Journal

of
Hydrology
ELSEVIER Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

[2]

Level-determined sampling in an uncased borehole

Ian Jones 1, David N. Lerner *'1
Hydrogeology Research Group, School of Earth Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston,
Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
Received 20 April 1994; accepted 7 October 1994

Abstract

Four novel sampling devices (two sock samplers and two active devices) were tested for their
ability to obtain level-representative groundwater from a 90 m uncased borehole in a Permo-
Triassic sandstone aquifier. The samples were compared with those taken from a nearby
piezometer nest. The results from the open borehole were not consistent with those from the
piezometers, particularly in the lower part of the aquifer. Field data and five-layer regional
groundwater model were used in an attempt to understand the reasons for the variation
between the results. A strong downward vertical head gradient caused flow into the top of
the borehole and out of the bottom, disturbing the natural chemical profile. This accounted for
the difference in the results between the piezometer nest and the sampling devices in the lower
part of the aquifer. Further modelling showed that unreasonably long periods of flushing would
be required to flush the zone of mixed water and therefore obtain level-representative samples
from the lower section of the borehole. Sock samplers, which rely on natural groundwater flow
to flush the aquifer, would have to wait several years, and so could only be used as semi-
permanent devices. A conventional double packer method would require about 2 weeks of
continuous pumping, whereas separation pumping would require several months of purging,
unless larger pumps were utilised.

I. Introduction

O p e n b o r e h o l e s have long been a m a i n source o f g r o u n d w a t e r samples; however, it

is difficult to o b t a i n level-representative s a m p l e s f r o m them. G r o u n d w a t e r flows, in
a n d a r o u n d o p e n holes, are k n o w n to exist (e.g. T a t e et al., 1970; R o b i n s o n a n d
Oliver, 1981). These flows can cause the m i x i n g a n d d i l u t i o n o f g r o u n d w a t e r f r o m

* Corresponding author.
1Now at: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Bradford, Bradford
BD7 1DP, UK.

0022-1694/95/$09.50 © 1995 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0022-1694(95)06015-4
292 1. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

different depths in the aquifer, disturbing the natural chemical profile (National
Ground Water Association, 1992).
As part of a European Communities project, 'Groundwater samplers for water
wells', (Teutsch, 1995) four novel level-determined sampling methods were tested in
an open hole in the Permo-Triassic sandstone aquifer of the Merseyside Basin, UK.
They were tested for their ability to obtain groundwater samples which were level-
determined, that is from a known level in the aquifer, and level-representative, that is
of water representative of the level being sampled. All the sampling techniques failed
to obtain groundwater samples representative of the lower part of the aquifer as
sampled by the bottom piezometer in the reference system. The reasons for this
discrepancy are examined and a hydrogeological explanation is offered. The experi-
ence gained is used to understand how level-representative samples may be obtained
from similar open holes.

2. Field site

The field site, Plex Moss (also known as Haskayne), was chosen for the project
because it contrasts with the two other test sites, Torgau and Skrydstrup (Nilsson et
al., 1995a), in that the borehole is uncased and the aquifer has a high vertical head
gradient. Plex Moss is located in an important U K aquifer type. The site has been
developed and monitored as part of another project (Tellam et al., 1992) and has an
open hole next to a piezometer nest and a dedicated multilevel Waterloo monitoring
system. The piezometer nest records a distinct vertical chemical profile (Table 1),
which is the control for testing the novel sampling methods.

2.1. Regional geology

The Permo-Triassic sandstone aquifer of Merseyside (Fig. 1) consists mainly of

well-sorted, fine- to coarse-grained sandstones of the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone
Group and the Permian Collyhurst Sandstone Formation (University of Birmingham
(UOB), 1984). Thin mudstones, siltstones and conglomerates occur throughout the
sequence, which is approximately 1200 m deep at the field site. The solid geology, to
the bottom of the deepest borehole at Plex Moss, consists of the Ormskirk Sandstone
Formation, part of the Sherwood Sandstone Group. This is composed of fine- to
medium-grained moderately sorted sandstone with several mudstone beds. The aqui-
fer has been studied because of its importance as a major source of water for Liver-
pool and other local population centres, consequently, the aquifer is well documented
(e.g. Dwyer, 1848; Howell, 1965; UOB, 1984; Segar, 1993).

2.2. Local hydrogeology

Plex Moss is situated within the catchment of a public water supply borehole,
Blundell House (Fig. 1), 2 km to the south east which is licensed to abstract
2000 m 3 day 1. For the purpose of this study only the top 85-90 m of the aquifer
I. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291 317 293

~7

~g VVVV

~g

~g

r-,i

d3

8
,...,
~g

0
0 ,.=I

r/3 ~ 0

S
294 L Jones, D.N. Lerner Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

Fig. 1. Location of field site and regional hydrogeologicalsetting.

is considered, as this is the depth to which the test borehole penetrates. The borehole
was drilled to 90 m, although borehote logging shows the actual depth to be approxi-
mately 85 m. The aquifer is unconfined at the field site although overlain by some
glacial drift. Transmissivity at Plex Moss is approximately 250-300 m 2 day -1 (UOB,
1984; Nilsson et al., 1992), with contributions from primary porosity and some
fissuring. An important feature at the field site is the presence of a strong downward
vertical head gradient, resulting partly from regional flows in the groundwater system.
The site is in a recharge area, with an estimated 225 mm/year -1 direct recharge on
exposed parts of the aquifer (UOB, 1984). The aquifer has low vertical permeability,
and locally has several low-permeability mudstone layers between 65 and 70 m below
ground level (mbgl). These are thought to produce a fall in groundwater head of
almost 2 m over the interval 64-70 mbgl in addition to the fall over the bulk of the
profile (Fig. 2). Such vertical hydraulic gradients are not uncommon in U K aquifers
(e.g. Brassington, 1992).
Recharge and groundwater chemistry are mainly controlled by the thickness and
 I. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317 295

GROUNDWATER HEAD RELATIVE TO GROUND LEVEL (m)

GEOLOGICAL
./0 , , , m6•O •4• 0
LOG , ,, I,J , ,11 i .,~ . . . . i . . . . . . . . i . . . . i
... Oj
!?..) ~ / - ,,X
).7:..:: ,o] /
//

'/". : 20 1 /
/
"- "2: 30 /
/
::,:. E= 40-] x, WATER LEVEL IN
~"/TEST BOREHOLE
/
/
:::.": E so~ /
/
/
•.': ~
70-1
/ INTERPOLATED THROUGH
..,,, / N U M E R I C A MODEL
L
: '. ":' 80-1 X

~ PIEZOMETER MEASUREMENT

904
REFER TO
FIG.4

Fig. 2. Vertical head distribution at Plex Moss.

type of glacial drift cover (UOB, 1984). This produces a distinct vertical chemistry
profile which is characterised by high sulphate and chloride in the upper zone of the
aquifer, decreasing with depth. Typical groundwater heads and solute concentrations
for the Plex Moss piezometers are given in Table 1. Data from Piezometer 3 are not
consistent with other data from the site, and this piezometer may be contaminated
(Segar, 1993).

