TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY BASINS,

MECHANISM OF BASIN FORMATION

&
PETROLEUM HABITAT
BY
S. K.BISWAS
BASIN DEFINITION, CHARACTERISTICS &
CLASSIFICATION
 A sedimentary basin is a structurally
morphotectonic depression capable of receiving
and preserving sediments with a depositional
history not withstanding erosion and non-
deposition from time to time.
 A sedimentary basin represents a unit of
geological structure, which is filled up with
sediments unique to it during a given span of
time.
A sedimentary basin is characterized by:

 A distinctive sediment fill

 Single or multiple depositional cycles
 Distinctive tectonic framework & basin architecture which
define the basin type
 Single or several phases of tectonic and/or thermogenic
subsidence – tectonic and/or thermogenic history.
 One or more tectono-sedimentary episodes defining single
or poly history basins
 Stratigraphic sequences related to tectonic episodes
 Distinctive geological history indicated by sedimentation
cycles
The style of evolution of a basin depends on the
tectonic realm where it is located
It is, therefore, possible to group basins in genetic
classes each characterized by its typical structural
style, sediment fill and evolutionary history depending
on the tectonic regimen to which it belongs
Each plate tectonic set up is characterized by
genetically related group of basins where structural
styles depend on the inter-plate & intra-plate
movements typical of the set up in which they occur
Mechanics of basin formation and its development,
therefore, vary according to the tectonic processes of the
set up
Thus, basins are classified and grouped under plate
tectonic set up and processes involved, viz., Divergent,
Convergent & Transform settings respectively
characterized by extensional, compressional & trans-
tensional (horizontal stress) movement (Table 1 &
Fig.1). Processes responsible for basin subsidence are
given in Table 2 & Fig 2.
Basins evolve with the plate movement and one
type of basin may change into another or abort and
remain as a fossil basin depending on the stages of
plate evolution. Thus post-sedimentation life span
vary (Fig.3).
Type of sediment fill, subsidence & depositional
histories are important factors for hydro-carbon
generation & tectonic history is important for
accumulation.
 MECHANISM OF RIFTING

ACTIVE: PASSIVE:
UPLIFT PRECEEDING RIFTING SUBSIDENCE IS FIRST
EXPRESSION OF RIFTING
GRAVITY SPREADING
PURE SHEAR: SIMPLE SHEAR:
ASTHENOSPHERE DIAPIRISM
UNIFORM EXTN.
UNIFORM EXTN. WITH
INDUCED MANLE CONVECTION
NON-UNIFORM EXTN.
CONTINUOUS DISCONTINUOUS
 SUBSIDENCE MECHANISM
CRUSTAL THINNING: Extensional stretching along primordial shear
zones(Figs. 4&5)
MANTLE-LITHOSPHERE THICKENING: Cooling of lithosphere following
rise of asthenosphere.
SEDIMENTARY & VOLCANIC LOADING: Local isostatic compensation of
crust and regional lithospheric flexure during sedimentation & volcanism.
TECTONIC LOADING: Local isostatic compensation of crust during
overthrusting.
SUB-CRUSTAL LOADING: Lithospheric flexure during underthrusting of
dense lithosphere.
ASTHENOSPHERIC FLOW: Dynamic effects of asthenospheric flow due to
descent or delamination of subducted lithosphere – crustal under-plating.
CRUSTAL DENSIFICATION: Increased density of crust due to PT change
and/or emplacement of higher density melts into lower density crust.
 INTRA-CONTINETAL BASINS
 Sag basins (Fig.11) are formed by sagging of continental
crusts due to crustal distension by far field deviatorial
stress. Subsidence could be caused by : (i) Increase in
crustal density by eclogite phase transformation, (ii) Pre-
break up crustal distension by impingement of thermal
plume, (iii) Thermal metamorphism of the lower crust,
(iv) Mechanical subsidence by isostatic compensation, (v)
Thermal subsidence (vi) Tectonic reactivation of older
structure, (vii) Changes in intra-plate stress, (viii)
Thermal subsidence following intrusion and cooling, and
(ix) Subsidence caused by tectonic events at adjacent plate
margin.
Rift related sag basins may be asymmetric with
boundary faults developing Interior Fracture basin.
These basins are aborted rifts in continental set up .
Sag basins developed by pre-break up distension of
continental crust may develop into interior fracture
basin before rift failure.
Sag basins are favourable habitat for
hydrocarbons depending on the environment of
deposition, sediment heterogeneity, subsidence and
thermal history.
 RIFTBASINS
 Intra-continental rifting leading to break up of continent
and spreading of ocean generally takes place along the
ancient orogenic belts / paleo-sutures (Fig.4) due to
crustal extension & thinning as a result of the rise of
volcanic plume from upper mantle or uparching of
mantle (active rifting depending on the convecting
asthenosphere, Fig.5).
 Two main rifting mechanism: active and passive rifting
(Fig 6 & Table 3).
 The struactural style depends on mode of rift
propagation by stress adjustment through transfer zones
(Fig.7).
 Pericratonic rifts are located at the contnental margins
or as shelfal horst-graben complex, after successful
rifting of the continent and spreading of proto-oceanic
trough (Fig. 8 A-C).
Intra-cratonic rifts develop within continental crust forming
rift valleys, e.g., Gondwana basins.
Failed rifts are aborted arm of rrr-triple junction after
successful rifting along other two arms leading to separation of
continents and creation of proto-oceanic troughs (Fig.8C).
Aulacogens are former failed rifts (Fig.9) at high angles to
continental margins which have been reactivated during
convergent tectonics, so that they are at high angles or
orhtogonal to the orogenic belts.
Miogeoclinal prisms include proximal ocean floor, continental
slopes & rises – continental embankments (Fig. 8 D-F).
Basins adjacent to the emerging mid-oceanic ridges are Active
Ocean basins. In fossil rifts aborted after initial spreading of the
oceanic crust, such basins are called Dormant Ocean basins.
 PETROLEUM HABITAT OF RIFT BASINS

