_ A Cultural History of India Edited by A. L. BASHAM in| \ Ball Earasats OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESSOXFORD ‘YMCA Library Building, Jal Singh Road, New Delhi 130 001 nerd ates est deparnentof te Unie of Osan ‘ctr the Unive sete oeselnce feet cele, Sa edteateny pbs aie Ort New York ‘tne. Avcad Bang Bop Muenos Ae Caleta ‘ape Cheat Durer Sahar DAD Rone Hang Kong se isch ls tumpur asl Melbostee ets Ghy Habel att! ears Seo Poo Singapore spe Tyo Torome Wasew en atte espa in ‘erin hada! (© Oxford University Press 1975 st publishes 1975 ist Indian Impression 1983 reprinted by arrangement with Oxford University Press, Oxford ‘Oxford India Paperbacks 1997 ‘Third impression 1999 All sights reserved. No part of this public stored ina retrieval system, o transmitted, fn slectroni, mechanical, photocopying recording or otherwise, ‘without the prior permission in whiting of Oxforé University Press 1 may be reproduced ISBN 0 19563921 9 323 y “C86 1999 245522 Printed in india at Saurabh Print. 0-Pack, Noida, UP and published by Manzar Khap, Oxford University Press YMCA Library Building, Jal Singh Rood, New Delhi 110 001 ny form or by any means, PREFACE THe Legacy of India, edited by G. T. Garrat, appeared in 1937, Its contri- butors included some of the ablest specialists of the time and several of its fifteen chapters are as valid today as they were at the time of writing. Never- theles, he Second World War, tbe independence of India, and the-ghangd of attitudes since those two momentous events, have fendered some of the chapters quite out of date, Others have become obsolete as the result of the many discoveries made and new theories put forward sines the war, The need for a new edition was clear and Dr. Raghavan Iyer frst drafted ‘out « plan aad approached & number of contributors some firteen years ago. Jn 1968 the Clarendon Press asked me to assume responsibility for bringing the Work to a conclusion, on the basis of the material collected by Dr. Iyer. 1 ageeed to do so, and vas given authority to commission authors and recast the plan of the volume in whatever way 1 might think fit, As is almost inevit- ably the case with large collaborative works, composed by contributors scattered across the world, the task (ook fonger and proved more arduous ‘than I had expected. But itis completed at last, and the result is offered to the reader, not without some misgiving, in the hope that he will accept it as a sincere attempt on the part of the contributors and the editor to explain India’s heritage from the past, and the world’s heritage from Indie. ‘The ‘original Legacy, forall its merits, contained several Incunae. In the attempt to fil these and to produce an even more comprehensive survey, it beeamne in- cteasingly clear that what was emerging could not be contained winder the original ttle, TLwas no longer a ‘Legacy’, and t0, not too immodestly I hope, it was decided to call the book A Cultural History of India While many of the chapters ate the work of senior scholars with well- established international reputations Thave not hesitated to enlist the help of younger and les well-bnovn specialists, where this has seemed advisable. The very fact that contributions have been received from four of the five con tineals (and one contributor now works inthe fifth, Aftiea) is surely evidence in itself of the importance of India in the world today. Four of the contributions to Garratt’s original Legacy have been retained, ‘The venerable Professor Radhakrishoan's sincere and well-writen chapter on Hinduism survives, with some editorial additions, Similarly, with editorial changes, T have retained the chiapter by the late Professor 8. N. Das Gupta, ‘whose monumental survey of Todian Philosophy is still the most authoritative ‘and comprehensive study of the subject. The late Professor HG. Rawliason's sympathetic chapter on India's cuttural influence on the western world re- rains, but itis now divided into two and is brought up to date by a German "ven as itstands, this book contains Iecunse, I should have liked to include achapter on the Gypsies, who are also part ofthe history of Inain; nd the much debated question of Contacts, of which there were cvtlaly some it Pre-Columbie trees, thes ht acd indirect, might also have been considered, More serious fe the abseoce of = chapter onthe Indian dance, one of her greatest contributions tothe world’s culture. a USSU eee wour Preface scholar who has made a special study of the’ subject. The contribution of Martia Briggs on Indian Islamic Architecture is also kept, purged of several pages of discussion of matters which were once controversial, but are now no onger so. Other than these chapters, all the material is new. In my editorial capacity T have made no attempt to force my numerous Jbelpers to fit their contributions to a particular pattern, beyond explaining to them at the outset that I hoped that the book would emphasize the inheritence of modern India from the past, and her many bequests to the world of the present. My main task, except in respect of the ehapters inherited fromm the Garratt Legacy, has been in trying to impose a uaiform system of trenslitera- tion, orthography, and typographical conventions, in occasibnally adcing brief explanatory remarks, and in abridging a few contributions which were efinitely over length 1 was part of my original plan to include chapters on “India since Irde- pendence? and ‘Pakistan since Independence’, which would survey the rain trends in the two countries over the last twentycfive years. But I finally de- cided against this in view ofthe size ofthe volume, and of the fact that many aspects of the contemporary situation were covered in other chapters. Ia the place ofthese two unwritten chapters brief conclusion tries to draw the toany and diverse-threads of this book together. If in this [have allowed mysel" to sake value judgements, some of which may be in disagreement with the state rents of certain contributors, 1 pat my vjews forward with all deference, as those of one who has had close contacts with the region of South Asia-for many years, and bas deepvaffetfon‘for the people ofthat region and for their alte Some readers may be irritated by the numerous diacritic marks to be fond ‘over the letters even of well-known Indian nares, I take fall responsibility for ‘any annoyance this may cans. It has long been ong of my shinor taoks ia life {o encourage the English-speaking public to pronotinee Indian namesand terms with atleast an approximation to accuracy, and the atlention of readers {s drawa to the notes on pronunciation which immediately follow this preface, One of the most difficult problems facing the editor of a work such as this, in thepresent-day context, rests ints title. When the original Legacy was pub: lished the whole of the region of South Asia, with the exception of Nepal, the foreigo affairs of which were controlled by Indiz, and of Ceylon (now offically $1i Lanka), whict ike India was part of the British Empire, was clearly and ‘unequivocally