448 Figure 9-1 | (concluded) Electric Machinery and Power System Fundamentals © @ two-wire line. We will then use the equations for this line to explain the how: Guctor size and spacing affect resistance, inductance, and capacitance in any mission line, | The moré complex inductance and capacitance calculations for t transmission lines with varying geometries and conductor bundle sizes will derived here: Most power engineers will never calculate the resistance, indi and capacitance per unit length of a transmission line—instead, they will simply them up in @ table provided by the line designers. Therefore, this chapter will centrate more on how to use the transmission line characteristics, and not on. to calculate therm. Refer to Reference 2 for more details on. how to calculate mission line values in complex situations. * 9.1] RESISTANCE ‘The DC resistance of a conductor is given by the equation al Roo ==CHAPTER 9 Transmission Lines 1 = length of the conductor A = cross-sectional area of the conductor p= resistivity of the conductor ST units, length is measure in meters (mm), area is measured in square meters (a), resistivity is measured in ohm-meters (Q-m). The DC resistance per meter of the luctor is given by the equation roc = 2) rpc is measured in ohms pet meter (Q/m). ‘The resistivity of a conductor is a fundamental property of the material that the juctor is made from. It varies with both on the type and temperature of the mate- For example, the resistivity of hard-drawn copper at 20° Cis 1.77 X 10-*0-m, the resistivity of aluminum at 20° C is 2.83 < 10-$ 0-m. ‘The resistivity of a conductor increases linearly with temperature over the nor- range of temperatures found in transmission lines. Ifthe resistivity of a conduc js known at one temperature, then it can be found at another temperature using the swing equation: 3) jemperature 1, in °C temperature 2, in °C ‘pn = resistivity at temperature T; cesistivity at temperature T, temperature constant M temperature constant, M is the crossover temperature for the extrapolated. Sstivity of a particular conductor. Table 9-1 contains the resistivities at 20°C and ature constants for several common types of conducting materials. ‘able 9-1 | Resistivity and temperature constants of different materials Resistivity at 20°C ((-m) Temperature constant ('C) Mater ‘Annealed copper 472x410 2345 Haid-crawn copper 477 x 10° 2415 “Alurinum 228. fron 1600 243.0 iver pr an kt450 Electric Machinery and Power System Fundamentals Notice from Table 9-1 that copper is a better conductor than aluminum, re is an even better conductor than copper. If that is so, why are most sion lines made out of aluminum? The answer is that aluminum is much ch copper or silver. Since aluminum is cheap and relatively light, conductors aluminum can be bigger in diameter than the corresponding copper condu ering the resistance of the line by having a larger area A to offset the higher ity p of the material. The AC resistance of a conductor is always higher than its DC because of skin effect. The AC current distribution in a conductor is not uni frequency increases, more and more of the current is concentrated near the: face of the conductor. This concentration reduces the effective area of the: raising its resistance in accordance with Equation (9-2), The details of how to calculate the AC resistance of a conductor from resistance and the frequency of the current can be found in Reference 2. As 2 cal matter, all wire vendors supply tables of the resistance per unit length conductor they manufacture at all common frequencies (50 and 60 Hz). Mc engineers will simply look up the values that they need from the vendor’s 9.2 | INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE ‘The series inductance of a transmission line consists of two component nal inductance and its extemal inductance. Te intemal inductance is due to neti flux inside the conductor, while the external inductance is due tothe flux outside the conductor. We will consider the intemal and external in separately. ‘The inductance ofa transmission line is defined as the number of flux produced per ampere of curent flowing through the lin. | A : Ee] ‘The flux linkages are measured in weber-tums (Wb-tutns). To calculate the i and external inductances ofa line, we must calculate the internal and ext linkages and divide by the current flow. Internal Inductance Aconductor of radius r carrying current Jis shown in Figure 9-2. The magni intensity at a distance x from the center of this conductor is given the symbol. magnitude of this magnetic intensity can be found from Ampere’s law: GH. dl=T, Where'H, is the magnetic field intensity at each point along a closed path, vector of length di along the path, and J, is the net current enclosed in the patCHAPTER 9 Transmission Lines 451 circular path of radius x shown in Figure 9-2, the magnitude of H, is constant, the vector dl is always parallel to H,, Therefore, Equation (9-5) reduces to 2axH, = I, L hag 6) b Units of magnetic intensity are henrys per meter (H/m). 