Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 42 (2020) 235–243

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm

Tour member fit and tour member–leader fit on group package tours: T

Influences on tourists’ positive emotions, rapport, and satisfaction
Shu-Yun Changa, Sheng-Hshiung Tsaura, Chang-Hua Yenb,∗, Hung-Ru Laia
a
Department of Marketing and Tourism Management, National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Leisure and Recreation Management, National Taichung University of Science and Technology, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Person–environment fit is a mature construct that has been applied in certain academic disciplines; however, it
Tour leader has rarely been applied to the tourism industry. This research examined how tour member fit and tour mem-
Positive emotions ber–leader fit perceptions in a group package tour affect tourists' positive emotions, tour rapport, and sa-
Rapport tisfaction. Purposive sampling was conducted, and 482 valid questionnaires were obtained. Data were analyzed
Satisfaction
using structural equation modeling. The results indicated that tour member fit and tour member–leader fit were
Fit theory
positively related to tourists' positive emotions and tour rapport. Furthermore, tourists' positive emotions po-
sitively affected tour rapport, and tour rapport positively affected tourist satisfaction. This study's contribution is
that it incorporates person–environment fit theory into the tourism literature. Moreover, it extends the literature
on fit by quantifying associations between group member fit and tourists' positive emotions, rapport, and sa-
tisfaction in tourism settings. The findings provide practical information for travel agencies and tour leaders.

1. Introduction
The concept of fit is derived from individual–environment interac-
tions (Lewin, 1935). Person–environment (PE) fit means the level of
congruence between an individual with the environment (Vogel &
Feldman, 2009). Within the framework of PE fit, the construct was
differentiated into several aspects (Sekiguchi, 2006), namely perso-
n–organization fit, person–job fit (Abdalla, Elsetouhi, Negm, & Abdou,
2018), person–group (PG) fit (Li, Kristof-Brown, & Nielsen, 2019), and
person–supervisor (PS) fit (Astakhova, 2016). In a workplace, the fit
between employees and their working environment enhances job sa-
tisfaction and team performance and reduces turnover (Kristof-Brown,
Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). In an online setting, Shen, Li, Sun, and
Zhou (2018) found that PE fit factors influence customers' intention to
contribute to virtual communities due to community commitment. In
recreational settings, Liang and Peng (2019) found that re-
creationist–environment fit positively affects recreationists’ level of
delight. These studies have indicated the crucial effect that PE fit has on
personal cognition and attitude. However, scholars have rarely in-
vestigated PE fit in the field of tourism.
Group package tours (GPTs) are a popular approach for Asian
tourists traveling abroad (Tsaur & Teng, 2017). Such groups generally
consist of a tour leader and group members (Wang, Hsieh, & Huan,
2000). These groups persist only temporarily and are informal; thus,
they can be regarded as a short-term social group (Foster, 1986). Ac-
cording to PE fit theory (Caplan, 1987), tour member fit in a tourist
environment is similar to the concept of PG fit, which refers to the
compatibility between individuals and a group (Kristof, 1996). Tour
members are often from different backgrounds and must travel together
continuously throughout the journey; thus, cooperating with each other
is crucial for ensuring that the whole journey runs smoothly. In addi-
tion, tour member–leader fit is similar to the concept of PS fit. In a
workplace, PS fit refers to the compatibility between employees and
their supervisors in terms of their characteristics (including values,
personality, and behavior; Van Vianen, Shen, & Chuang, 2011). In the
tourism context, tour leaders are usually mentors to their tour members
as well as monitors of the itinerary and managers of the entire tour
(Tsaur & Teng, 2017). Tour leaders must lead the group, solve pro-
blems, and ensure tourist satisfaction (Cheng, Chen, Yen, & Teng, 2017;
Tsaur & Ku, 2019).
During a group tour, group members may easily perceive other
members' emotions because of close interactions or similarities between
their characteristics (Brief & Weiss, 2002); therefore, individuals may
perceive positive emotions during these interactions (Tsaur & Ku,
2019). Positive emotions are emotions that are generally perceived as
both pleasant and desirable (Tugade, Shiota, & Kirby, 2014).

∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 4 22196093; fax: +886 4 22196511.
E-mail addresses: emily@mail.ncyu.edu.tw (S.-Y. Chang), shenght@mail.ncyu.edu.tw (S.-H. Tsaur), chyan@nutc.edu.tw (C.-H. Yen),
jjoy0418@hotmail.com (H.-R. Lai).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.01.016
Received 4 August 2019; Received in revised form 22 January 2020; Accepted 24 January 2020
Available online 31 January 2020
1447-6770/ © 2020 CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. Published by Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
S.-Y. Chang, et al.
Muchinsky and Monahan (1987) defined the concept of fit as in-
dividuals possessing characteristics that are similar to those of others.
This similarity enables them to form preliminary connections with
other people and further establish rapport through smooth commu-
nication and sharing experiences (Hwang & Lee, 2019). Rapport refers
to favorable contact or interactions between people (Gremler &
Gwinner, 2000). On a GPT, when group members have a high level of
similarity and the tour leader possesses the professional knowledge and
competence required to meet group members’ needs, a high level of
tour member fit and tour member–leader fit is achieved and satisfaction
with interactions between group members can be enhanced (Lin,
Zhang, Gursoy, & Fu, 2019). This further results in a satisfactory group
atmosphere and enables group members to perceive positive emotions.
In addition, tour member fit and tour member–leader fit are conducive
to satisfactory communication and interactions between group mem-
bers and between them and the tour leader; they can facilitate the es-
tablishment of harmonious relationships, which further influences
tourist satisfaction (Hwang & Lee, 2019; Tsaur & Ku, 2019).
The aforementioned literature demonstrates that tour member fit
and tour member–leader fit exert positive effects on positive emotions,
tour rapport, and tourist satisfaction. However, studies have only in-
vestigated the influence of tour guides' professional competencies
(Hwang & Lee, 2019) and tour leaders' emotional intelligence (Tsaur &
Ku, 2019) on tourists’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. No studies
have explored the influence of tour member fit and tour member–leader
fit from the perspective of PE fit theory (Tsaur & Wang, 2010; Yin &
Poon, 2016). Moreover, studies have mostly focused on tourist–tour
leader interactions (Hwang & Lee, 2019; Tsaur & Ku, 2019) and over-
looked the importance of tourist-to-tourist interactions (Lin et al.,
2019). Accordingly, this study was inspired by the following research
questions: (1) whether tour member fit and tour member–leader fit
affect positive emotions and tour rapport on a journey, (2) whether
positive emotions affect tour rapport, and (3) whether tour rapport
affects tourist satisfaction. To answer these, this study investigated the
influences of tour member fit and tour member–leader fit on positive
emotions, tour rapport, and tourist satisfaction. The research results can
serve as a reference for travel agency managers seeking to develop ef-
fective human resource management policies and customer relationship
management strategies.
2. Literature review
2.1. Group member fit
PE fit is defined as the compatibility between individuals and their
environment in terms of various characteristics (Kristof-Brown & Guay,
2010). Two conceptualizations of PE fit are supplementary fit and
complementary fit (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Supplementary fit
usually exists when a person possesses characteristics that are similar to
those of others (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987), whereas com-
plementary fit occurs when an environmental need is met by the
strength of an individual and vice versa (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987).
Hence, PE fit can exist when a person holds values or traits that are
similar to those of other team members (supplementary fit) or when he
or she possesses a set of abilities that can help the team perform its task
(complementary fit; Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012).
On a GPT, the relationship between the tour leader, a tourist, and
other group members can be understood in light of the concept of PE fit.
Because the backgrounds of GPT members may vary, their homo-
geneous and heterogeneous characteristics may influence the fit be-
tween them. In addition, because they must continually interact with
each other for the entire travel period, they must cooperate with each
other to ensure a smooth trip. Therefore, the fit between group mem-
bers is crucial. Accordingly, this study employed two fit theories to
describe the fit between GPT members. Supplementary fit refers to the
extent to which GPT members share similar characteristics, and
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 42 (2020) 235–243
complementary fit refers to the extent to which GPT members are able
to meet the needs of other members. Furthermore, this study delineated
the demographic characteristics shared by tour leaders and GPT
members as well as between GPT members and described the com-
plementary characteristics that can meet the needs of all parties.
2.2. Tour member fit
Tourist-to-tourist relationship refers to the relationship between a
tourist and other members on a GPT. Pearce (1980) investigated tra-
velers' help-offering behaviors toward others at a bus terminal and
found that they provided more help to those who were of the same sex
or race. Grove and Fisk (1997) used the critical incident method to
investigate satisfactory and unsatisfactory events experienced by 486
customers who shared the same service environment with others. They
found that in the categories of friendly and unfriendly incidents, the
participants were particularly satisfied with how they tended to per-
ceive intimacy and familiarity when they encountered travelers of the
same nationality on an overseas trip. Supplementary fit also exists
among GPT members; their homogeneous characteristics (e.g., gender,
age, and values) can strengthen connections between them (Lin et al.,
2019) and foster a harmonious atmosphere in the group (Tsaur & Ku,
2019). Thus, homogeneous characteristics positively affect tourist ex-
