LATIN GRAMMAR BY CHARLES E. BENNETT Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat ALLYN AND BACON Boston and Chicago Reprinted by Global Language Press. 2006. VancouverFirst edition printed February, 1895. Reprinted April and September, 18955 April, 18965 July, 1897; April, 13898; May and September, 18995 April and November, 19005 October, 1901; March, 19025 April and November, 1903; July, 1904; April, 1905; April and November, 1906. Revised edition printed March, 19083 April and October, 19093 May, 1910; March, 1911; March, 1912; March, 1913. Copyright 2006 Global Language Press Covers and new front matter. Reprinted by Global Language Press Suite 613-1755 Robson Street Vancouver, B.C. V6G 3B7, CANADA http: Awww. language-press.com ISBN 1-897367-04-X Hardeover ISBN 1-897367-03-1 Paperback Printed in the United States of AmericaPREFACE. Tue present book is a revision of my Latin Grammar originally published in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible, I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the Romans themselves, In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings -és, -imus, -itis are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive. Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged. c. E. B. Initaca, New York, October 16, 1907. FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Tue object of this book is to present she essential facts of Latin grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards, While intended primarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college stu- dent, and aims to furnish such grammatical information as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses. iiiiv From the Preface to the First Edition. The experience of German educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages.! Within the past decade, several grammars of this scope have ap- peared which have amply met the exacting demands of the full Gymnasial Latin course, —a period of study repre- senting quite as much reading as that covered by the aver- age American undergraduate. The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introduc- tions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of many minutiae of usage which would otherwise demand consideration in a student's grammar. In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as well as of the measures of the comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such thor- ough consideration to versification that repetition in a separate place scems superfluous. Imtaca, New York, December 15, 1894. 1 One of the most eminent of living Latinists, Professor Eduard Wolflin, ‘of Munich, has expressed the opinion that the essentials may be given within ‘even smaller compass than this. See bis Preface to the Schmalz-Wagener Lateintsche Grammatil, 189i.TABLE OF CONTENTS, Parr I. sounps, The Alphabet. 6 6. 0. Classification of Sounds... Sounds of the Letters . . . . 3 Consonant Changes... . syllables... . 6... . 4 Peculiarities of Orthography . Qumiye Part IIL. INFLECTIONS. CHAPTER 1. —~ Declension. C. Pronouns. ‘A. Nouns. Personal Pronouns» ss 6 Gender of Nous... . . . 10 Reflexive Pronouns « . . Na Posen tromume Cases. LLL ag Demonstrative Pronouns... ihe Five Declensions 01g 2c eee Enon Pia Decension | sy seems ee Second Declenmion © 98 | ig WagesuNe cle Third] Declesion 2 ie) erence aeibeeien | oe oe Proaomleal Adjectives | Fifth Declension . . . 5. . 29 Defective Nouns... . 30 CHAPTER II, — Conjugation, B. Avgecrives Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions ss... Adjectives of the Thied Declen- one Comparison of Adjectives... Formation and Comparison of Adverbs oe ee Numerals... cry 36 4c 43 45 ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC. Kec Vowel Changes 2. 2 0 Verb-Stemss se ‘The Four Conjugations. . . Conjugation of Sum... 6. First Conjugatior Second Conjugation... . Thied Conjugation... Fousth Conjugation... . Verbs in -i¢ of the Third Conju- gic Deponent Verbs. 6 6... san 8 49 49 50 st st 52 52 53 54 35 56 58 62 66 70 m4 76vi Table Semi-Deponents . 6. 6 6 Periphrastic Conjugation . Peculiarities of Conjugation. . Formation of the Verb-Stems . oy 8 B 79 80 Contents. Parr III. PARTICLES. Adverbs ee eee Prepositions «6 1 ee ee Imerections see ee Pant LV WORD FORMATION. J. Derivatives. Noun Adjectives... 0 ee ee Wels 109 ne - 3 race List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts... 83 Irregular Verbs... ss 6 95 Defective Verbs... . 4. 102 Impersonal Verbs 5 4 4 4 5 104 Se 100, oe oa oa ey, ee ice Adverbs. ee eee eo 1G IL. Comeousns. Examples of Compounds. 1g PAV SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. — Sentences, Classification of Sentences. . Form of Interrogative Sentences Subject and Predicate... Simple and Compound Sentences .uy m7 119 119 CHAPTER Ul. Syntax of Nouns, Set Predicate Nouns. . 6. Appositives . ‘The Nominative... The Accusative 6. 2 ee The Dative, 2 ee ee The Genitive . ee ee The Ablative se ee ‘The Locative . 1 ee ee 120 + 120 +128 122 122 129 134 142 152 CHAPTER III. — Syntax of Adjectives, Agreement of Adjectives... 153 Adjectives used Substantively 154 Adjectives with the Force of Ad- felis rea Comparatives and Superlatives . 156 Other Peculiatities . 6... 156 CHAPTER IV.— Syntax of Pronouns. Personal Pronouns. o 137 Possessive Pronouns... 157 Reflexive Pronouns... 158 Reciprocal Pronouns... . 159 Demonstrative Pronouns... 159Table of Contents. Relative Pronouns . . « « « 161 Indefinite Pronouns. . 6 6 6 163 Pronominal Adjectives . + 164. CHAPTER V. — Syntax of Verbs. Agreement of Verbs... . PenGnreesee eeesuetmes sues neueoee + 165 . 167 Tenses... ee ee es 167 Of the Indicative... . . 167 Of the Subjunctive 2... 470 Ofthe Infinitive 6... . 174 Mocks 76 In Independent Sentences. . 176 Volitive Subjunctive . . . 176 Optative Subjunctive . . . 478 Potential Subjunctive . . . 179 Imperative 2. 2 2). 180 In Dependent Sentences... 181 Clauses of Purpose 181 Clauses of Characteristic. . 182 Clauses of Result... 6. 184 Causal Clauses. 6 ss. 185 Temporal Clauses... . 187 Introduced by Pestguam, Ut, Ubi ete. ov CumClauses Introduced by Anteguam and Prinyuam . . . 190 Introduced by Dum, Die nec, Quad. . 6. 19h Substantive Clauses... 192 Developed from the Voli- ie Developed from the Opta~ OfResut. 2. 6. After min dubits, ee. 6 Introduced by Quod . Indirect Questions... Conditional Sentences. . Use of Si, Nisi, Sin... 187 188 192 194 195 195 196 107 198 202 vii race Conditional Clauses of Com- parison... 6 6 5 203 Concessive Clauses... 203 Adversative Clauses with Quamvis, Quamguanr, a Clauses of Wish and Proviso Relative Clauses... 