9-2 I Cross section of a current-carrying conductor. The current flow in this conductor is out of the page. If we assume that the current is distributed uniformly in the conductor, then the ‘current enclosed in a circular path of radius x will be the total current in the con- 1 times the ratio of the area inside the path to the total area of the conductor, ax? Lr (2) mr fore, the magnetic intensity at any radius x inside the conductor will be 2 H,=545 (2-8) ‘The flux density B, at a distance x from the center of the conductor can be found Equation (9-8) and Equation (1-21). B=nH (2p stituting Equation (1-21) into Equation (9-8) yields the desired expression. a Qar B= BH, = 9) units of flux density are webers per square meter, or teslas (T). :Electric Machinery and Power Systom Fundamentals ‘The differential magnetic flux contained in a circular tube of thi ‘a distance x from the center of the conductor will be the flux density: ‘cross-sectional area of the element normal to the flux lines, which is de axial length. ag = ae Whim 2arr’ ‘The flux linkages dA per meter of length due to the flux in the tube are the: ‘the flux per meter and the fraction of the current linked. ered 2art ‘We can find the total internal flux linkages per meter by integrati center of the conductor to the outside edge. x w= fom [ Sne er Finally, we can substitute Equation (912) into Equation (9-4) to calcul nal inductance per meter, n= 2a Rete = dx Wh-tumns/m a ar ‘Wh-turns/m. ca If the relative permeability of the conductor is 1 (as it would be for nonté materials such as copper and aluminum), this inductance reduces to h Aim _ Ho _ 4a X 1077 1 80 8x 4 =x 107 Him External Inductance Between Two Points Outside of the ‘To calculate the inductance external to a conductor, we must be able to flux linkages of the conductor due only to the portion of flux between and P, that lie at distances D, and D3 respectively from the center of the (see Figure 9-3). In the region external to the conductor, the magnetic intensity at a from the center of the conductor is still given by Equation (9-6) Ie or A, However, this time alf of the current in the conductor lies within the equal to the total current I in the conductor.HAPTER 9 Transmission Lines 9-31 A conductor and two external points P, and Pe a as ‘Bux she flux density B, ata distance x from the center of the conductor can be Found “Equation (9-15) and Equation (1-21): BL By= wHs= Fay (9-16) nits of flux density are webers per square meter, or teslas (T) ‘The differential magnetic flux contained in a circular tube of thickness dx and stance x from the center of ‘the conductor will be the flux density times the aret anal area of the element nomial to the-finx lines, which is ds times the tength. db= # dx Wolm on this lux links the fol current carried by the conductor, dX = >, and a= db= Ka ‘Wo-turns/m (18) ‘Therefore, the total flux linkage per meter between any (WO points P; and P, at es D, and Dp from the center ofthe conductor can be found as mt al De Dew = iF an= [aa Ie In Be Woetwrnsim (9-19) ly, we can substitute Equation (9-19) into Equation (0-4) to calculate the exter- inductance per meter due only (0 the flux between points Py and P>. (9-20)Electric Machinery and Power System Fundamentals, Inductance of a Single-Phase Two-Wire Transmission Line We now know enough to determine the series inductance of the single- wire transmission line shown in Figure 9-4. This figure shows the two each of radius r and separated by a distance D, with current flowing into the left-hand conductor and current flowing out of the page in the right ductor, The magnitudes of the currents J flowing in the two conductors are ‘opposite. Figure 9-4 | A single-phase two-wire transmission line. Each conductor has ‘and the spacing between conductors is D. ‘The figure also shows two circular paths around the left-hand con ner path of radius x, encloses only the left-hand conductor, so the line i that path will produce a net magnetic intensity, because there is a net ct in the path! padi On the other hand, the outer path of radius x, encloses both conduct currents are equal and opposite in the two conductors, the net current this path is 0! Therefore, there is no net contribution to the total ind the magnetic field at distances greater than D, the separation be conductors. To find the total inductance per unit length of a phase in this tra ‘we muust add up the internal inductance of the conductor and the external between distance r (the surface of the conductor) and