2.3. Site configuration

The field site (Figs. 3 and 4) initially contained a 168 m deep, 600 mm diameter
disused public water supply borehole drilled in1971 (Borehole A, Fig. 3). It has a
blockage at 90 mbgl, which may only be partial (George, 1991). According to
N o r t h West Water Authority records it has plain casing to 30 mbgl, and slotted
casing to 107 mbgl; although George (1991) estimated that the solid casing termi-
nates 25 mbgl. There is a four-level piezometer nest (D), which was installed in the
early 1980s, and modified in 1991 to allow samples to be collected by a gas drive
method. In July 1991 an 85 m, 80 mm diameter borehole (B) was drilled 20.4 m
from A, the core recovered for permeability testing and porewater analysis, and a
Waterloo monitoring system installed. In September 1991 a 90 m, 200 mm dia-
meter open hole (C) was drilled 29.1 m from A, 14.35 m from B and 5.1 m from D.
By then it had become evident that some o f the packers in the Waterloo monitor-
ing system had failed to seal. Because of this failure and the greater distance of the
Waterloo system from the open test hole, it was decided to use only the piezometer
nest as a reference system for the field tests.
 296 L Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

I~/'~1 b/
i,,/ A
I Y B WATE.'OOS
STEM

~- DATUM II mAOD

Fig. 3. Plan of field site.

The open hole (C) was flow logged using a heat pulse flow meter and later a
potassium chloride tracer and electrical conductivity-temperature probe.
Maximum down-flows of approximately 0.12 and 0.4 m m i n ] were recorded
between 45 and 50 mbgl by the two tests (Fig. 5). The reason for the difference
between the two flow rates is thought to be a result of fine sediment and iron
precipitate building up as a skin on the outflow zone of the borehole (Segar, 1993).
The higher value was recorded after pumping had disturbed the borehole skin,
whereas the lower value was recorded prior to any pumping. For the purposes of
this study, the 0.12 m min -1 value is disregarded in preference for a value of 0.16 m
rain -l. This is the final value adopted by Segar (1993) after modelling the Plex
Moss site and is probably more reliable than that recorded by the heat pulse flow
meter (HPFM), because of the probability of instrument error at these low velo-
cities. Although the skin will develop in time and consequently the vertical flow in
the borehole will decrease, this value is used to represent a worst case for Plex
Moss, and is thought to be more representative of long-term conditions than the
value recorded with the tracer. The field site (Fig. 4) therefore provided an open
test hole next to a piezometer nest which records a distinct vertical chemical profile
and so appeared ideal for the testing of the novel level-determined sampling
techniques.
 I. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 17l (1995) 291-317 297

WATERLOO
PIEZOMETER SYSTE M GEOLOGICAL
NEST 200mm OPEN 7m LOG OF
BOREHOLE PIEZOMETER B
5m 15m
>1
D C E B
0- - -

7-

20- ,,..:

F I N E - T O MEDIUM-GRAINED
SANDSTONE
?-.
8 40- "2
CHEMICAL
PACKERS /
-I-
I.- .BENTON-
0_
W 6O- ITE SEAL ";.Z
.2

LAMINATED SILTY MUDSTONE

80- SAMPLE
PORT
SAt AND
GRAVEL
FILTER '~'
\
100- PIEZOMETER
PORT
Fig. 4. Field site cross-section, excluding Borehole A.

DOWNWARD VELOCITY (METRES t MINUTE)

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40

i i

20- ~

30 ;~',,, APRtLg2 (CHLOR~OE~ ",,]-

~ TRACERTESTS)

,o jx h
a ,o. x/ LI
'
/ / ~ ' " ~ MARCH92 (HEATPULSE It
60- / ELOWMETER~ | ]
// ]/
,o // //I
80- .,x-" ..,,i_/

Fig. 5. Velocity profiles in the test borehole on two occasions• Bars indicate intervals over which measure-
ments were made.
298 L Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291 317

3. Level-determined sampling in the open borehole

3.1. Description o f level-discrete sampling

The field work p r o g r a m m e for Plex Moss is summarised in Table 2. Level-deter-

mined sampling was carried out using four novel techniques; separation pumping
(SEP) and the packer baffle sampler (PBS), which are examples of active sampling
systems (Nilsson et al., 1995a), and the Birmingham modular sampler (BMS) and the
multi-level packer systems (MLPS), which are both examples of multiport sock
samplers (Schirmer et al., 1995). The SEP technique involved positioning two
pumps inside the borehole, at 9 and 82 mbgl. These pumps were then run at variable
rates (Table 3) to create a water divide at the desired sampling level in the borehole.
The water divide is at the point of no vertical flow in the borehole and is located using
a heat pulse flow meter. A level-discrete sample is then taken at this point using a
Grundfos MP1 (Denmark) sampling pump. In addition to level-discrete sampling,
SEP can be used to determine the inflow distribution over the depth of the borehole.
This information can then be used to estimate the hydraulic conductivity profile over
the depth of the borehole (Kaleris et al., 1995). The PBS method (Nilsson et al.,
1995a) involved locating one p u m p above the PBS at 10 mbgl and pumping at a
sufficiently high rate (36.5 m 3 h 1 in this case) to ensure inflows at all levels in the
borehole. The PBS was then inflated at the desired sampling depth; this isolates a
particular section of the borehole wall while still allowing the free upward flow of
water in the borehole via the central annulus. Level-determined samples are then
taken between the central annulus and the borehole wall.
The sock samplers seal the borehole with a long water-filled packer and take
samples at discrete points located at pre-determined depths along the borehole
Table 2
Summary of testing and sampling fieldwork at Plex Moss

Date Sampling methods Levels sampled Pumping rates

tested and other work (mbgl) (m3 h l)

March 1992 Flow log (heat pulse)

Step drawdown pumping test
SP inflow distribution 25
SP sampling 21, 25, 26.5, 29, 11.75 22.65
PBS sampling 31, 34/34.5, 37, 36.5
40, 45, 50, 55
60, 65, 69, 74,
75, 79
April 1992 Flow log (KCI tracer)
May 1992 Sampling with the BMS 21, 29, 34, 37,
60, 69, 79
July 1992 Sampling with the MLPS 20, 25, 30, 40,
60, 75, 80