205 Indirect Discourse... 206 Moods in Indirect Dis- ce Tenses in Indirect Dis- 203, 205 206 cones eee e208 Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse. . 209 Tmplied Indirect Discourse, 211 Subjunctive by Attraction. 212 Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 2 eo es te Infinitive... 1 6 6 es 23 Paticiples acy, Gerund 2. 2. 1. 220 Supine 2. 6 ee ee 5 233 CHAPTER VI.— Particles, Codrdinate Conjunctions . . Alvebs + 223 = 227 CHAPTER VIL.— Word-Order and Sentence-Structure, Word-Order . 2 ee Sentence-Structure . . . 5 + 227 +23 CHAPTER VIU.— Hines on Latin Style, Nous .-. + ee Adjectives... eee Pronouns . 5 6 + ees 233 235 + 236 Vere, 2 ee we 5 236 ihe Cases eee eee 2 ageviii Table of Contents. PAgt Vil, PROSODY. race Quantity of Vowels and Sylla- |-rne Dactylic Hexameter . 245 «+s + + + 240! The Dactylic Pentameter . . . 246 ee a45| lambic verses a0) SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. 1. Roman Calendar . ++ + 247 [IL Figures of Syntax and Rhet= I, Roman Names as oie ee 9Part I. — SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. ee THE ALPHABET. 1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w. 1. K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words; y and 2 were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.c., and occur only in foreign words — chiefly Greek. 2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write 4 and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS. 2. 1, The Vowels are a, e, i, 0, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui. 2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants. 3. The Mutes are p, t,o, k, q; b, a, g; ph, th, oh, Of these, — 2) p,t,0, i,q are voiceless,! , sounded without voice or vibra- tion of the vocal cords. 4) b, a, g are voiced, ée, sounded with vibration of the vocal cords. ‘or ‘tenuis’ are sometimes used. * soft,” or ‘media’ are sometimes used. 1 1 For ‘voiceless,’ ‘sur2 Sounds, Accent, Quantity, ©) ph, th, ch arc aspirates. These are confined almost exclu- sively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p+h, t+h,c4h, fe. to the corresponding voiccless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house, block-house. 4. The Mutes admit of classification also as Labials, P, b, ph. Dentals (or Linguals), td, th. Gutturals (or Palatals), ©, Is, q, 8, oh. 5. The Liquids are 1, r. These sounds were voiced. 6. The Nasals are m,n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a guttural mute, also had another sound,—that of ng in simg,—the so- called a adulterinum ; as,— anceps, double, pronounced angceps. 7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiccless. 8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced. 9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain. eee 7 4 10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sound: Voiceunss. Voices, ASmIRATES. P, b, ph, (Labials). Mutes, { t, 4, th, (Dentals). ek, ay & ch, (Gutturals). Liquids, Le, Nasals, m,n, f (Labial). Spirants, { 5, (Dental). a, (Guttural). Semivowels, iv. @. The Double Consonants, x and 2, being compound sounds, do not admit of classification in the above table.Sounds of the Letters, 3 SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 8. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; #.e. roughly, from 50 B.c. to §0 A.D. 1. Vowels. & asin father; & asin the first syllable of ahd; & asin they; & asin met} 1 asin machine; 1 asin pins & asin note; & asin obey, melody 3 @ asin rude; asin put; y. like French 1 German 2. 2. Diphthongs. ae like ai in aisle; eu with its two elements, 8 and t, 08e like of in oif; pronounced in rapid succession ; ei asin rein; ‘ul occurs almost exclusively in cud au like ow in how; and Auic. ‘These words are pro- nounced as though written dee 3- Consonants. and wheek. b, 4,f,h, k, 1, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt are pronounced ps, pt. ¢ is always pronounced as &. is always a plain #, never with the sound of s# as in Eng. oration. & aiways as in ger; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of ‘gu, as in anguis, languidus, 4 has the sound of y as in yet. ¥ was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue. 8 always voiceless as in sit; in suaded, sudvis, sutscd, and in com- pounds and derivatives of these words, eu has the sound of sw. v like w. x always like 5; never like Eng. gz or 2. 2 uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. 24, possibly like 2. The latter sound is recommended. The aspirates ph, oh, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng. p, c #—so neatly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice. Doubled letters, like N, mm, tt, efc should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctly articulated.4 Sounds, Accent, Quantity. SYLLABLES. 4, There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs. In the division of words into syllables, — 1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit, pe-rit, a-dest. 2. Doubled consonants, like tt, se, e/c., are always separated ; as, vit-ta, mis-eus. 3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel; as, ma-gis-tri, dig-nus, mén-strum, sis-te-re. 4 Au exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist ofa mute followed by 1 or r (pl, el, tl: pr, cr, tr, efc.). In such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel ; as, a-grT, vo-lu-oris, pa-tris, mA-tris, Yet if the Lor r introduces the second part of a compound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rumpé, ad.latus. 5. The double consonant x is joimed to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is, téx-i. fe QUANTITY. 5. A. Quantity of Vowels. A vowel is ong or short according to the length of time required fer its pronunciation. Ne absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience; but the following principles are of aid: — 1. A vowel is long,!— a) before nf or ns; as, infans, Inferior, cOnsimd, cénsed, insum. 4) when the result of contraction ; as, nilum for nfhilum, 2. A vowel is short, — a) before nt, nd; as,amant,amandus. A few exceptions occur in compounds whose first member has a long vowel ; as, ndn- dum (ndn dum). 4) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, trahd. Some excep- tions occur, chiefly in proper names derived trom the Greek ; as, AenBas. 1 In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal Tine above them: as, B, i, 6, efe, Vowels not thus marked are short, Occasionally a curve is set above short vowels; as, 8, 8,Accent. 5 B. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are distinguished as dong or short according to the length of time required for their pronunciation, 1, A syllable is long,’ — 2) ifit contains a long vowel; as, mater, régnum, dius, 4) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus. 4) if it contains a short vowel followed by 2, z, or any two con- sonants (except a mute with 1 or r); as, axis, gaza, rests. 2. Asyllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, mea, amat. 3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with 1 or 1, ze. by pl, ol, tl; pr, or, tr, etc. as, Agri, volicris.? Such syllables are called common. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as Jong at the option of the poet. Note.— These distinctions of Zoxg and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. ‘Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syl- lable gequires more time for its pronunciation; while a syllable con- taining a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes des time to pronounce it, In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes scarcely more time than a single consonant. Yet by sepa- rating the two clements (as ag-rf) the pocts were able to use such syllables as long. ACCENT. 6. 1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tégit, morem. 2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the ante- penult (second from the last) ; as, amAvi, améntis, mfserum, 3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented; as, miseréque, hominisque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult. Thus, pértaque; but mfseraque. 1 To avoid confusion, the quantity of sy/lables is not indicated by any sign. 2 But if the 1 or F introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding syllable is always long: as, abrump3,6 Sounds, Accent, Quantity. 4 Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the accent; as, tant6n, istfo, illo, vidén (for vidésne). 5. In utraque, cack, and pléraique, most, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases, —utérque, utrimque, plérimque. VOWEL CHANGES.* 7. 1. In Compounds, — @) & before a single consonant becomes 1; as)— colligs for con-legé. 5) B before a single consonant becomes 1; 25,— adigs for ad-agd. €) A before two consonants becomes 8} as, — expers for ex-pars. @) ae becomes 3 as, — conquiré for con-quaerd. ©) au becomes 4, sometimes 6; as,— concltds for con-claudé; expldad for ex-plaudé. 2, Contraction. Concurrent vowelswere frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed ; as, — tra for tre-es; cdpia for co-opia; mal6 for ma(v)eld; e3g5 for c0-agd; amastt for am&(v)istT; cdmd for co-ed; A¥bed for de(h)abed; jOnior for ju(v)enior. nil for nihil; 3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops ; as, — vineulum for earlier vinclum, So periculum, saeculum. 4 Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as, — Ardor for aridor (compare dridus) ; valdé for valid& (compare validus). 1 Only the simptest and most obvious of these are here treated,Peculiarities of Orthography. 7 CONSONANT CHANGES.! Rhotaoism. An original s between vowels became r; as, — arbés, Gen. arboris (for arbosis) ; genus, Gen. generis (for genesis) ; dirimd (for dis-emd). 2. at, tt, te each give # or 88; as,— P&nsum for pend-tum; versum for vert-tum ; miles for sessus for passus for 3. Final consonants were often omitted ; as, — cor for cor Jac for lact. 4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimi- lated to a following sound. Thus: acourré (ado-); aggerd (adg-) asserd (ads-); allatus (adl-); apportd (adp-); attull (ndt-) arrldeé (adr-); afferd (adf-) ; ocourrd (obo-); suppSnd (subp-) offerd (obf-); corrud (comr-); collatus (coml-); ec. 5. Partial Assimilation, Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus: — 2) b before 6 or t becomes Pp} as;— scripst (scrTb-e7), sorIptum (sorfb-tum). 4) & before @ or t becomes ¢; as;— Actus (ag-tus). ¢) m before a dental or guttural becomes nj as,— eundem (eum-dem); _princeps (prim-cep: PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 9. Many words have variable orthography. 1, Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnils, volt, e/c., were the prevail- 1 Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.8 Sounds, Accent, Quantity. ing forms almost down to the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, ec. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubid6, ec., down to about the same era; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libidd, ete, . In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examples arc exspect6, expects ; exsistd, exist6 ; epistula, epistola; aduléscéns, adoléscéns ; pauius, paul- lus; cottidié, cotidig; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, ‘which often made a conecssion to the etymology in the spelling ; as, — ad-gerd or aggerd; ad-serd or asserd; ad-lici6 or allicié; in-latus or illatus; ad-rogins or arrogins; —_ sub-move6 or summove6; and many others. 3. Compounds of jacié were usually written &icid, A8icid, adicid, obicis, efc., out were probably pronounced as though written adjici6, Objicis, eve. 4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vam; -wus, -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom ; -nos, -uom, down through’ the Ciceronian age; as, antfquos, anti- quom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos. Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur ; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as, relinquont, loquontur; vivont, metuont. The older spelling, while generally foliowed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.Part II. ara INFLECTIONS. ee 10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, véz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article. 1. Of these eight parts of speech the: first four are capable of Inflection, ic. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declen- sion; in case of Verbs, Conjugation. Cuapter I,— Declension, A. NOUNS. 12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality ; as, Caesar, Caesar; Roma, Rome, penna, feather ; virtas, courage. 1, Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are perma- nent names of persons or places; as, Caesar, Rma, Other nouns are Common; as, penna, virtis. 2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract. 2) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects ; as, mns, mountain ; pds, foot ; dibs, day ; mBns, mind. 910 Inflections. Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legid, legion ; comitatus, retinue, 4) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as; oSustantia, stead fastness; paupertas, poverty. GENDER OF NOUNS. 43. There are three Genders, — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or gram- matical. Natural Gender. 