female businesses are still at the micro level as is the case in Ghana.
The value for family life is paramount over the passion for wealth accumulation. Fi-
nancial independence and support for the family influenced the motivations of the
women. However, the value placed on family life had a negative influence on the rate of
expansion and a positive influence on employing additional workers even when mea-
suring business performance. Some argued that an increase in the number of workers
meant limited time for family; hence, achieving their social responsibilities and an
expansion of business meant less time with family. Therefore, it is important to note that
some women in SSA, despite challenging economic conditions, will not sacrifice their
family lives for extra income. This has serious implications for policy as far as eco-
nomic development is concerned.
Some of the respondents disagree with the statement that female entrepreneurs in
Africa are more interested in financial success than any other kinds of success. This is
because too many of them choose to be self-employed because of their work and family
roles. The majority of the women claimed that their greatest challenge when starting their
business was raising capital, which is in line with other findings (OECD, 2004; Vossen-
berg, 2013). However, many indicated that their greatest challenge in operations is the lack
of committed and loyal employees. When probed further to find out if the above
1550003-18
challenges were peculiar to women, the majority of them agreed that yes it was and that
male entrepreneurs faced less challenges with capital and had more loyal and committed
employees because of their domineering nature.
Another observation regarding sustainability and sustainable entrepreneurship is that
in this study the evidence points to a positive direction. The reason is that 64 percent of
the businesses have been in existence for over five years. Although it will be too
simplistic to equate this situation to sustainability and sustainable entrepreneurship, it is
an encouraging sign that they are on that path. The growth potential is enormous but
there remain some socio-cultural hurdles they need to overcome. The basic setback as
recognized by Sarris (2002) is that social structures in Ghana work against women in
terms of having equal access to land, credit, education and so on compared to their male
counterparts. Successive governments have tried to bridge the gap but it is nowhere near
equilibrium.
Again, the old belief that women cannot achieve economic independence is still
hanging over female entrepreneurs in Ghana. The Akans for example have an adage, ‘obaa
ton nyaadowa nyε atuduro’ (literally means; a woman sells eggplant/garden eggs and not
gun powder). Again, ‘obaa to tuo a εtwere obarima dan mu’ (literally means; if a woman
buys a gun it is the man who keeps it). These thoughts, among others, have hampered the
growth of female-owned enterprises. The situation has started to change, especially in the
urban areas through female empowerment initiatives by successive governments since the
late 1980s. In spite of these predicaments, female entrepreneurs have had and continue to
have positive impact on society and environment (creating more social enterprises). They
have the ability to create businesses and develop products that are needed by the market. In
a small measure, their activities have helped bring about social change in their commu-
nities. Therefore, it is not surprising when some of the women claim they are ‘social
entrepreneurs.’
5. Conclusion
This study sought to assess the contribution of female entrepreneurs to national economic
development. The main contribution of this study is that it has uncovered that female
entrepreneurship is growing and robust and not a marginal activity conducted by women
as a consequence of necessity rather a key component of the production capacity of the
country. In this study, most of the female entrepreneurs are freewill entrepreneurs taking
advantage of every opportunity the economy offers to their advantage. The Ghanaian
woman has this ‘I can do’ attitude and some even believe ‘what men can do women can do
and even do it better.’ It would also be naïve to believe that it is all auspicious for female
entrepreneurs across the country.
Another revealing finding is the family life of these entrepreneurs is hampering growth
and expansion. Traditionally, women are seen to be the caretakers of the home and thus,
most women have become “housewives” just taking care of the home not undertaking any
income generating activity. The study found that not only do these traditional roles of the
women have negative impacts on their enterprises of the entrepreneurs, but also the kind of
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K. Adom
enterprises they establish and the location of their activities. Society still believes in this
socially constructed reality that the woman is a caregiver and some (women) have come to
accept this taken-for-granted reality. However, women in this study have challenged this
taken-for-granted reality and have created enterprises that are contributing massively to
economic development of the communities and the nation as a whole. Available evidence
suggests that female entrepreneurship could be a catalyst for economic development when
properly recognized. The reason being that women in Ghana constitute the majority of the
population and dominate in entrepreneurship, especially informal entrepreneurship. What
are needed are policies that will recognize and encourage female entrepreneurship as
critical to the survival of the national economy. These policies must ensure that systems
are put in place to further enhance female entrepreneurship. Evidence from this study
highlighted the importance of family life in the life of the female entrepreneur. For female
entrepreneurship to contribute meaningfully to economic development, there should be a

de-emphasis on family life and a shift from micro-to small-scale activities.

