Brooke Devlon

“Dietary Intake, Body Composition and Nutrition Knowledge of Australian Football and Soccer Players: Implications for
Sports Nutrition Professionals in Practice” by Devlin BL, Leveritt MD, Kingsley M, Belski R
International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism
© 2016 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Note: This article will be published in a forthcoming issue of

the International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise
Metabolism. This article appears here in its accepted, peer-
reviewed form; it has not been copyedited, proofed, or
formatted by the publisher.
Section: Original Research
Article Title: Dietary Intake, Body Composition and Nutrition Knowledge of Australian
Football and Soccer Players: Implications for Sports Nutrition Professionals in Practice
Authors:
Affiliations: Brooke L Devlin1, Michael D Leveritt2, Michael Kingsley3, and Regina Belski1
Running Head: 1Department of Rehabilitation, Nutrition and Sport, La Trobe University,

Bundoora, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. 2School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences,
The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia. 3La Trobe Rural Health School, La
Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC.
Journal: International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise
Acceptance Date: September 15, 2016
©2016 Human Kinetics, Inc.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2016-0191
Section: Original Research
Title: Dietary intake, body composition and nutrition knowledge of Australian football and soccer
players: implications for sports nutrition professionals in practice
Authors: Brooke L Devlin 1
Michael D Leveritt 2
Downloaded by La Trobe University Lib on 10/27/16, Volume 0, Article Number 0
Michael Kingsley3
Regina Belski 1
1
Institution: Department of Rehabilitation, Nutrition and Sport, La Trobe University, Bundoora,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia. 2 School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of
3
Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia. La Trobe Rural Health School, La Trobe University,
Bendigo, VIC.
Corresponding Author: Brooke L Devlin. La Trobe University, Kingsbury Drive, Bundoora,
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, 3086. Email: b.devlin@latrobe.edu.au. Phone: +61 3 9479 5601
Running Head: Athletes’ dietary intake, body composition and nutrition knowledge
Word Count: 3231
Figures: 0
Tables: 4
Abstract
Sports nutrition professionals aim to influence nutrition knowledge, dietary intake and body
composition to improve athletic performance. Understanding the interrelationships between these
factors and how they vary across sports has the potential to facilitate better-informed and targeted
sports nutrition practice. This observational study assessed body composition (DXA), dietary intake
(multiple-pass 24-hour recall) and nutrition knowledge (two previously validated tools) of elite and
sub-elite male players involved in two team-based sports; Australian football (AF) and soccer.
Differences in, and relationships between, nutrition knowledge, dietary intake and body composition
between elite AF, sub-elite AF and elite soccer players were assessed. A total of 66 (23 ± 4 years,
82.0 ± 9.2 kg, 184.7 ± 7.7 cm) players participated. Areas of weaknesses in nutrition knowledge are
evident (57% mean score obtained) yet nutrition knowledge was not different between elite and sub-
elite AF and soccer players (58%, 57% and 56%, respectively, p > 0.05). Dietary intake was not
consistent with recommendations in some areas; carbohydrate intake was lower (4.6 ± 1.5 g/kg/day,
4.5 ± 1.2 g/kg/day and 2.9 ± 1.1 g/kg/day for elite and sub-elite AF and elite soccer players,
respectively) and protein intake was higher (3.4 ± 1.1 g/kg/day, 2.1 ± 0.7 g/kg/day and 1.9 ± 0.5
g/kg/day for elite and sub-elite AF and elite soccer players, respectively) than recommendations.
Nutrition knowledge was positively correlated with fat-free soft tissue mass (n = 66; r2 = 0.051, p =
0.039). This insight into known modifiable factors may assist sports nutrition professionals to be more
specific and targeted in their approach to supporting players to achieve enhanced performance.
Keywords: sports dietitian, team-based sport, nutrition