India. The region nov consists of fiescomipletely independent states, of which the Republic of India is unquestionably she largest in size and population. This fact, perhaps understandably, sometimes leads to expies- sions of protest when the word "India’ is used, in certain, contexts, to eever regions beyond India’s present-day frontiers. As an extreme exarople I remenn- ber a student from Kathmanda indignantly declaring that his country had not received. the credit that was its due becasse Gautaoia Buddisa ws invar ably referred to as an Indian when jn fact he had been a Nepalese ‘The en- emic tension betweea India and Pakistan leads to similar protests, on grounds too numerous to mention. L recognize the force of national feeling, andl dono! to give offence to citizens of the other countries of South Asia; but tere inevitably ‘India’ must be understood at times in its broddest historical sease, i Preface vi ve remetnberl in any eta th word Jal owe i Ss: wcities Uae sing eame South a none fog nat de sccoion ve thought aig the county ofthe ia ads tao a Sok ve Sn, The a 0, 4 rams gan, became asap) ofthe Achuemerian Erie of ree ee ae nds ttn becoming Pra Ay eRe tan nes age eo apne Tne rec, vorovng te wore eer reer ond the county though wn Rowe the Teas ale th defrost Tate bain Was the whole ol tnd at fom hein of Alene of Macalon and probably before i cnet om cond tne ney teva of eather oh oh ef ey cad Cover, tom ne Sanit Gang Tis te seg fae i eon nen go ea eit ome by ak hee whe de on as sata el er fnsane yo yea see oEN Spat ssl metean tein vord a8 We hr sin Garg regal at boo : ; Peet Saal wry though ho gzomrapicel knowledge was vy in am eth tem ni tothe ge a a ER Cae este sn The Arb Hind and he Pes a oe te conetaten a alter ae Thasbaopean ween. i eh wri eh tl find Suh A re Munro oes non ete ene ch eo aan ie te in-air stone ae gis IMP ane, eeofostions Ht asada ote i we go beyond the Downes est Indian Repub the petnt nd Fea ay acknowledgements fr much ep and a deer eed ny rs tt mon tank De Raine for collecting the first drafts of several chapters ‘before he ere a Hie fe cae Oe 6g fo Pofeno : Buea Mi Dee oe eet ja tute els fr atg wey comic ih suger Scot am exenent ater Che ve, [hve ete corso geese opeation ran 2) sane eran Tan epealy pte ow fv af tn whe cae MY Fate tat nd ott st not, Aa ther meter of importance think peily of Mr. WG. Archer, Prafesor saa OPTI Leo tne De, Av A, Rr bing i com- i ee sca conln [nave ben ety ed ye {ery competent profesional asistance of Mc Joelya Bergin, Seceaty ol aera a Clana Ma May sero, Dene oa er aan of tides of tpg pool te Feely of Asian Studies of the ae Ne eas peers Aaa erie Clarendon bres for exemplary pans Iau fortusteg my iodgemest eel Canberra, 197vil Preface Postscairr. While this book has beem in the press, several important potiticsl changes have taken place. The secession of East Pakistan, to become the independent state of Bangladesh, occurred shorily before the final typescript ‘was submitted, and note of this has been taken in the text. The change of the fatailiar name Coylon to Sri Lankk came later, and I have not attempted to alter the text of this book accordingly. More recently the Indian state-of Mysore has become Karnataka, and several small hill-states have been de tacked from the former Assam, It would delay the appearence of the book still farther if 1 attempted to bring every reference to these regions of South Asia up to date, and I crave the reader's indulgence for inconsistencies in this respect. ALB. (1974). CONTENTS List of Plates and Maps x Chronological Tables ait Notes on the Pronunctation of Indian Words xvi List of Contributors xix 4, Introduction A. L. Basttane 1 PART ONE: THE ANCIENT HERITAGE the Indus Civilization B.B. Lat in "The Barly Aryans T. Burnow 20 1¥. The Early Drevidians Jom P. Mana ~ (% Afokan India and the Gupta Age Rosita THAPan #8 Vi. Medieval Hindu India A. L, Bastian 3! (Git, Bieduism 5, Rapwanasinan 6 (i) Buddbiom Binxsmy Sanonanaxsuura 3 “GN Jainism A. N, Urapave 100 x Plosepty $.N. Das Guera m xt. Social and Political Thought and Institutions J. DUNCAN'M.:Detingrr 124 si, Selene 1.3.3, Wavren 7 ‘xu. Ancient and Modern Languages T, Burrow 162 XIV, Classipal Literature A. K, WARDER . ” 170 vv, Bony Art and Architecture P , Rawson 191 xv, Mose. taazanor a ART TWO: TE AGH OF AMAL DONNA x The Masi Rang Dynasties 8. A.A, Rta 7 ss, Medieval Hindu Devotionals J, F Jonnes 2665 (Geis Islam in Medieval Todia. 8, A. A. Rizvt 281 aout nade ] xx, Medieval Jndian Literature Kaustnsa KXIPALANt 303x Contents sat, Muslim Architecture in India Manrnt S. Bricos + no xxi, Medieval Indian Miniature Painting PRaMon Canned 326 [PART THREE: CHALLENGE AND RESFONSE—THE COMING OF THE WEST xauv, The Portuguese J.B. Haamison 337 xxv, The Mughals and the British Pencivat Span 38 XXVE. Hindu Religious and Social Reform in British India IT. F.JORDENS 365 xxvii Islamic Reform Movements Aziz Auman 383 ‘xxvut, The Nationalist Movement Huo OWEN 301 xox, Modern Literature Krista KRiPatant 408 PARE FOUR: INDIA AND THE WORLD OUTSIDE xxx, Early Contacts between India and Europe H, G. RAWLINSON 425, xxxt, Indian Influence in Ancient South-Bast Asia AcasTain LAMO 442 Appendix HLHLE, Loors 452 |. Indian Influences on China J, LeRoy Davioson 455 |. India and the Medieval Islamic World 8. A. A, Rizvt a6 , Yndia and the Modern West Fricpaicit Witamsist AND HG. Rawuinson 470 xxv. Conclusion A, L. BASHAM 487 Books for Further Reading sor Index 519 LIST OF PLATES Siva Daksinamarti (Siva as Teaches), South side of East Gopura, 6a, 6. 15. 16. 1, Cidambacam, Tamilntdu, ¢. 4.0. 1200.5. C, Harle frontisplece av END Kalibangan: steatite seals (two upper rows) and clay sealings (bot- om row), Archaeological Survey of India Lothal: cast of obverse and reverse of a seel of ‘Persian-Gull” style, Archaeological Survey of India ‘Surkotada: general view of the citadel, with enteance:ramp in the middle distance on the right, Archaeological Survey of India Surkotadd: entrance to the citadel, with ramp, staircase, and guardrooms(). Archaeological Survey of India Indo-Greek and Persian coins, From H, G. Rawlinson, Tnter- course between India and the West, Cambridge University Press Bronze statuette of Harpocrates from Taxila, From the Cambrldge History of India, vol. + Greek intaglio gems from North-West India, ibid. ‘North Indian Astrolabe, brass. ? r8th century. Obverse. Museum of History of Seience, Oxford North Indian Astrolabe, brass. ? rth century. Reverse, Musewn of History of Science, Oxford Samra yantea, Delhi, Minter Mother Goddess, moulded terracotta plaque, Tamluk (near Cel- cutta). e, 18 century B.c. Ashmolean Musewn, Oxford ‘Yaksa, stone. Besnagar, now in Vidise Museum, c. rst century 8. J.C. Harle Seated Buddha, sandstone, Si Hearle Vignu in his Boar incarnation, sandstone. Udayagii Pradesh), Early sth century A, J. C, Harle Sivilaya-Malegiti (a Siva temple), Bhddmi (Mysore Stats) Fest half of 7th century A.b. J. C. Harle Head of Siva from an Ekamukbalingam, spotted red sandstone, Mathura. 4th-sth century A.D. