Industrial Revolution

Q. What is Industrial Revolution? What are the factors/causes of Industrial Revolution? What
are the impacts of Industrial Revolution? Why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe?

The unprecedented and quick transition in the production and manufacturing processes that
resulted in a huge and sudden economic and social change in the society is described as
Industrial Revolution.

There are many factors and causes of Industrial Revolution. They are -
 Technological inventions and innovations - There were new inventions of machines
that allowed increased production with a smaller use of human energy. James
Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny in 1764. Edmund Cartwright invented water
powered loom in 1787. The production of cloth became faster and required both less
time and less human labour. James Watt invented the coal-fired steam engine in 1760
and later modified it to drive machinery with a collaboration with Matthew Boulton in
1782. This allowed steam power to spread across the British industries. Robert Fulton
built a paddle-wheel steamboat in 1807 in USA. In the 1780s, Henry Cart developed a
process called puddling in iron industry. In this process, coke was used to burn away
impurities in crude iron called pig iron to produce a much better iron of high quality.
 Changes in agriculture - Agricultural improvements took place that led to a massive
growth of farmland. There was an enormous amount of potato production due to a
good weather and a very improved transportation. Development in transportation
included the steam locomotive, paddle-wheel steamboat. Due to a better
transportation, there were a large amount of food available for the population. Due to
this more children could be fed and hence there was a significant population growth
during the industrialization period.
 Natural resources and market - The availability of natural raw materials such as iron,
coal and water were seen. During the industrialization period, the Europeans started
the process of colonisation. The British, French, Spanish had a number of colonies
throughout the world. They had the extra land under their control which led to the
availability of market for them.
  Complementarities - Availability of natural resources such as iron, water, coal helped
the innovations, inventions and also how to implement all these inventions. Without
the sufficient availability of iron, Henry Cart’s development of puddling in iron
industry would not receive such popularity and would be of less use. Without the
sufficient availability of water, Edmund Cartwright’s invention of a water powered
loom would receive less popularity to the people.

There were both positive and negative impacts due to industrial revolution.
The positive impacts are -
 Mass production process - Earlier in a cottage industry few people used to work
manually. After the industrialization revolution, a factory system was introduced
where hundreds of people work as labourers with a specialized role.
 Massive production - Production of iron increased from 17,000 tons in 1740 to
70,000 in 1770 and later in 1852 it increased to 3 million. Import of cotton increased
from 2.5 million pounds in 1760 to 22 million in 1787 and later it increased to 366
million by 1840.
 Capital accumulation and increased investment - Due to a massive production of
resources, trading in the market increased. Since the industrial revolution started in
Britain, they fortunately had the colonies under their control. They had a ready market
for their products and they found out they have a more production of garments that
satisfies the British domestic market. When they found out they have a surplus in
trading, they could now export that surplus to the colonies they hold. The availability
of market was there and due to the trading exchange, they had more capital and hence
they invested more.
 Increase in income per capita GDP and increase in standard of living - Due to
economic advancements, the capitalists had more money to spend. This led to an
increase in wage for the labourers and they now had a better standard of living. All
these led to an increase in income per capita GDP across the country.
 Technological inventions and innovations - The technological innovations and
inventions continued throughout the period. The countries had more money, so they
reinvested the money in research and developments to come up with a much better
solution for the society.
  Growth of population and migration from rural areas to urban areas - Before the
industrialization revolution, people used to live in the countryside. They had their own
hand loop machines by which they were able to produce clothes and there was no
demand of labours. But when the factory system was established, people migrated
from the countryside to the cities to work in the factory that were usually located near
the rivers.
The negative impacts are -
 Strengthening of imperialism and colonialism - After the industrialization revolution,
it became a necessity to take political control of a land. When there was a massive
production of cotton and iron, they needed a market to export their surplus of
garments. Having the colonies helped them to fix the price of their products in their
favour and avoid the competitive market.
 Forced and extended labour - When the factory system was established, hundreds of
labourers were required and there was the scope for a forced and extended labour.
Labourers were made to work even 18 hours a day without a sufficient wage pay.
 Repression of children and women in terms of forced and extended labour and low
wages - There were differences in wages between women and men in a massive way.
More children were used in the factory to work since they had tender hands. They
could really put the threads into the sophisticated machines in a better way than the
adults. Children were made to work for a longer time and were paid less.