perience and satisfaction. Therefore, this study defined supplementary
fit as “the extent to which tour members share similar basic char-
acteristics.” By contrast, it defined complementary fit as “the extent to
which tour members can meet the needs of other members.” However,
the relationship between tour members is not based on supply and
demand, and they are not required to complement each other's abilities
or acquire anything from each other. Therefore, the concept of com-
plementation based on heterogeneous characteristics is inapplicable to
fit between tour members. As a result, this study only applied supple-
mentary fit to the construct of tour member fit.
2.3. Tour member–leader fit
The relationship between a tour leader and tour members can be
viewed as one between consumers and frontline workers. Regarding the
relationship between employees and customers, Gremler and Gwinner
(2008) divided common ground behavior into two types: identifying
mutual interests (e.g., hobbies) and finding other similarities (e.g., age
or zodiac sign). These behaviors enable employees to build a pre-
liminary connection with customers and further establish a favorable
relationship with them through smooth communication and sharing
experiences. Crosby, Evans, and Cowles (1990) proposed a relationship
quality model and contended that the similarity between salespeople
and customers positively influences their relationship quality and in
turn affects service results. The variables they used for similarity were
image (manner of speaking and personality traits), lifestyle (interests
and values), and identity and status (educational level and social class).
When this concept is applied to the interaction between a tour leader
and tour members on a GPT, supplementary fit can describe this re-
lationship in terms of basic characteristics such as values, demographic
variables, and interests. In other words, if a tour leader and members
are of the same sex, of a similar age, and possess similar values, they
may have common topics to talk about and thus form connections.
Therefore, during the trip, a tour leader can shorten the distance with
tour members who share similar characteristics, and these members
will tend to identify with the tour leader's style of work.
From the perspective of complementary fit, customers can have
their interests and needs satisfied through interactions with frontline
workers. On a GPT, the tour leader is the frontline worker, and his or
her duties are leading tour members, controlling itineraries, and ful-
filling the needs of tour members. To ensure the entire trip runs
smoothly, the tour leader also requires tour members' cooperation and
feedback. This feedback includes not only tips but also a sense of
S.-Y. Chang, et al.
accomplishment, the opportunity to interact with tourists from various
backgrounds, tour members’ recognition and praise of his or her work
performance, and friendship or satisfactory relationships with tour
members. Simultaneously, tour members require the services provided
by the leader or intend to acquire some interests through interacting
with him or her. Therefore, complementary fit exists between the two
parties, similar to the supply–demand relationship. Accordingly, this
study used supplementary fit and complementary fit between a leader
and members for the construct of tour member–leader fit.
2.4. Positive emotions
Emotion refers to customers' feelings about situations they experi-
ence (Van Maanen & Kunda, 1989). An increasing number of studies in
the field of tourism are related to emotions (Knobloch, Robertson, &
Aitken, 2017; Li, Scott, & Walters, 2015; Nawijn & Biran, 2018). In the
field of tourism, emotions refer to tourists' emotional state during the
tourist experience. Tourists tend to remember positive emotions more
than negative emotions (Wirtz, Kruger, Scollon, & Diener, 2003). A
positive emotion is a state created by the preexisting mood of an in-
dividual tempered by responses to his or her surroundings (Rock &
Gardner, 1993). When traveling, people's positive emotions are typi-
cally immediate and transitory (Lin & Kuo, 2016). Relevant studies
have identified positive feelings such as excitement, happiness, plea-
sure, interest, and relaxation as tourism-related emotions (Kim &
Fesenmaier, 2015; Kim, Lee, & Sirgy, 2016). Studies have reported the
effect of positive emotions on customer satisfaction and behavioral
intentions (Hosany, Prayag, Van Der Veen, Huang, & Deesilatham,
2017; Io, 2016; Su & Hsu, 2013). Thus, how to foster tourists' positive
emotions on a GPT is a crucial topic in tourism management.
2.5. Tour rapport
Rapport represents a quality exchange between two parties
(Gremler & Gwinner, 2000); therefore, it is one of the most critical
constructs for explaining the relationship between customers and ser-
vice employees. In this study, rapport was defined as a relational state
where tourists perceive an enjoyable interaction and have a personal
connection with other tour members. Rapport comprises two con-
structs, namely enjoyment interaction and personal connection
(Gremler & Gwinner, 2000). Enjoyment interaction refers to tour
members' evaluation of enjoyable interactions with each other during
the service. Personal connection represents the close relationship be-
tween tourists and other tour members, which can be evident in mutual
identification and concern for each other. Lin et al. (2019) contended
that tourist–tour leader interaction plays a crucial role on a GPT be-
cause tour members’ perceived cohesion and intimacy have positive
effects on customer engagement and satisfaction. Because tourists must
closely interact with other tour members for a long time, they should
develop rapport with each other during the trip.
2.6. Tourist satisfaction
Satisfaction is a criterion in the assessment of a consumption ex-
perience (Oliver, 1981). Bigné, Sánchez, and Sánchez (2001) indicated
that tourist satisfaction is a tourist's evaluation of the overall experience
of a journey. In this study, tourist satisfaction refers to tourists' sa-
tisfaction with the overall tour, including the travel itinerary and tour
leaders. Frontline employees deliver services to customers and can
significantly affect customers' overall satisfaction (Kim & Ok, 2010). On
a GPT, the tour leader is regarded as the key person responsible for