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford Siva Nataraja (Siva as Lord of the Danes), bronze, From Tamil- nadu, probably Pudukottai, Thanjavar region, Chola Dynasty. rot century A.D, Victoria and Albert Museum, London Bodhisattva, Gandhéra (Graeco-Buddhist), and-sth eentury 4.0. Archaeological Survey of India nith, Late sth century AD. J. C. (Madhyaai List of Plates and Maps CHRONOLOGY 38, Kali: interior of chaitya cave, e, 150 2.¢. India Office Fouiricat-econonie eeeTuRsc a6] evens amon 19, Nasik: sun-window and horseshoe-areh, e, 150 2.¢. = no Saure 20. Bow-harps and flutes, Amaravait.c. 4.0, 200. British Museum ay ents 21, Vini in the hands of Sarasvatl.e, A.D, 900 British Museum Ei 22, Ajmer: Great Mosque. c. 1209. Indian Museum, Calcutta oe ead 23, Delhi: Qutb Minder, a.p. 1232. Indian Museum, Caleutta ene seat eh 24, Delhi: Tomb of Humiyan, C.P, Bureau, Judion State Rathvays ae pie eta! Pe 25, Fatdhpur-Siket: the Buland Danwaza, av, 1575, From S.-M. | a eee Eawardes and H. £. 0. Garrett. Mugiel Pale India (Oxford e| a Unboersity Press) i Apaatin Mant {asco 26, Agra: the Taj Mahal, A.D. 1632. India Office ee eee nncaes eee 27, The Dying Tnayat Khan, miniature painting. Early 7th century, ee Bodleian Library Oxford 28 Asvarl Ragini (a musical mode personified), from the Laud 2 Régamiala, Eacly 17th century. Bodlelan Library, Oxford 29. Plaque with Siva and Parvati, carved ivory. From South India c. vlna war nyepeereaonntun [ROO | A. 1700. Victoria and Albert Museum, London vole trase ta es to 30. Girdle (paika), stencilled and painted cotton. Rajasthan. Late 17th aeol?| fecha Bena deggie Krk | anges i or early 18th century. Victoria and Albert Museum, Loudon eal eggagnnict few 31. Seated Buddha, git bronze. China. Former Chao Dynasty. Dated AD. 338. Avery Brundage Collection vk] spss nate om sett fo 32. Standing Kuan-Vin, gilt bronze, Ching. Mid-T’ang Dynasty. Late F| [SRE con ‘reentry A.D. Avery Brundage Collection # E Fee \. LIST OF MAPS ' et ance ta eas ras ATED pias eas, “agate te Le 1, Physical Features of India eee eee 11, Asoka's Empize (250 3.0.) i cae 1, The Gupta Empire at the Close of the Fourth Century see | veneer 7 1N, Indie at the Close of the Ninth Century eee v. India in 1236 sage tem vi. The Mughal Empire at the Death of Akbar (1605) Se on bts vl. The Mughal Empire at the end of the Seventeenth Century vo, | is hs ‘vin. The Portuguese Possessions in the Hast and the Route to India # ea nese “Saga ER nape 2x, India at the Close of Dalhouste's Administration i Is Digger onan x, India in 1939 a B aciaeaat Iss 24, Trade Routes from Inia to The Levant ’ e| heseettuaer- | dagan | ktbaaeeFouttient-eoveme ——_T sagguaasg | evens aman ou aa Saenger an aimee nan EB Blouin ecceastein | | Spates F ; LE Sates, E| Ee 3 ke Hl Pa SE Fc utererconaan | A e Fi ewer cn | ' E EI os E i ea & | sears ier eac é BES soni Ee fener : povesssnaen RE one clearer E 0 bathe ahs 4 ee Elan Srasiaass "| ett sabetrpane 3 | amenities PabE re owen H ' ie x ae Sein et Sao * |e nn Nast” sant Wil Po examantd tes gg Monotot “lien hsmNOTES ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF INDIAN WORDS "ty Indi language has complex phonetic sytem and contis phonemes the Indian nr are completly deen Onlyaerlong pracite earth ee be tained to reognie thet dftrencs, or the woed onpeee eee them secratly. The sexpso Indn nggesreprodes tan reer ne they can only be exrssed in roman sonpt by means Fauna tee marks below or above the ters, ltisassume tet moto tierendor ree ook will not be aidenis of Indian languages and hersiore a sipeeied systam of (ansiteaton kas beon uses whi yl ge some ee che Sypiosinate wound ‘Words in lassie enguages ave tanslterated according tothe sinplifed system mentioned above, Placenames in general flog the eee ae afl spelings of he governments ofthe counties of Soul Aer in Bartholomew's Word ‘tev Map, Ine Patiams at Chaba en Proper names of nineteeathy and twenttiveetury ladans are oren ie he spalngyhic they themes favoured, ining he homoaele tee "Tagore, which shouldbe Thur, with te sires onthe fee aplable Die ext mais have ben pled ove fhe lng vows ins tne eden tive some idea of the correct pronunciation Exceptions are site cnae fase of ory ev Angled word ke Celetonnd Ronin from Sasi the fll sytem of cars hasbeen ice, We Un bene ok those who know something of the language. Only four ltrs th dase marke ate normaly wed and & The first three distinguish long from short vowels. In most Indien languages ¢ and O ae alvay long, and therefore do no ead dace vowsts 4 shorts pronounce lke un ‘hu’, never like ain ‘ba. Bengt speakers usually pronouace itlke short ows inet" long, a in ea, og sperms the vowel in ‘ame’, butcloter othe long in Feneh or 1a in pin’ The word Sik, ncdentlly should sound approxisaely like Baglih sick’ The pronunciation like “seek sem fo have ean doped by ‘one Baglismen in Indi fortis very reason, in order to aval cepreing overtones in the name of a tough, vigorous peor, Tasin ‘machine’ 0, approximately an *s0", Closer to longo in French or Geaman wras in bull never sin “bu Pajdby however, am Anglced spel Ing, and is more accurately wtitten ‘Panjab’, In the case of this word we have deviated from our rule abou Uslog the seeped speling, im order fo ave the Notes on the Pronunciation of Indian Words xvii pronunciation ‘Poonjab’, which one sometimes hears from speakers Who are doing their best to be correct. The first syllable is like the English ‘pun’,) as in ‘rul (ata yin ‘my’, ‘au a3 ov in ‘how’. consonants Most of the consonants are pronounced roughly as isi Bagish, buts care should be taken ofthe aspirated consonants ki, gi, ch, J, th, dh, ph, and ‘nh, These are exacly like their unaspirated counterpart, ky g, hs 1, hp, and », but with a stronger emission of breath, English speakers often espirate ‘hete letters when they bogin a word or sylable. Thus the English ‘cake’, scgording to Indian phonetics, might appear as hel&. The distinction between the two sounds is immediately obvious to the Indien (except perhaps if his mother tongue is Tamil), but to the English speaker they are vctually alike In a native Indian word, this never pronounced as in ‘thing’, ph aever as in “phial” (except by some Bengal speakers). The letters pronounced as in the English “joke, never asin Preach or German. ‘The liter Sis pronounced approximately as sh in ‘sheet’ The reader will find both Sand si used in spelling Yadian words in this book; this not de to carelessness. The two represent two separate letters in Tndian seripts, which are nowadays pronounced alike, or almost alike, by most Indians, though ‘onvs the distinction was much more definite, ‘The letter v varies Irom region to region between the sounds of English ‘v" and ‘wy’, Beogilis and some other Indians regulely pronounce it as "The biggest diicuty of the Indian phonetic system—the distinction between the retroflex consonants, ff, di, and y, end the dental, ft, dy dh, and n—is too specialized for the ordinary reader who does not intend t0 earn an Indian language, and is not indicated in the system