14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex, Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are — 1. Masculine, if they denote males; as, — nauta, sailor; agricola, farmer. 2, Feminine, if they denote females; as, — mi&ter, mother ; régina, gucen. Grammatical Gender. 15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine, or Femi- nine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are the gen- eral principles for determining grammatical gender : — A. Gender determined by Signification, 1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Mascu- line ; as, — Séquana, Seine; Burus, cast wind; Aprils, April. 2. Names of Zyees, and such names of Towns and Islands as end in -us, are Feminine; as, — querous, cat; Corinthus, Corinth ; Rhodus, Rhodes.Number. — Cases. Ir ‘Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see B, below) ; as,— Delphf, m.; Leuctra, n.; Tour, n.; Carthagé, f. 3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,— nihil, nothing; nefas, wrong; amie, to love. Note, — Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur ; as, Alle (the river), & B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular. ‘The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular. Note t.—Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Mascu- line, sometimes Feminine. ‘Thus, sacerd&s may mean either priest or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also otvis, citizens parBns, parent; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be common. Note 2.—Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female ; as, Anser, m., goose or gan= der, So vulpés, f., for; aquila, f., eagle. NUMBER. 16. The Latin has two Numbers, —the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object; the Plural, more than one. CASES. 17. There are six Cases in Latin: — Nominative, Case of Subject; Genitive, Objective with of; or Possessive 5 Dative, Objective with fo or for Accusative, Case of Direct Object; Vocative, Case of Address; Ablative. Objective with dy, from, in, with. 1 The great majority of all Latin nouns come under this category, ‘The prine ciples for determining their gender are given under the separate declensions.12 Inflections. 1. Locative, Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words. 2, Obtique Casts. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Abla~ tive are called Oblique Cas 3. Sem ann Cast-Enprvos. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.! Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The apparent case- ending thus resulting is called a termination. THE FIVE DECLENSIONS. 18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from cach other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows : — Deciensiox, FINAL Lerran oF Sres, —Gux. TexaiuaTion, First a ~ae Second 6 a 1 Tatra Leoncensnmt Fourth a ts Fifth é eos Cases alike in Form, 19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the Singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension. 2, The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike. 3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in 4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative. 1The Stem is often derived from amore primitive form called the Root. Thus,the stem porta-gors back to the root per..POF-. Roots are usually mono- syllabic, The addition made to @ root to form a stem is called a Sufix, Thus in porta. the suffix is ta,First Declension. FIRST DECLENSION. a-Stems. 13 20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regu- larly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -&, weakened from -8, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows: — Porta, gate; stem, porta. Cases. Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc. Voc. Abl. Nom. Gen. Dat, Acc. Voc. Abl. porta portae portae portam porta porta portae portarum ports ports portae portis SINGULAR. Meastnes @ gate (as subject) of a gate 10 ot for a gate a gate (as object) O gate! with, by, from, in a gate PLURAL, gates (as subject) of gates to or for gates gates (as object) O gates! with, by, from, in gates Trrminations, -ae frum is 8s -ae -is 1, The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either @ gate or the gate; and in the Plural, gates or the gates. Peouliarities of Nouns of the First Declension. 21. 1. Excrprions in GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Mascu- line; as, nauta, sailor; agrloola, farmer; also Hadria, Adriatic Sea. 2. Rare Case-Endings, — 2) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -&s is preserved in the combination pater familias, father of a family ; also in mater familias, ffliue familias, filia familias. But the regular form of the Genitive in expressions ; as, pater familiae. 3) In poetry a Genitive in -8f also occurs; as, aul&t. 10 is also admissible in these14 Inflections. ¢) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Romae, af Rome. d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -2rum sometimes occurs; as, Dardanidum instead of Daraanidarum, ‘This termina- tion -um is not a contraction of -arum, but represents an entirely different case-ending. 2) Instead of the regular ending Is, we usually find Abus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, grddess, and filia, daughter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, vad, and filius, son. Afew other words sometimes have the same peculiarity ; as, Mbertabus (from Iberta, freedwomun), equabus (nares), to avoid confusion with Mbertis (from Mbertus, Freedman) and equis (from equus, horse). Greek Nouns, 22. These end in -8 (Feminine); -as and -8s (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension, In the Singular they are declined as follows: — Archias, Archias. Bpitom®, epitome, Combtés, comet. Nom. Archias epitome cométés Gen. Archiae epitomés cométae Dat. Archiae epitomae cométae Acc. Archiam (or -an) epitomen cométén Voc. Archi& epitome comété (or -X) Abt, Avchia epitome comete (or -a) 1. But most Greek nouns in -8 become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatica, grammar; misica, music; rh@torica, rhetoric. 2, Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry, SECOND DECLENSION. 6-Stems. 