1 APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICITY 1.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A.C AND D.C In a closed electrical circuit, an electric current is the flow of free electrons. There are two kinds of electric current i.e. Direct current (D.C) and Alternating current (A.C). rect Current : A direct current has It flows in one direction only. @ the following characteristics : (ii) It always flows from the + ve terminal to — ve terminal of the supply. (ii) It may or may not have constant value and thus direct current may be : (a) Steady D.C. (b) Pulsating D.C. A direct current which has constant magnitude is called steady D.C. A graph of steady D.C. is drawn between current (along Y- axis) and time along X-axis. This graph is a straight line parallel to X -axis as shown in figure 1.1. Y-axis Current 0 Time X-axis Fig. 1.1 : Steady Direct Current A direct current which changes in magnitude with the passage of time but flows in the same direction in the circuit is called pulsating direct current. A pulsating D.C. is shown in figure 1.2(a), (6) —S> Current —> Current ——> Time (a) 0 —> Time (b) Fig. 1.2 : Pulsating D.C.ISHAN'S Basics of Electrical & Electronics Engineering r ccifically mentioned, D.C, means steady direct current, D.C. is supplied by cells, t ; onc rencrators. A citcuit in which Direct Current flows is called D.C. circuit. batteries and enerate 2. Alternating Current (i) Ichanges its d Gi) Inalso changes it's magnitude with time Analternating current has the following characteristics tion periodically. An alternating current is shown in figure 1.3 ——> Current AWA Aven Fig 1.3 : Alternating Current ACC. is supplied by A.C. Generator (Alternator) and oscillator. A circuit in which Alternating Current flows is called A.C. circuit. 1.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AC & DC (S.No. | Alternating Current _ ] 1. | Alternating current changes direction periodically. only Direct Current ct current flows in one direction 2. | The magnitude of A.C. varies with | The magnitude of steady D.C. does not | ime | vary with time 3. Alternating voltages can be stepped | D.C. supply cannot be stepped up or up or stepped down easily by using | stepped down easily transformers. 4, Wave shape of A.C. is Wave shape of steady D.C. is or 1 | | 5. A.C. power ean be easily tans ted | D.C. power at high voltages cannot be from one place to another easily transmitted trom one place to | Lt3 ‘Applications and Advantages of Electricity [SNe | Alternating Current a | ‘6. | In India the frequency of A.C. is 50 , Frequency of D.C. is 0 Hz | “He. all 7. | Skin effect occur in A.C. system. | In D.C. system there is no skin effect, Hence conductor resistance is | So conductor resistance is comparative | increased, small. | 8. | A.C. Power can be generated at high | D.C. Power cannot be generated at high voltage ie. 1] KV& 33 KV. voltage due to commutation problem | | (Generated up to 500 V). | 9. | In A.C. system, Voltage drop is | In D.C. System, comparatively less | comparatively more due to Inductive | Voltage drop because in d.c. there is no | reactance & Capacitive reactance. | effect of Inductive & Capacitive | V + IZ where Z is impedance of | reactance. So, V = IR | circuit. | | | | 10. | In A.C. System, at high voltage | In D.C. system, at high voltage Corona | | | Corona loss is large, loss is small. | In India supply frequency is 50 Hz and voltage is 230, V for single phase supply, 440 volts for 3 phase supply. In some countries like China, Japan, United States of America, the frequency of A.C is 60 Hz and supply voltage is 110 volt instead of 230 volt. One can find some Chinese Mobile Chargers rated for 50-60Hz, 110 V/230Volts. 1.3 VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICITY Electricity is a form of energy which causes the flow of Current in a closed circuit. Blectricity plays an important role in our day to day life. It has become a part and parcel of every one's life, may be rich or poor. Various applications of electricity in our daily life are 1. Lighting : It used for lighting purpose in houses, industries, institutions, offices. workshops and street lighting etc. Electrical energy is converted into light energy by use of lamps and fluorescent tubes, L.E.D ete. 2. Heating : Electricity is used for heating purposes. In houses it is used in the form of he alers, hot plates, room heaters, ovens, geysers etc. In industries, electricity it is used for heating Ovens, boilers, furnaces etc 3. Running of Motors : For domestic purposes, electricity is used to run the motors of appliances like ceiling fans, table fans, refrigerators, coole . air conditioners, water coolers etc. In industries, electric: ly runs the motors of various machines used in that industry, coal Conveyors, air conditioning plants etc. In offices it is used in fans, airconditioners, lifts etc. The clecttical energy is converted into mechanical energyISHAN'S Basics of Electrical & Electronics Engineering ing of metals is done with the help of electricity through welding 4, Welding : Weld' transformers and welding generators. Electroplating : Electrolysis process and electroplating of utensils and ornaments etc. are done with the use of electricity. A thin layer of precious/decorative material is laid over the surface of utencils/ornaments 6. Charging of Battery : Secondary batteries are charged by using electricity. These used in automobiles, invertors, U.P.S. etc. batteries are common! 