Introduction
Australian football (AF) and soccer are two popular team-based sports in Australia. Although
the physiological game demands and movement patterns vary, they are both considered high intensity
and intermittent in nature, with players involved in intensive periods of play, interspersed with periods
of recovery or less intense activity (Di Salvo et al., 2009; Gray & Jenkins, 2010). Nutrition is a small,
yet important, component contributing to the athletic performance of players in AF and soccer. The
contributions of sport nutrition professionals are becoming increasingly recognised in team-based
sport settings. However, due to budget and time constraints as well as competing pressures, not all
sporting organisations have the capacity to employ qualified nutrition professionals.
Nutrition practices of athletes are influenced by many factors such as culture, beliefs, self-
efficacy and nutrition knowledge (Birkenhead & Slater, 2015). Sports nutrition professionals aim to
support athletes by influencing their level of nutrition knowledge in order to make positive changes in
dietary intake, which ultimately result in enhanced performance. Additionally, with appropriate
nutrition and training, body composition of athletes can effectively be manipulated to achieve ideal
body composition for the chosen sport (Holway & Spriet, 2011). Sports nutrition professionals have a
comprehensive understanding of current sport nutrition recommendations and the ability to
personalise advice. Furthermore, they possess the skills to implement the science of nutrition into
practice. As a result, the role of a sports nutrition professional in contributing to peak performance is
highly valuable.
However, the assessment of the factors that a sports nutrition professional can influence
(nutrition knowledge, dietary intake and body composition) is largely unexplored in team-based sport
players, particularly within one study. To increase the effectiveness and recognise the areas a sports
nutrition professional can improve, a better understanding of known modifiable factors is required.
Therefore, this study aims to explore three modifiable factors a sports nutrition professional can
influence in a team-based sport setting by investigating two popular team-based sports and assessing
the relationships between these modifiable factors.

Methods
Design
This cross-sectional, observational study assessed nutrition knowledge (questionnaire),
dietary intake (multiple pass 24-hour recall) and body composition of elite and sub-elite male players
involved in two popular team-based sports in Australia; AF and soccer. Participants attended the
laboratory at the end of the preseason period (just prior to the start of the competitive season). Due to
different competitive seasons, this time point allowed comparisons between three different team-
based sport groups. Furthermore, all players had completed an extensive preseason training period and
consequently this was a time when assessment of dietary intake, body composition and nutrition
knowledge could be considered optimal in preparation for a competitive season. All measures were
taken on one occasion.
Participants
Elite AF players were recruited from one professional AF club competing in the Australian
Football League. Sub-elite AF players were recruited from a combination of three clubs competing in
the state-based competition known as the Victorian Football League. Soccer players were recruited
from one A-league soccer club competing in the Australian competition, run by the Football
Federation Australia. All participants were provided with verbal and written communication of the
scope and risks of the study prior to signing an approved consent form. La Trobe University Human
Research Ethics Committee approved the study.
Nutrition Knowledge
Nutrition knowledge was measured using a combination of the General Nutrition Knowledge
Questionnaire (GNKQ) and a sport specific tool, which have been previously validated (Parmenter &
Wardle, 1999; Hendrie et al., 2008; Shifflett et al., 2002). The tool has been described in detail
previously (Devlin & Belski, 2015). It contained 123 items relating to five areas of nutrition; dietary
recommendations, sources of nutrients, choosing everyday foods, alcohol and sports nutrition. Each
item carried one point for a correct answer. Participants completed the questionnaire in approximately
30 minutes under the supervision of researchers.
Dietary intake assessment
Reported dietary intake was obtained via multiple-pass 24-hour recalls. Details of this method
have been described previously (Johnson et al., 1996; Jonnalagadda et al., 2000). All players provided
dietary intake for a ‘training day’ during the end of preseason period of all football codes. Dietary
intake data was subsequently entered into Foodworks© Software (Xyris, Brisbane, QLD) to estimate
nutrient intake composition. All food and beverages were analysed, including protein powders and
sports drinks. Vitamin and mineral supplements were excluded as macronutrient intake was the focus
of the current study. Average energy and macronutrient intakes (carbohydrate, protein, fat) were
obtained. Throughout the multiple pass 24-hour recall probing process, qualitative information
regarding food choice preferences, food availability and food preparation were obtained and
documented.
Body composition
Body composition was measured from a whole-body DXA scan (Hologic, Discovery W) and
analysed using QDR for Windows to quantify fat mass (FM; total adipose tissue), bone mineral
content (BMC; bone tissue) and lean mass (LM; fat-free soft tissue mass). Consistent with previous
research in athletic cohorts, the term ‘lean mass’ is exchanged with ‘fat-free soft tissue mass’
(FFSTM; Bilsborough et al., 2014; Nana et al., 2015). Procedures were standardised according to
Australia and New Zealand Bone Mineral Society and best practice protocol (Nana et al., 2015).
Calibration took place as per manufacturer guidelines. Participants presented to the laboratory after an
overnight fast and rested (no exercise on morning of scan), prior to 10:30 am. Participants were
instructed to wear minimal clothing. Prior to each scan, participants were asked to void their bladder.
Scans were analysed automatically by the software, with regions confirmed by the same technician.
Based on repeat measures on 30 active young participants, the technical errors of measurement,
expressed as coefficients of variation for the DXA machine employed are as follows: TM (g) = 0.3%,
BMC (g) = 0.7%, FFSTM (g) = 0.5% and FM (g) = 0.7%.
Body mass was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg using digital scales (WM203, Wedderburn,
Willawong, QLD, Australia). Stretch stature was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm and according to
ISAK protocols (Marfell-Jones et al., 2006) using a wall-mounted stadiometer (SE206, SECA, Seven
Hills, NSW, Australia).
Statistical analysis
All statistical analysis was conducted on IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 22.0 (IBM Corp,
Armonk, New York, USA, 2013) with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. All variables were tested for
normality via Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic and visual assessment of histogram and appropriate
statistical tests were subsequently conducted. Data with a Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic p value of
less than 0.05 suggests violation of the assumption of normality and thus median and range are
presented (Pallant, 2013). Otherwise, data is presented as percentages, means and standard deviations.
Difference in mean nutrition knowledge scores overall and for each section of the
questionnaire, body composition (TM, FM, FFSTM, BMC) and dietary intake (energy and
macronutrients) between elite AF, sub-elite AF and elite soccer players were determined via one-way
between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA), with Tukey post-hoc comparisons.
The relationship between nutrition knowledge (total score and subsections) with reported
dietary intake (energy and macronutrients), nutrition knowledge with body composition (TM, FM,
FFSTM, %BF, BMC) and dietary intake with body composition were investigated via Pearson
correlation. The strength of these relationships were reported using the coefficient of determination
(r2).
Results
Participant characteristics
A total of 66 (23 ± 4 years, 82.0 ± 9.2 kg, 184.7 ± 7.7 cm) team-based sport players took part
in the study. Participant characteristics are presented in Table 1.