23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter, Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculines was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative.Second Declension, 15 Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows: — Hortus, garden 3 stem, hort5-. Nom. Gen, Dat. Ace, Voc. Abi. Nom, Gen. Dat. Acc. Vee. Abl. Nouns in -er and -ir are declined hortus hort hontd hortam, horte hort hortt hortorum. hortis hortds hortt hortis Puer, doy 5 stem, puerd-. Nom, puer Gen. puett Dat. puerd Acc. poeram Voe. puer AbL — puerd Nom. puctt Gen, puerdrum Dat. pueris Acc. puerds Vor. puett Abl. — puerts SINGULAR. ‘Termination. PLURAL. I drum Ager, field; stem, agrd-. SINGULAR. PLURAL. agrt agrdrum agris agrés agri agris Bellum, war} stem, belld-. ‘Termination. bellum -um belli a belld 3 bellum -om bellum cum bell6 6 bella Plication, but drop 8 from the stem; as, sponded, spo-pondi; até, atetl. 4) The short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened; as, legs, Bgl; agd, Bgl. Note that & by this process becomes &. ¢) The vowel of the Verb Stem is unchanged; as, vertd, vertl; minuéd, minul.82 Inflections. Formation of the Participial Stem. 119. The Perfect Passive Participle, from which the Participial Stem is derived by dropping -ua, is formed : — 1. By adding -tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to the Verb Stem) ; as, — amé-re, Participle am4-tus. aBléxe, « — dblé-tus. audi-re, “ — auditu leg-ere, “ — léc-tus, scrib-ere, “ —_scrip-tus senti-re, “ — s&n-sus (for sent-tus). caed-ere, “ — cae-sus (for caed-tus). a, Note that g, hefore t, becomes ¢ (see { 8, 5): b becomes ps while At or te becomes 68, which is then often siniplified to 6 (§ 82). 2. After the analogy of Participles like s8nsus and caesus, where -sus arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tua is added to other Verb Stems; as, — vA 1ab-t, Participle 18p-sue, figere, “ — fi-xus. a The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -sus to the stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -8i (see § 118,3, 0). 3. A few Verbs form the Participle in tus; as,— doma-re, dom-ttus, moné-re, mon-Itus. 4. The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with the Perfect Passive Participle; as, am4-tiis, am&tfrus; moni-tus, monitarus. But— juvé-re, Perf, Partic, jaitus, has Fut. Act. Partic. juvatarus Java-re, “ = — Jautus, « « Javatdrus. parere, “ =“ partus, « « @ paritarus, ru-ere, “ = -rutus, “« « & ruitdrus. sect-re, “ “ sectus, « « « secatdrus. ful, “ « frdctus, « «4 4 truitdres. mor, “ mortuus, “ « moritdru orfst, “ ortua, «4 @ oritarus. 1 But the compounds of Juv6 sometimes have sfittiirus ; as, adjitirus,List of the Most Important Verbs. 83 LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS, WITH PRINCIPAL PARTS. First (A-) Conjugation. 120, 1. Pexrecr w -VI. amo amare amavi amatus love All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model. polo polare = potavi potus (§114,2) drink I. Perrect 1N -UE, crepd —crepare —crepuf crepitdrus rattle cubs cubare.—cubut cubitarus lie down domd — domare_~—domut domitus tame fried fricare ——_fricut frictus and fricatus rub mics micire—micut — glitter dimicd dimicdre dimicivt _dimicatum (est)? ight ex-plicd explicdre explicdvi (-ul) explicatus (-itus) ‘unfold im-plicé implicate implicavi (-ui) implicatus (-itus) entwine secd secare ‘secui ‘Sectus out sond sonare sonut sonatarus: sound tond tonare — tonut — thunder veto vetare —_vetut vetitus Sorbid IIL Perrscr 1N -I wit LENGTHENING OF TRE STEM VowsL. jovs —juvare vi jatus, help lava lavare lav Tautus wash IV. Perrecr RepupLicaTED. ste stare steti ‘statirus V. Dzponents. ‘These are all regular, and follow mtror, mtrarl, mtratus sum, Second (E-) Conjugation. 121, 1. Perrecr in -Vi. dled —déltre. levi datétus aestroy fled flere fevi flétus weep, lament com-ple5* complére complévi. —_complétus, fill up aboled —abolére_—_abolévi abolitus destroy cies? = cigre. = ivi citus set in motion 1 Used only impersonally. 2So impled, exples, % Compounds follow the Fourth Conjugation: accid, accire, efc.84 M1, Perrecr 1y -UT. Inflections, @, Type -88, -@re, -ui, -itua, arced coerced exerced caled cares doles habeo debed praebed jaces meres moned noced pared places taces terres vales arcére coercére exercére calére carére dolere habére débére pracbere jacére merére monére nocére parére placére tacére terrére valére arcut coercul coercitus exercul exercitus calut calitarus carui dolut habut debut debitus praebui praebitus jacut jacitirus merut meritus monul monitus nocut nocitum (est) parul paritiras placui placitarus tacul rus terrut territus valui valitius beth of hold in check practise be warm be without wrine have owe offer ke earn, deserve advise injure obey please de silent frighten be strong Nore 1.—~ The following lack the Participial Stem: — eged mined flores: horred lated nited oled palles pated rubed siles splendes studed stuped timed torped vigeo vires; egére eminére florére horrére latare nitére olére pallére patére rubére silére splendére studére stupére timére torpére vigére virére egui eminut florui horruf latul nitut olut pallut patul rubui silut splendut studui stupui timut torpui vigui virui and others. TT ‘want stand forth bloom bristle dark gleam smell be pale Lie open be red be silent gleam ‘study be amazed fear ‘be dull flourish be greenList of the Most Important Verbs. 85 Nore 2. —The following are used only in the Present System: — aves avére —_— —_— wish friged frigére _— _ be cold immined. immingre = —— — overhang maered maerére — —_— mourn polled pollare —_ —_ be strong and others. 4. ‘Type -e8, -Bre, -uf, -tus (-sus). cénsed cénsére cénsut cEnsus estimate doces docére docui doctus teach misced miscére miscut mixtus mix tened tenére tenui _ hold So contined and sustined ; but— retined —_retinére retinut retentus retain obtined —obtinére obtinul obtentus maintain torres torrére torrui tostus bake IIL. Perrect iw -8T, auged augére aust auctus increase torqued torquére torst tortus twist indulged indulgére —_indulst a indulge laces lacere Taxi —_ be light Tages ligére lax — mourn jubes jubére jusst jussus order per-mulced permulcére permulst —ppermulsus soothe rides ridére fist risum (est) daugh suaded suddére suast suasum (est) advise abs-tergeS —abstergére—absterst abstersus wipe of ardes ardére arst arsiirus burn haered haerére haest haesirus stick maned manére manst mansires stay alges algére alsi —_ be cold fulged falgére falst —_ gleam urged urgere urst — press IV. Perrecr In -f with ReDUPLICATION. morded mordére momordt morsus bie sponded spondére spopondi_—sspdnsus promise tonded tondére totondi tonsus shear pended pendére pependi hangInflections. V. Perrect in -I witH LENGTHENING oF STEM VowEL, caved faved foves moved paved seded video voved cavere favere fovare movére pavére sedére videre vovére cavi favi fovt movi pavi sedi vi vovi cautirus fautirus fotus motus sessiirus. visus Votus take care favor cherish move fear sit see vow VI. Perrect in -E wittour giTuer REDuPLICATION OR LENGTH ENING OF Stem VowEL. ferved prandes strides fervere prandére stridére VIL. Deponents. Yeeor polliceor mereor misereor vereor fateor confiteor reor medeor tueor Ticéri pollicési meréri miseréri verért fateri cSnfitert ret medétt tueri (fervi ferbui) — prandi stridi pransus (§ 114, 2) Jicitus sum pollicitus sum meritus sum miseritus sum veritus sum fassus sum confessus sum ratus sum Third (Consonant) Conjugation, boil lunch creak bid promise earn pity fear confess confess think heal protect 122. 