used here ‘Urdd fas imported several sounds from Arabic and Persian, Many speakers ‘are inlined to pronounce words in these laniguages according to the Indian phonetic system, but educated Muslims atempt to pronounce them corzectly, For example gis a very deep k sound pronouaced with the throat in the posi. tion of swallowing, The ‘rough breathing’ indicated by “is a similar deep swallow associated with a vowel, zther like the “glottal stop" which replaces ¢ in the broad Cockney pronunciation of ‘bottle’. In Persian and Arabic loan- words hi is pronounced as chin Scots or German ‘lock; gh isthe same, but voiced, lke the French r. The English sounds of thin ‘worth’ and "worthy" occur in Arabic, and some speakers attempt them, but in Tndia and Pakistan they are usually pronounced as English sand z, even by the edueated, sree ‘The amount of stress placed on any one syllable of a word varies with ifferent speakers. With some, especially in the south, evory syllable of word has almost the same value, while others make 4 definite stress. In classical Indian languages (Sanskrit, Pali, and the Prakrits) the stress is fon the last prosodically long syllable of @ word, other tha the final syllable. A prosodically long syllable is one containing a long vowel or diphthong (4, ¢,xi Notes on the Pronunciation of Indian Words 7, 0, al, au) oF a short vowel followed by two consonants, Thus Himalaya is stressed on the second syllable, not on the third. The Situation is more complicated in the modern languages because the short final -a, with which many Sanskrit words terminate, is no longer pro- nounced in most contexts, end is not usually written in transliteration. Thus Sanskrit vihdra ‘monastery’, with the stress on the second syllable, becomes the modern state of Bihar, with the stress on the last. Hence no simple rule can be given for the stress of words in modern languages, including Persian ‘and Arabic loau-words, but in necrly ull cages it is on a. prosodically long syllable if the word contains one. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Ahmad, Azis D.Lit(Lond). Professor of Islamic Studies, University of ‘Toronto, Canad Bashers, A. L,, D.Lit(Lond.), HouD.Lit(Kuruksbetta), RSA, RAAEA. Professor of Asian Civilizations, Australian National University, Can. berra, Australi. Figs, Martin S. (1882 _), FLR.LB.A. Formerly Lectarer, London Unie ‘vetsity School of Architecture Burrow, T., M, A. Ph-D(Cantab.), B.A. Boden Professor of Sanskrit nd Fellow of Baliol College, Oxford, UK, ‘Chandra, Pramod, Ph.D. Profesor in the Departments of Art and of South ‘Asian Languages and Civilization, University of Chicago, US.A. Das Gupta, §.N. (1885-1952), M.A., D.Lilt(Cantab), Hon D.Litt(Rome). Formetly Lecturer in Philosophy, University of Cambridge, and Profes- tor of Mental and Moral Science, University of Caleuta, Indi Davidson, J, LeRoy, Ph.D,(Yale), Professor (and Chairman) of the Depart. rent of Art, University of California, Los Angeles, U.S. Derrett, J. Duncan M,, D.C.L{Oxon,), LLD., Ph.D.(Lond), Professor of Oriental Laws inthe University of London, Lecturer in Hindu Lawin the Inns of Court Schoo! of Law, London. Hastison, J. B., M.A,(Cantab). Reader in the History of South Asia in the University of London, Jaitazbhoy, No, BA.(Wash.). Associate Professor of Asian Studies, Univer- sity of Windsor, Ontario, Canada. Jordens, J. T. F, LiePbilos., Ph-D(Louvsin). Reader i South Asian Civil zation, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia Kripalani, Krishna, B.A.(Bombay), Bar-at-Law (Lincoln's Tn, London) Formerly Seorctaty, Sihitye Akademi (National Academy of Letters), ‘Now Delhi, India, Lal, B. B., M.A. Professor of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Atchaeo- ogy, Jvait University, Gwalior, M.P., India, Formerly Ditector-General, Archaeological Department, Government of India, New Delhi, India, Lamb, Alastair, Ph.D.(Cantab,). Formerly Professor of History, University of Ghia. Meltod, Hew, M.A.(NZ), PhD (Lond). Associate Professor of History, ‘University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, Mars, John, Ph.D (Lond). Lecturer in Tamail and Indian Musio, School of Oriental and Aftican Studies, University of London, ‘Owen, Hugh, Ph.D.(ANU). Lecturer in History, University of Western Ause tralia, Pert, Australia, Raghakrishuan, Sarvepalli (1888-}, O.M., FBA., D.Litt, LLD, D.C.L. Numerous honours and honorary degrees. Formerly Professor ofXx List of Contributors Philosophy, University of Calcutta, Professor of Bastern Religions, University of Oxford, Vice-Chancellor, Banares Hindu University. 1962~ 1967, President of the Republic of India, Rawlinson, H. G. (1880-1957), CLE, M.A.(Cantab). Formerly Principal, Devean College, Poona Rawson, Philip, M:A.(Lond,). Curator, Gulbenkian Museum of Oriental Art, University of Durham, U.K, ‘Rizvi, S.A. A., Mun PhD., D.Litt(Agre), F.AGHA, Reader ia South Asian Civitiration, Australian National Univesity, Canberra, Austalia Sangharakshite, Bhikshu Spear, T. G. Percival, O.B.E., M.A., Ph.D,(Cantab,), Fellow of Selwyn Cole lege, Catnbridge. Formerly Hon, Reader in History, Delhi University, and University Lecturer in History, University of Cambridge, UK. ‘Thapar, Romila, Ph.D.(Lond,). Professor of Historical Studies and Chairman of the Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, Ind Upadbye, A. N., M.A. D.Litt, Professor of Jainology and Prakrit, Univer: sity oF Mysore, India, Warder, A. K., Ph.D.(Lond). Professor of Sanskrit and Indi University of Toronto, Canada, Wilhelm, Friedrich, DPhil, Professor of Indology and University of Munich, West Germany. Wintet, HL J.J., PhD,, D.Se(Lond). Senior Lecturer in Education at the University of Exeter, UK. CHAPTER I Introduction by A. L. Basan ‘Turns are four main eradies of civilization, from which elements of culture hhave spread to other parts of the world. These are, moving from cast to west, China, the Indian subcontinent, the ‘Fertile Crescent’, and the Mediter- ranean, especielly Greece end Italy, Of these four arets India deserves a larger share of the credit than she is usually given, because, on a minimal asiessmeni, she has deeply affected the religious life of most Of Asia and bas provided very important elements in the culture of the whole of South-East Asia, as well as extending her influence, directly and indirectly, to other parts of the world, It has been commonly believed in the West that before the impact of European learning, science, and technology ‘the Fast" changed little if at all over many centuries, The ‘wisdom of the Fast’, unchanging over the millen- nia, it was thought, preserved eternal verities which Western civilization had ‘almost forgotten, On the other hand ‘the East’ was not ready to enter into the rough and tumble of the modern world without the guidance for an indefinite perlod of more developed Western countries. ‘These ideas were no doubt held in good faith by many wellinformed people of earlier generations, and there may have been a grain of truth in them from the point of view of the nineteenth