Nutrition knowledge score
Mean nutrition knowledge score for all participants (n = 66) was 69.9 ± 11.9 out of a possible
maximum score of 123 (57%). The GNKQ and sports nutrition knowledge subsections scores for all
participants were 51.3 ± 9.1 (56%) and 17.3 ± 4.2 (60%) respectively. Scores (mean ± SD; %) for
each subsection of the GNKQ, the sport nutrition knowledge section and an overall total score for
each player group are presented in Table 2. No differences were detected in total nutrition knowledge
between the three groups (F(2, 63) = 2.256, p < 0.110).
Dietary intake
Table 3 presents reported energy and macronutrient intake of elite and sub-elite AF and elite
soccer players. Between group analysis of protein intake revealed a significant main effect for protein
intake according to total intake (g), g.kg-1.day-1 and % of total energy intake (F(2, 63) = 38.752, p <
0.001; F(2, 63) = 23.429, p < 0.001; F(2, 63) = 7.393, p = 0.001, respectively). Elite AF players consumed
more protein (total and g.kg-1.day-1) than both sub-elite AF players and elite soccer athletes (p <
0.001). Carbohydrate intake was significantly different between the groups according to total intake,
g.kg-1.day-1 and % of total energy intake (F(2, 63) = 24.455, p < 0.001; F(2, 63) = 14.678, p < 0.001; F(2, 63)
= 5.752, p = 0.00, respectively). Elite and sub-elite AF athletes consumed significantly more
carbohydrate (total and g.kg-1.day-1) than elite soccer athletes (p < 0.001).
Of note, elite soccer and elite AF players received catering from their respective clubs. The
elite AF players were provided food via a club chef and reported satisfaction with the food and meals
provided. Elite soccer players reported foods were provided by a catering company and over half of
the elite soccer (10 of 18 participants; 56%) players noted dissatisfaction with the foods provided with
‘lack of choice’, ‘bland tasting’, ‘minimal variation’ common comments made.
Body composition
Table 4 presents the body composition (TM, FM, FFSTM, %BF, BMC) of elite and sub-elite
AF and elite soccer players.