SP: separation pumping; PBS: packer bafflesampler; BMS: Birminghammodular sampler; MLPS: multi-
level packer system.
 I. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal o f Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317 299

Table 3
Flow rates and resulting sampling levels for separation pumping, Plex Moss

Qtop Qbottom Water level Water divide/

(m ~ h - 1) (m 3 h l ) (mbgl) Sampling level
(mbgl)

0.0 0.0 4.63

1.33 10.42 6.96 21
4.10 10.25 7.52 25
5.15 10.32 7.72 29
10.04 8.79 8.37 34
13.0 5.11 7.52 37
15.0 4.59 7.49 40
18.0 3.24 7.49 50
21.0 2.45 7.77 55
21.0 1.55 7.60 60
21.0 0.65 7.43 65
22.0 0.75 7.33 70
22.0 0.65 7.36 74

wall. Time constraints within the project made it difficult to ensure that the necessary
pre-borehole steady-state conditions had re-established before the final sampling was
undertaken. The BMS was left in position for 12 days and the MLPS for just 7 days.

3.2. Results of level-determined sampling

Out of those recorded (Table 1), four parameters which show distinct changes with
depth have been selected to compare between samplers and the reference system:
electrical conductivity, sulphate, chloride, and magnesium concentrations. Table 4
shows the range of concentrations observed for the solutes over the testing period.
The greatest variations are seen in the deepest piezometer, and in sulphate concentra-
tions at all levels. Comparisons of data from selected levels of the SEP and PBS with
the piezometer nest are shown in Table 5 and Fig. 6. These methods recorded reason-
ably good results (Fig. 6) for Piezometer 2 (20 mbgl) and Piezometer 3 (40 mbgl) for
all four parameters. The lowest levels, however, sampled groundwater which was
markedly different from that retrieved from the 80 mbgl piezometer, even when the
temporal range (Table 4) is taken into account.

Table 4
Concentration ranges of selected species observed in the piezometer nest, March-July 1992

Peizometer Electrical conductivity Sulphate Chloride Magnesium

level (/~S cm - l ) (mg 1-] ) (mg 1-1 ) (mg l -l )

1 (7 mbgl) 935-1092 335-430 59.2-69.5 32 -38.4

2 (20 mbgl) 740-960 135-197 48.6-52.2 36.1-40.4
3 (40 mbgl) 860-1178 340-510 47.7-40.6 43.1-55.6
4 (80 mbgl) 500-745 24-170 38.8-48.3 17.2-34.3
300 I. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317
Table 5
Results of sampling using separation pumping (SP) and the packer baffle sampler (PBS)

Depth Electrical conductivity Sulphate Chloride Magnesium

(mbgl) (#S cm l) (rag V I) (mg l-J) (mg 1 t)

PZ nest sP PBS PZ nest SP PBS PZ nest SP PBS PZ nest SP PBS

7 1071 - - 430 - 69.5 - 36.5 - -

20 843 920 893 197 295 290 51.5 54.1 50.7 36.1 39.8 35.5
40 917 957 900 340 340 330 44.7 49.9 42.3 43.1 36.7 31.3
80 573 982 930 27 335 340 41.3 55.6 56.1 17.2 36.3 35.5

D a t a f r o m the B M S test are s h o w n in T a b l e 6 a n d Fig. 7. T h e B M S s a m p l e d similar

electrical c o n d u c t i v i t y as P i e z o m e t e r s 2 a n d 3 (Fig. 7). F o r the r e m a i n i n g p a r a m e t e r s
a n d d e p t h s the B M S s a m p l e d g r o u n d w a t e r with c o n c e n t r a t i o n s similar to those seen
in the t o p two p i e z o m e t e r s (Fig. 7). T h e m o s t distinctive d e p a r t u r e between the B M S
a n d p i e z o m e t e r results o c c u r r e d at the lowest depth. D a t a for the M L P S test are given
in T a b l e 7 a n d Fig. 8. W i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f electrical c o n d u c t i v i t y in P i e z o m e t e r s 2
a n d 3, the M L P S gave similar results (Fig.8) a n d profile shapes as the B M S .
O v e r a l l the active m e t h o d s were successful in o b t a i n i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u n d w a t e r
f r o m 20 a n d 40 mbgl, b u t were u n a b l e to o b t a i n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples for the aquifer
b e l o w the m u d s t o n e s . B o t h the sock s a m p l e r s failed to o b t a i n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples.

3.3. Failure o f level-determined sampling

A s a result o f the s t r o n g vertical h e a d g r a d i e n t in the aquifer (Fig. 2), a m a x i m u m

d o w n f l o w o f 7 m 3 d a y - 1 (equivalent to 0.16 m m i n - 1 ; Segar, 1993) exists in the test
b o r e h o l e . T h e zones o f inflow a n d outflow are clear f r o m the t r a c e r test (Fig. 5), which
p r o v i d e s a m o r e reliable d e l i n e a t i o n o f these zones t h a n the h e a t pulse flow meter,

Electrical conductivit7 Sulphate (mill) Chloride (mill) Ms|he•lure (mgll)

(IJJ~cm)

SOO 700 900 1100 1 0 0 200 3 0 0 400 S O • 40 SO 60 70 18 20 30 40 SO

o I I

l• l0 10

20 20 2•

"l
30 30 3•

/
m e t r e s 40 40 4• 4e
bll SO SO S•

60 a0

'70 70 70 7•

8• 80 [ 80 8e •

9• 90 90 9O
Pz nest
SP
PBS

Fig. 6. Comparison of separation pumping (SP) and packer baffle sampling (PBS) with piezometer nest.
 I. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317 301
Table 6
Results of sampling with the Birminghammodular sampler

Depth Electricalconductivity Sulphate Chloride Magnesium

(mbgl) (#S cm-1) (rag 1-1) (mg 1-1) (rag 1 1)