century. But there is no reason to believe that the rat of change in India in earlier times was tay slower than that of other parts of the world. It was only from the sixteenth century on- wards, when a combination of many factors led to increasingly rapid techno- logical and scientific advances in Europe, that the myth of the changelessness of Asia began to appear. Tn fact Indie as always been steadily changing. The civilization of the Guptas was different from that of the Mauryas, and that of medieval times ‘was different again, The Muslims altered conditions considerably, and the high flowering of Indian Muslim civilization under the four great Mughals brought yet more changes, The religious life of India, forall her ‘ancient wisdom’, has changed greatly over the centuries. Between the time of the carly Greek philosophers and thet of St. Thomas Aquinas, Buddhism developed into a ‘great religious movement ia India, changed if¢ outlook almost completely, declined, and finally sank back into the Hinduism from which it had emerged, but only after Buddhist missionaries had spread their message throughout half of Asia, The Athenian Acropolis was at least 500 years old before the frst surviving stone Hindu temple was built, Some of the most popular gods, of Hinduism, for instance, GaneSa and Hanuman, até not attested wntil well after the time of Christ. Certain other features of Hitdduism also, for insiance the cult of the divine Rama and the complex and dificult system of physical {raining known as hatha yoga, are centuries Iter than Christianity,2 Iniroduction Of Gipamest, nd ret tings sen a Ramee I oc Hamat were ot rected them from oblivion, and if they are now national heroes, remembered chieftains and the great battles fought by them at about the same time. It ree The pre-Vedie Harappa culture bequeathed to later times sacred aninials and, less certainly, other aspects of Indian culture. From the Vedic Aryans horse. Later Vedic times (c. 1006-600 0.c.) brought the passion for specula- kingdoms out of tribal chieftainships. ” oe Political developments over the preceding period led to the first great mpi of India, that ofthe Mauiyas, when forthe Bs ime mos of the sub= continent was united under a single government. This period (c. 320-1 +) iat ae Kautilyay he reputed author of the famous Arthasdsira. From Introduction 3 (c. 272-232 v.c) Buddhism increased its influence, and was taken to Ceylon. "The 500 years between the Mauryas and the Guptas (c. 184 3.6.~A.D. 320) saw tremendous developments in Indian civilization, partly due to fresh in= fluences brought in by various invaders and traders, and partly the result of internal developments. New forms of devotional religion emerged, centring round the gods Vishnu and Siva, and these led to the composition of the Bhogaved Gita, now the most influential text of Hinduism. Buddhism de- veloped a theology, the Mahdydna, which was carried to China. Schools of Jaw appeared, cositying in written form earlier traditions, The two great epicé of India, the Mahdbhdraca and the Rdndyana, were edited in something like their prevent form, Courtly literature began developing out of vanished proto~ rama, canging from the heroic to the sentimental, and verse, wonderful ia its polish’ and ingenuity yet often filled with deep and sincere feoling. Logically reasoned philosophical schools emerged, as distinet from the older religious teachers, most of whose arguments were analogical. Contact with South-East Asia became closer with the spread of trade, and that region begen Co adopt many features of the religion and culture of India, These are only @ few of the many innovations of this, perhaps the most formative period of Indian history before the nineteenth ceotury. ‘The period from the rise of the Guptas to the death of Harshavardhana (320-647) can truly be called the classical period of Indian civilization. In this, age the grestest sculpture of ancient India was produced, and the finest ature written, in the poems and plays of Kalidasa. This Was the time of the best surviving ancient Indian mural painting, typified by Ajanta. Know- ledge grew also in this period, India’s most important practical contribution to the world, the system of place notation of numerals, with nine digits and a zero, was known by A.D. 509, and led to the great development of Indian ‘mathematics and astronomy. The recording of ancient legends and traditions in the Purdnas began. The Mother Goddess, after centuries of neglect, became ‘an important object of worship again, Stone-built temples appeared through- cout the land: Bewveen the death of Harshavardhana and the coming of Islam (647~ 6, 1206) the eestatie devotional religion (Phakt), associated with the singing, of hymns in the common tongue, appeared in Tamilnadu, later to spread all lover the subcontinent, ‘Temples became larger and grander, with spi towers, The system of hatha yoga was developed, and tantrism, with its sacramentalization of sex, spread in both Hinduism and Buddhism, Tn Sankara and Raménuja Hindu religious philosophy saw its greatest teachers. Some of the finest schools of bronze-casting in the world appeared in Bengal and Tamilnddu. The former region also developed a fine school of miniature painting. ‘With the coming of Islam fresh cultural influences made themselves felt. Tho sultanate period (1192-1526) saw the introduction of new styles of archi tecture, bringing the Gome and arch, New schools of miniature painting, both Muslim and Hindu, emerged. Soft teachers disseminated the doctrines of Islam and helped to make the religious climate of northern India favourable to the spread of popular devotional Hinduism from the south. Paper was in troduced, slowly replacing the traditional Indian writing materials—palm-leat4 Introduction and birch-bark, ‘The Urd language began to appear as the lingua franca of northern Tadia, and poets began to compote in the everydaysianguages instead of classical Sanskrit, : 1 The great days of the Mughal Empire (1526-1707) witnessed the perfection oftthe schools of Muslim architecture and miniature painting, with the pro- | duction of such splendid buildings as the Taj Mabal at Agri. Cannon and smaller fize-arms began to be used in warfare, Eucopesns esiablished trading stations at various ports, and through them, especially the Portuguese, new ‘crops were introduced into Indis, among them the potato, tobacco, the pine- "apple, and, surprisingly, the spice which nowadays is commonly thought typical of Indie, the chilli pepper. The Sikh religion was born just as this period began, as a surall devotional sect, and at about the time when the ‘period concluded it was reborn as a martial brotherbood, to play an important part in the confused politica life ofthe following century. + The eighteenth ceatury saw the break-up of the Mughal Empire and the steady expansion of the power of the British East India Company. It was @ time of general eutural decline in India, but the genius ofthe and was still at. work. The Unda language, little used hitherto aé a medium