Relationship between nutrition knowledge, dietary intake and body composition
All players (n=66) level of sport nutrition knowledge was positively correlated (small,
statistically significant) with both total energy intake and total carbohydrate intake (r2 = 0.046, p =
0.014, and r2 = 0.043, p = 0.039, respectively). For elite AF players (n = 15), total nutrition knowledge
score was negatively correlated (medium to large, statistically significant) with total protein intake (r2
= 0.244, p = 0.026 and r2 = 0.382, p = 0.016, respectively).
All players (n = 66) total nutrition knowledge score was positively correlated (small to
medium, statistically significant) with FFSTM (r2 = 0.051, p = 0.039). This relationship was strongest
in elite AF players (n = 15; r2 = 0.178, p = 0.016, respectively). Additionally, total nutrition
knowledge was negatively correlated with percentage of body fat, for all players and in particular sub-
elite AF players (n = 66; r2 = 0.041, p = 0.036 and n = 33; r2 = 0.134, p = 0.017, respectively).
Discussion
The main findings of the current study are 1) the level of nutrition knowledge of elite and sub-
elite team-based sport athletes can be improved, 2) dietary intake of male team-based sport athletes
was at the lower and upper limits of broad recommendations for carbohydrate and protein intake
respectively 3) significant differences were found in both carbohydrate and protein dietary intake
between elite and sub-elite AF and elite soccer athletes and 4) nutrition knowledge was positively
correlated with FFSTM. Sport nutrition professionals in team-based sport settings aim to positively
influence modifiable factors to improve athletic performance such as nutrition knowledge, dietary
intake and body composition. By exploring these factors and their relationships in elite and sub-elite
male AF and elite soccer players in Australia this study has developed a better understanding of the
potential role and impact of a sports nutrition professional.
It can be concluded that the level of nutrition knowledge of elite and sub-elite AF and elite
soccer players in Australia is very similar, yet slightly lower than other elite Australian sports people,
but, no better than the non-athletic population (Dunn et al., 2007; Hamilton et al., 1994; Shifflett et
al., 2002; Spendlove et al., 2012; Spronk et al., 2014). Within the findings of the current study, the
areas of knowledge deficiency are evident, particularly in regards to knowledge of fat, including
sources of unsaturated and saturated fat. This is similar to previous research reporting nutrition
knowledge in similar cohorts (Andrews Itsiopoulos, 2015, 2015; Devlin & Belski, 2015). Nutrition
education on fat may not be a focus when sports nutrition professionals have limited time to provide
nutrition education. To improve overall diet quality and assist in body composition manipulation,
knowledge of types and food sources of fat should not be neglected. Furthermore, the elite level
players did not have a greater level of nutrition knowledge than sub-elite, with no differences detected
between the groups. Providing education and advice to players of all levels may lead to improvements
in nutrition knowledge with the ultimate aim to influence dietary intake and performance.
Reported energy intake values in the current study are consistent with previous reported
dietary intake values of similar players (Bilsborough, Greenway, Livingston et al., 2015; Burke &
Read, 1988; Holway & Spriet, 2011; Maughan, 1997; Schokman et al., 1999). When comparing elite
and sub-elite AF players, the elite AF players consumed more total energy than sub-elite AF players
despite no significant difference in total mass. This is potentially due to greater dietetic support but
also higher training demands in the AF cohort. Although specific detail of training that took place on
the day of dietary recall is not known, it was reported that elite AF athletes completed training
throughout the day (both morning and afternoon sessions) whereas the sub-elite AF athletes
completed a training session in the evening only. Furthermore, the elite AF club involved in the study
provided meals prepared by a chef before and after training, which is likely to influence dietary
intake.
Both elite and sub-elite AF players consumed significantly greater energy than elite soccer
players. This is partially explained by lower body mass of elite soccer players. Moreover, the elite
soccer club involved in this study also provided food catering to players. Yet it was revealed
throughout the 24-hour dietary recalls that over half of the soccer players reported dissatisfaction with
the food provided. This may further explain the low reported energy intakes for the elite soccer
players. Whilst food service provision demonstrates to players that nutrition is valued, it does not
guarantee players will consume food provided. Without consulting players on personal preferences
and considering the range of dietary requirements that would exist, the catering might not be
advantageous. A sports nutrition professional may increase their impact and value by developing and
designing food provision services and menus that will meet the range of requirements and preferences