PZ nest BMS PZ nest BMS PZ nest BMS PZ nest BMS

7 957 395 - 66.7 - 37.5 -

20 850 830 143 420 51.5 64.1 39.1 41.3
40 880 910 430 335 44.7 56.8 51.1 39.5
80 605 900 97 350 43.6 61.9 27.3 41.1

because of the higher recorded velocities, lower instrument error and greater number
of measurements. Strong inflows occur down to 40 mbgl, whereas the majority of
outflow occurs below 70 mbgl, that is, below the mudstones.
With these inflows and outflows, the borehole itself will contain mixed water over
almost all of its length. The aquifer adjacent to the inflow zones of borehole will
contain formation water, flowing towards the borehole from approximately the same
elevations of the formation. The aquifer adjacent to the outflow zones will contain a
plume of mixed water which has displaced the original formation water. The extent of
the invading plume will reflect the balance between regional groundwater flows and
the downflow in the borehole (Bear and Jacobs, 1965).
The success of the samplers was judged against the piezometer nest, which itself
may be affected by the open hole. The nest itself is thought to be on the downstream
side of the test hole when there is no pumping on site, and should eventually show
changing concentrations in the lowest level owing to the invading water. The test hole
was drilled in September 1991, and no effects were seen by the time of the sampling
tests in M a r c h - J u l y 1992, despite the time of travel from the test hole to Piezometer 4
being estimated to be only 20-30 days (Table 8). Segar (1993) argued that this is
compatible with the separation, aquifer porosity, presence of drilling fluids, and
decreasing flows as the skin develops. As noted above, the lowest piezometer shows

Electrical conductivity $ulphxte (mgll) Chloride (m|ll) Mxgneslum (mtll)

(us/ore)
600 700 80o 9o0 lOee 0 1O0 200 300 400 S00 40 50 60 71) 20 3O 40 $0 6O
o , i , J , i , 0 , I , i t ( , J ,

to j 10

2O 2O 2O

3O 3O 3O 3O
/
4O 40 4e
metres
bsI

"1
SO $0 gO
/
60 6O 6O

70 7O 7O 7e
//
8e B 8e • 8O 8o ~
1
II
90 - - 9o 9e [ 90 t

Pz n e s t
BMS

Fig. 7. Comparison of BMS sock sampler with piezometer nest.

302 I. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291 317

Table 7
Results of sampling with the multi-level packer sampler

Depth Electricalconductivity Sulphate Chloride Magnesium

(mbgl) (#S cm-l) (mg 1-l) (mg 1 I) (mg 1-1)

PZ nest MLPS PZ nest MLPS PZ nest MLPS PZ nest MLPS

7 1088 - 317 - 61.3 - 32.6 -

20 957 1181 185 325 49.7 59.9 37.9 39
40 1167 1167 377 360 41.4 57.7 50.6 40.1
80 821 1097 102 340 42.6 61.7 28 38.2

more variability in concentrations, which may indicate some effects of invasion. A

longer interval between drilling and sampler testing might have allowed invasion to
affect the deepest piezometer. T h e n the reference system and the samplers would have
agreed, but none would have sampled 'true' f o r m a t i o n water f r o m that depth. The
piezometer nest is discussed again below, with respect to the modelling studies.
The active samplers should be able to sample the inflow zone successfully, and did
so. Successfully sampling the deepest level would have required flushing o u t part o f
the invaded plume, that is, pumping for a time which reflects a balance of pumping
rate and extent o f upstream invasion. The results show that insufficient flushing was
carried out.
The sock samplers are not able to flush the aquifer actively, and rely on self-flushing
as natural groundwater flows re-establish and move the invaded water downstream of
the borehole. Neither device was installed for long e n o u g h for self-flushing to occur,
and so both devices sampled mixed and unrepresentative water. This is true even for
the inflow zone o f the borehole, because the sock samplers displace water f r o m the
borehole back into the f o r m a t i o n during inflation. This has been discussed by Nilsson
et al. (1995b), w h o gave a m e t h o d o f estimating the waiting time required for self-
flushing o f displacing water in a h o m o g e n e o u s aquifer (Eq. (1)):
r 2 = (1 + n ) r 2 (1)
n
Where rw is the radius of the well, n is the effective kinematic porosity and ri is the
|leetrJeatl conductivity Sulphate (Hill) Chloride (m|l]) Mtgnealmn (nell)
(ug/I)
800 900 1 0 0 0 1100 1200 0 100 200 300 400 40 50 00 70 20 30 40 $0 60
0 I , I , I , O I ~ I , I J I , O-F I I O+ ' I , I , i L

<
1
10 lO q

ZO 20 2O

--.!!..,
$0 30 30 $0

40 4o ~
50 5O

60 6O 6O

7O 70 7O

80 $e • 80 8* i

9O 9o 90 90 '

Fig. 8. Comparison of MLPS sock sampler with piezometer nest.

I. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal o f Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317 303

r~

~,0
~s "0

~ < I~ +

8
._9.
tzu

='fi

0 I o l J l
0 ~ 0 0 0

,.d
304 L Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

radius of invasion owing to packer inflation. F o r Plex Moss, n = 0.2 and rw = 0.1;
therefore r i = 0.24 m.
Nilsson et al. (1995b) stated that the estimated time for self-flushing (tf)>_ 2ri/v,
where v is the average linear velocity for the part of the aquifer in question. At Plex
Moss the average linear velocity will vary with the depth, according to changes in
hydraulic conductivity (Kn) and regional gradient (Rg). For Layer 2 (21.5-40 mbgl)
of the Plex Moss model (Table 8), v is estimated to be 0.014 m day -1 . This means that
approximately 17 days would be required to flush the displaced water in Layer 2
owing to the sock samples being inflated. It is very difficult to calculate exact flushing
times because of the effects of aquifer and borehole heterogeneities, and the inflation
process. F o r example, the sock samplers at Plex Moss m a y have displaced more
borehole water into the upper part of the aquifer as the packer fully inflated over
the lower part of the aquifer prior to the upper part, thus forcing water upwards
between the packer and borehole walls. These simple calculations can therefore, only
be used for an approximate estimate of tr.