1. VerBs wiTH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN A CONSONANT. 1. Perfect in -sf. a. Type -5, -Ere, -sf, -tus, caro sculpd repo serpo scribd: nabs rego carpere sculpere répere serpere scribere niibere regere carpsi sculpst répsi serps scripst niipsi text carptus sculptus scriptus nipta (woman only) rectus Pluck chisel creep craw! write marry gouernList of the Most Important Verbs. 87 tegs tegere text tctus cover affligs —_affligere afflixt affiictus shatter dice dicere isi dictus say dacs dicere daxt ductus lead coqu’ coquere coxt coctus cook traho trahere traxt tractus draw veh vehere vexi vectus carry cings cingere cinxt cinctus gird tings tingere tn; tinctus dip jungs jungere janxt janctus join fings fingere finxi fictus ‘mould pings pingere pinxt pictus paint strings —stringere. trina strictus bind sstingust —-stinguere_—-stinxi sstinctus Blot out ungud unguere nxt ‘anctus anoint vivo vivere vixt victum (est) dive gerd gerere gessi gestus carry aro rere ussi fistus burn temnd temnere con-temps? con-temptus despise b Type -3, re, -sf, -au figs figere fixt fixus fasten mergd mergere merst mersus ‘sink spargo spargere sparsi sparsus scatter fleets flectere flex? flexus bend nectd nectere nexui (next) nexus twine mittd mittere mi missus. send rads radere rast rasus shave rode rodere ce rosus gnaw vads vadere -vasi® svasum (est)? march, walk lids ladere last Tisum (est) play trado tridere trast trisus push Jaeds laedere laest Jaesus injure, hurt claudd claudere clau: clausus close plaudd ——plaudera.—_—_plausi plausum (est) clap explédé explodere —explist explisus hoot of eds cédere cesst cessum (est) withdraw divide dividere divist divisus divide premo premere pressi pressus press 4 Fully conjugated only in the compound: # Only in the compounds: 2va exstingus, resting, distingys, invads, pervs,88 Inflections. 2. Perfect in -i with Reduplication. ab-d ——abdere abdidi —_abditus conceal red-{ored-dere_~—reddidi_—_redditus, return So addo, conds, dedd, perdo, prodé, tradd, etc, con-sisté cOnsisterecOnstit?_ = — take one’s stand resist —resistere = restit?, «=| —~ resist circumsistd circumsistere circumstet! — surround cadé cadere cecidi —casirus fall caed6 caedere cecidi: caesus, Rill pends —pendere.~—pependi-—_—pénsus weigh, pay tendo —tendere_-~—tetendi_—_tentus stretch tundd —tundere—tutudi-—tisus, tiinsus bead fallo fallere fefelli —_(falsusyas Adj.) deceive pelle pellere pepuli —_pulsus drive out curr currere cucurri_—cursum (est) run parc parcere peperct —_parsiirus spare cand canere ceci — sing tangs tangere tactus touch pongo —pungere —pupugi—_piinctus brick Nore. —In the following verbs the perfects were originally redupli cated, but have lost the reduplicating syllable: — per-celld —percellere—perculi—_perculsus strike down finds findere fidt fissus split scinds —scindere_—scidi scissus tear apart tollo tollere sus-tuli —sublatus remove 3+ Perfect in -E with Lengthening of Stem-Vowel. ago agere agi actus drive, do peragd peragere —perégit peractus Snish subigo subigere —subggi_-—subactus subdue cogs cogere zgi coactus force, gather frango _frangere frictus break perfrings perfringere perfrictus break down lego legere lectus gather, read perlegs _perlegere perléctus read through colligd colligere colléctus collect déligs — déligere déléctus choose diligo —_diligere diléctus love intellegd intellegere intelléxi __intellctus understand neglegd neglegere negléxi_—_negléctus neglectsmd coed redimd dirimd dems sims proms vines re-lingué rumpé eds fund6 List of the Most Important Verbs. emere coémere redimere dirimere demere simere promere vincere relinguere rumpere ésse fundere emi coemi redémi iret dempst simpst prompst viet reliqui rapi edi fadi &mptus co&mptus redémptus dirémptus démptus sGimptus (promptus, as Adj.) victus reltctus ruptus ésus fisus 89 buy buy up buy back destroy take away take take out conquer leave break eat pour 4. Perfect in -¥ without either Stem-Vowel. Reduplication of Lengthening of excidd consida possidd accends a-scend6 dé-fend6 pre-hend3 ico vello vertd pands solve. vis6 volv6 vers excidere considere possidere accendere ascendere défendere prehendere icere vellere vertere pandere solvere visere volvere verrere 5. Perfect in -uf. in-cumbo gigns mold vomd fremd gemd meté incumtcre gignere molere vomere fremere gemere metere excidt cbnsédt possédt accendi ascendi défendt prehendt ict velli verti pandi solvi visi volvi verti Incubut genut molut vomut fremut gemut messul exciisus Possessus accénsus ascénsum (est) défénsus prehénsus, ictus vulsus versus passus solitus visus voliitus versus IncubltGrus genitus molitus vomitus messus Jammer take one's Seat take posses sion dindle climb defend seine strike pluck turn spread loose visit roll sweep dean on bring forth grind vomit snort sigh reap90 tremd strepo als cold incols ‘excold consuld conserd déserd disserd texd 6. Perfect in -vi. sind désind pond ob-ling serd conserd cernd discernd aBcernd spernd sternd pro-sternd petd appetd terd quacrd acquirs arcess6 capessd lacessd Inflections. tremere tremui strepere streput alere alui colere colut incolere incolui excolere excolut consulere cOonsulut conscrere conserui deserere déserui disserere —_disserui texere texul sinere sivt désinere sit ponere posut oblinere oblevi serere sévi cOnserere cénsévi cernere — discernere —_discrévi décernere décrévi spemere sprévi sternere stravi prosternere —prostravt petere petivi (petit) appetere ——_appetivi terere quacrere acquirere _acquisivi arcessere ——_arcessivi capessere lacessere lacessivi 7: Used only in Present System. ango Tambo claiudé. fard vergo angere Jambere claudere furere vergere Hl and a few others. altus (alitus) cultus excultus consultus cénsertus désertus textus consitus discrétus decrétus sprétus stratus prostratus petitus acquisitus arcessitus capessitus lacessitus, tremble rattle nourish cultivate inhabit perfect ‘consult join desert discourse meas allow cease place ‘smear sow plant ‘Separate distinguish decide scorn spread overthrow seek long for rub seek acguire summon = prowke choke kick be lame rave bendList of the Most Important Verbs. or Il, Verges with Present STEM ENDING IN -U, indus induere