Name: Alya Rizqi Fatikha

NIM: A320180089/B

Introduction: The theory of behaviorism Introduction: Cognitive theory focuses on an

concetrates on the study of overt behaviors unobservable change in mental knowledge.
that can be observed and measured.

Behaviorism and Cognitivism

Some key figures in the Many ideas of cognitive psychology can
development of the behaviorist be traced back to the early decades of
theory: 20th cetury:
1. Pavlov 1. Gestalt psychology
2. Watson
2. Edward Tolman’s Cognitive Learning
3. Thorndike
4. Skinner 3. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Theory
1. Pavlov 2. Watson
Behaviorism is
Indicates that basically a
stimulus and psychological
response work

Behaviorism
3. Thorndike
His work is often referred to 4. Skinner
as connectionism. Learning
Created a new concept
involves the ‘stamping in’
called Operant
of connections, forgetting
conditioning. It refers to a
involves ‘stamping out’
learning process which
connections. Learning is the
behavior is controlled by
process of forming
its consequences.
Law of Readiness or Law of
Action Tendency
Thorndike Law of Exercise

Law of Effect

Skinner CHART 1: Learning process according to BEHAVIORISM

stimulus organism response Reinforcement (Behavior likely to occur again and become
habit)
No reinforcement/negative reinforcement (behavior not likely
to occur again.)

Audiolingual method
 Alm

Has two concept has 5 application

has 12 pattern drills
 The behaviorist stimulus-response concept -the organism as the foreign lang
learner 1. Repetition 7. Expansion
 An assumption that 2nd language learning should reflect -the behavior as verbal
behavior 2. Infection 8. Contraction
and imitate the perceived process of mother tongue learning-the stimulus as what is taught
3. Replacement 9. Transformation
-the response as the learner’s reaction 4.
Restatement 10. Integration
to the stimulus 5.
Completion 11. Rejoinder
 -the reinforcement as the approval or praise 6.
Transposition 12. Restoration

Cognitivism

Gestalt psychology Edward Tolman’s Cognitive Learning Jean Piaget’s Cognitive

Development Theory David Ausable’s Meaningful Theory
-Found by Wertheimer - Was an American psychologist He believe that
intelligence is -Was an American psychologist
Kohler and Koffka - “purposive behaviorism/cognitive behavior” something that
grows and develop -Focused on school verbal learning
 - In 1910 - 3 laws: law of Motivation, law of Emphasis through a series stage
(Piaget, 1936) or intentional learning
law of Disruption

SUMMARY OF BEHAVIORISM AND COGNITIVISM

Behaviorism
The theory of behaviorism concetrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured. Some key figures in
the development of the behaviorist theory are Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner.

 Pavlov = his name is Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Psychologist and his theory is originated from Pavlov’s experiment which
indicates that stimulus and response work together.
 Watson (1913) =deriving from Pavlov’s finding has named this theory Behaviorism. He adopted classical conditioning theory
to explain all types learning. He rejects the metalistic notion of innateness and instinct. Instead, he believes that by the
process of conditioning we can build a set ofstimulus-response connections.
  Thorndike = His work often referred to as connectionism, since the idea that bonds between stimulus and response take the
form of neural connections.
 Skinner = in 1938 B.F. Skinner published his Behavio of Organism. He created a new concept called Operant conditioning.
According to Skinner, Pavlov’s classical was a typical form of learning utilized mainly by animals and slightly applicable to
account fo human learning.

The Application of Behaviorist Theory in Foreign Language Learning

Widely used Audiolingual Method (ALM) of the 1950s and 1960s. This method, which will be familiar to many language
teachers, has laid down a set of guilding methodological principles based on two concepts: (1) the behaviorist stimulus-
response concept and (2) an assumption that second language learning should reflect and imitate the perceived process of
mother tongue learning.

There are various pattern drills used in Audiolingual Method as presented by Brook (1964: 156-61) as follows:

1. Repetition: The students repeat an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it. He does this without looking at a printed text. The
utterance must be brief enough to be retained by the ear. Sound is as importamt as form and order.

2. Inflection: One word in an utterance is replaced by another.

3. Replacement: One word in an utterance is replaced by another.

4. Restatement: One word in an utterance and adresses it to someone else.

5. Completion: The student hears an utterance that is complete except fo one word, and then repeats the utterance in complete
form.