1 in radios, C.D Player tape recorders, 7. In Sound System : Electricity finds its applicatio television and record players. Amplifiers also work on electric supply. 8, In Electronic Equipments : Electronic equipments like T.V., computers etc. also work on electric supply. 9, Telephones : Telephone system also operates with electricity. 10. For Theaters : In today's life an important application of electricity is in screening of films. 11. Relays : Different protection and alarm relays used in power houses and sub stations are operated with the use of electric supply. 12. Electric Traction : Electric traction also requires electric supply. 13, Communication System ; All communication systems like radio stations, T.V. broad casting station. Radars etc. require electrical energy for their operation. 1.4 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY OVER OTHER FORMS ENERGY Potential to do a work is called Energy. Energy can neither be created and nor destroyed. It is only converted from one form to another form. There are several types of energy. (i) Mechanical energy (ii) Electrical Energy (iii) Heat Energy (iv) Light Energy (v) Solar energy (vi) Chemical Energy (vii) Sound energy (viii) Wind energy. Electrical energy is mostly used in Industrial, Commercial and domestic field due to its advantages over other forms of energy. Some of the advantage of electri electri ee igs ical energy over other (a) Mis clean & cheap. (b) Itcan be easily controlled. (c)_ Itis more flexible (d)Whas higher efficiency i. It can be easily transmitted over long distance [tis environment frie 8 nO smoke or fumes are produced. (friendly as no s: S (g)_ Is operation is noiseless,Applications ani (A) @ a \d Advantages of Electricity It can be easily converted from one form to other. For example motor 1s a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Flectrical energy can be utilized instantaneously just by the press of a button. There is no time gap. Equipments operated on electrical energy are more reliable and safe to use. 4.4.1 Advantages of A.C. supply over D.C. Supply ‘A few advantages of a.c. supply over d.c. supply are : Supply voltage can be raised or lowered by using transformer in AC. as per requirement. It is not easy to do so in case of D.C. supply. For a given size of machine, the power generated in three phase alternator is three times the power generated in a d.c. generator. Smaller size of machine makes it cheaper. Generation of power at high voltages is easier in the case of a.c. than in the case of d.c. generation. It is because of commutation problem in d.c. generators. For transmission of a given amount of power over a given distance at a given voltage, the conductor material required in the case of three phase a.c. system is less than conductor required in two wire d.c. system. In case of 3 phase, 4 wire system two different voltages 230 V and 400 V can be obtained which is not possible in d.c. system. A.C. motors are simple in construction, rugged and require less maintenance. These are ‘comparatively cheap and smaller in size. 1.4.2 Advantages of D.C. Supply Over A.C. A few advantages of d.c. over a.c. are : In industries a.c. is commonly used but in some applications like battery charging, electroplating, electrolysis etc. only d.c. supply is suitable. D.C. motors are better suited for speed controls over wide range. In ac. transmission lines if there is no load at receiving end, charging current flows through the line. But in d.c. lines if there is no load at receiving end, there is no current flowing through the line. Alte 7 j A i oe current flowing through a.c. line produces alternating flux. This alternating lux interferes with telephone lines. This problem is not there in D.C. lines. In ac. lines, eddy cure: - lines, eddy current loss, dielectric loss and skin effect occurs whereas such losses are not there in d.c. lines.: QUANTITIES OF ELECTRICITY : AND POWER-FACTOR 2.1 ELECTRICITY Electricity is a form of energy which causes the flow of current in a closed circuit by movement of free electrons. This energy can be easily converted into different forms. Modern researches