D (the largest encloses a net current). These two components of inductance can be ‘Equations (9-13) and (9-20). Therefore, the total inductance per unit phase in this transmission line isCHAPTER 9 Transmission Lines w(t, 2) 1= ag t be A(t+ m2) Him (9-21) symmetry, the total inductance of the other phase is the same, so the total indue- of the two-phase transmission Line is (9-22) +e ris the radius of each conductor and D is the distance between conductors. derstanding the Inductance of a Transmission Line sion (0-22) describes the inductance per unit length of a single-phase, two-wire ission line, Similar equations can be derived for three-phase lines, and for using more than one wire in each phase. The mathematics involved is tedious, depends on the geometry of the transmission line. It is not covered in this text. 1 practical matter, most working engineers will find the inductance of a transmis~ line from lookup tables provided by the designers of the line. See Reference 2if would like to get more details about how to perform these calculations for arbi- arrangements of conductors in two~ and three-phase transmission Lines. “instead of spending a lot of time with various special cases, we will use Equa- (9-22) to derive a general understanding about the behavior of inductance in all smission lines. The key points are summarized below: 1. The greater the spacing between the phases of a transmission line, the tor the inductance of the line. ‘Tris point is obvious from Equation (9-22). 1c distance between the phases increases, the ratio D/r increases, and therefore the inductance of the line increases. Since the phases of higher-voltage transmiis- Jines must be spaced further apart for insulation purposes, a single-conductor voltage line will tend to have a higher inductance than a single-conductor tov- ge line, Note also that the spacing between lines in cables is very small, so the series in- ince of buried cables will be much smaller than the inductance of overhead smission lines. 2. The greater the radius of the conductors in a transmission line, the lower inductance of the line, If the radius of a conductor r is increased, the ratio Dir s, and therefore the total inductance of the line decreases. Practical trans- Jon lines do not use conductors of extremely large radius, because they would be heavy, inflexible, and expensive. However, they do approximate this behavior ‘bundling two, three or more conductors together in each phase, as shown in Fig- 9-5, Ifa series of individual conductors is distributed along the circumference of ‘circle, then the behavior of the bundle is approximately like the behavior of a sin- ‘conductor with a very large radius. The more conductors included in the bundle, better this approximation becomes. This bundling of conductors in a phase can be seen in the photographs in Figure 9-1 455ase Electric Machinery and Power System Fundementals Figure 9-5 | A bundle of conductors arranged along the circumference of a circle behaves approximately ‘single conductor with the radius of the circle, The more conductors included in the bundle, the: better the approximation becomes. (a) Three conductors in bundle. (b) Four conductors in (6) Photo of a transmission line wih two conductors in bundle. (d) Photo of a transmission line with four conductors in bundle. ‘Very high voltage transmission lines usually include two, three, or more; conductors per phase spaced at locations on the circumference of a circle. allel conductors reduce the series tesistance of the transmission line, and effective radius of the bundle reduces the seties inductance of the trans partially compensating for the increased inductance due to wider phase sy Inductive Reactance ‘The series inductive reactance of a transmission line depends on both the i of the line and the frequency of the power system. If the inductance per uni of aline is /, then the inductive reactance pet unit length will be x=jol=pofl where fis the frequency of the transmission line, To find the total series actance of a transmission line, we can just multiply the inductive reactance Tength times the length of the line Xaad where d is the length of the line, 9.3 | CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE ‘When a voltage is applied to a pair of conductors separated by a noni dielectric medium, charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign accumulate:CHAPTER 9 Transmission Lines re 9-5 (concluded) @ conductors. The charge deposited on the conductors is proportional to the ap- ‘voltage, and the constant of proportionality is the capacitance C. qaev 9-25) = the charge on the conductors in coulombs V = the voltage between the conductors in volts C= the capacitance between the pair of conductors in farads Traditional capacitors