6. Transposition: A change in word order is necessary when a word is added.

7. Expansion: When a word is added it takes a certain place in the sequence.

8. Contraction: A single word stands for a phrase or clause.

9. Transformation: A sentence is transformed by being made negative or interrogative or through changes in tense, mood, voice,
aspect, or modality.

10. Integration: Two separate utterances are integrated into one.

11. Rejoinder: The student makes an appropiate rejoinder (response) to the given utterance.

12. Restoration: The students is given a sequence of words that have been culled (selected) from sentence but still bear its basic
meaning. He uses these words with a minimum of changes and additions to restore the sentence to its original form. He may be
told whether the itime is present, past, or future.

Behaviorism has significant influence on ferign language teaching. It provides the learning theory, which underpins the
existence of Audiolingual Method of the 1950s and 1960s. This method has laid down a set of guiding teaching principles such as
learning a language is habit formation and to the behaviorist, habit formation is brought about through repetition, mimicry, and
memorization. This has become the standard practices of teaching based on Audiolingual Method.

Cognitivism
Cognitivism believe that people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a
consequences of thinking. Cognitivism use the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and
leads to certain outcomes. Cognitive theory focuses on an unobservable change in mental knowledge. Cognitive theories focus on
the conceptuaization ofstudents’ learning processes and address the issues of how information is received, organized, stored, and
retrieved by the mind.

The Application of Cognitive Theory in Foreign Language Learning

Called Cognitive Approach or Cognitive Code Learning (CLL). The cognitive psychology viewed the learning process as a two-way
process between the organism and its environment. Cognitive Code Learning advocated by cognitive psychologist and applied
linguists such as Ausubel, J.B Carroll, and K. Chastain in the 1960s was intended as an alternative to the Audiolingual Method rhat
emphasizes habit information as process of language learning. CCL is often considered as the modern version of the Grammar
Translation Method.

The Application of Cognitive Theory in Foreign Language Learning

Called CLL (Cognitive Approach or Cognitive Code Learning)

The Goal of the Teacher is to expand the student’s ability, can do the following:

1. Build on what the students already know

2. Help the students relate new material to themselves, their life experiences, and their previous knowledge
3. Avoids rote learning
4. Use graphic and schematic procedures
5. Utilize both written and spoken language
6. Attempt to select the most appropriate teaching learning situation for the students’ involvement
7. Employ the first language, visual, or demonstrations