customer satisfaction (Cheng et al., 2017); the relationship between the
leader and tourists as well as those among the tourists will affect all
parties' positive and negative emotions (Tsaur & Ku, 2019). Tour
members' satisfaction with a tour is influenced by their interactions
with the tourism service provider and other tourists (Hwang & Lee,
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 42 (2020) 235–243
2019). Wu (2007) asserted that when a tourist forms favorable re-
lationships with other tourists, that tourist is more likely to be satisfied
with the tour. This indicates that the quality of interactions between
tour members on a GPT affects the members' satisfaction with the
tourism products and services.
3. Hypotheses
3.1. Tour member fit, tour member–leader fit, and positive emotions
Owing to the inseparability of tourism services, tourists usually
become a partner of the service provider, and their interactions are
highly intensive. Brief and Weiss (2002) indicated that work group
members will understand other people more when their characteristics
or interactions are closer. On a GPT, the tour leader and members
usually engage in multiple tourism activities as a team. Generally, if
tour members share similar characteristics or their tour leader has a
strong ability to negotiate, the communication and interactions tend to
be smooth. Not only do tour leaders seek to maintain a positive atmo-
sphere on a tour but tour members also dedicate themselves to positive
communication and sociability while on a tour. This indicates that the
supplementary fit between tour members and tour leaders is conducive
to communication and interactions between members. Communication
and sociability are essential for the success of a tour (Chang, 2008a).
Effective communication leads to a positive atmosphere, and tour
members are likely to feel excited, pleased, and relaxed. On a GPT,
tourists rely on their tour leader to engage in communication and ne-
gotiation to ensure a smooth journey. This indicates that the com-
plementary fit between tour members and tour leaders is conducive to
interactions between members and affects their emotional response.
Thus, tour member fit and tour member–leader fit are beneficial for
ensuring satisfactory communication and interactions between tour
members as well as inducing positive emotions in GPT members. On the
basis of the foregoing discussion, this study proposes the following two
hypotheses:
H1. Tour member fit is positively related to tourists' positive emotions.
H2. Tour member–leader fit is positively related to tourists' positive
emotions.
3.2. Tour member fit, tour member–leader fit, and tour rapport
Enjoyable interaction is a relational assessment of customers' ex-
change with contact employees (Gremler & Gwinner, 2000). Ample
support exists for the proposition that similarity between employees
and customers leads to a positive effect on their rapport (Crosby et al.,
1990; Gremler & Gwinner, 2000). When people have interpersonal si-
milarities, they are likely to have an initial connection with each other
(Gremler & Gwinner, 2008). Consequently, supplementary fit may
cultivate rapport. Moreover, complementary fit, as a form of need ful-
fillment (Edwards & Shipp, 2007; Kristof-Brown & Guay, 2010), is ex-
pected to predict more task-related outcomes (Edwards & Shipp, 2007;
Kristof, 1996). In tourism settings, supplementary fit between tour
members can facilitate positive communication and interactions be-
tween members. When tour group members feel close to one another,
they are more likely to develop rapport. Hwang and Lee (2019) dis-
covered that tour leaders’ professional skills and attitude are conducive
to the establishment of rapport between tour members, indicating that
the supplementary and complementary fit between tourists and tour
leaders can facilitate a harmonious relationship between these two
parties as well as between the tourists. Accordingly, this study proposes
the following two hypotheses:
H3. Tour member fit is positively related to tour rapport.
H4. Tour member–leader fit is positively related to tour rapport.
S.-Y. Chang, et al.
3.3. Positive emptions and tour rapport
Regarding the relationship between customers and service provi-
ders, Mattila and Enz (2002) asserted that a satisfactory service ex-
perience will generate positive emotions in customers, which is con-
ducive to the establishment of positive relationships between customers
and service providers. Customers' emotional experience during service
process is a crucial factor that influences rapport. Lin and Lin (2017)
found that customers experiencing positive emotions in service en-
counters are advantageous to customers' development of rapport with
the service employees. According to the affect-as-information model, an
individual will use his or her current emotion as evaluation informa-
tion, which will in turn influence the individual's judgment (Clore,
Gasper, & Garvin, 2001). When tour members experience more positive
emotions as a result of their positive perceptions of tour member fit and
tour member–leader fit, they tend to have more positive evaluations of
tour rapport. In addition, according to the affect-priming model, a po-
sitive cognitive evaluation is triggered when an individual experiences
a positive emotion (Chang, 2008b). Tour members' positive emotions
provide a positive retrieval cue for judgments regarding their rapport
relationships with other members. Therefore, on group tours, members
form positive emotions when they feel a high degree of fit with the
leader and other members, which in turn influence their judgment and
evaluation of the group travel process, thereby improving their har-
monious relationships with other members. Accordingly, this study
proposes the following hypothesis:
H5. Tourists' positive emotions are positively related to tour rapport.
3.4. Tour rapport and tourist satisfaction
Studies have argued that tourist-to-tourist interactions play a vital
role in the formation of tourist experiences, attitudes, and behaviors
(Lin et al., 2019; Torres, 2016). Compared with other consumption
experiences, tourism consumption lasts longer, allowing tourists more
opportunities to interact and build rapport with other tour members