have established that electricity is a form of matter and electric current is matter in motion, 2.2 MODERN ELECTRON THEORY According to this theory, every matter whether it is solid, liquid or gaseous consists of tiny Particles which are further divisible. Phese tiny particles are called molecules. A molecule is made up of atoms. An atom is further divided into two parts : (Nucleus (ii) Extra-nucleus Nucleus : The central part of an atom containing neutrons and protons is called nucleus. A proton is a positively charged particle whereas a neutron is a chargeless particle. Thus, on the whole nucleus bears a positive charge. In the nucleus, these two particles (i.e. protons and neutrons) are held together with tremendous force. This force is called nuclear force. It is always attractive and strong in nature. The mass of proton is equal to mass of neutron and this total mass constitutes the entire mass of atom. Atomic mass = no. of protons + no. of neutrons. Mass of proton = 1.673 x 10°’kg Charge on proton = 1.602 x 10°C 4 Extra-nucteus : The outer part of an atom which contains electrons is called extra- nucleus. An clectron is a sub-atomic particle having negative charge (1.6 X 10°C) equal to 1 positive charge on proton (1.6 x 10°C), The mass of an electron is extremely small ie Te38 Michael Faraday is the Father of Electrify, Electricity was not made but it was discovered by " Thales of Miletus" in 600 A.D. it was invented as Static Electricity. After this, " Benjamin Franklin" discovered Lighting effect in 1752. 50, we can say that electricity was made by “Benjamin Franklin".Quantities of Electricity and Power-Factor a times the mass of proton or neutron, so it can be neglected. Thus, the nucleus constitutes the entire mass of an atom. Mass of electron = 9.11 x 107! kg Charge on electron = -1.60 x 10°'"°C The electrons move around the Nucleus in different orbits in a disciplined manner. Actually, the shape of an orbit is elliptical but for simplicity it is shown as circular Under normal conditions, number of electrons in an atom is equal to number of Protons. So, an atom is electrically neutral. The number of Protons or Electrons in an atom depends upon it's Atomic Number. Atomic number = No. of protons or electrons in an atom. A simple atomic structure is drawn in fig. 2.1 to understand the electrical behaviour of matter. The number of electrons in any orbit is given by following rules : (The number of electrons in an orbit is given by 2n’, where n is the number of that orbit, e.g. first orbit has 2 x 1? = 2 electrons second orbit ha s 2 x 2? =8 electrons (ii) The last orbit cannot have more than ae Fig. 2.1 : Atomic Structure of Aluminium (iii) The last but one orbit cannot have more than 18 electrons. 13 electrons of aluminium are distributed as 2, 8 and 3 in first, second and third orbit respectively. The outerrmost orbit of an atom can accomodate maximum of eight electrons but aluminium has only 3 electrons, hence it is an incomplete orbit. Out of these 3 electrons, only one electron is free to move among different atoms and is called free electron. The outermost orbit of an atom is called valence orbit/shell. The electrons present in this Shell are called valence electrons. 2.3 NATURE OF ELECTRICITY Every matter contains two basic particles i.e. electrons and protons. The arrangement of. these two particles in the matter determines it's electrical properties. Under normal conditions, a body does not exhibit any electrical property because number of electrons is equal to number of Protons making an atom electrically neutral. If some electrons are removed from a neutral body, deficiency of electrons 1s created. As a result number of protons becomes more than the number of electrons. Now the body attains a Positive charge.ISHAN'S Basics of Electrical & Electronics Engineering . 4 from a body, it becomes deficient of electrons and is rom : Thus, when electrons are detache : called positively charged body or positive a vs neal toy, then ta ese charge , if electrons are 5 tot res ra al positive charge. As a result, a body no longer remains neutral and attains becomes more than : ie peer charged body has more number of electrons than it's normal share, us, a nega 2,4 CHARGE A charged body contains either excess or lesser number of electrons than it's normal state. A body is said to be positively charged if it has deficiency of electrons and it is said to be negatively charged if it has excess of electrons. Unit : Practical, Unit of Charge is "Coulomb". Charge on 1 electron = ~ 1.6 x 10"? Coulomb. 