4. Groundwater modelling of the Plex Moss area

4.1. Description of flow model

In an attempt to understand further the groundwater flow around the open hole a
five-layer sub-regional groundwater flow model was developed and run in steady state
using M O D F L O W (McDonald and Harbaugh, 1988). The model covers part of the
catchment of the Blundell House well (Fig. 1), as defined by an earlier, regional,
model study (UOB, 1984). Three of the boundaries (Fig. 9) represent flow-lines,
based on piezometric contours. The outflow boundary in the south-eastern corner
was modelled as a constant head at 0 m above ordinance d a t u m (maod). The recharge
zones were based on a previous 1982 model (UOB, 1984). The western edge of the
model area is approximately where the aquifer becomes confined beneath the Mercia
Mudstone. It was taken as a constant flux boundary, although no flow was needed
here to achieve a satisfactory calibration. Recharge rates were based on effective
precipitation estimates (UOB, 1984), factored for the influence of drift cover, and
are shown in Fig. 9.
Using the boundary conditions described above and a transmissivity of 250 m 2
day -l, a 100 m deep, one-layer model was developed and run in steady state in an
attempt to duplicate the groundwater heads of the 1982 model. A good match was
obtained, and the same boundaries were used to construct an 85 m thick, five-layer
model. Initially, the model had six layers, five to the base of the open borehole, C, at
85 mbgl and one below this to the base of Borehole A (168 mbgl). To achieve a fine
grid over the field site, a 60 x 62 grid, expanding from 1 m tol00 m spacings, was
needed to cover the 2 km x 3 k m area. It proved impossible to have both the 60 x 62
cell grid and six layers, owing to computer software and hardware limitations.
Because of the blockage in Borehole A, the depth of Borehole C, and the fact that
Segar (1993) used a depth of 85 m for his r - z - t model of the site, it was decided to
 I. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317 305

0 RECHARGE ZONES /
MERCIA MUDSTONE

I &,SDS7 E-04 M/d BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

II 5.74866 E-04 Mid fl CONSTANT FLUX

III 8.8441 E-05 M/d ,?- NO FLOW

IV 1.76882 E -05 M/d .@ CONSTANT HEAD

v 0

Fig. 9. Boundaries and recharge zones for the Plex Moss sub-regional model

eliminate the sixth layer. The layering (Table 8) was based on information from the
permeability tests on core from Borehole B (Segar, 1993), Segar’s model layering,
inflow distribution estimates by the Geological Survey of Denmark (Andersen et al.,
1992) and the flow logs (Fig. 5). The vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities
(K, and ZQ were adjusted to achieve the vertical head gradient recorded in the
piezometer nest. The actual head values are unimportant for the purposes of the
model, as it is the vertical head gradient which controls the rate of vertical flow in
the borehole. The final hydraulic conductivities (Table 8) are similar to those used in
the previous radial (r-z-t) model of Plex Moss (Segar, 1993).
The next stage was to introduce the two open holes (A and C) into the model. The
older, deeper hole (A) was taken to be completely blocked at 90 mbgl. Initially, the
boreholes were modelled as active wells with abstractions in the layers of the inflow to
the borehole, and injection in the outflow layer. Because most of the outflow occurs
below 70 mbgl all the outflow was allocated to the lowest borehole cells in the model.
An inflow and outflow of 7 m3 day-’ was used, as discussed above, and represents an
approximate flow in Borehole C with a skin in place. For Borehole C, the flow log
306 L Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

(Fig. 5) gave the flow distribution to be used. Unfortunately, reliable flow logs were
not available for Borehole A. Segar (1993) has shown that the downflow in an open
hole is fairly insensitive to its radius. It must be assumed that Borehole A will also
suffer from clogging in its lower part. In this case, the skin will probably be thicker
than in the test borehole, because Borehole A has been in existence for 22 years.
Without flow logging borehole A there is no way of knowing the details of the
vertical flow component. It was not possible to return to Plex Moss to flow log the
large open hole, therefore, the same total flow was adopted for A as was measured in
C, although a different distribution was used to allow for the solid casing in the upper
30 m (Table 8). This was done to see how Borehole A might affect the flow conditions
at Plex Moss; however, any results for Borehole A are purely conjectural.
An alternative, and less prescriptive, simulation of the open holes was achieved by
replacing the abstraction-injection wells by high Kv and Kh values in the 1 m 2 cells
which represent the boreholes (holes simulation) (Table 8). These effective hydraulic
conductivities were calibrated by comparing the outflows in the bottom layer of the
wells simulation with those from the holes simulation. This method produced the
same total inflow and outflow for both the open holes but had the advantage of
allowing the model to produce its own layer by layer distribution of inflows and so
represent the field site conditions more realistically. Using a holes simulation rather
than active wells would also allow external influences (e.g. a change in aquifer perme-
ability) on the flows in the borehole to be examined. Fig. 10 shows the predicted
piezometric heads in the deepest layer for the area immediately around the field site
for the two boreholes with total outflows of 7 m 3 day -1.

4.2. Model estimates of invasion and flushing

Once the holes simulation had been calibrated with the wells simulation, steady-
state simulations of a single open hole (A or C) and two open holes (A and C) were
run. Pathline tracing with M O D P A T H (Pollock, 1989) was used to help delineate the
invasion zones in Layer 5 (Fig. 11), and to estimate the times taken for the maximum
upstream extent (known as 'stagnation point' or 'null point' (Bear, 1979)) of the
plumes to develop. It should be noted that particles never actually reach the stagna-
tion point, because as they near it the time taken approaches infinity. Therefore, the
positions of the stagnation points and times of travel (TOT) to reach them are
approximate. Because of the uncertainties associated with Borehole A, all the T O T
work concentrates on T O T to and from Borehole C. The model was used to estimate
the time required for self-flushing (by regional flow) of the invaded water. This was
done to simulate sampling in Borehole C with the sock samplers, and was accom-
plished by releasing particles in the cells at and near the respective stagnation points in
Layer 5 of the steady-state no-boreholes model, and recording the times taken to
travel back to the position of Borehole C.
The model was then used to estimate the time required for active flushing, to be
complete. Both separation pumping and a double packer system (Lerner and Teutsch,
1995) were simulated. The separation pumping rate simulated for Layer 5 was
1.55 m 3 h -1, based on the stage of separation pumping which placed the water divide
 I. Jones, D.N. Lerner I Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317 307

L--\. ' _±~. I I j__±____~-~>.~___

--i -]--T -i---i--]--T--i--T----~:
l :\:
b\-- --L - --V -- ± -- -
:'t.,,,,, LX-- - - L -- M - - -- ± -- - L -- - L -- -
I\1 ,\ , 1\ , , ~ , ,
I N i\, I ~ i i I t i

L iX , \, ;..-" , / , , , ,
i r\ ; \i \,
. . . . .
.~.~
F----I
,( - - 3 - ,- - - T - - - -i F - - - - I -,- - - - ,
I--~-,K-V~-
L_ _ L ~ J _X, L~._ '- -'X_'-)-
A-~--T
J _ ~
, ,'
----l----M----J- 391-----

. . . . l- -- --i-- -- -

K - ~ ; - - ~ ~ I - - -- - -- - - I - -- - - I - - - - -

I "-L , "~o i ~ _±__L -i~----~__

1000 1100 1200

G R I D C O O R D I N A T E S [m]

Fig. 10. Predicted steady-state piezometric heads for Layer 5 (60-85 mbgl) with both open holes (2 x 7 m 3
day -1 total outflow).