The industrial revolution occurred in Europe. The reasons are -

 Technological inventions and innovations took place in Britain - James Hargreaves
invented the spinning jenny in 1764. Edmund Cartwright invented water powered
loom in 1787. James Watt invented the coal-fired steam engine in 1760.
 Euro-centrism - All the inventions nearly took place in the same time and in the
adjacent areas of Britain. This gives a strong evidence of the intellectual superiority of
the Europeans in the world.
 The British people had the capital - It is the British people who had the capital
initially due to feudalism. The British had colonies in the sub- continent under their
control that enabled them to export their surplus of garments and gain capital.
  Abundant natural resources - They had a large amount of iron ore and coal available.
They were fortunate with the availability of water from the rivers that were used in
both chemical industry and transportation.
 Control over a large market - The British had political control in the sub-continent and
Africa. They had a ready market for their products and they found out they have a
more production of garments that satisfies the British domestic market.

American Revolution
Q. What is American Revolution? How the areas of North America were peopled since its
discovery by Christopher Columbus? Why the 13 North American colonies of the British
Empire declared independence? Discuss the American War for Independence during the
period of 1775-1783.

*American Revolution ended in the land at 1781, and in the sea a 1783 with the signing of
treaty in Paris.

American Revolution was a rebellion by which 13 of Great Britain’s North American

colonies won political independence against British affected political ideas and revolt and
went on to form the United States of America. It started from April 19,1775 and continued till
April 11, 1783.

Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492. That created a flow of European

immigrants to come to United States of America. English Immigration to America began in
the 1500's. Sir Walter Raleigh led expeditions to North America in order to find new
settlements and find gold. He established the settlements and named it Virginia in the honor
of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. In 1585 Sir Walter Raleigh sent several shiploads of colonists
to the 'New World'. They rested on Roanoke Island and surprisingly the first immigrants
disappeared and Roanoke was given the nickname of ‘the Lost Colony’. English immigrated
to America in an organized way in the late 1600s. It further began with the establishment of
Jamestown settlement in the Virginia Colony. The Plymouth Colony was then founded in
1620 by the Mayflower Pilgrims. In 1630 another religious group left England in search of
religious freedom. This group was called the Puritans who represented the next gesture of
English immigration to America led by John Winthrop. With a fleet of 11 vessels and 700
passengers he moved to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. His sole motive was to establish ‘the
City Upon the Hill’ which means to establish an ideal place for human civilization. The
creation of the ‘the City Upon the Hill’ is the providential aspect of establishment of
settlements in North America. This philosophy by John Winthrop created a kind of
acceptance towards North America by the Europeans. Afterwards, thousands of English
people migrated during “the Great Migration” between 1620 and 1640. The English
immigration to America led to the institution of the first 13 Colonies. The names of the first
13 colonies were: Virginia, Maryland, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New
Hampshire, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina
and Georgia.

A number of factors created dissatisfaction and vexation among the people of 13 North
American colonies that they eventually declared independence. They are -
 Unjust Taxation: The Stamp Act was passed by the British Parliament on March
22, 1765 and imposed new tax on every piece of printed paper used by the 12
Colonies. In 1774 the British Parliament passed the Coercive Acts also known as the
Intolerable Acts in the colonies to punish the colonists for the Gaspee Affair of 1772
and the Boston Tea Party of 1773.
 Power sharing: There was a growing realization among the people that due to the
Intolerable Act of 1774 they have been neglected by the monarch of England.
Moreover, there was a new apprehension that the ordinary people can also govern
themselves.
 Freedom of Expression: The people of the colonies called for complete freedom of
expression as they saw the Stamp Act and many of the subsequent tax acted as
restrictions on their freedom. The Stamp Act was that if the people of colonies want to
publish anything, they have to publish it in a stamp paper. By that way, the cost of
publication went up and they had to incur more expenses.
 John Lock’s Social Contract: Political philosopher John Lock’s theory of social
contract also influenced the people as they demanded that the relationship between the
ruler and the ruled is a social contract for the welfare of the ruled. The common
people get to select their ruler and the ruler was entrusted with the responsibility to
serve the common people for the benefits of them.
  Thomas Paine’s Common Sense: Thomas Paine’s common-sense advocating
republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule also affected the
people in declaring independence.
 The English Bill of Rights of 1689 and Magna Carta: The presence of these two
documents in England also encouraged the people of the 13 colonies to demand
similar rights for themselves and eventually declare independence.

*There is a possibility that 1 % of the population’s words are valued. The government that
takes this into concern is a republican government according to philosophy. The chief
executive is elected directly by the people in a republican government according to political
view.