indui inditus put on imbud, imbuere imbui imbitus moisten lus fuere lai — wash pollus polluere pollut polliitus defile minus, minuere minut minitus lessen status statuere statut statitus Set up constitu cdnstituere —cSnstitul © constitiitus deter mine su6 suere sur siitus sew tribud tribuere tribut tribitus allot rud ruere ul ruitirus fall dirws diruere dint diratus ‘destroy obrud obruere obrut obrutus overwhelm cud acuere acui — sharpen argud arguere argu —_— accuse congrud congruere congrul agree metus metuere metul —_— fear ab-nud abnuere abnut _ decline re-spud respuere respul — reject strud struere strixt striictus build fiud fluere flaxi (flaxus, as Adj.) flgw IIL VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN I. cupid cupere cupivi cupitus wish sapis sapere sapivi — taste rapi rapere raput raptus snatch diripis diripere diriput direptus plunder conspicld cOnspicere cnspexi_—cOmspectus. gaze at aspicid aspicere aspext aspectus behold Mlicere ilexi lectus allure pellicere pellext pellectus allure élicere élicut élicitus elicit quatere —_ quassus shake concutere ‘concusst concussus shake parere peperi partus bring forth capere cept captus take accipere accépt acceptus accept incipere incépt inceptus begin facere fect factus make afficere afféct affectus affect Passive, afficior, affici, affectus sumg2 Inflections. So other prepositional compounds, perficid, perficior » interficid, interficior ete, But— assuéfacid —assudtacere ——assuaféci = assuéfactus accustom Passive, assudhd, assuéfier, assuélactus sum. So also fatefrcid, patefid; calefactd, calefid; and all non-prepositional com- pounds, jacis jacere jet jactus hurl abicid —abicere abject abjectus throw away fodi fodere fodi fossus aig fugis fagere fiigi fugitarus flee effugid —eflugere—efligi —_ escape 1V. Verss in -8CO, 1, Verbs in -806 from Simple Roots. posed poseere — poposct_ |S — demand disco discere didiet —_— learn pascd pascere avi pasts feed pascor —pasci pastus sum ‘graze erdscé créscere crdvi crétus, grew consuéscd consuéscere cinsuévi — cdnsu accustom one's self quits —quidscere—quiévi. «© quiétiirus dv still adoléscd —adoléscereadolévi_ = adultus. grow up obsoléscd —obsolesceré obsolévi. = — grow old ; : : ie acquainted ndscd noscere: nor _— with igndsed ignoscere ignévi_—igndtiirus.— flardon agndseS agndscere agndvi © agnitus. «——_rreaynize oo = : | get acquainted cog cognoscere cogndvi —_cognitus i with 2. Verbs in -sc formed from other Verbs. These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (sce § 155. 1)» When they have the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from which they are derived. floréscd —_—fldrescere florut begin to bloom (foxe3) sciscd seiscere scivi enact (seid) ‘are: Aréscere Arui become dry (Ares) calescd —_caléscere calut become hot (caleo) consendseS cOnsensscere cdnsenul grow old —_(sened) extiméscd extiméscere —extimui fear greatly (timed) ingemiscd ingemiscere ingemui sig (gems) adhaeréscd adhaeréscere adhaesi stick (haered)List of the Most Important Verbs. 93 3 Verbs in -8cd derived from Adjectives, usually with Inchoative meaning. obdiréscd obdiiréscere obdirul grow Aard (darus) Gvanéscd — @vandscere = Evanui—disafpear — (vanus) pererébréscé pererébréscere percrébrui grow fresh (créber) maturéscO matdréscere = maturui. «grow rife (matiirus) obmatescd obmitéscere obmitui grow dumb (mitus) VY. DEPONENTS. fungor fungi fanctus sum perform queror quert questus sum complain loquor loqui lociitus sum speak sequor sequi seciitts sum follow fruor frat fruitaras ‘enjoy perfruor —_perfrut peririictus sum thoroughly enjoy labor abi Tapsus sum glide amplector —_amplectt amplexus sum embrace itor ait isus sum, nixus sum strive gradior gradi gressus sum walle patior pati passus sum. suffer perpetior —_perpetT perpessus sum. endure itor ati sus sum USE morior mori mortuus sum die adipiscor —_adipiset adeptus sum acquire comminiscor comminisci commentus sum invent reminiscor reminisci eee remember nanciscor —_nancisci nanctus (nactus) sum acquire nascor i natus sum be born obliviscor oblitus sum Sorget paciscor pacisei pactus sum covenant proficiscor _proficisci profectus sum set out ulciscor ulcisct ultus sum avenge irascor irasci (iratus, as Adj.) be angry vescor vesct —_ eat Fourth Conjugation, 123. I. PerrEct ENDS IN -VI. audio audire audivi — auditus hear So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. sepelis sepelire sepelivi sepultus bury94 Inflections. II. PERFECT ENDS IN -UI. aperio aperire aperui —_apertus open operio operire operui —_opertus cover salié salire salut —_— leap MIL, PERrect Enps I -ST. saepio saepire saepst saeptus hedge in sancid sancire sinxt sanctus ratify vincio vincire vinei —_vinetus bind amicio amicire — amictus envelop fale faleite falst faltus prop up refercid refercite —referst_—_refertus fil sarcié sarcire sarst sartus patch haurio haurire haus haustus ‘draw sentio sentire stnsi stnsus fea IV. Perrect mm I wire Lenoruenine or Stem VowEn. venio venire ‘véni ventum (est) come advenid advenire —advéni_—adventum(est) arrive invenid —invenire ~—invéni._—inventus find V. PerFect with Loss or REDUPLICATION. reperio reperire reper? repertus_ find comperid —_comperite —comper?_-compertus earn VI. Usep onty In THE Present. feria ferire — — strike ésurio ésurire —_ —_ be hungry VII. Derowenrs. largior largirt largitus sum bestow So many others. experior experiti expertus sam ay opperior ‘oppetiri ‘oppertus sum await ordior ordni drsus sum begin orior orn ortus sum, arise Orior uswally follows the Third Conjugation in its inflection; as, oreris, oritur, ortmur 3 orerer (Imp. Subj.) ; orere (Imper. métior métiri ménsus sum measure assentior —_—_ assent assénsus sum, assentIrregular Verbs, 95 IRREGULAR VERBS. 124. A number of Verbs are calied Irregular. The most important are sum, d6, ed6, feré, vold, ndI6, maid, ed, 15. The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem, instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d Sing. of fer-8, instead of fer- They are but the relics of what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs. 125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various ‘compounds are inflected in the same way. They are— absum abesse ful am absent Pres. Partic. abséns (absentis), absent. adsum adesse adfui am present désum deesse defui am lacking insum inesse Inf an in intersum interesse interfut am among praesum praeesse praefut am in charge of Pres, Partic. praeséns (praesentis), present. obsum obesse obfu hinder prosum prodesse proful am of advantage subsum subesse subfut am underneath supersum superesse superful am left Nove.