at the top of the deepest layer (Table 3); 10 m 3 h -1 was used to simulate flushing by
double packer method. For the active sampling methods, the TOT from both
the upstream stagnation ponds and the downstream pumping stagnation points
(see Fig. 12, below) were recorded. Transient hydraulic effects were neglected in all

1700

'/
,; / !c,~o;Ei l
,' ," // ,'/ /i /I
,' / ,,,' ,, / ,
/ ,; ,,,'/ ~
1,oo , ~ , ! ,/,/ , , 1'200
1000 1100

GRID C O O R D I N A T E S (m)

Fig. 11. Predicted invasion zones for Layer 5 with one or two open holes with 7 m 3 day -1 outflow.
308 L Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

simulations, because the confined condition of this layer and low flow rate means that
hydraulic equilibrium was reached rapidly compared with the travel times involved.
Table 9 summarises the results of the model estimates of invasion times and extent,
and times for active and natural flushing of the plumes.
Although the model attempted to replicate actual groundwater flow conditions
found at Plex Moss, it is based on a number of assumptions and uncertainties;
these are:

(1) The sub-regional recharge and boundary conditions, which control ground-
water flow direction and gradient, may vary from those modelled.
(2) The mudstone beds below 68 mbgl may be discontinuous.
(3) There may also be local effects on, for example, recharge (e.g. the local railway
cutting (Fig. 3) may affect recharge quality and quantity).
(4) Hydraulic conductivities are only approximate.
(5) Solutes movement neglects dispersion and retardation.
(6) Seasonal and other transient effects are ignored.
(7) Details of the north-west boundary (Fig. 9) are uncertain.
(8) Flow conditions in Borehole A are unknown.
(9) The bottom boundary of the model is at 85 m; this forces flows near it to travel
horizontally along this boundary. This, however, is not thought to be important
over the distances involved in the investigation, because of the extreme aniso-
tropy of Layer 5 (Kh : Kv -- 870 : 1; see Table 8).

Although the model is consistent with permeabilities and heads from the site it
remains a simplified representation of the field site. It demonstrates the type and
scale of effects that might be seen in such a hydrogeological environment, but may
not accurately represent Plex Moss.

5. Discussion of modelling results

5.1. Development and flushing of invasion plumes

Table 9 gives the model estimates of flushing times for the sock samplers (self-
flushing) and the two active sampling methods. In addition to numerical modelling,
the analytical solutions for borehole catchments and travel times (Bear and Jacobs,
1965) can be used to make first estimates of the extent of invasion, and the flushing
times required. Segar (1993) has shown that the inflows and outflows to an open hole
in a homogeneous aquifer vary uniformly along its length (Fig. 13(a)), which implies
that the capture and invasion zones will taper from the top and bottom of the aquifer
(Fig. 13(b)). For an aquifer with a low-permeability layer, over which most of the
vertical head drop occurs, the inflow and outflow distributions are almost uniform
(Fig. 13(c)). In the latter case, the capture and invasion zones will not taper signifi-
cantly (Fig. 13(d)).
Assuming that the aquifer is homogeneous and that vertical flows in the zone are
I. Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal o f Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317 309

e'~ e'~

E E
e.~

c~

&
0 (.)
0 0

.e., f.~
6 ~
o~.-~
e'~
2e'~ =
"~

d
-~ s s e
~ff._~ b b ~
<.~_

~ t¢3

~.~ ~ ~

Z "Z '~

m m .~

2"g *
•~ o o
Z~

0 0 0 .~

.= -~ ~ >
o ~
'~ H H ~

r~

e~

© m
m I.,

. ~ m . -

°4
310 L Jones, D.N. Lerner I Journal o f Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

)9OO / I
iii X/

,,ool ' / I
-
700 1100 1500

GRID COORDINATES (m)

Fig. 12. Sketch (not drawn to scale) showing the zone of invasion and pumping catchment zones for Layer 5
with relevant points referred to in Table 9. C, borehole C (see Fig. 3). Cs, Separation pumping (at 37.2 m 3
day -l) downstream stagnation point; approximate straight-line distance from C is 95 m. Cp, Double packer
method (at 240 m 3 day -l) downstream stagnation point; approximate straight-line distance from C is 350
m. Rs, Catchment boundary for separation pumping; Rp, catchment boundary for the double packer. BI,
Intersections of y-axis with the boundary of a fully developed invasion plume resulting from 7 m 3 day-l
total outflow; approximate distance from C is 28 m. T l, The isochrone that intersects points B1; the time
represented by this line is the time of pumping required to sample approximately half invaded water and
half natural water for the 7 m 3 day -l case. - x , x, Axis of regional flow; - x , upgradient; x, down gradient, y-
Axis is perpendicular to the x-axis.

not significant, then using Bear and Jacobs (1965), the distance to the stagnation point
(xi) is given by:
xi = Q/Zrcqo (2)
where Q is the outflow per unit length of the borehole and q0 is the regional specific
discharge (Kh× regional gradient (Rg)). For the homogeneous case (Fig. 13(b)), the
maximum value of x i is of interest, and is given by the maximum value of Q,

Q = Qmax = 4 Q w / D (3)
where Qw is the flow in the borehole between the two zones and D is the thickness of
aquifer. For the layered case (Fig. 13(d)), the outflow is given by
Q = Qw/D 1 (4)
w h e r e D 1 is
the thickness of the invaded layer.
The time required for self flushing, tf, is such that
tf > x i h (5)
 L Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317 311

or

tf > Qn/ZTrq~ (6)