of players (Pelly et al., 2011). It is a worthwhile investment, if incorporated appropriately, of both
time and money to encourage and promote optimal dietary intake and encourage a positive food and
performance relationship (Pelly et al., 2011). Access to a dietitian, time and funding are potential
barriers to implementing such services. Further monitoring, reporting and documentation of food
service provision is required to ensure continuous quality improvement within the role of sport
nutrition professionals.
Reported carbohydrate intakes of all players were at the lower range of the most recent IOC
sport nutrition guidelines (between 3 - 12 g·kg-1·day-1 which includes low-intensity/skill based
activities through to very high training loads; Burke et al., 2011). Carbohydrate intake is crucial for
optimal performance of team-based sport athletes due to the aerobic nature and the duration of both
sports (Andersen et al., 2016; Burke et al., 2011) Players, from a range of team-based sports,
consistently do not appear to meet carbohydrate recommendations (Andrews & Itsiopoulos, 2015;
Holway & Spriet, 2011). Recent reports of dietary practices of elite youth soccer players within the
English Premier League revealed carbohydrate intakes suboptimal compared to recommendations and
encourage nutrition advice to focus on not only total daily macronutrient intake but also distribution
patterns over a day and around training (Naughton et al., 2016). Despite this low intake, an important
consideration is the carbohydrate availability of the players for training. No specific detail on timing
of dietary intake in relation to training was obtained in the current study. Consequently, it is not
known if the carbohydrate intake of these players, albeit low, was temporally associated with training
times. Further research exploring the dietary intake in relation to training and competition in these
groups of players is required. It has recently been suggested that daily carbohydrate intake should
ideally be periodised according to training and match schedules in order to ensure optimal training
adaptations in training whilst maximising performance during matches (Andersen et al., 2016).
Average reported protein intakes, on the other hand, were at the upper limit or exceeded
protein recommendations (Lemon, 1993; Phillips & Van Loon, 2011). Elite AF players consumed
significantly higher protein (relative to body weight) than both sub-elite AF and elite soccer players.
Overall, protein was consumed in excess which is likely to be of limited benefit, rather, compromising
carbohydrate intake required for both soccer and AF (MacKenzie et al., 2015). Sports nutrition
professionals should aim to provide simple and practical strategies to reduce the total protein intake
and improve protein intake distribution and focus on an increase in carbohydrate intake closer to the
recommendations (MacKenzie et al., 2015).
The body composition of elite AF players in the current study compared to previous reports in
a similar cohort reveal elite AF players in the current study have slightly lower FFSTM and greater
FM (Bilsborough, Greenway, Livingston, et al., 2015; Bilsborough, Greenway, Opar, et al., 2015;
Veale et al., 2010). To our knowledge, there are currently no previous published reports of body
composition obtained by DXA analysis of Australian elite soccer players. When compared to
international elite soccer players, the elite Australian soccer players in the current study appeared to
have similar FM but lower FFSTM compared to soccer players in the English Premier League
(Milson et al., 2015). American collegiate soccer players had similar FFSTM and FM to the
Australian elite soccer players (Silverstre et al., 2006). Additional research assessing and monitoring
the body composition of elite soccer players in Australia is required to develop normative values for
Australian players, particularly taking into consideration seasonal variation.
Correlational analysis between the modifiable factors revealed particular relationships which
provide insight to the factors a sport nutrition professional aims to influence. In this group of players,
higher sports nutrition knowledge was associated with higher carbohydrate intake. As carbohydrate
intakes were suboptimal compared to recommendations, this suggests the greater level of sport
nutrition knowledge the closer the carbohydrate intake to recommendations. For elite AF players in
particular, higher total nutrition knowledge was associated with lower protein intake. Whilst protein
intake in general was at the upper limit or exceeded protein recommendations, players with higher
total nutrition knowledge seem to be more aware of protein recommendations and thus consume
intakes closer to the recommendations. However, caution must be taken when making inferences from
statistical associations. Additional research is required to elucidate if changing nutrition knowledge
would also change carbohydrate or protein intake.
Relationships were also evident between nutrition knowledge and body composition of the
players. For all players, nutrition knowledge was positively correlated with FFSTM, consistent with