The British parliament passed the Coercive Acts also known as the Intolerable Acts in the
colonies in 1774 to punish the colonists for the Gaspee Affair of 1772 and the Boston Tea
Party of 1773. The Coercive Acts included the Boston Port Act, the Massachusetts
Government Act, the Administration of Justice Act and. the Quartering Act. This angered the
colonists and they summoned the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia in September
1774. They boycotted the British goods and petitioned the king for nullifying the acts.
However, the King denied and fighting began in Lexington and Concord in April 1775. In
May 1775, the 2nd Congress was summoned and it send the 2nd petition to the king. The
King George III refused the petition and issued a ‘Proclamation of Rebellion’ in late 1775. In
January 1776, Thomas Paine’s Common Sense was published. In February 1776, the
Prohibitory Act was passed that established a blockade of American ports and declared
American ships to be enemy vessels. There are debates about independence during April and
July of 1776. Historians say there were around 70 declaration such as the Halifax Resolves
of April 12 that permitted North Carolina delegates to vote for independence. There were also
acts passed like the one passed by the Rhode Island legislature declaring independence on
May 4, 1776. The support for a congressional declaration of independence was secured in the
final weeks of June 1776. On June 11, 1776, the congress appointed a "Committee of Five" to
draft a declaration. Thomas Jefferson prepared the first draft, and presented it to the congress
on June 28. The congress approved the declaration on July 2 and signed it on July 4. It was
seen 56 delegates signed the declaration.
The War for independence broke out in Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The British
responded decisively, and sent Generals Sir William Howe, Sir Henry Clinton and John
Burgoyne to command the war. Charles Cornwallis joined later. On behalf of 13 colonies, the
continental congress in Philadelphia voted for general defensive measures and appointed
George Washington of Virginia as commander in chief. On June 17, 1775 there was the
Battle of Bunker Hill in Boston. It was a moral victory for the Americans. On July 3, 1775
Washington accepted command of the 15,000 colonial troops and started to recruit a
continental Army. There was the battle of New York between August and October 1776.
France officially declared war in June 1778. Cornwallis surrendered himself on October 19,
1781. Thereafter the land action in America died out. The Paris agreement was signed on
September 3, 1783. The final British forces finally left New York on November 25, 1783.
 French Revolution
What is French Revolution? What are the causes of the French Revolution? Discuss about the
Three States in French Society. Discuss the events of the French revolution during the period
of 1789-1799. What is declaration of the rights of men and the citizen? What have been the
impacts of the French Revolution? Discuss the historiography of the French Revolution.

The French Revolution was a period of far reaching social and political disruption in France
which started in 1789 and ended in a dictatorship under Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The
revolution ended the monarchy and established a republic. It started the violent period of
political disorder in France and changed the course of modern history.

The causes of French Revolution are -

 France was in debt due to participating in the American Revolution and due to
mismanagement. There was a huge financial and economic hardship in the country.
 Price of the commodity increased rapidly due to the lack of supply of commodity. The
production of materials declined due to the financial crisis. The common people were
very disappointed with this.
 Due to a very bad weather, the agriculture production became poor. This made the
food situation of the country even worse.
 To get rid of debt, the king decided to increase the tax. This created further anger
among the common people against the king.
 The French society was divided into three classes named as states. The third state
people started questioning why the first and second state people will enjoy privileges
at the expense of them.
 France was an absolute monarchy like the other European states. They failed to adapt
to the political and societal pressures that were exercised on them. The king XVI was
not respected well.
 Rousseau’s and John Lock’s social contract theory questioned the philosophy of
monarchy. Monarchy stated that the relationship between the ruler and ruled is set by
God. Rousseau and John Lock stated that the relationship between the ruler and ruled
is a social contract. The common people get to select their ruler and the ruler is
entrusted with the responsibility to serve the common people for the benefits of them.
People started to think like that afterwards.
  Immanuel Kant questioned the providential authority of the King. He stated that there
was no evidence of the divine theory that the King is set by God. People started to
ponder afterwards.
 Montesquieu’s theory of separation of powers questioned the philosophy of
monarchy. In a monarchy, a King has three kinds of powers such as executive,
judicial and legislative power. Montesquieu discussed that the powers should be given
to three separated person or three separated institutions. People started to think about
the philosophy.
 John Lock also talked about the natural and legal rights. He said that the rights of
people are by-born. When a person is born, he is born with the rights to get food,
clothes. These cannot be considered as the rights by law, rather these should be
recognized as the legal rights. The philosophy created a change in the mindset of the
people.