of literary expres- sion, became the vehicle of great poetry at the decadent couris of Delhi and Lucknow; while in the Himilayan foot-hills, at the end of the century atthe petty courts of local mabrajas, by some unexplainable miracle, these worked painters who produced works of unprecedented beauty end sensitivity. With the nineteenth century the subcontinent was exposed to the full force of ‘Western influence, and innovations ate too numerous to list, This cursory survey of the history of cultural change in India is sufficient in itself to show that, as long as civilization has existed there, the country has never been stagnant, but hes steadily developed through the ages, India as enjoyed over 4,000 years of civilization, and every period of her history has Teft something to the present day. ‘As well as‘this great legacy of ihe human past, the people of the subcon- finent have another inheritance from Nature itsel—the land aid its climate. We cannot understand South Asia without knowing something about what its people have received from the primeval forces which shaped the sucface of ‘the earth millions of years before man existed, Jn this sense perhaps India's ‘most important inheritance isthe great chain of the Himilayas, without which the land would be little mére than & desert, ‘As the plateau of Central Asia grows warmer in the spring, the warm sit rises and winds bearing heavy masses of cloud are attracted towards the high tableland from the Indian. Ocean. The movement of the clouds is interrupted by the mountains, and they shed their burden of rain upon the parched, over- heated land. The monsoon, beginning in June, lasts for about three months, and brings water for the whole yest, Except along the coast and ina few other ly favoured areas, there is little or no rain in other seasons, and thys the life of almost the whole subcontinent depends on the monsoon. ‘The conservation and just sharing out of the available water among the cultivators is a very important factor inthe life of lida It has been one of the Ina concerns of Indian governments for ove 2500 years and indeed the high civilization which is discussed in the pages of this book has depended, Introduction 3 ‘ad still largely depends, on irrigation, promoted and supervised by govern- ment, for its very existence, In the past, whenever the rains lave been inade- ‘guste, there has been famine; whenever a local goverament has lost grip and become ineflectve, irigation hes been neglected, dams have broken, canals have been choked with mud and weed, and great hardship has resulted. Thus villagers have lenent to co-operste independently of thei rules, by forming ‘heir own village goverament, under a commnittes of locally respected leaders, the panchayat, to cere for matters of common concern such as irigation, and to settle disputes as far as possible outside the royal courts. On a large scale the climate has perhaps encouraged autocracy, but at the local level it has necessitated government by discussion, : Let it not be thought that the South Asian climate is one which encourages idleness or quietism. There ate certainly periods in the agricultural year when litle work can bo done in the fields, but in a different way, in most parts of the subcontinent, the challenge of nature is just as serious as it is in northern Burope or America, Te driest part ofthe year is also the hottest, in April and ‘May, and its pechaps just as difficult to sustain life in such conditions as itis in the cold northera winter. The rainy season brings problems of another kind—almost constant heavy rain, floods destroying thousands of lives, rivers changing their courses, epidemics, and stinging insects, some of which carry the germs of such diseases as malaria and elephantiasis, In the winter season, moreover, though tho days are mild and sunny, the nights may be very cold, especially in Pakistan and the western part of the Ganga basin. In such times, ‘when the midnight temperature may be below freezing-point or only a little above it, deaths from exposure still occur. Only in the tropical coastal areas of the peninsula would elimatic conditions permit the survival of a considerable population without much herd work and foresight, sustained by coconuts, bananas, and the abundant fish of the Indian Ocean; and in these favoured ‘reas the population passed the limit at which such a way of life was possible "The abundant bouny of opis and subtropical nature hasbeen qualified by extreme heat, extreme rainfall, and extreme dryness i different parts of the yeat. In fact the climate of thé subcontinent tends to extremes, and possibly this too has influenced the Indian character and attitude to life, because, though one of the greatest of India's teachers counselled ‘the Middle Way’, succeeding generations have not always taken this course, and the extremes of rigorous asceticism and abandoned luxury have often gone hand in hand, South of the Himalayas lie the great plains of the subcontinent, the centres from which civilization expanded in ancient timesi Composed of deep silt carried down by the rivers Indus (Sind, Sindhu) arid Ganga (Ganges) these plains are naturally very fertile, bt for centuries they have supported a dense population, whose peasants used the most easly avtilable form of manure, cow-dung, as fuel. Hence the fertility ofthe plains destined, until by the end of the lat century many areas hed reached a rock bottom of productivity, from ‘hich they have begun to emerge only recently, with the introduction of arti- ficial fertilizers and the spread of knowledge of better agricultural methods. In ancient days, however, the fertility and the healthy wellfed peasantry of Yadia6 Introduction were noticed by foreign travellers from the Greek Megasthenes (c. 300 3.c.) onwards. South of the Gang sre thé Vindhya Mountains and the long and beautiful River Narmada, dividing the north from the plateau region of Maharashtra, generally called the Decean (from Sanskrit dashing, ‘south’, The region less naturally fertile than the great plains, has been for at east 2,000 years the home of tough martial peasants whe, whenever energetic leadership appeared to consolidate ther clans, would take advantage ofthe politcal weekness of their neighbours to raid the wealthier lends to the north, south-east, and south. ‘The Deccan plateau becomes steadily tess rugged and more fertile as oue proceeds south and south-east. Along the eastern littoral of the peninsula are fertile riverine plains, the most importuat historicelly being that of Tamilinid, reaching from Madras to Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari, theextremesouthert tip of India). Here, over 2,000 years ago, the Tamil people developed a fairly advanced civilization independently of the Aryan north; this region has throughout its history maintained a consciousness of its differenezs from the north, and has chetished its own language, while remaining part of the waole Indian cultural area; there may be an analogy between the Tamil altitude to the northern Aryans