Answer from chapter Behaviorism

1. That learning can only be said to have taken place when there is a change in the outward behaviour of the learner.
2. The Skinner’s theory  tries to account for most of human learning and behavior. Operant behavior is behavior in which one
operates on the invironment. Within this model the importance of stimuli is de-emphasized. More emphasis, however, is on
the consequence of stimuli.  Skinner’s  operant  conditioning seems to be preoccupied with scientific controls. This has been
widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification ) as well as teaching (i.e., clasroom management ) and
instructional development ( i.e programmed instruction ). He that any subject matter could be thaugh effectively and
succesfully by carefully designed program of step by-step reinforment. As we know that renforcement is the key element.
The event of stimulli ( the reinforcers ) constitute a powerful force in the control of human behavior. Skinner’s  make quite
 clear that learning language athough it is complex ,is same as learning other  learned behavior. He state that in all verbal
behavior under stimulus control there are three  important events to be taken  into accounts, namely: a stimulus, a response,
and reinforcement. These three are contingent upon each other. We can see  this in the following way :  the stimulus, acting
prior to emission of the response, sets the occasion upon which the response is likely to be reinforced. Under  this
contigency, though a process of operant discrimination, the stimulus becomes the occasion upon the response is likely to be
emmited. Is different with watson’s  theory  that  orginated from Pavlov’s  experiment that stimulus and response work to
gether. In his exsperience hetrained a dog to salivate  when hearing  a tuning fork though produce  that has come to be
known as  classical conditioning. for him, the process of learning consisted of the formation of association between stimuli
and reflexive response.  Watson’s reject the mentalistic notion of innateness and instinct, iinstead, he bellieve that by the
procces of conditioning  we can build set stimulus response connections, and more complex behavior are learned by
building up series of response.
3. Classical conditioning usually deals with reflexive or involuntary responses such as physiological or emotional responses.
Example the stimuli that precede a behavior will vary (PB&J sandwich, then tiger plate), to alter that behavior(e.g. dancing
with the tiger plate!). Operant conditioning usually deals with voluntary behaviors such as active behaviors that operate on
the environment. Example the consequences which come after a behavior will vary, to alter that behavior.
4. The implication of behaviorist theory in language teaching with audio lingual method is theory use of the behavior as verbal
behavior the stimulus respond and reinforcement.for example  when the student meet to talk to two people: A: Hello!  B:
Hello!    In the behavioral view, A first say “hello”, which is to stimulate, provoke B response. In the foreign language teaching
in the classroom, the teacher’s task is to teach students to distinguish the mother tongue of the new language habits, so that
students develop the correct target language habits in order to achieve communicative.
5. The mechanistic classroom practice in Audiolingual Method: a) Foreign language learning is basically a process of
mechanical habit formation. b) Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language
are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form. c) Analogy provides a better foundation for language
learning than analysis. d) The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in a
linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation. e) Teaching a language,thus involves teaching aspect of the cultural
system of the people who speak the language.
6. -Focus on Practical Pronunciation. The audio-lingual approach, based upon language structure, naturally treated the sounds
of language as important building blocks for the creation of utterances, that is, meaningful strings of sounds.
 -Do Structural Drilling Exercises
-Use Dialogue Practice
7. It means describe a stimulus, respons and reinforcement. In here stimulus is a what is taught response as the learners
reaction to the stimulus, or what is the reaction learner’s get stimulus . and reinforcement as the approval or praise of the
teacheror fellow students. In foreign language learning a means of the frequent reinforcement of a stimulus and response
sequence. It has enormous impact an language teaching. It is also acquiring a set of appriate language stimulus response, it
is a mechanical process of habit formation. In here Tenet realized in the classroom , emphasizes stimulus, response and
reinforcement. For example : Stimulus ( the teacher give questions to learners) – Organism ( human being) – response
( Behavior , it is answer the questions ) – reinforcement ( behavior likely to occur again and become habit and No
reinforcement ( negative reinforcement, behavior not likely to occur again ).
8. A. Positive Reinforcement
- Social attention (a conversation);
- Praise (a positive comment);
- Nonverbal communication (a smile, thumbs up, a nod);
- Secondary positive reinforcers (checkmarks);
- Tangibles such as stickers,
B. Negative reinforcement. For example, if you have a student that forgets to turn in homework, then they will receive
negative reinforcement by getting a bad grade; therefore that behavior turns into an unwanted behavior for the student. If the
student turns homework in and is met with a positive reaction, then that is negative reinforcement and the student will be
likely to turn homework in because of the positive response.

Answer from chapter Cognitivism

1. The concept of cognition is the usage of human’s mind in the learning process. A human has a mind which is viewed as an
agent in the thinking learning process. The mind is active and determining agent in the acquisition and storage of knowledge.
The learning process can be performed by thought or mind, not by human behavior, because a behavior can be happened
because of mind. People learn not through respond to environmental stimuli. People are rational beings that require active
 participation in order to learn and who can use their cognitive power such as problem-solving to acquire knowledge.
According to Cognitive psychology, the term cognitive process refers to individual internal mental operation. It may involve
conscious attention to some point the teaching is making, conscious reorganization of material to understand better the
concept being learned, or conscious attempts to recall previously learned information. The cognitive processes are mental
processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem solving need to be explored. The Cognitive psychology viewed
the learning process as a two-way process between the organism and its environment. In the cognitive theory the mind is
viewed as an agent in the learning process. So, learners are active processors of information and the role of the teacher is to
recognize the importance of the students’ mental assets and mental activity in learning (in Cognitive Code Learning).
Teacher’s task is also to organize the material being presented in such a manner that what is to be learned will be
meaningful to the learners. To do this, teachers are obligated to consider the learner’s existing cognitive structure. The next
obligation is to try to teach the material in such a fashion and in such a context that the learners can relate the context to
their exiting knowledge. The new information must be relatable by the learners to their past knowledge and experience. In
addition, teachers should encourage an active questioning attitude on the part of the learners, to help them understand and
relate what is being learned to what they already now.

2. The central issues that interest cognitive psychologists include the internal mechanism of human thought and the processes
of knowing. Cognitive psychologist have attempted to find out the answers to mental structures, such as what is stored and
how it is stored, and to mental processes concerning how the integration and retrieval of information is operated.