are designed as two parallel plates separated by a di- ic material, because this design maximizes capacitance. However, there is a citance between any two conductors, including the phases of a power system. In AC power systems, a transmission line carries a time-varying voltage that jn each phase. This alternating voltage causes the charges on individual to increase and decrease with time in accordance with Equation (9-25), and changing charges produce a charging current. The charging current increases -euerent in the transmission line, and changes the power factor and voltage drop of458 Electric Machinery and Power System Fundamentals the line. Note that charging current flows in a transmission line even when circuited The capacitance of a transmission line can be deterrhined using Gauss’s as the inductance of a transmission line was found from Ampere’s law. states that the total electric charge within a closed surface is equal to the t flux emerging from the surface. In other words, the total charge within the face is equal to the integral over the surface of the normal components of flux density. fp-aa=q where = the charge inside the surface, in coulombs D = the electric flux density at the surface, in C/m? dA = the unit vector normal to the surface, in m* The electric flux density D at a point is given by the equation D=& where ¢ is the permittivity of the material surrounding the conductor, electric field intensity at that-point. The permittivity of free space eis 8. farads per meter, and the permittivity of any other material is expressed as is essentially equal to the free space permittivity 2 ‘The Electric Field Around-a Long, Straight Conductor The voltage or potential difference V between two points is equal to joules needed to move a coulomb of charge from one point to the other one. tric field intensity E is the force exerted on a coulomb of charge at a gi the electric field. The units of potential difference are volts, and the units field intensity are either newtons per coulomb or yolts per meter (they are units). Since capacitance is defined as the ratio of charge to voltage between we must be able to calculate the voltage difference between those points i calculate capacitance. In this section, we will lear how to calculate: the difference (voltage) between two points near an isolated conductor, and i section we will extend that calculation to detetmtine the capacitance of conductors. An isolated conductor with a positive charge on its surface is shown 9-6, Note that the lines of electric flux radiate uniformly outward from the: the conductor. For this nice, uniform situation, the flux density vector D iCHAPTER 9 Transmission Lines jnate on positive charges and terminate on ‘tively charged conductor in isolation, the tributed around the radius of the conductor. ire 9-6 | Lines of electic flux orig negative charges. For a pos lines of flux are uniformly dist Je] to the normal vector dA, and D is constant in magnitude at all points around: path of constant radius r from the center of the conductor. Therefore, Gauss’s law juces to 29) (9-30) being considered, ¢ is the charge on the con- the conductor. Therefore, the flux per unit length of the conductor ere [is the length of the conductor tor per unit length, and @ isthe total charge on ity D canbe expressed in terms of the charge the distance from the conductor to the point P as 4 DS tax 031) sn Equations (9-27) asd (0~31)s te electric field intensity E at point P can be pressed as 4 e=se (9-32) ste that the direction of Eis always radially ovtward from the conduct, "The potential difference between two points Py and Pais the integral of the elec- sce eld intensity K along the path of integration between the points Vaz [Beal 9-33) nt tangential to the path of integration between ‘fields that the path Laken between the two points the same regardless of the path taken. where dl is a differential elemer P, and P;. Ibis a property of electri fs irrelevant—the answer will always bs asoFlecitic Machinery and Power System Fundamentals ween the points, we can make this cal Figure 9-7 shows a path between the two points that goes radially outward to Pix, and then along a: circle of constant radius from Piq to P,, Note that the: and dl are parallel inthe first segment, and perpendicular in the second vr efore, the dot product K- dls just E dx inthe frst segment, and 7er0 cond segment. Equation (933) thus reduces to > [ee Nb, bq = [, Ina q (D; * Sle) Figure 9-7 | Ifthe path of integration between points P, and Pals chaser ie separate components, one racial and one clreurierential then ‘Mbaration becomes very simple. The radial portion of the paths ‘parallel fo tho E vector, and the circumferential potion ofthe perpendicular tothe E vector By aclever choice