where v is the average linear velocity of the solute of interest (qo/n for unretarded
solutes), and n is the kinematic porosity. This equation is most sensitive to q0, that is,
to the estimated hydraulic conductivity and regional hydraulic gradient, which may
both be uncertain.
The TOT, t, along tbe flow axis of the plume in the injection stage is given by the
following equation (Bear and Jacobs, 1965):
t = (nQ/27rqZ)[ZTrqox/Q- ln(1 + 27rqox/Q)] (7)
where x is the distance travelled along the axis of flow ( - x for upstream, + x for
downstream).
Estimates can be made for the Plex Moss environment with the equations above,
but only for a single open hole. The sub-regional model gives estimates of the relevant
variables for Layer 5 as: hydraulic gradient 10 -3, horizontal hydraulic conductivity
4.35 m day -1 (Table 8), with a borehole flow of 7 m 3 day -1, and a thickness of the
invaded layer of 15 m. Using Eq. (2) the maximum upstream extent of the invasion
plume (xi) has been estimated for Borehole C. Eq. (6) was used to obtain analytical
solutions for the flushing time from the analytically derived null point for the self-
flushing case. Both these results compare favourably with the xi and tf values obtained
using M O D P A T H (Table 8), which suggests that these simple equations will give
adequate preliminary estimates.
The equations do require data which may only be available from more detailed
modelling or field studies, such as at Plex Moss. It was not possible to obtain reliable
estimates of the flushing times for the pumping cases using Eq. (6) because it was
difficult to obtain meaningful regional hydraulic gradients owing to the pumping
cones of depression. By using - Q for abstraction in Eq. (7), estimates of flushing
times for the pumping cases have been made, but only from the upstream stagnation
point along the axis of flow. Eq. (7) was also used to calculate the TOT to the
upstream stagnation point and to Piezometer 4 from Borehole C. The difference
between the analytical and modelled TOTs is due to the choice of the approximate
stagnation point. As x approaches the stagnation point, t approaches infinity, which
leads to large changes in the TOTs for small changes in position.
The model implies that the deepest level of the piezometer nest D might see the
effects of the long-established open hole A because it is just in the invasion zone (Fig.
11). There is no field evidence for this having occurred. If the blockage in A is only
partial, its outflow zone will differ from that assumed in the model. The same outflow
over a longer length of borehole will give a laterally restricted invasion zone. Segar
(1993) has shown that, when two mudstone layers divide the aquifer into three zones,
outflow is concentrated in the lowest zone, for downflow conditions, and the central
zone will have a laterally small capture or invasion zone. If either of these conditions
applied, the invasion zone would be unlikely to reach the piezometer nest. Other
potential reasons why no effect has been observed include a slight misrepresentation
of the direction of regional flow, and a mis-estimate of downflow in Borehole A.
312 L Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

The results given in Table 8 are only approximations; they are sensitive to changes
in the parameters used, none of which are certain. The actual TOTs and distances
given may not reflect those in the field; however, they are useful for comparing the
relative times of flushing for the three methods examined.

5.2. The implications of these results for passive sampling at Plex Moss

According to the results in Table 8, it will take approximately 840 days (2.3 years)
to self-flush a fully developed plume resulting from 7 m 3 day -1 outflow in Layer 5.
This clearly makes the sock samplers a poor choice for anything other than long-term
monitoring at Plex Moss. In this case at Plex Moss, the plumes were not fully
developed at the time of sampling, because the T O T to the approximate null point
is much greater than the time between drilling Borehole C and sampling. Because the
time of travel away from Borehole C increases almost logarithmically with distance,
then most of the distance to the stagnation point is covered in a relatively short time.
For example, for the plume resulting from 7 m 3 day -1 outflow, 95% of its upstream
migration occurs in the first 1630 days. It is therefore important when sampling from
open boreholes to know the time since the borehole was constructed, so the approx-
imate upstream extent of the invasion (Xu) can be calculated. The time between the
construction of Borehole C and sampling with the BMS was approximately 240 days.
Using Eq. (7), this gives a maximum upstream extent of 10.2 m. The self-flushing time
estimated using Eq. (5) is 469 days. The BMS therefore needed to be in situ for
approximately 1 year and 4 months to sample water representative of natural ground-
water conditions at 80 mbgl. This time could be reduced by pumping the borehole
below the mudstones, prior to installing the BMS or MLPS. These times are based on
a steady-state outflow of 7 m 3 day -1, at Plex Moss; however, the situation is known to
be more complex, with outflow reducing with time owing to the build-up of a skin in
the outflow zone. Geological homogeneity has been assumed, which is unrealistic.
Any heterogeneity will complicate the flushing process and in many cases increase
flushing times.

5.3. The implications of the above results for active sampling at Plex Moss

On initial examination of the results for active sampling, it appears that the time
needed to purge the mixed water plume (TOT from stagnation point) is considerably
less than by self-flushing. It would take approximately 140-160 days (5 months) for
SEP and only 10-12 days for the double packer method, to flush the upstream
portion of a fully developed plume resulting from 7 m 3 day -1 outflow. In reality,
this would be approximately 29 days for SEP and 4 days for the double packer
method because the plume is estimated to be only 10.2 m upstream of the test bore-
hole.
What has not been considered is that the pumping methods draw water in
radially (Fig. 12). If pumping occurs at a sufficient rate, then parts of the plume
which were further away from Borehole C than the upstream null point will be
drawn into the borehole. What is interesting in this case is that some of the
 L Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal o f Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317 313

invaded water will be drawn into Borehole C f r o m d o w n s t r e a m (points Cs and Cp

in Table 8 and Fig. 13) under p u m p i n g conditions long after self-flushing alone
would have cleared the invaded water f r o m around the test hole, although the
quantity of d o w n s t r e a m invaded water will be small as a percentage of the overall
discharge. Points BI in Fig. 12 are at the intersections of a line drawn f r o m
Borehole C perpendicular to the axis of flow, and the boundary between the plume
water and the natural groundwater. The T O T from these points to the test hole is the
approximate pumping time required to sample half plume water and half natural
groundwater. At Plex Moss these times are 175-200 days for separation pumping
and 26-30 days for the packer method. As pumping continues, less invaded water and
consequently more natural water will be sampled.
Pumping can induce vertical flows which will mix water from different depths in the
aquifer. Using the double packer method at Plex Moss increases downward vertical
flows in the aquifer around the test borehole because this method significantly lowers
the head below the mudstones. Pumping could be carried out above the packer to
prevent vertical invasion from above, although this would increase the costs of
sampling and produces a greater quantity of waste water to be disposed of. The
SEP technique does not have the same effect because it abstracts water from the
entire depth of the open borehole and induces horizontal rather than vertical flows.
In the Plex Moss case, the borehole only partially penetrates the aquifer below the

(a)
OUT

th

(c) (d)