The French society was divided into three states. They are -
 First State - The first state consisted of the clergy and numbered about 130,000
people. The clergy owned approximately 10 percent of the land. They were spared
from the taille, France’s chief tax. The clergy were radically divided into the higher
clergy, members of aristocratic families and the parish priests, who were often poor
and from the class of commoners.
 Second State - The second state consisted of the nobles and numbered about 350,000
people. Nobles owned about 25 to 30 percent of the land. They were in charge of
many of the leading positions in the government, the military, the law courts, and the
higher church offices. Moreover, they were spared from the taille, France’s chief tax.
The nobles tried to expand their power at the expense of the monarchy.
 Third State - The third state consisted of the commoners. They made up the
overwhelming majority of 98 % of the population. The commoners owned about 65 %
of the land among which 75-80 % peasants owned only 35-40 per cent land while
over half of the peasants possessed no lands. The top middle class included
merchants, bankers, industrialists, professionals, lawyers, public officials, doctors,
writers etc. They made up the 8 % of the population with 20-25 % of land. The
bottom workers were skilled craftspeople, shopkeepers, and other wage earners in the
 cities. They had to work over-time but were underpaid. They objected most of the
living conditions and politics in France. They were required to pay taxes.
To get rid of financial crisis, Louis XVI was forced to call Estate-General meeting to raise
new taxes in 1789. On 5 May 1789, Estate-General met at Versailles. They were divided over
a fundamental issue as to whether vote by head giving advantage to the third state or vote by
estate by which the two upper states may outvote the third. The Third State wanted equal
voting and taxation for all but the King denied it. On June 17, 1789, the third state declared
themselves the National Assembly and decided to draft a constitution. When the royal
officials locked the door three days later, they moved to the indoor tennis court and took the
famous Tennis Court Oath. The king Louis XVI reluctantly advised the nobles and few
remaining clergy to join the assembly officially titled as the National Constituent Assembly
on July 09. In the meantime, the king prepared to use force. On July 14, the Parisian crowd
stormed the city’s largest prison Bastille and looted the arms. In the provinces the great fear
of July provoked the peasants against their lords. On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly
voted to end feudalism in order to put an end to the rights of landlords as well as the financial
privileges of nobles and clergy. On 26 August 1789, the National Assembly introduced the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. Crowds of women began to march on
October 5 addressing the concerns in Versailles. Over the next few years, legislative
assemblies worked to refine the government. A written constitution was drafted in 1791,
making France a constitutional monarchy. The Legislative Assembly declared war with
Austria in the spring of 1792. On 22 September, they proclaimed the First Republic after
France won the battle of Valmy. There was a Counter-revolution by the Radicals commonly
known as the sans-culottes, ordinary patriots without fine clothes. The Paris Commune
formed National Convention and killed Louis XVI in 1793 in Guillotine. Despite the creation
of the Committee of Public Safety, the war with Austria and Prussia went badly for France.
The furious citizens overthrew the National Convention and the Jacobins and Maximilien
Robespierre took control. But Robespierre, growing increasingly suspicious about counter-
revolutionary influences, started a Reign of Terror in late 1793–1794. During the period he
killed around 16000-40000 people at the guillotine. When the French army successfully
removed foreign invaders and the economy finally improved, Robespierre was executed on
28 July 1794. A new Constitution was created in 1795 and a Directory of 5 members was
created. However, the rule of Directory suffered from corruption and bribery and relied
heavily on the military. In 1799, General Napoleon Bonaparte carried out a coup d’état
against the directory, captured power and announced consulate. With Napoleon in charge, the
French Revolution ended and France entered a fifteen-year period of military rule.

There have been few impacts of the French Revolution. They are –
 The French Revolution became the role of model for revolution in the modern world.
 The power of nationalism was first experienced during the French Revolution, and it
is still influential in existing nations and emerging nations today.
 The French Revolution spread the principles of liberty and equality, which are
approached sincerely by many nations and individuals today.
 The old order was removed and a new order was established based on individual
rights, representative institutions, and loyalty to the nation rather than the monarch.
 The Principle of the ‘right to self-determination’ was articulated.
 Russian Revolution
Q. What is Communism and how is it different from Capitalism? What were the causes of the
Russian Revolution and how the revolution unfolded during the period of January 1917 till
the end of the Civil war?

The causes of Russian Revolution are -

 The Russo-Japanese War was fought during 1904–1905 between the Russian

Empire and the Empire of Japan over rival imperial ambitions
in Manchuria and Korea.
 The war concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by US
President Theodore Roosevelt.
 Russia had to accept the terms and conditions and settle with it. So, it was seen as a
defeat by the people of Russia.
 People got angry with the emperor Nicholas II and started to protest and demand
freedom. They wanted people’s participation in the decision-making process.
 Nicholas II established parliament and granted basic civil rights to the people by
issuing October Manifesto in 1905.
 The first Duma was established in 1906. There was demand for universal suffrage but
the voting system was not universal. The voting rights were elected rights. There was
demand for people participation in the decision-making process but Nicholas II
disagreed. He responded by a crackdown in the government. He had the Duma
dispersed by Royal troops after only ten weeks and the first Duma was dismissed.
 The second Duma was established in 1907 and suffered the same fate. The third
Duma was between 1907 to 1912. The fourth Duma was between 1912 to 1917 before
the revolution.