(Lin et al., 2019). In a tourism setting, tour rapport involves a tourists'
perception of having pleasant interactions with other tour members.
Tour members' satisfaction is perceived as the degree of happiness or
pleasure they feel when on a GPT (Song & Cheung, 2010). In other
words, tourists’ rapport with other tour members can cause them to feel
happy and pleased and in turn increase their satisfaction with the tour.
Thus, this study proposes the following hypothesis:
H6. Tour rapport is positively related to tourists' satisfaction.
On the basis of the aforementioned hypotheses, this study adopted a
research framework, which is depicted in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Hypothetical model.
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 42 (2020) 235–243
4. Research method
4.1. Sample collection
This study investigated fit between tour members and between
members and leaders during a GPT. GPTs are extremely common in
Asian countries such as Taiwan, Japan, and China (Tsaur & Teng,
2017). According to statistics compiled by Taiwan's Tourism Bureau,
the number of Taiwanese nationals who traveled abroad reached 16.64
million in 2018, 74.1% of whom traveled for touring purposes, 32.6%
of which participated in GPTs (Taiwan Tourism Bureau, 2019). In 2017,
the number of Japanese nationals who traveled abroad reached 17.87
million, among whom 42.9% participated in GPTs (JTB Corporation,
2018). In 2018, among the 149 million Chinese nationals who traveled
abroad, 55.24% chose to travel on GPTs (China National Tourism
Administration, 2019). The aforementioned figures indicate the im-
portance of GPTs in the international tourism market. To more effec-
tively reflect the concept of degree of fit when people travel abroad, the
survey targets were outbound package tourists in Taiwan. Before the
survey, the researchers conducted a pretest with a sample of 60 Tai-
wanese outbound package tourists to ensure the appropriateness of
items in the questionnaire. In the main survey, purposive sampling and
field-questionnaire surveys were conducted using Taiwanese outbound
GPT participants. Taoyuan, Kaohsiung, and Taichung International
Airports were selected as the survey sites. Questionnaires were directly
distributed to tourists in the arrival hall who had completed a GPT and
were retrieved onsite. In total, 550 questionnaires were delivered; 68
were excluded because of missing data, leading to 482 valid ques-
tionnaires being collected for a valid response rate of 87.6%.
4.2. Measures
All measures in the present study were taken from relevant studies
or adapted in consideration of the characteristics of a GPT. Regarding
tour member fit, this study adopted the PG fit scale developed by Vogel
and Feldman (2009) and modified it according to the characteristics of
a GPT. The scale comprised three questions and was used to measure
the supplementary fit between tour members. Regarding tour mem-
ber–leader fit, which involves supplementary and complementary fit,
the aforementioned modified PG fit scale was used to measure the
supplementary fit between tour members and the tour leader. Fur-
thermore, this study adopted the tour leader professional performance
scale proposed by Huang, Hsu, and Chan (2010) to measure com-
plementary fit between tour members and their tour leader. This scale
consisted of eight questions.
Positive emotions refer to tour members' positive emotions during
their trip (Tsaur & Ku, 2019). This study adopted the positive affect
scale developed by Tsaur and Ku (2019) to measure tourists' positive
emotions on GPTs. The scale comprised five questions. Tour rapport
refers to positive interactions between tour members on a journey
(Tsaur & Ku, 2019). To measure tour rapport, this study used the rap-
port scale proposed by Gremler and Gwinner (2000), which includes
the two dimensions of enjoyable interactions (six questions) and per-
sonal connections (five questions). Tourist satisfaction refers to tour
members' overall judgment regarding the overall tour, including the
travel itinerary and tour leaders (Cheng et al., 2017). This study's scale
for measuring tourist satisfaction was based on that of Tsaur, Dai, and
Liu (2018) and comprised four items.
In the questionnaire, the constructs were measured using a Likert 5-
point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A
high score indicated respondents’ high level of agreement with the
question. In addition to the questions for the aforementioned con-
structs, the questionnaire encompassed questions regarding demo-
graphic variables and tour-related information, including sex, age, oc-
cupation, marital status, personal monthly income, travel destination,
number of days traveling, number of people traveling together, and the
S.-Y. Chang, et al.
number of people on the GPT. The questions were originally in English
and translated into Chinese by the researcher and two managers in the
tourism industry. To ensure a high-quality translation, the back trans-
lation approach proposed by Van de Vijver and Hambleton (1996) was
employed.
4.3. Data analyses
This study conducted descriptive statistical analysis, confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modeling (SEM). The
calculated descriptive statistics comprised the means and standard de-
viations of tour member fit, tour member–leader fit, positive emotions,
tour rapport, and tourist satisfaction. SPSS 23.0 and AMOS 23.0 were
used for the CFA to evaluate the validity of the measure, and SEM was
used to verify the hypotheses.
5. Results
5.1. Sample profile
The descriptive analysis of the sample revealed that 58.7% of re-
spondents were women who had the following characteristics: married
(57.9%), mainly 20–29 years old (36.5%) or 30–39 years old (19.5%),
had graduated from high school (41.9%) or university or college
(34.9%), and worked in commerce (21.1%) or the service industry
(21.1%). Monthly incomes mainly fell into the bracket of US$660 or
less (32.2%), followed by the bracket of by US$661−1320 (29.0%).
The most common travel destinations were Northeast Asia (30.7%);
China, Hong Kong, and Macau (29.0%); and Southeast Asia (22.8%).
Most respondents traveled for 1–5 days per trip (49.4%), followed by
6–10 days (37.1%). Generally, the number of GPT members was 1–5
people (59.7%), followed by 11–20 people (17.2%) and then 6–10