3. Gestalt psychologist developed a set of principles to explain perceptual organization, or how smaller objects are grouped to
form larger ones. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws. These laws deal with the sensory modality
vision. The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and ‘40s
Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception. The
principles are reffered to as the “laws of perceptual organization or gestalt laws, which include (1) Laws of Pragnanz, (2) law
of similarity, (3) laws of Continuation, (4) law of Proximity, and (5) laws of Figure and Ground. Laws of pragnanz is also
sometimes known as the law of good figure or law of simplicity. It holds that objects in the environment are seen in a way
that makes them appear as simple as possible. Law of similarity says that elements within a mixture of objects are
perceptually grouped together if they are aligned within an object. This similarity can be in the shape, color, or other
 qualities. Law of continuity says that elements of object tend to be grouped together if they are aligned within an object. Law
of closure says thet we perceive objects (i.e. shapes, letters, pictures, etc.) as being whole when they are not complete. Law
of figure and ground states that we have perceptual tendency to separate whole figures from their backgrounds based on
one or more possible variables, such as contrast, color, size, etc.

4. Tolman’s well-known cognitive learning theories are Sign Learning and Latent Learning. In his Sign Theory, he put forth the
notion that there are three parts to learning which work together as a gestalt, namely: the significant or goal of behavior, the
sign or signal for action, and means-end relations or the internal processes and relationships. Tolman’s Latent Learning
theory is defined as “a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious
reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.

5. Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His well-known works is a theory of
child cognitive development. Before his work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are less competent
thinkers than adults. Piaget believed that children’s minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds. Children think in
different ways compared to adults. They are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on
which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based. He believed that intelligence is something that grows and develops
through a series of stages (Piaget, 1936). Piaget identified four majors stages of cognitive development, namely:
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. (Piaget, 1936; Huitt and Hummel, 2003)

6. The main difference between behaviorist and cognitive learning perspectives is behaviorism focuses more on explaining
things through one's outward behavior or things that can be observed, while cognitivism revolves
around cognitive processes such as decision making and memory.

7. In short, meaningful learning takes place in the following condition: (1) the learners comprehend the material; (2) they can
relate the material to their present knowledge system in a non-arbitrary and non-verbatim manner; and (3) they consciously
intent to integrate the material being learned into their own cognitive structure. (Ausubel, 1968, Chhastain, 1976)
8. According David Ausumbel’s cognitive theories of learning is that learning must be meaningful. The learner must understand
what is to be learned. Ausumbel ( 1968: 61) state “that acquisition of large bodies of knowledge is simply impossible in the
absence of meaningful learning .” The implication is that learning must involved active mental processes in order to be
meaningful and that only trough meaningful learning can students acquire significant amount of knowledge. From this
statement we can conclude that learning meaningful if in teaching learning process students can understand the material
and student’s can improve of knowledge from the learning process

9. The application cognitive theories of learning emphasize understanding rather than habit formation (cf. Audiolingual Method).
The teacher’s task is to facilitate student acquisition, organization, and storage of knowledge. The goal of the teachers is to
expand the student’s ability to create meaningful replies. On the other hand students should always be aware of what they
are learning. In deductive learning a situation is created in which in the target item is embedded in meaningful context.
Learner are told the rule and given the opportunity to apply it to several practice examples. In inductive learning, the student
is given a number of examples and asked work out the rules through a process of guided discovery. The cognitivists are also
much lenient about learners’ mistakes or error. They believe making mistakes is an important part of learning process. Errors
give proof that learning process takes place.

10. In cognitive based lesson, the presentation of target language item can be managed either deductively or inductively. In
deductive learning, a situation is created in which the target item is embedded in a meaningful context. Learners are told the
rule and then given the opportunity to apply it to several practice examples. In inductive learning, the student is given a
number of examples and asked to work out the rules through a process of guided discovery.

11. : In Audiolingual Method, learner errors are viewed as avoidable, by following the teacher’s intruction in the learning process.
Example: > repeat after me > be polite > answer the question > etc. In Cognitive Code Learning, learner errors are viewed
as inevitable, to be used constructively in the learning process. They belive that making mistakes or errors is an important
part of learning process. Errors give proof that learning process take place, that is errors are inevitable sign of human
fallibility, for example, as the consequence of lack of attention or poor memory on the part of the learners, incomplete
knowledge of the language, or inadequacy of the teachers’ teaching.