and that of the Welsh to the English, with the difference hat, while many Welshmen have English as their mother tonguc, few if any Tamils have & mother tongue other than Tamil. ‘Yet another inheritance of India from the distant past is her people. De- spite the difficult mountain passes and the wide seas barring access to India, people have been finding their way there fcom the days ofthe Old Stone Age, ‘when small hordes of primitive men drifted into the subcontinent. These are probably the ancestors of one of India's three main racial types—the Prato- Australoid, 0 called because ofthe resemblance fo the Australian Aborigines, Jn India the most pure Proto-Avstraloid typo is to be found among the tribal peoples of the wilder parts of the peninsula, but Proto-Australoid features can be traced almost everywhere inthe subcontinent, especially among people of low caste, The ideal type is short, dark-skinned, broad-nosed, and large mouthed, ‘The next main stratum.in the population of India is the Palaco-Mediter- ranean, often loosely called Dravidian, a word not now favoured by anthro pologists, These people seem to have come to south Asia from the west, not very long before the dawn of civilization in the Indus valley, and they may have contributed to the foundation of the Harappa culture, Graceful and slender, with well-chiseled features and aquiline noses, the ideal type is parti= ularly to be found among the better-class speakers of Dravidian languages, but italso occurs everywhere in the subcontinent. ‘Then, in the second millennium 3.c., came the Aryans, speakers ofan Indo- European language which Was tho cousin of those of clessieal Europe. Some hhave suggested that these people catne in two or more waves, the eater in- vaders being round-headed (brachyeephalic) people of the type called Alpine or Armenoid, and the later long-headed folk, typieal Caucasoids, similar in build to northern Europeauis. Long before they entered Indja the people who called themselves Aryans had intermixed with other peoples, and theit adveat meant a severe cultural decline, which lasted for many centuries. Oly whea Introduction 7 Aryan culture was fertilized by the indigenous calture did it begin to advance, te form the classical civilization of India. There ore good arguments for the View that in the finished product non-Aryan elements are more numerous than Aryan, Nowadays the Caucasoid type is chiefly to be found in Pakistan, Kashmir, and the Panjab, but even here one rarely meets pure or nearly pure specimens, As one proceeds east and south the: typé becomes progressively ‘These three, the Proto-Australoid, the Palaeo-Mediterranean, and the Caucasoid or fado-European, are the most strongly represented racial types among the jobabitants of India; but they are by no meaas tho only ones. ‘Almost every race of Central Asia found its way 0 India, Turks provided the ruling families in much of what is now Pakistan long before the coming of the Maslims, who were also Turks, Mongolians of various races have been enter- ing India over the Himalayan and north-eastern passes since long before history. The Mustim ruling classes imported numerous African slaves, who hhave long since merged with the general population. Persian and ‘Arab traders settled along the west coast from before the Christian era, Some tnerried Indian women, and the descendants have become indistinguishable fom the rest of the population. Others, such as the small but vigorous Pars! community, have kept thelr stock pure. The various Furopean traders and conqueroré have left their mark also. Along the west coast of India and Ceylon an appreciable quantity of Portuguese blood circulates inthe veins of the general population, while elsewhere in India the so-called Anglo-Indian commuity is the result of many marriages and liaisons between Buropean (aot only British coldiers and traders and Indian women. : “Thus, in reading these chapters, we must remember also India’s enduring inheritance of climate, land, and people, the basis on which ber high civilizae tion has been built, and which will zemaia, mote of less unchanging, to condic tion tho lives of Ber people in all their triumphs and vicsstudes in fature centuries.“parr one THE ANCIENT HERITAGECHAPTER I The Indus Civilization by B. B. Lau More than 4,000 years ago there flourished in the north-western patts of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent a civilization which, deriving its name from the sain river of the region, is known as the Indus civilization. In factyhowever, 5 extended far beyond ie limits of that valley—from Sutkagen-dor, on the sea-board of south Ballchistén, in the west to Alamglrpur, in the upper Gangé-Yamuna dod in Utiar Pradesh, in the east; and from Ropar, almost impinging upon the sub-Himdlayan foot-hill, in the north to Bhagatcév, on the estuary of the Kim, a small river between the Narmada and Tapti, in the south. In other words from west to east the Indus civilization covered am area of 1,609 kilometres, and from north to south of 1,109 kilometres, and it will not be surprising if future discoveries widen the horizons still further, This is an area much greater then that occupied jointly by the contemporary civiliza- tions of Egypt and Mesopotamia, And throughout the region a notably high standard of living was reached which is reflected in almost every walk of life. ‘The frst thing that strikes a visitor to an Indus site—be it Harappa or Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan or Kalibangen, Lothal, or Surkotada in India—is the town-planning, One finds the streets and janes iaid out nccording.to a set plan: the main streets running from north to south and the eross-streets and lanes running, at right angles to them. At Kilibangan, among tho north— south streets there was a principal one, 7-20 metres wide, while the other north-south streets were three-quarters of its width. The cross-streets and Innes Were, once again, half or a quarter of the width of the narrower streets from north to south. Such typical end minutely planned residential areas, often called the ‘lower towas", were themselves only a part of the entire seltiement complex. For at Harappa, Mobenjo-daro, Kalibengen, and Surkotada, there was a ‘citadel’, smallee in area than the ‘lower town’ and invariably located to the west of it. At Lothal, although no ‘citadel” as such has been found, a similar conception seems to have existed, for the more ime portant structufes rested in a group on a high mud-briek plsiform. In marked contrast might be cited the contemporary example of Ur in Mesopotamia, where there Was no rigorous planning of tis king, the main stcet wandering and corving as it wished. Both at Harappé-and Mohenjo-daro the houses were made of kiln-burnt bricks. At Kilibangan and Lothal too, elthough mud bricks were used for ‘most of the residentiel houses, kiln-burnt bricks in lacge quantities were used for drains, wells, and bathing-platforms, and in particular for the dockyard at the lalter site (below, p. 14). Such bricks were race