people (14.1%). The total number of tour members was most commonly
in the range of 16–30 people (56.4%). According to the survey data
compiled by Taiwan's Tourism Bureau in 2018, consumers of GPTs
among Taiwan's outbound tour groups were mainly women (53.9%),
married (62.8%), and senior or business high school graduates (35.4%).
Most consumers (51.3%) who participated in short-distance tours (e.g.,
to Japan, China, and Thailand) were aged 20–40 years (Taiwan
Tourism Bureau, 2019). This study employed the chi-square test to
examine the differences between the demographic profiles of the re-
search sample and population. The results revealed no significant dif-
ferences in gender (χ2 = 2.083, p = 0.147, p > 0.05), marital status
(χ2 = 2.187, p = 0.132, p > 0.05), education level (χ2 = 3.269,
p = 0.339, p > 0.05), and age (χ2 = 3.142, p = 0.365, p > 0.05)
between the research sample and the population. Thus, the research
sample conformed to the sociodemographic profile of the population.
Consequently, the collected data can be considered representative data.
5.2. Analyses of reliability and validity
Table 1 presents the analysis results. The composite reliabilities of
the five constructs ranged from 0.81 to 0.94, and all were greater than
the 0.6 recommended by Bagozzi and Yi (1988). Furthermore, the
Cronbach's alpha values ranged from 0.80 to 0.94, all of which were
greater than the 0.70 recommended by Nunnally (1978); thus, internal
reliability was achieved. This information demonstrated that the scales
used in this study possessed good reliability. Regarding construct va-
lidity, this study performed CFA to evaluate the fitness of the mea-
surement model. One item from tour rapport presented factor loadings
of less than 0.5, and thus was excluded (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson,
2010). The values of the goodness-of-fit indices (χ2/df = 2.68, good-
ness of fit index [GFI] = 0.92, adjusted GFI [AGFI] = 0.90, com-
parative fit index [CFI] = 0.94, root mean residual [RMR] = 0.04, and
root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.05) all met the
criteria suggested by Hair et al. (2010; χ2/df < 5, GFI ≥ 0.90,
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 42 (2020) 235–243
AGFI ≥ 0.90, CFI ≥ 0.90, RMR ≤ 0.05, and RMSEA ≤ 0.08), in-
dicating that the measurement model adequately fit the data collected
in this study.
Bagozzi and Yi (1988) suggested that the average variance extracted
(AVE) of dimensions must be higher than 0.50. In this study, the AVE
ranged between 0.59 and 0.67 (see Table 2), indicating that each scale
possessed acceptable convergent validity. Regarding discriminant va-
lidity testing, the standard is that the square root of the AVE of each
construct should be higher than the constructs' correlation coefficients
(Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). In Table 2, the square roots of AVE ranged
between 0.77 and 0.82, which were all higher than the constructs’
correlation coefficients. Thus, the scales of this study possessed dis-
criminant validity.
5.3. Correlation analysis
Table 2 presents the findings of the correlation analysis. The results
indicated that tour member fit was positively related to tourists' posi-
tive emotions (r = 0.46) and tour rapport (r = 0.68). Furthermore, tour
member–leader fit was positively related to tourists’ positive emotions
(r = 0.51) and tour rapport (r = 0.45). Positive emotions were posi-
tively linked to tour rapport (r = 0.48) and tourist satisfaction
(r = 0.56). Moreover, tour rapport was positively related to tourist
satisfaction (r = 0.46). The correlation analysis results revealed the
relationship between the variables, which can serve as the basis for
further analysis.
5.4. Hypothesis testing
In SEM, the normality assumption test was judged by the skewness
and kurtosis coefficients of the observable variables. Both absolute
values of skewness (from −0.87 to 0.06) and kurtosis (from −0.56 to
1.62) were less than 2 (Kim, 2013); thus, the data distribution was
normal. Moreover, the multivariate normality assumption test was
judged using Mardia coefficients of constructs of variables. These were
2.19 (tour member fit), 20.48 (tour member–leader fit), 15.73 (positive
emotions), 28.30 (tour rapport), and 13.10 (tourist satisfaction), all of
which were less than 15, 80, 35, 120, and 24, respectively (Mardia &
Foster, 1983); thus, the data appeared not to violate assumptions of
normality.
After the aforementioned normality tests, SEM was performed to
test the fit between constructs in the research model. A set of fit indices
was used to examine the structural model. Comparing all fit indices
with their corresponding recommended values provided evidence of a
good model fit (χ2/df = 2.86, GFI = 0.92, AGFI = 0.90, CFI = 0.94,
RMR = 0.03, and RMSEA = 0.04). Table 3 shows the path coefficients
that arose from the structural model testing. The path coefficients were
0.23 for tour member fit to positive emotions, and 0.61 for tour member
fit to tour rapport. The two path coefficients were significant at the
level of p < 0.01, indicating that tour member fit had significant and
direct positive effects on tourists’ positive emotions and tour rapport.
Thus, H1 and H3 were supported. The aforementioned information
suggests that when tour member fit is high, members will have more
positive feelings during the trip and be more likely to have greater
rapport with other members. Furthermore, the paths of tour mem-
ber–leader fit on positive emotions and tour rapport were 0.37 and
0.17, respectively, and were positively and significantly related at a
level of p < 0.01. Thus, H2 and H4 were supported. In addition, these
findings demonstrate that when a tour leader and tour members have a
closer fit, they tend to experience positive emotions during the trip, and
the harmony between tour members is greater.
Furthermore, the coefficient was significant for the path from po-
sitive emotions to tour rapport (β = 0.48, p < 0.01). The results in-
dicated that tourists’ positive emotions was positively related to tour
rapport. Therefore, H5 was supported. Finally, the results revealed that
the coefficient was significant for the path from tour rapport to tourist
S.-Y. Chang, et al. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 42 (2020) 235–243