previous research in semi-professional soccer players in Greece (Nikolaidis & Theodoropoulou,
2014). Although associations between nutrition knowledge scores and body composition parameters
were low to moderate, results suggest that focusing on improving nutrition knowledge may positively
influence body composition of players (greater muscle mass, lower fat mass) which is considered as
beneficial in these team-based sports (Nevill et al., 2009). In addition, greater FFSTM has previously
been shown to positively correlate with athletic performance of elite AF players (Bilsborough,
Greenway, Opar et al., 2015). Consequently, sports nutrition professionals are in a strong position to
improve nutrition knowledge and influence athletic performance via adapting body composition of
players. Highlighting this relationship may be a useful way to advocate for the role of sport nutrition
professionals within sporting clubs. This relationship has a sport nutrition focus, yet within a team-
sport there are other areas, such as training and body composition goals, that must be considered when
aiming to improve nutrition knowledge and influence both body composition and performance of an
athlete. Changes to athletes’ dietary habits and improvements in nutrition knowledge can be supported
as part of the role of a sport nutrition professional working within the sports science setting to
influence overall performance.
The following limitations need to be considered when interpreting the findings of this study.
The sample within this study is based on players from one professional AF club, one professional
soccer club and a combination of sub-elite AF clubs. It could be argued that this sample, particularly
the elite AF and elite soccer players, is not representative of the larger group of elite AF and soccer
players. Nonetheless, this study is the first to report the body composition of elite soccer players in
Australia as assessed via DXA. It provides initial references values for future work and informs the
design of interventions to modify body composition of soccer players. Furthermore, the body
composition of the elite AF players agrees well with previous research, which also assessed just one
other AF club (Bilsborough, Greenway, Livingston, et al., 2015; Bilsborough, Greenway, Opar, et al.,
2015). Consequently it appears that the body composition of elite AF players is consistent, and is not
largely influenced by the individual club environment.
The current study focused on energy and macronutrient intake and used the 24-hour dietary
recall method to do so. It is important for athletes to not focus solely on macronutrient intake. In order
to maintain optimal health, prevent illness and deficiencies it is important for athletes to not only
focus on macronutrients but also consider micronutrient intake (vitamins and minerals) (Holway &
Spriet, 2011). There are further limitations associated with 24 h recall method which may have
influenced results. Whilst authors employed the multiple-pass method to improve accuracy, the 24 h
period of interest may not have been representative of the athletes’ usual dietary intake as only a 24 h
period was captured. Finally, without specific detail of training sessions completed on the day of 24 h
dietary recall, it is not known if reported energy intake met training demands.
Whilst sport nutrition professionals provide education to improve nutrition knowledge, the
nutrition attitudes of players probably influence dietary intake, and correspondingly, body
composition and performance (Birkenhead & Slater, 2015). Nutrition attitudes were not assessed in
the current study. Nutrition advice and interventions focused on improving nutrition knowledge will
have limited efficacy if the players do not recognise the importance of nutrition. Additional research
exploring attitudes, perceptions and opinions of players will further assist sport nutrition professionals
to maximise their impact in a team-based sport setting.
In conclusion, the insight into known modifiable factors as a result of this work may assist
sport nutrition professionals to be more specific and targeted in their approach to supporting players to
achieve enhanced performance.
Novelty statement
Influencing nutrition knowledge to help improve dietary intake, which in turn may influence
body composition, is integral to the role of sports nutrition professionals. This research has taken a
systematic approach to sports nutrition practice to gain an understanding of these factors, within a
cohort of elite and sub-elite team-based sport players. The findings have identified areas to improve
the translation of nutrition science to practice. As the area of sport nutrition research continues to
develop, sports nutrition professionals need to be innovative in their approach to translate research
knowledge into practice and aim for continuous quality improvement.
Practical application
 Sports nutrition professionals working with athletes should aim to influence and improve
nutrition knowledge by providing specific and targeted nutrition education based on gaps in
knowledge. This may result in changes to dietary intake and body composition.
 Sports nutrition professionals should focus on maximising timing and distribution of