of path bet ‘The Capacitance of a Single-Phase length of a single-phase two-wire difference between the two lines for ‘Two-Wire Transmissi ‘To determine the capacitance per unit Tine, we must calculate the voltage amount of charge on the line. Consider a transmission line consisting radius separated by a distance D, as shown in difference between the two conductors, we must first determine the pote nce between a point atthe surface ofthe first conductor and the Location ‘ond conductor due to the charge on the conductor a. Then, we must the surface of the second condi potential difference between a point att vecation ofthe first conductor due to the charge on conductor b, Finally, We up the two potential differences to get the total voltage between the o “The potential difference duc tothe charge on conductor a can be found ing Equation (9-35): ‘Figure 9-8. To determine theCHAPTER 9 Transmission Lines wre 9-8 | A single-phase two-wire transmission line with a pair of conductors of radius r separated by a distance D. Oo 78 Vane= s10(2) 0-36) ly, the potential difference due to the charge on conductor b is in (9-37) (9-38) total voltage between the lines is thus Vas = Vana + Vous = 3et5 10 al -~ (9-39) Ga = — % = q this equation reduces to Vas = ein (9-40) ‘The capacitance per unit length between the two conductors ofthe transmission is thus ‘ | \ ! 41) ‘The potential difference between each conductor and the ground or neutral is ypalf the total potential difference between the two conductors, so the capacitance ‘ground of this single-phase transmission line will be Cy = Con = Son = ne ip (9-42) 7, afElectiic Machinery and Power System Fundamentals ‘Understanding the Capacitance of a Transmission Line Equation (9-41) describes the capacitance per unit length of a single-phase, transmission line. Similar equations can be derived for three-phase lines with geometries. The mathematics involved is tedious, and is not covered in this a practical matter, most working engineers will find the shunt capacitance of mission line from lookup tables provided by the designers of the line. See 2 if you would like to get more details about how to perform these cale arbitrary arrangements of conductors in two- and three-phase transmission Instead of spending a lot of time with various special cases, we will tion (9-41) to derive a general understanding about the behavior of indus transmission lines. The key points are summarized below: 1. The greater the spacing between the phases of a transmission line, the capacitance of the line, This point is obviogs from Equation (9-42). tance between the phases increases, the rati Dir increases, and therefore the pacitance of the line decreases. Since the phases of higher-voltage transmis ‘ust be spaced farther apart for insulation purposes, a single-conductor hi line will tend to have a lower capacitance than a single-conductor low- Note also that the spacing between conductors in a cable is very s shunt capacitance of buried cables will be much larger than the shuent ca overhead transmission lines. This high capacitance means that a cable higher shunt admittance than an overhead transmission line of equivalent therefore a much higher charging current. This high charging current limits imum length of cables in power systems. Overhead transmission lines of dred kilometers are common, but an underground cable of that length unusable because of the high charging currents, Underground cables are ‘used for short transmission lines in urban areas, where the short line lengtt total capacitance down and the charging current under control. 2. The greater the radius of the conductors in a transmission line, the capacitance of the line, If the radius of a conductor r is increased, the decreases, and therefore the total capacitance of the line increases. As we in this chapter, several conductors are sometimes bundled together in bi ‘transmission lines to reduce the inductance of the lines. However, this b creases the effective radius of each phase, increasing the capacitarice. mission Tine design is a compromise among the conflicting requirements series inductance, low shunt capacitance, and a large enough separation to: insulation between the phases, Shunt Capacitive Admittance ‘The shunt capacitive admittance of a transmission Tine depends on both the tance of the line and the frequency of the power system. If the capacitance pe length of a line isc, then the shut admittance per unit length will be yn jac = afCHAPTER 9 Transmission Lines where fis the frequency of the transmission line. To find the total shunt admittance ofa transmission line, we can just multiply the admittance per unit length times the ength of the line Y=yd=j2afed (o-44) cre d is the length of the line. The corresponding capacitive