Table 1
Results of confirmatory factor analysis.
Construct Factor loading CR Cronbach's

Tour member fit 0.81 0.80

Traveling with the other members of this group was one of the best parts of the trip. 0.78
I got along well with the people I traveled with. 0.87
There was not much conflict among the tour members. 0.63
Tour member–leader fit 0.93 0.91
Traveling with the tour leader of this group was one of the best parts of the trip. 0.79
I got along well with the tour leader I traveled with. 0.84
There was not much conflict with the tour leader. 0.69
If I had more free time, I would enjoy spending more time with my tour leader socially. 0.73
The tour leader's professional competence met my needs. 0.75
The tour leader's interpersonal skills and organizational abilities met my needs. 0.83
The tour leader's empathy met my needs. 0.84
The tour leader's problem-solving met my needs. 0.80
Positive emotions 0.91 0.90
I felt excited. 0.76
I felt happy. 0.89
I felt pleasant. 0.88
I felt interested. 0.84
I felt relaxed. 0.69
Tour rapport 0.94 0.93
Enjoyable interaction 0.90 0.94
I enjoyed interacting with the tour members. 0.78
The tour members created a feeling of warmth in our relationships. 0.80
The tour members related to me well. 0.83
I had a harmonious relationship with the tour members. 0.81
The tour members had a good sense of humor. 0.68
I was comfortable interacting with the tour members. 0.78
Personal connection 0.89 0.91
I felt there was a “bond” between tour members and myself. 0.79
I look forward to seeing those people if I join a package tour again. 0.85
I strongly care about the other tour members. 0.81
I have a close relationship with the tour member. 0.80
Tourist satisfaction 0.88 0.87
I was satisfied with the service quality of the tour. 0.82
I was satisfied with the service provided by the tour leader. 0.89
I was satisfied with the professional ability of the tour leader. 0.83
I got what I wanted from the tour. 0.64

Note: CR denotes composite reliability.

Table 2 satisfaction (β = 0.26, p < 0.01); furthermore, tour rapport was po-
Correlation analysis. sitively related to tourist satisfaction. Thus, H6 was supported.
Variable Mean SD AVE 1 2 3 4 5
6. Discussion
1.Tour member fit 3.85 .63 .59 .77
2.Tour member–leader 3.93 .60 .62 .48** .79
fit This study applied PE fit theory to examine how tour member fit
3.Positive emotions 3.86 .68 .63 .46** .51** .79 and tour member–leader fit affect tourists' positive emotions and tour
4.Tour rapport 3.64 .64 .67 .68** .45** .48** .82 rapport. In terms of service interactions, people with similar traits tend
5.Tourist satisfaction 3.93 .62 .64 .51** .73** .56** .46** .80
to interact more effectively; when this interaction relationship is
Note: The scores on the diagonal are square root of AVE. greater, people feel more pleased with their consumption experience
**p < 0.01. (Gremler & Gwinner, 2008). In a tourism context, tourists interact in-
tensively with the tour leader as well as with each other in a shared tour
environment (Liu & Tsaur, 2014). Similar attitudes or personal traits
cause tour members to become easily attracted to and have pleasant
interactions with each other; this can enhance their favorable im-
pressions of each other and invoke positive emotions, such as happiness

Table 3
Hypothesis testing and results.
Hypotheses Path relationships Path coefficient Results

H1 Tour member fit → Positive emotions 0.23** Supported

H2 Tour member–leader fit → Positive emotions 0.37** Supported
H3 Tour member fit → Tour rapport 0.61** Supported
H4 Tour member–leader fit → Tour rapport 0.17** Supported
H5 Tourist positive emotions → Tour rapport 0.48** Supported
H6 Tour rapport → Tourist satisfaction 0.26** Supported

Note: All path estimates are standardized.