1 16x10"? Similar charges repel each other. Opposite charges attract each other. + © Repel each other->+, — «Repel each other >—, + > attract each other-—, - > 1 Coulomb = = 6.28 x 10'* electrons. attract each other +. VOLTAGE Itis the electric pressure which causes an electric current to flow through a circuit. Electric current will flow through the circuit so long as this electric Pressure is maintained. Source of voltage are Batteries, Generator etc, When we apply voltage to an electrical circuit, an electric current will flow to cause the movement of free electrons. Unit : Voltage is measured in volts, Instrument used to measur ire the voltage is known as lJoules voltmeter. I volt = Colomb “One volt is that electrical pressure which c resistance of one Ohm. ‘uses one Ampere of current to flow through 4Quantities of Electricity and Power-Factor " 2.6 ELECTRIC CURRENT When an electric potential difference or volt ‘age is applied across a conductor, then electrons in the outermost orbit get detached from the nuc leus. These free electrons start moving towards electric circuit. Conventional Current : Earlier it was'believed Free electrons that some matter flows when a potential difference or AN voltage is applied across a conductor, and this matter flows from higher potential to lower potential i.e. positive terminal of battery to negative terminal. This { i i ar Direction of Direction. conventional direction of flow of current is still in conventional current of fow off use and it's direction is opposite to the direction of || | electron flow of electrons. Thus, conventional direction of = +] ||_ flow of current is from + ve terminal to - ve terminal Battery of the source through external circuit. Fig. 2.2 The magnitude of current in any conductor is rate of flow of charge with time, ie. current = charge/time or 1=8 t Unit : The unit of current is Ampere. (A) Instrument which measures the current is called Ammeter. Q As r== unit of charge is Coulomb and unit of time is second. ©. Unit of current is Coulomb/sec It Q=1 Coulomb, t= 1 see then T= ICS =1A So, one ampere current is said to flow through a conductor if one Coulomb of charge flows rough it is one second. As 1 Coulomb = Charge of 628 x 10" electrons 1. Coulomb 1 Second (1.610) x se “1 Ampere = 1 1 Coulomb = aren] nd 1ox10 S0,for 1 Ampere a 628 x 10 electrons flow per second at any section of the conduc‘orISHAN'S Basics of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 12 fond 6 One ampere of current is said to flow through a wire at any section if 628 x 10 clectrors pass dmaugh that wection in onc nected. A How of 100,000 electeone [por sea. oometlinien current of 1.6 x 10" A. 2.7 RESISTANCE ce The opposition offered by a material to the flow of current through it is called esate When a voltage is applied across a conductor, free electrons start moving in a particular direction i.e. towards + ve terminal of battery. During their movement, these electrons collide with atoms and molecules. These collisions offer opposition to flow of electrons and hence to the flow of current. Unit : The practical unit of resistance is Ohm (2). ‘A conductor is said to have a resistance of 1 Ohm if a potential difference of 1 volt makes a current of I ampere to flow through it. Factors on which Resistance depends : Resistance of a conductor depends upon following factors 1. Itis directly proportional to the Length of conductor i.e. R & / 1 2. _Iis inversly proportional to i's Area of cross-section, a ie. R % — 3. It depends upon nature of conductor [e.g - Gold has very low resistance but Iron has high resistance as compared to Gold, Silver, Copper.) 4. Itdepends upon the temperature of conductor. From first three points, we get R =p a Where p (Pronounced as Rho) is a constant and is called resistivity or specific resistance of conductor. Resistivity/Specific Resistance : The resistance offered by a wire of one metre length having cross-sectional area equal to one square metre is called resistivity or specific re that wire, Unit : Ohm - M or Q -M. 7 ELECTRICAL ENERGY When a voltage is applied across a circuit, of time. A work is done by the flow of charge, ince of 4 current flows through it for a particular period and this work done is called electrical energy. OR The total amount of work-done in an electrical circuit in a given time is called electricd energy. . We As potential difference = Work de ChargeQuantities of Electricity and Power-Factor 13, i. Vv Work done Q + Work done or electrical energy = VQ = Vit (because Q = It) a) =PRt(V=IR as per ohm's Law) (2) v2 =—tds R t(l=VW/R) ..Q) here V= potential difference or voltage in volts I= current in amperes t= time in seconds R= resistance in ohms Unit : The unit of electrical energy is Joule or Wat-sec. One Joule of energy is said to be ¢xpanded if | ampere of current passes through the circuit for 1 second when 1 volt of potential difference is applied across it. 1 Joule = 1 watt-sec, ie. Ajoule = 1 volt x 1 amp x 1 sec. Commercial unit of electrical energy is Kilowatt Hour and it is also called as Board of Trade (8.07) Unit. On the basis of this unit charges are made by electricity boards/electric supply companies. 