OUT FLOWN LO~

,'

rl

REGIONAL FLOW

Fig. 13. Distribution of flows along an open borehole. (a) Distribution of inflows and outflows for a
homogeneous aquifer. (b) Capture and invasion zones for a homogeneousaquifer. (c) Inflowsand outflows
for an aquifer with a low-permeabilitylayer. (d) Capture and invasion zones for an aquifer with a low-
permeability layer.
314 L Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

mudstones, which would result in some upconing and upward vertical flows near the
borehole in both pumping cases. This would delay the flushing of the plumes, result-
ing in greater purging times required than predicted by the model, although the effect
would be small because of the large Kh : Kv ratio.
Although both pumping methods would flush the upstream invaded water con-
siderably faster than by self-flushing, the pumping times required are still consider-
able. Separation pumping and the packer baffle sampler used minimum pumping
rates of 22.65 m 3 h -1 and 36.5 m 3 h -1', respectively, when sampling the area below
the mudstones. Pumping at these rates for 150 days plus would be extremely expen-
sive, and would produce large quantities of water to be disposed of. Because of this,
separation pumping and the packer baffle sampler are thought to be impractical for
level-determined sampling in the open borehole at Plex Moss.
The double packer method is much quicker to purge the upstream invaded water
than separation pumping and for less than half the total abstraction. This is
because small sections of the borehole can be isolated and the total abstraction
taken from the outflow zone. This method does induce increased vertical flows in the
aquifer near the borehole, and potentially causes mixing of water from different levels in
the aquifer. The double packer method was not tested at Plex Moss because the
technology is well understood and established. This does, however, look promising as
a way of rapidly flushing the upstream portion of the invaded water at Plex Moss. The
time required could be reduced by increasing the abstraction rate, as 10 m 3 h-l is well
within the capacity of many medium-sized submersible pumps.

5.4. Conclusion regarding level-determined sampling in the open borehole at Plex Moss

For the simplified Plex Moss case, assuming a steady-state outflow of 7 m 3 day -1
over a confined homogeneous layer 15 m thick, with negligible vertical flows, then
approximately 840 days would be required for the aquifer to self-flush a fully devel-
oped plume once a sock sampler is in situ in Borehole C. The situation for the
pumping cases is more complex; it is clear, however, that pumping for the T O T
from xi or Xu and then taking a sample is not sufficient to obtain a true level-
determined sample at 80 mbgl. This is because invaded water will continue to be
drawn into the borehole from the majority of the radius of inflow. Separation pump-
ing and the packer baffle sampler would both be prohibitively expensive to use in the
Plex Moss case.
A combination of pumping and then passive sampling may offer the best option for
level-determined sampling at Plex Moss, for example, a period of purging in the
aquifer below the mudstones, sufficient to remove the majority of the upstream
component of the plume, and then installing a sock sampler and monitoring until
the groundwater chemistry stabilises.

6. Conclusions

Four novel level-determined sampling methods were tested for their ability to
 L Jones, D.N. Lerner/Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317 315

obtain level-determined samples from an 85 m deep borehole in a Permo-Traissic

sandstone aquifer at the U K test site, Plex Moss. Results from the open hole were
compared with those obtained from a nearby piezometer nest, which acted as the
reference system. None of the methods were completely successful in replicating
groundwater chemistry seen in the piezometers. This was due to a strong downward
vertical head gradient in the aquifer which caused inflow from the formation into the
upper part of the borehole and outflow from the borehole into the formation in the
deeper part of the aquifer, disturbing the natural groundwater chemistry around the
borehole.
The active methods obtained level-accurate samples from the inflow zone of the
borehole, but both active and passive methods failed to produce level-determined
samples from the lowest part of the aquifer below the mudstones. The reason for
this is that insufficient pumping was carried out and time allowed to flush the invaded
water from around the outflow zone of the borehole. A multilayer groundwater flow
model of the field site and surrounds was developed in an attempt to understand how
level-determined samples might be obtained from 80 mbgl in the open borehole. The
situation, although simplified for this study, was found to be complex, especially for
the pumping cases. Separation pumping and the packer baffle sampler would need
approximately 5 months to flush the upstream portion of a fully developed invasion
plume, and are consequently very expensive methods of obtaining level-accurate
groundwater samples from 80 mbgl at Plex Moss. A standard double packer method
purging at 10 m 3 h -~ would only require approximately 2 weeks to purge the part of
the invasion plume directly upstream of the test borehole. True level-representative
samples would take much longer to obtain using only active methods, because they
continue to draw in invaded water laterally and from downstream after the upstream
portion of the plume has been purged. The sock samplers, although inexpensive in
comparison with active methods, would require 2-3 years in the case of a fully
developed plume resulting from 7 m 3 day -1 outflow, before level-representative
samples might be retrieved from 80 mbgl. Some form of packer system, such as
that modelled, would flush the lower part of the aquifer the quickest; however,
water drawn from down-gradient and vertically may disrupt the integrity of a poten-
tially level-discrete sample.
There seems to be no ideal solution for level-discrete sampling at 80 mbgl in the
open borehole, at Plex Moss. As mentioned, a combination of purging and then
sampling with a sock sampler or novel packer system may offer the most effective
method for Plex Moss.
Most of the discussion has been based on a total outflow of 7 m 3 day-l; if the true
outflow is more, then the invasion zones will develop faster and be more extensive,
resulting in longer flushing times. If the flows are less then the reverse will be the case.
The build-up of borehole skins in outflow zones therefore reduces cross-contamina-
tion and decreases the time and/or pumping needed to obtain level-determined sam-
ples. It has been illustrated that it is vital to have a quantitative understanding of the
hydrogeology of a field site area to allow meaningful information to be extracted from
a monitoring programme. This level of investigation is perhaps only important in
scientific research or detailed pollution control and remediation work. For water
316 L Jones, D.N. Lerner / Journal of Hydrology 171 (1995) 291-317

supply assessment, simply t a k i n g a depth-averaged sample m a y be sufficient, a n d

w o u l d certainly be m o r e economic; the need m u s t justify the means.

AcknowLedgements

This paper reports part o f a f o u r - n a t i o n project to develop a n d evaluate multi-level

g r o u n d w a t e r sampling techniques for s t a n d a r d water wells. The project, ' G r o u n d w a t e r
samplers for water wells' involved the Geological Survey of D e n m a r k , the University o f
B i r m i n g h a m (UK), the University of Patras (Greece), a n d the University of Stuttgart in
c o - o p e r a t i o n with the D r e s d e n University of T e c h n o l o g y (Germany), a n d was spon-
sored by the C o m m i s s i o n of the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t i e s u n d e r C o n t r a c t A C E 8 9 / D K 5 /
D3 B6600. The U K test site at Plex Moss was established with f u n d i n g from the N a t u r a l
E n v i r o n m e n t a l Research Council u n d e r G r a n t GR3/6999. W e are grateful to our
colleagues at Birmingham, D a v i d Segar a n d J o h n Tellam, for allowing access to a n d
assistance with the site, their data a n d their interpretation.

References

Andersen L.J., Lerner, D.N., Teutsch, G. and Kaleris, V., 1992. Demonstration and operationalisation of
sampling devices for level accurate of groundwater in existing water supply wells. 2nd Periodic Report
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