Rift basins are ideal habitat for hydrocarbon

occurrence due to presence of all the favorable factors
required for generation & accumulation:
Optimum Thermal History
Favorable Tectono-sedimentary History
Adequate subsidence / sediment accommodation
Heterogeneous sediment fill & organic content
Restricted environment
Favorable timing of structure formation vis-à-vis
migration
 FORELAND BASINS
Formed in collisional dynamic loading set up by continent-
continent, arc-arc and arc-continent collision. A peripheral
foreland basin is formed as the elastic lithosphere of the
approaching continent flexes under the frontal thrust belt of
the over-riding continent (Fig. 12).
Retro-arc foreland basins are formed by arc-continent
collision and occur on the continent side of compressional arc
formed during subduction of oceanic plate (Fig.13).
Intermontane foreland basins are formed by basement
cored uplifts in foreland settings (Fig.14)
Inter-orogenic foreland basins occur between two orogenic
belts involving collision of three continents. When two
continents collide on either sides of a third continent over-
riding it, the common peripheral foreland basin between the
two-obducting continents becomes this type of basin.
 Foreland Basins - Petroleum habitat
Peripheral foreland basins with thick wedge of
marine sediments are favorable habitat for
hydrocarbons. Many large oil/gas fields are located
in this type of basin e.g. USA, Canada, Iraq, Iran,
Pakistan, & India (Upper Assam basin).
The petroleum accumulations in passive margin
basins (pericratonic rifts or sag basins) of the
partially subducted continent may escape from
under thrusting or may be preserved under brow
zone of thrust belt of obducting continent.
Organic rich sediments of paleo-passive margin
are carried down in the subduction zone into a
favorable thermal regime where oil/gas is
generated and migrate up into the peripheral
foreland where it is trapped.
 ARC-TRENCH BASINS (Fig.16)

Fore-arc trenches occur at the threshold of the ocean-

arc subduction zone (Fig.17). The subsidence mechanism
is controlled by negative buoyancy of the subducting
oceanic lithosphere by slab-pull forces and by isostatic
tectonic load of the accretionary prism over the subduction
zone (Figs. 18 & 19).

Intra-arc basins (Fig.20) are located on arc platform

between volcanic fronts. Subsidence caused by relative
plate motion, plate-boundary forces, asthenospheric flow,
regional isostasy, magmatic withdrawal or by gravitational
forces.
 Back arc basins (Figs. 20 & 21) occur behind
continent margin arc and behind intra-oceanic
magmatic arcs. Produced by rifting between arc massifs
during sea floor spreading. Back arc basin between
Remnant and Active arcs are called Inter arc basin (Fig.
22).
 Remnant Ocean basins are shrinking basins caught
up between obliquely colliding continents and/or arc-
trench systems, ultimately subducting or deformed
between suture belts (Fig. 23).
 Superposed basins/piggy back basins (Fig. 24) are
formed on the thrust belts by sagging due to interaction
of thrust sheets and carried by moving thrusts.
 PETROLEUM HABITAT OF ARC-TRENCH
BASINS
 Arc-trench basins with thick pile of deep water organic
rich sediments lack thermal maturation. However, if the
sediments are carried down by subduction into favorable
thermal regime, hydrocarbons could be generated and
migrate up into favorable traps in residual fore-arc basin
or in structures of accretionary prism as seen in west
coast of N. America, Alpine thrust belt of Italy and Tripura
fold belt of India.
 In this set up, Back arc basins are most favorable
petroleum habitat as the basins are similar to rift basins
involving extensional stretching, mantle arching and
accompanying volcanic activity.
 TRANSTENSIONAL BASINS (Fig. 25)
These basins develop by lithosphere shearing
resulting in dislocation or pulling apart of the
lithosphere and hence called “pull-apart” basins.
Such basins occur along trends of transform
systems where ever en echelon fault segments,
curving faults, or branching faults are arranged in a
releasing orientation with respect to the direction of
plate motion.
Such basins occur between parallel or overlapping
strike-slip faults or in their releasing bends, fraying
ends or between the main and its conjugate fault
systems (Fig. 26 A-B).
 TRANSPRESSIONAL BASINS (Fig. 26D)
These basins are formed by down warping of lithosphere
in constraining orientation with respect to plate motion in
transform segments. These basins occur with
convergent strike-slip faults along restraining bends with
thrust margins that results in flexural subsidence due to
tectonic loading.
TRANS-ROTATIONAL BASINS (Fig. 26C)
These fault bound basins develop between blocks that
rotate differentially in a shear zone around a sub-vertical
axis in the same direction of the principal shear stress.
Rotation is clockwise in right simple shear and
anticlockwise in the case of left simple shear. Block
rotation on sub-vertical/vertical axis yields prominent
triangular or rhomb shaped basins that may be extensive
in zones of distributed shear.
 PETROLEUM HABITAT – STRIKE-SLIP
BASINS

Transtensional Pull-apart basins have the

same properties as the rift basins and
provide most favourable conditions for oil
gas generation and entrapment with
adequate structuring, basin subsidence and
complex depositional environment.
The Transpressional & Rotational basins do
not favor accumulation due to complex
structuring. In most cases post-dates
migration as formed during rift inversion.