1Kwh = 36 x 10° Joules The domestic consumers are charged on the basis of energy consumed which is measured by an energy meter. Large industrial consumers are charged on the basis of energy consumed maximum demand and it's power factor. Example 1. An 100 W electric lamp works for 10 hours. How much energy is consumed? Solution : In Domestic supply consumed energy is measured by Energy meter in Kilowatt Hour which is generally known as a unit. From above eq. 1 Energy Consumed = VIt watts Since energy meter measures energy in Kilo-watt Hour so, we divide above formula by 1000, Vit We get, ——_ KWH. ee 000 The Resistance of different materials is different. The Resistance of human when body has dry skin is $PProximately 104,000 Ohms and wet skin approximate 1000 Ohins . Average Resistance between Hand to Mand of a Human body is 1500 Ohms,ISHAN'S Basics of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 1oox10Hour — [VI=100 Watt = ~"1000 t=10 Hours 4 = 1 Unit is consumed. Hence a lamp of 100 watt consumes a energy of 1 Kwh in 10 Hours. ve ELECTRICAL POWER ‘The rate at which electrical energy is consumed in an electrical circuit is called electrical wer. : OR The rate of doing work in an electrical circuit is called electrical power. Work done in electric circuit ie. electrical power = = Vv pavt t =VI A) = tBraor =) 7 - oR t v2 “R 3) Unit : The unit of electrical power is watt. The power consumed in a circuit is said to be one watt, if one Ampere Current flows through it when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across it. ie. 1 watt = 1 Ampere x 1 volt. Another unit of power is "Horse Power (HP)" LLP. = 735.5 W 1 Watt = 0.001359 H.P. Electric power is of three types 1 Actual or Real or True Power. 2. Apparent Power. 3. Reactive Power, (@ Actual or Real or True Power : Actus eee + Actual power is the product of applied voltage, current andQuantities of Electricity and Power-Factor ie. Power (P) = VI cos Where, V = Voltage in volts T = Current in Amperes cos @ = power factor (p.f) @ = phase angle between voltage and current Fig. 2.3 Case I. When @= 0° then cos g = cos 0° = | P = VIcos @ = VI (1) = VI = Maximum Case I: When $= 90°, then cos 90 * P = Vi cos @ = VI (0) = 0 Minimum The actual power has the maximum value when the phase difference between voltage and current is 0° ie. when p.f = | and it’s value is minimum when angle between voltage & current vectors is 90° ie. when p.f=0 The actual power is also known as Active power or true power and is expressed in Watts (W). or Killo-watts (KW). IKW = 1000W Generally. Incandescent Lamp, Electric Heater, etc. are rated in Watt (Apparent Power : Apparent power is defined as the product of voltage and current ie. Apparent Power = V.I Apparent power is equal to Active Power when power factor is equal to unity Apparent power is expressed in Volt-Ampere (VA) or Killo-Volt Ampere (KVA) 1 KVA = 1000 VA Generally, electrical machines like motors, generators and transformers are rated in KVA. KW =KVA cos Example 2 : A transformer of I KVA rating is connected to load whose Power Factor is 0.9. What is the output in KW. Solution : KVA = KW Cosp ,. KW 0.9 KW =09 ~ Hence, | KVA transformer delivers a load of 0.9 KW According to British, | H.P = 746W in metric system | H.P = 7735.5 W.ISHAN'S Basics of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 16 f (iii) Reactive Power : The product 0 Voltage, Current and sine of angle between i T voltage and current is called Reactive powel i.e. Reactive power = VI sing The Unit of Reactive Power is VAR or KVAR Reactive power (KVAR) 1 KVAR = 1000 VAR pacar Ga) . Generally; All capacitors are rated in pe VAR Example 3. A motor of 200 KW whose power factor is 0.66. Find its KVA & KVAR rating. i kva = 5 Solution. as = 20 < 300 kVA 0.66 So, 200 KW = 300 KVA at 0.66 power factor. Thus: KVAR = \(KVAR)’ -(KW) = (00)? = (200) = 223.6 KVA So, 200 KW = 223.6 KVAR = 300 KVA at 0.66 power factor. 2,10 POWER FACTOR The power factor (i.e, cos ) ofa circuit can be defined in one of the following ways (Power factor = cos # = cosine of angle between V and I. R _ Resi (ii) Power factor = = Resistance Z Impedance (iii) Power factor = E1608 __ True power _ Apparent power For example, in a resistor, the current and voltage are in phase ie, @ = 0°. Therefore, power {acto of a pure resistive circuit is cos 0° = 1. Similarly, phase difference between voltage and “rent in a pure inductive or capacitive circuit is 90°. Hence power factor of pure L or C circuitQuantities of Electricity and Power-Factor 7 is zero. This is the reason that power consumed by pure L or C is zero. Power factor will be lie between 0 to 1. Power factor can never have a value greater than | because power factor is cosine of angle between voltage and current. Angle between voltage and current may have any value. But cosine of the angle always lies between 0 and 1. For example cos 30° = 5, cos 90° = 0, cos 0° = I etc. Power factor is considered in case of A.C. only therefore, Power P = VI cos p Power factor is always unity in case of D.C. Hence in case of D.C P = VI Fig. 2.5 R L AWWW TO0O™ AL y ey) Circuit Diagram Power factor can be Unity P.F Lagging P.F Leading P.F 2 a 1 Unity P.F occurs in case of resistive Load (lamp, Heater etc). When voltage and current are in phase. Lagging P.F occurs in case of inductive load (transformer, motor etc.). When current lags behind the voltage by some angle d. Leading P.F : Leading P.F occurs in case of capacitive load (Capacitor bank). When current is Leading the applied voltage by some angle @. ae Vector Diagram + I v V I I > Vv Fig, 2.6ISHAN'S Basics of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 18 2.1041 Causes of Low Power Factor -The following are the main causes of low Power factor. inductive loads 1. Transformers, Generator and chokes are induct bt behind the voltage ie., they operate at a lagging power factor. However, at normal loads, the magnetising current does not affect too much, but at Le loads or light loads, the magnetising current has notable effect and lowers the power factor. - / The motors which are used in industry are mostly induction motors having inductive loads, which have low power factor. Normally the power factor of induction motors varies form 0.8 to 0.85 when operating at full load and 0.3 to 0.5 when running lightly ive., at small loads. 3, Arc lamps, heating furnaces (Induct factor (lagging). 1s which cause the current to lag tion and are furnaces) also operate at a low power Disadvantages of Low Power Factor Power consumed in a single phase circuit @ P =Vicos@ 1-52 (ii) Vicosp From equations (i) and (ii) we see that for a fixed value of power and voltage, the load currents are inversly proportional to the power factor. Lower the power factor, higher is the current, and vice versa. The higher current results in the following disadvantages. 1. Larger Conductor Size : To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power at a fixed voltage at low power factor, the conductor will have to carry larger current which will necessitate a larger conductor size and hence higher cost. 2. Larger Copper Losses : Due to more current carri p : ied by the conductors, F increased which results in lower efficiency. Moy 3. Poor Voltage : pee 4 dace : Due to ee power factor and increased currents, the voltage 8, smi i ; rn ission/distribution lines is higher which results in poor 4. Large kVA Ratin, g of the Ki : f alternators and transformers is alwa Equipment : The output power of electrical machines e.g always rated in apparent power i.e., KVA Because KVA = Kw comp Thus, we see that the rating rating of the equipment is inversly proportional to the power factor. At r. low power factor, the value : of KVA will inci f factor, equipment increase, Therefore, for the : ‘quipment of higher KVA has to be installed which eee oa ed equipment. will increase the size and cost of theQuantities of Electricity and Power-Factor 19 5. Poor Efficiency : Due to the low power factor efficiency of all our system is decreased. Efficiency of a machine is given by 7 = Output Output+Losses Losses will be higher at low power factor. 2.10,3 Advantages of Improved Power Factor When the power factor of the system is improved, then the current flowing through whole of the system decreases for the same load. A decrease in current has following advantages. 1, Smaller conductor size. Lower copper losses. Less voltage drop, better regulation. For the same kW out put, smaller kVA rating of the equipment. Better efficiency. vren 2.11 INSTRUMENTS USED FOR MEASUREMENT Instruments used for the measurement of various electrical quantities are as below : Quantity to be Measured Name of Instrument 1 Voltage Voltmeter. 2. Current Ammeter 3. Power Wattmeter 4 Energy Energy meter 5. Power factor Power factor meter (@/ Voltage : It is measured by connecting a voltmeter in parallel with the supply Voltméter is always connected in parallel because it's resistance is high. If by mistake, we connect voltmeter in series, more voltage drop occurs in the coil of the voltmeter. In case of D.C supply, care should be taken about proper polarity of supply. Positive terminal of voltmeter must always be connected to positive terminal of D.C supply and Negative terminal of voltmeter must always be connected to Negative terminal of D.C supply. But, in case of A.C supply polarity does not matter. It's unit is volts. AC. or D.C. ‘uppl 7) A.C. or supply NY) D.C. voltmeter Connection of Voltn Fig. 2.7 : Connection of Voltmeter tor