**p < 0.01.

240
S.-Y. Chang, et al.
and pleasure. This study demonstrated that tour member fit positively
affects tourists' positive emotions and rapport relationships during a
trip. This result echoes those of Lin et al. (2019) and Jung and Yoo
(2017). On a GPT, favorable interactions between tour members can
enhance tourists’ positive emotional response and foster harmonious
relationships between tour members.
Tour leaders play an indispensable role in fostering perceptions of
tour member–leader fit. A tour leader's expertise includes leading tour
members, controlling the itinerary, and satisfying various needs of
members. Tour leaders, who play dramatic roles and utilize different
skills, can be a catalyst for involving tour members (Yen, Tsaur, & Tsai,
2018). If tour members and leaders possess some similarities, such as
speaking style, interests, or values, they may resonate with each other
and feel comfortable during interactions. Therefore, they are likely to
experience positive emotions throughout the entire journey, which
leads to a high level of rapport. The results demonstrated that when
tourists perceive a higher degree of fit with their tour leader, they tend
to experience positive emotions and harmonious relationships with
other members. This result is consistent with that of Hwang and Lee
(2019), who found that when tourists felt that their tour leader's pro-
fessional competencies met their needs, their rapport with the leader
during the trip was strengthened.
In addition, this study identified a positive correlation between
positive emotions, tour rapport, and tourist satisfaction. Studies have
indicated that positive emotions play a vital role in the tourism ex-
perience (Hosany et al., 2017; Knobloch et al., 2017). Interactions be-
tween tour leaders and tour members resemble the relationship be-
tween service providers and customers. If both parties perceive positive
emotions, their relationship can become more harmonious; therefore,
tour members may have positive perceptions of the entire travel ex-
perience and in turn have higher tourist satisfaction. Thus, on a GPT,
tourists’ positive emotions evoked by their interactions with their tour
leader or other tour members can enhance the rapport between all
parties and further increase tourist satisfaction. This finding is con-
sistent with that of Tsaur and Ku (2019).
7. Conclusions
7.1. Theoretical implications
The research contributions of this study are as follows. First, studies
on PE fit have mostly focused on organizational behavior or human
resource management (Abdalla et al., 2018). This study was the first to
use PE fit theory to investigate the relationship between tour leaders
and tour members on a GPT. This study extended the concepts of PG fit
(Li, Kristof-Brown, & Nielsen, 2019) and PS fit (Astakhova, 2016) and
found that tour member fit and tour member–leader fit both had po-
sitive effects on tourists' positive emotions and tour rapport. Therefore,
PE fit theory (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005) was applied in the field of
tourism. Second, relevant studies have examined the effects of tour
guides' professional competencies (Hwang & Lee, 2019) and tour lea-
ders' emotional intelligence (Tsaur & Ku, 2019) on tourists' positive
emotions and tour rapport. This study found that tour member fit and
tour member–leader fit were also crucial antecedents that affected GPT
members' emotional responses and perceptions. Thus, this study ex-
tends the results of Hwang and Lee (2019) and Tsaur and Ku (2019).
Finally, studies have mostly focused on tourist–tour leader interactions
(Hwang & Lee, 2019; Tsaur & Ku, 2019) and overlooked the importance
of tourist-to-tourist interactions on GPTs (Lin et al., 2019). This study
found that tour member fit was a critical factor that influenced tourists’
positive emotions and tour rapport and in turn influenced tourist sa-
tisfaction. Thus, this study also extends the results of Lin et al. (2019)
and Wu (2007).
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 42 (2020) 235–243
7.2. Managerial implications
This study proposed several recommendations for management
practices. First, understanding the fit of a tour group is critical in the
tourism industry because it can lead to quality service provided by tour
leaders as well as positive tour experiences for tour members. In the
operational practices of group tours, different sociodemographic-profile
attributes and groups with various interests—such as honeymooner,
adolescent, parent–children, and older adult groups—can be set first
when designing and organizing travel products. Different GPT products
can be planned through prior market segmentation and product posi-
tioning. This arrangement will enable compatible customers to self-se-
lect into the service environment and avoid placing incompatible cus-
tomers together. Subsequently, before a group tour begins, travel
agency managers should understand the needs, preferences, and ex-
pectations of their customers through formal or informal surveys,
thereby forming groups with high homogeneity according to the
members' sociodemographic profiles. Second, travel agencies should
consider the concept of fit when arranging tour guides for various types
of groups to maximize supplementary and complementary fit between
the tour leader and members. Travel agency managers can arrange tour
leaders with similar attributes and professional backgrounds to the tour
members in terms of age, educational level, and occupation, facilitating
similar characteristics between the parties. Third, a pretour briefing
would help participants to understand other tour members’ various
needs as well as create opportunities for communicating with the tour
leader; this would also help leaders to manage their tour better. By
being offered opportunities to engage in dialogue, tour participants can
interact with other tour members and their tour leader; it is likely they
can find some common interests and preferences that can, further es-
tablish connections. Before a group tour begins, the tour leader should
first communicate a code of behavior to establish a tacit understanding
and consensus between him or her and the members.
Fourth, tour leaders should strive to always enrich their professional
knowledge and abilities during the journey. For example, problem-
solving skills and communication and coordination abilities are core
competencies and key requirements for tour leaders who wish to deliver
great service. This can effectively facilitate a complementary fit be-
tween the leader and members. Furthermore, tour leaders can use team
building activities to stimulate feelings of compatibility among team
members, thereby facilitating a supplementary fit between members.
Fifth, on the basis of interests and personal traits, including speaking
style, customs, and body language, identified during the trip, tour
leaders can initiate conversations in which they share their experiences
and help meet tour members' requirements. Tour leaders should use
their interpersonal skills along with special events to promote com-
patibility. This can likely maintain a harmonious tour atmosphere and
ensure tour members’ satisfaction. Finally, in terms of human resource
management, travel agency managers can recruit and select tour lea-
ders with favorable social and interpersonal communication skills to
encourage positive interactions between team members, thereby facil-
itating harmony between leaders and members. Moreover, tour leaders
should learn how to avoid potential conflicts between group members
as well as how to effectively cultivate harmonious relationships through
attending training courses.
7.3. Limitations and future research
This study had several research limitations. First, it adopted the self-
report approach, investigating tour member fit, tour member–leader fit,
positive emotions, tour rapport, and tourist satisfaction from the per-
spective of tourists. This may have resulted in response bias. Second,
this study employed a cross-sectional research design, which may have
influenced the inference of causal relationships from the research re-
sults. Therefore, future studies are advised to adopt a longitudinal re-
search design to enhance such inferences. Third, this study only
S.-Y. Chang, et al.
targeted Taiwanese tourists who had participated in a GPT abroad.
Therefore, the results may not be applicable to those in other regions or
countries. Thus, future studies are advised to target tourists in other
countries. Finally, this study focused on how tour member fit and tour
member–leader fit influence tourists' positive emotions and tour rap-
port; however, the impacts of these variables on behavioral intentions,
such as word-of-mouth and repurchase intention, were not discussed in
this study, which is one of its limitations. Researchers are suggested to
conduct further relevant research in future studies. Also, this study did
not consider situational factors such as long- or short-distance travel
and tour leaders’ gender. Therefore, future studies can further in-
vestigate whether the relationships between these variables in this
study are influenced by the moderating variable.
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