in contemporary Mesopotamia or Egypt. At Mohenjo-diro and Kalibangan, were large areas have been excavated, an average house consisted of a courtyard aroundra The Indus Civilization \hich were situated four to six living-rooms, besides a bathroom and a Kitchen, Larger houses,"however, might have up to thirty rooms, «nd the presence ofs Of fresh water, most of the houses had their own wels, and in addition, there Were public wells Sullage-water was discharged through well-covered street. drains matle of kiin-burnt bricks. At intervals they were provided with mans holes for clearance. The citadel at Mokenjo-diro contained many imposing buildings, all made ‘oF kiln-burnt bricks: forexample, the reat bath, the college, the granary, and the assembly ball, In the bath the actual tank measured 12 metres in Jength (north to south), 7 metres in width, and 2-5 metres in depth. It was approached by two staircases, one each on the northern and southern sides, ‘The loor and side-walls of the tenk were rendered watertight by the use ef gypsum in the mortar, while the side-walls were fusther bucked by « damp- Proof course of bitumen, Around the tank ran a pillaed veranda from which there was access to a serice of what might be called ‘dressing-rooms'. The tank was fed with water from a large well situated in the complex, while, for the discharge of uéed water, there was a corbelled drain in the south-west comer ‘Whether the bath had a purely secular use or hed a religious fumtion as wel is very dificult to say. However, it has been surmised that beneath the sttpa of the Kushina period, situated hardly fifly metres to the east of the \ bath, there may be the remains of a temple. And this is not improbable, for a kind of worship-place fas indeed been identified within the citadel at Kali- bangan, closely associated with a well and bathing-platforms (below, p. 14). {Between the bath and the sfapa le the remains of a building 83 metres long ‘and 24 metres wide, with a large number of rooms on theee sides of a Lo-mette square courtyard. The presence of staircases suggests the possibility of there thaving been some more rooms, besides terraces, on the first floor. From the ‘general disposition of the building, the excavator was inclined to regard it 2s the residence of ‘the high priest’ or of a ‘college of priests’. Juxtaposed to the south-western wall of the bath was a granary covering an overall area of $5 by 37 metres. It consisted of a podium formed by 27 blocks of solid brickwork, arranged in three rows of nine each, and separated one from the other'by passages about a metre wide. The latter were evidently pro ded for the cieulation of air underneath the timbered floor of the storage hall that stood above the podium, Built on to the northern side ofthe podium ‘was a platform, with a ramp going down to ground level outside, To this, one can imagine, were brought wagons full of wheat and-barley (below, p. 13) for unloading. ‘There are many other buildings within the citadel, but one is particularly striking. Though not completely excavated, itcovers an area of over 750 square ‘metres, t has twenty massive piers of kiln-burnt bricks arranged in four rows of five each, with traces of corresponding pilasters atthe ends. Ths there are six aisles from nozth to south and at least five from west to east, the farther plan on theeast being incomplete, The building was very probably an assembly hall, which would fit the general context of other specialized buildings in the citadel. eases in many of them indicates a second storey, For the supply » The Indus Chvilization 3 Hoarappi was segarded es avother ‘capital’ of the ‘Indus Empire’ Here hardly any excavation has been done in the ‘lower ety” to the east of the ‘citadel’. Infact, even within the citadel, the sporadic diggings have not helped very much to produce a coherent picture, Of the enclosing wall, however, many details ate available. A section cut aaxoss it at about the middle of the ‘western side showed chat it was built of mud bricks, externally evetted with kila-bucat bricks, The mud-brick wall messured over 13 metres in width at the ‘bate and tapared wards on both the exterior and interior. At places it was found to rise to a height of about 15 metres above the surrounding plain. Be- bind it was a 7ometre-high mud-brick platform wpon which stood the build- ings inside the citadel. Extecoally, the citadel wall was punctuated at places by rectangular towers, and the One at the north-west corner shows that it ‘vas substantially rebuilt on three occasions. “The lack of data regarding the buildings inside the citadel is more than ‘compensated for by what bas been excavated to the north. In its shadow, there lay the workmen's quarter, their working-platforms, and a granary, the en- tire complex suggesting a high degree of regimentation of the working popala- tion. Enclosed by a boundary wal, of which only odd bits are now to be seen, the workmen's quarters stood in two rows running from east to west, Each dvelling, covering an area of about 17 by 7 metres, comprised two rooms and was entered through an oblique passage, evidently so atzanged for privacy. ‘The remarkable uniformity of these quariers reminds one of modern barracks ‘and al that they imply, Tmmediately to the north of these quarters have been identified five cast ‘west rows of working-platforms, and, although six is the maximum number excavated in any row, there were doubles many more. Wade of kiln-burnt bricks set on edge in circular rings, each platform measured about 9:5 metres in diameter. Excavation has revealed a central hole about 60 centimetres in ameter into which, itis surmised, was inserted a wooden mortar for pound ing grain, Such a gues is supporied, on the one band, by the presence of straw or husk and Wheat and barley ia the hole and on the platform and, on the other, by the location of a granary barely too metres tothe north, Why the granary at Herappa, unlike that at Mobenjovdiro, was located outside the citadel is a maiter for debate. The proximity ofthe river Ravi may be the answer, enabling the harvest from the neighbouring countryside to be transported by water direct to the granary. As to it tafe control, which its location within the fortified citadel Would have otherwise guaranteed, it may bbe assumed that an ever-vigilant eye was kept over the entire atea, right from the coolie quarters through the workshops up to the granary. Comprising two blocks, the granary complex occupied an over-all area of $5 by 43 mets. Each of the blocks contsined six storage balls, each all measuring 15 by 6 metres externally. As inthe case of the Mobenjo-déro example, here also air-duets were provided underneath the floor. f Situated on the left bank of the now-dry rived Ghaggar ia Réjasthia, Kilibangan zeveals the same pattern of plinning as do Mohenjo-déro aid fs rather loosely vie, fr thete sno cone evidence to prove tha the een ey sta, "This express system of goverament was tha of aa eopie. The possibly of there havi ‘bin Mesopotamia, should not be overlooked,