macronutrient intake in addition to striving to achieve broad nutrition recommendations.
 Food service provision is a valuable way to advocate for the importance of nutrition in elite
sporting organisations yet needs to take into consideration athletes’ food preferences to be
effective.
Acknowledgements
The study was designed by BD, ML, MK and RB; data was collected and analysed by BD; data
interpretation and manuscript preparation were undertaken by BD, ML, MK and RB. All authors
approved the final version of the paper. The authors would like to thank the A-League, AFL and VFL
clubs and the players for participating in the study. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. No
external funding was received for this study.

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Table 1. Participant characteristics of Australian football (AF) and soccer players
Elite AF Sub-elite AF Elite soccer p-value

(n = 15) (n = 33) (n = 18)
Age (years) 22 ± 2 21 ± 2 27 ± 5 < 0.001*
Stature (cm) 190.6 ± 6.6# 184.3 ± 6.8# 180.4 ± 7.3 < 0.001
Body mass (kg) 87.8 ± 9.2# 82.9 ± 9.0# 75.6 ± 5.6 < 0.001
Experience (years) 4 (1-12)# 2 (1-9)# 7 (2-19) < 0.001
Group data expressed as mean ± SD or median (range).

*significant differences in age between all three groups.
#
significantly different from elite soccer athletes.
“Dietary Intake, Body Composition and Nutrition Knowledge of Australian Football and Soccer Players: Implications for Sports Nutrition Professionals in Practice” by Devlin BL, Leveritt MD,
Kingsley M, Belski R
Table 2. Scores (mean ± SD, % correct) obtained overall and for each section of the nutrition knowledge questionnaire by Australian Football
(AF) and soccer players
Elite AF (n = 15) Sub-elite AF (n = 33) Elite soccer (n = 18)

Section (max score) Mean ± SD % Mean ± SD % Mean ± SD % p
1. Dietary recommendations (12) 7.0 ± 1.4 58 7.2 ± 1.4 60 7.0 ± 1.5 58 0.892
2. Sources of nutrients (69) 38.4 ± 8.6 56 39.0 ± 7.1 57 38.7 ± 7.6 56 0.204
3. Choosing everyday foods (10) 5.7 ± 1.4 57 5.2 ± 1.5 52 5.8 ± 2.0 58 0.244
4. Alcohol (3) 1.7 ± 0.6 57 1.4 ± 0.7 47 1.0 ± 0.5 30 0.060
5. Sports Nutrition Knowledge (29) 18.8 ± 2.7 65 17.2 ± 4.8 59 16.0 ± 3.8 55 0.107
Total Nutrition Knowledge (123) 71.6 ± 11.6 58 69.9 ± 12.9 57 68.4 ± 10.5 56 0.110
No statistical significant difference detected between the groups of team-based sport players for each subsection or overall total nutrition knowledge score (p > 0.05).
“Dietary Intake, Body Composition and Nutrition Knowledge of Australian Football and Soccer Players: Implications for Sports Nutrition Professionals in Practice” by Devlin BL, Leveritt MD,
Kingsley M, Belski R
Table 3. Total energy and macronutrient intakes (mean ± SD) of Australian football (AF) and soccer players obtained via multiple pass 24-hour
dietary recall
Energy Protein Carbohydrate Fat

Total (MJ) Total (g) g·kg-1·day-1 %TEI Total (g) g·kg-1·day-1 %TEI Total (g) g·kg-1·day-1 %TEI
Elite AF (n = 15) 17.3 ± 4.2 295 ± 97 3.4 ± 1.1 30 ± 8 406 ± 132^ 4.6 ± 1.5^ 38 ± 9 137±44 1.6 ± 0.5 29 ± 6
Sub-elite AF (n = 33) 13.2 ± 2.5*^ 171 ± 52* 2.1 ± 0.7* 22 ± 7* 368 ± 93^ 4.5 ± 1.2^ 45 ± 10^ 100 ± 37* 1.2 ± 0.5* 28 ± 8
Elite soccer (n = 18) 9.4 ± 2.3* 140 ± 35* 1.9 ± 0.5* 26 ± 6 220 ± 76 2.9 ± 1.1 38 ± 8 83 ± 31* 1.1 ± 0.4* 33 ± 9
Note: %TEI = Percentage of total energy intake.