reactance is the reci- focal of the admittance: Zo= We 0-45) = B000-V, 60-Hz, single-phase, two-wire transmission line consists of hard-drawn minum conductors with a radius of 2 om, The two conductors are spaced 1.2m part, the transmission line is 30 km long, and the temperature of the conductors is .. Answer the following questions about this transmission line: ‘What is series resistance per kilometer of this transmission line? What is sories incluctance per kilometer ofthis transmission line? ‘What is shunt capacitance per kilometer of this transmission line? What is total series reactance of this transmission line? ‘What is total shunt admittance of this transmission line? ‘Solution : ‘The series resistance of this transmission line fs given by Equation (9 ol i OA {fw ignore skin effect, the resistivity ofthe line at 20°C will be 263 10 "The resistance per kilometer of the line will be cs Bl (288 X 10° D-M\1000) _ 5 9595 an A 7 (002F “ b. The series inductance per meter of this transmission line is given By Equation (9-22). wt D\ (snd) win 4 12 Si a H(t mde) = 1.700% 10 SHfrn u Therefore the inductance per kilometer will be [= 1.738 x 1079 Hiker, re 463.464 Electric Machinery and Power System Fundamentals The shunt capacitance per meter of this transmission line is. given by Equation (9-41), s = EUROS 10 SFM) _ 6.704 x 10> FI a ( 3) . Therefore the capacitance per klometer will be Gu = 6.794 X 10-9 Fikm d. The series impedance of this transmission line per kilometer will + jx r+ j2abc = 0.0225 + j2m(60)(1.738 X 10°) 25 + J0.655 O/km ‘Therefore the total series impedance will be Za = (0.225 + [0.655 Mfkrn)(30 km) = . The shunt-admittance ofthis transmission line per kilometer will Yon = [Bato = j2m(60\(6.794 x 10-? Fk) ‘Therefore the total shunt admittance wil be Yon = (/2.561 x 10° Sikm)(30 km) = j7.684 x 10-58 _The corresponding shunt capacitive reactance is Les 675 + 19.7.0 2.561 x 10° | Zn = Way = 107.684 X 10-$ 8) = ~J18.0k 9.4 | TRANSMISSION LINE MODELS Unlike generators, motors, or transformers, transmission lines are pi tended over tens or hundreds of kilometers. As a result, the resistance, and capacitance associated with the transmission line are also distributed length of the line (see Figure 9-9). Figure 9-9 | A transmission line is characterized by a series resistance per. a sories inductance per unit length, and a shunt capacitance length. This might be modeled as a repeating series of lumped ‘each representing the resistance, reactance, and capacitance ‘segment of the entire line. Rf Fk ob oe ok ktCHAPTER 9 Transmission Lines ‘The distributed series and shunt elements of the transmission line make it harder to model than the transformers and motors that we have already studied. Such a dis- tribution might be approximated by many small discrete Jumped resistors, inductors, ‘and capacitors, as shown in Figure 9-9, but the time required to calculate the volt- ‘ages and currents flowing through the line would be excessive because of the need to solve for the voltages and currents at all the nodes in the transmission line. Alter- nately, we could solve the exact differential equations for a transmission line, but this is also not very practical in a large power system containing many transmission lines. line models without causing severe errors in calculations. Overhead transmission ines shorter than about 80 km (50 miles) can be modeled as a simple series resis- .c and inductance, since the shunt capacitance will be negligible over shott dis- tances. The per-phase model of a short transmission line is shown in Figure 9-10a. ‘ote that the inductive reactance at 60 Hz for overhead lines will typically be much anger than the resistance of the lines, while the shunt capacitance will be negligible. ‘Medium-length lines are those between about 80 km (50 miles) and 240 km (150 iles). The shunt capacitance cannot be neglected for these lines, but it can be ade- muately modeled by two lumped capacitors, one before and one after the series im- jance, each equal to one-half the line’s total capacitance. Tie per-phase model of -medium-length transmission line is shown in Figure 9-10b. ‘will be discussed later in the chapter, . gure 8-10 | (a) For short transmission lines, the shunt capacitance can be eglected. This produces in a per-phaso model consisting ofa series resistance and inductance only. (b) For moium-length transmission lines, the shunt capacitance can be divided into two lumped ‘components, one before and one after the series impedances. ROL be Ns Ve ‘The total series resistance, series reactance, and shunt admittance of a trans- ‘mission line can be calculated from the following equations Rand © (0-46) O47) (9-48) Fortunately, it is possible to make some simplifications of typical transmission -