Furthermore, albeit, male entrepreneurs are seen to have a larger impact on sustainable
economic development than their women counterparts, the contribution of female entre-
preneurs has always been swept under the carpet. For example, the view that women can
only engage in certain enterprises and not others is a key factor against female entre-
preneurship. There remains a potential for female entrepreneurship as a means to achieve
sustainable economic development especially among the highly educated women.
Finally, achieving sustainable economic development is a collective responsibility and
female entrepreneurs have a role to play. For female entrepreneurship to thrive and to
contribute to sustainable economic development, there should be market opportunities for
the goods and services produced and also government policies that support the sustainable
development agenda. Over the years, successive governments have talked about the cre-
ation of an enabling environment for the private sector to thrive but this has seen little
action. What is so crucial here is the willingness of the government to develop, support and
implement policies that will encourage female entrepreneurship in the country. By doing
so, more people (especially women) with an entrepreneurial mind-set and potential will be
attracted to entrepreneurship. Therefore, there is a call to harness these potentials through
policies that would promote female entrepreneurship on equal wavelength as their male
counterparts. The study also urges future research in this area to further increase the debate
in the development discourse and policy formulation of the nation.
5.1. Policy recommendations

The findings for this study have some policy implications and thus some policy recom-
mendations are warranted. It is time the state recognized the contribution of female
entrepreneurs and nurtured it for economic development. For female entrepreneurs to
contribute meaningfully to economic growth and development in Ghana, public policy
must focus also on the following measures to facilitate this process.
First, there is the need to intensify research on female enterprises to uncover the
real problems affecting female entrepreneurs. This will eliminate the situation where
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one-size-fit-all policies are formulated to address diverse problems. Although, women are
women, in terms of their enterprise development needs, there are multiplicities of diverse
needs that need specific policies to tackle them. The findings from this research will
provide some evidence upon which public policy could be formulated in this regard.
Second, assistance should be made available in the business idea generation stage and
follow up training programs once the venture is launched. This will provide the women
with the necessary tools needed at the start of their ventures, which is so crucial to their
survival at the initial stages of their business where propensity to fail is so high. The
entrepreneurship literature support the view that most enterprises fail at their early stages.
Investment at this stage is high as opposed to returns in terms of sale/profit as a result of
‘liability of newness’ (Barringer and Ireland, 2012)
There is also the need to ensure easy access to credit facilities and other financial
incentives (subsidies, interest free credit and so on) coupled with special technical and
vocational education and training, which will enhance the capacity of the female entre-
preneur. Some of these are not necessarily new but adding extra voice will make it more
pressing in the development discourse.
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Recognizing The Contribution Of Female Entrepreneurs In

Article in Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship · April 2015

Formalising informal entrepreneurship, a Mirage or Reality: Stakeholders’ Perspective View project

Evaluating the informal economy in Africa View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTION OF FEMALE

Received November 2014

Keywords: Female entrepreneurship; gender; economic development; sub-Saharan Africa; Ghana.

female entrepreneurs in emerging economies appearing in some international journals. In

Ghana for instance, literature on female entrepreneurship is emerging signiﬁcantly (Safu

2. The Concept of Entrepreneurship

someone who possesses these three key characteristics: “innovativeness,” “proactiveness”

uniﬁed ﬁeld; different views depict the same phenomenon.

2.1. Explaining female entrepreneurship

perspective of a developed and developing country context.

2.2. Rates of women participation in entrepreneurial activity

Table 1. Entrepreneurial attitude and perception in some selected GEM countries.

Participation of women in entrepreneurial activities in developing countries is very

2.3. Motivations for female entrepreneurship

women decided to start up businesses can be distinguished between “compulsion” (push)

2.4. Theoretical foundations for study

2.4.1. Human capital theory

2.4.2. Networking theory

works, entrepreneurship is aided or inhibited by linkages between aspiring entrepreneurs,

3.1. Limitation(s) of the study

4. Data Analysis and Discussion

Table 2. Cross tabulation of working population by age and gender (15–64).

Age Group Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

Source: Author’s own construction with data from GSS (2012).

4.2.1. Personal information and business characteristics

Table 3. Socio-demographic characteristic of

Respondents Percentage (%)

4.3. Motivations for starting a business

Table 4. Measuring female entrepreneurs’ motivation against business performance.

Motivation Level of Education Business Performance Income

4.4. Managerial skills

4.5. Business performance and economic development

entrepreneurship to contribute meaningfully to economic development, there should be a

de-emphasis on family life and a shift from micro-to small-scale activities.

5.1. Policy recommendations

Women in Management Review, 16(5), 232–243.

model. Academy of Management Review, 36(1), 127–150.

––– (2008). Beyond necessity-driven versus opportunity-driven entrepreneurship: A study of in-

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