* Significantly different to elite AF athletes (p < 0.05)
^ Significantly different to elite soccer athletes (p < 0.05)
Table 4. Body composition as assessed via DXA whole body analysis (mean ± SD) of Australian football (AF) and soccer players
TM (g) FFSTM (g) FM (g) % BF (%) BMC (g)

Elite AF (n = 15) 81611 ± 8938 65422 ± 7850 12313 ± 2085^ 15.1 ± 2.4^ 3151 ± 537
Sub-elite AF ( n = 33) 76927 ± 8834^ 61155 ± 3898* 12870 ± 2748^ 16.7 ± 2.7^ 2890 ± 384*
Elite soccer (n = 18) 69233 ± 5698* 56784 ± 5168* 8712 ± 1432 12.8 ± 1.9 2717 ± 242*
Note: DXA = Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. TM = Total mass. FFSTM = Fat free soft tissue mass. FM = Fat mass. % BF = Percentage of body fat. BMC = Bone
mineral content. Technical error of measurement: TM (g) = 0.3% , BMC (g) = 0.7%, FFSTM (g) = 0.5% and FM (g) = 0.7%.
* Significantly different to elite AF players (p < 0.05)
^ Significantly different to elite soccer players (p < 0.05)

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“Dietary Intake, Body Composition and Nutrition Knowledge of Australian Football and Soccer Players: Implications for

Note: This article will be published in a forthcoming issue of

Section: Original Research

Running Head: 1Department of Rehabilitation, Nutrition and Sport, La Trobe University,

Journal: International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise

Acceptance Date: September 15, 2016

©2016 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Section: Original Research

players: implications for sports nutrition professionals in practice

Authors: Brooke L Devlin 1

Corresponding Author: Brooke L Devlin. La Trobe University, Kingsbury Drive, Bundoora,

Word Count: 3231

composition to improve athletic performance. Understanding the interrelationships between these

Keywords: sports dietitian, team-based sport, nutrition

contributions of sport nutrition professionals are becoming increasingly recognised in team-based

sporting organisations have the capacity to employ qualified nutrition professionals.

comprehensive understanding of current sport nutrition recommendations and the ability to

the relationships between these modifiable factors.

This cross-sectional, observational study assessed nutrition knowledge (questionnaire),

taken on one occasion.

Research Ethics Committee approved the study.

30 minutes under the supervision of researchers.

Dietary intake assessment

BMC (g) = 0.7%, FFSTM (g) = 0.5% and FM (g) = 0.7%.

Hills, NSW, Australia).

between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA), with Tukey post-hoc comparisons.

in the study. Participant characteristics are presented in Table 1.

Nutrition knowledge score

between the three groups (F(2, 63) = 2.256, p < 0.110).

‘lack of choice’, ‘bland tasting’, ‘minimal variation’ common comments made.

AF and elite soccer players.

Relationship between nutrition knowledge, dietary intake and body composition

= 0.244, p = 0.026 and r2 = 0.382, p = 0.016, respectively).

in elite AF players (n = 15; r2 = 0.178, p = 0.016, respectively). Additionally, total nutrition

potential role and impact of a sports nutrition professional.

of players (Pelly et al., 2011). It is a worthwhile investment, if incorporated appropriately, of both

sport nutrition guidelines (between 3 - 12 g·kg-1·day-1 which includes low-intensity/skill based

recommendations (MacKenzie et al., 2015).

Australian players, particularly taking into consideration seasonal variation.

statistical associations. Additional research is required to elucidate if changing nutrition knowledge

would also change carbohydrate or protein intake.

previous research in semi-professional soccer players in Greece (Nikolaidis & Theodoropoulou,

influence overall performance.

largely influenced by the individual club environment.

to maximise their impact in a team-based sport setting.

achieve enhanced performance.

knowledge into practice and aim for continuous quality improvement.

 Sports nutrition professionals should focus on maximising timing and distribution of

macronutrient intake in addition to striving to achieve broad nutrition recommendations.

external funding was received for this study.

Pallant, J. (2013). SPSS Survival Manual. United Kingdom: McGraw-Hill Education.

Table 1. Participant characteristics of Australian football (AF) and soccer players

Elite AF Sub-elite AF Elite soccer p-value

Group data expressed as mean ± SD or median (range).

Elite AF (n = 15) Sub-elite AF (n = 33) Elite soccer (n = 18)

Section (max score) Mean ± SD % Mean ± SD % Mean ± SD % p

4. Alcohol (3) 1.7 ± 0.6 57 1.4 ± 0.7 47 1.0 ± 0.5 30 0.060

Energy Protein Carbohydrate Fat

Note: %TEI = Percentage of total energy intake.

TM (g) FFSTM (g) FM (g) % BF (%) BMC (g)

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