—Prdsum is compounded of prdd (earlier form of pr8) and sum; the d disappears before consonants, as prosutmus; but prédestis. 126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of pot- (for pote, a/e) and sum; potut is from an obsolete potére. PRINCIPAL PARTS, possum, posse, potul, to be able. INDICATIVE MOOD, SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. possum, potes, potest; possumus, potestis, possunt, Imp. poteram} poteramus. Fut. poterd; poterimus. Perf. potuis potuimus. Plup. potueram; potueramus, Fut. P. potuers; potuerimus.96 Anfiections, SUBJUNCTIVE, SINGULAR. PLURAL, Pres. possim, possis, possit; _possimus, possitis, possint, Inp. — possem; possémus. Perf. potuerims potuerimus. Plup. — potuissem; potuissémus, INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLE. Pres. posse. Pres, potens (as an adjective). Perf. powuisse, 127. DS, Z give. PRINCIPAL PARTS. a8, dare, deat, aatus. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD, SINGULAR, PLURAL, Pres. dd, dis, dats damus, ditis, dant. Jmp. — dibam, efc.5 dabamus. Fut, dabd, ete. 5 dabimus. Perf. dedi; dedimus. Plup. dederam ; dederamus. Fut. P. dederds dederimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. dems démus. np. direms dirémus. Perf. dederim; dedcrimus. Plip. dedissem; dedissémus. IMPERATIVE. Pres, das date. Fut. ato aitdte. dato; dantd. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE, Pres. dre. dans, Perf. dedisse. Fut. dstarus esse. astirus. GERUND. SUPINE, dandi, etc. datum, data,Irregular Verbs, 97 1, The Passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. ‘Thus: art, dktur, dibatur, darstur, etc. 2. The archaic and poetic Present Subjunctive forms duim, duint, interdué, perduint, ¢/c., are not from the root da-, but from dus a collateral root of similar meaning. 128. Ba6, / cat, PRINCIPAL PARTS, edd, Ssse, eat, Active Voice, INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. edd edimus és éstis est edunt SUBJUNCTIVE, Imp. %ssem essémus éssts éssétis ésset éssent IMPERATIVE. Pres, este fut, &5t0 estote esto edunts INFINITIVE. Pre. ésse Passive Voice, INDICATIVE MOOD, Pres. 3d Sing. star SUBJUNCTIVE. Imp. 3d Sing. ssétur 1. Observe the long vowel of the forms in 88 which alone distin guishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, fo be, 2. Note comedé, coméase, coméd¥, com8sus or coméstus, consume. 3+ The Present Subjunctive has edim, -Ys, -tt, e/¢.,less often edam, As, etc.98 129, ferd, Pres. inp. Fut. Perf. Plup. Fut. P. Pres. inp. Perf. Plup. Pres. Fut. Pres. Perf. Fut. Gen. Dat. ‘Acc. Abi. Inflections. Ferd, / bear. PRINCIPAL. PARTS. ferre, tuly, latus. Active Voice, INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. ferd, fers, fert; ferimus, fertis, ferunt.t fergbam ; ferébamus. feram ; ferémus. tull; tulimus. tuleram 5 tuleraimus. tulerd ; tulerimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. feram ; feramus. ferrem ; ferrémus. tulerim 5 tulerimus, tulissem 5 tulissémus. IMPERATIVE. fer; ferte. fertd; fertote. fertd; ferunta. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE, ferre. Pres, forons. tulisse. Jatarus esse. Fut. Yatarus. GERUND. SUPINE. ferendi. ferends. fevendum. Acc. Yatum. ferends. Ab Mata. 2 1t will be observed that not all the forms of fer lack the connecting vowel, Some of them, as ferimus, ferunt, follow the regular inflection of verbs of the ‘Third Conjugation,Irregular Verbs. 99 Passive Voice. feror, ferrt, Jatus sum, to be borne. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL, Pres. feror, fertis, fertur; ferimur, ferimini, feruntur. Imp. fer’bar; ferébamur, Fut. ferar; ferémur. Perf. \atus sum; wumus. Plup. Yatus exam; erdmus. Fit. P. Watus et0 5; lati erimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. ferar; feramur. Imp. ferrer ferrémur. Perf. Yatus sim; lati simus. Plup. \atus essem IMPERATIVE. Pres. ferve; ferimini. Fut, fertor; — fertor; feruntor. INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLE, Pres. fervi. Perf. Wavus esse. Perf. \atus. Fut. Jatum iri. Ger. ferendus. So also the Compounds — affera afferre attull allatus bring toward aufero auferre abstuli ablatus take away confers conferre —contuli_——collatus compare differs differre distuli dilatus put off effero efferre ext élatus carry out infers inferre intuli illatus bring against offers offerre oblatus present referd referre relatus bring back Nore.—The forms sustuli and sublatua belong to tolls.100 Inflections. 130. Volé, 0616, mals, PRINCIPAL PARTS. vold, velle, voluf, to wish. ndl6, nélle, nélut, to be unwilling. mals, mille, méalui, to prefer. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. volo, nolo, malo, vis, non vis, mavis, vult; non vult; — mavult; volumus, nolumus, —- malumus, vultis, non vultis, — mavultis, volunt. ndlunt, malunt. Imp. volébam. ndlébam. ——malébam. Fut. volam, ndlam. malam. Perf. volui. ndlui. malui. Plup. volueram. nélueram, ——- malueram. Fut. P. voluerd. néluerd. maluerd. SUBJUNCTIVE, Pres. vélim, is, it, ete. ndlim. malim. imp. vellem,-és, -et, efe. néllem, mallem. Perf. volucritn. noluerim, —_maluerim. “Plup. voluissem. ndluissem. —_ maluissem. IMPERATIVE, Pres. ndli, nolite. Fut. . ndlitd; nélunto. INFINITIVE, Pres. velle. nille. malle. Perf. voluisse. ndluisse. maluisse, PARTICIPLE, Pres. volens. noléns. —Irregular Verbs. 101 131. FXG. PRINCIPAL PARTS. £18, fiorf, factus sum, 0 become, be made. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. $id fis, fit; fimus, fitis, fiunt. imp. figbam; figbamus. Fut. fiam; fiémus. Perf. factus sum; facti sumus. Plup. factus eram; facti eramus. Fut. P, factus erd; facti erimus. SUBJUNCTIVE, Pres. fiam; fiamus. Imp. fierem; fierémus. Perf. factus sim; facti simus. Plup. factus essems facti essémus. IMPERATIVE, Pres. fi; fite. INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLE, Pres. fieri. Perf. factus esse. Perf, factus. Fut. factum iti. Ger. faciendus. Note. —A few isolated forms of compounds of £13 occur; as, ABLit, lacks 5 Infit, begins. 132, BO. PRINCIPAL PARTS. 26, ire, Il, itum (est), —fo.go. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL, Pres. 06, is, its Imus, itis, eunt. Imp. vam; ibamus. Fut. bd; ibimus. Perf. iwi (ii); ivimus (Simus). Plup. weram (ieram) ; Iveramus (jeramus). Fut. P. iverd (ierd) ; Iverimus (ierimus).102 Inflections, SUBJUNCTIVE, SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. eam; emus. Imp. irem; irémus. Perf. iverim cerimus (ierimus). Plup. ivissem (‘issem, issem) ; ivissemus (jissémus, issémus). IMPERATIVE. Pres. 15 ite. Ful. iW; itdte, it; euntd. INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLE, Pres. ire. Pres. iéns. Perf. ivisse (ise). (Gen. euntis.) Fid, itirus esse. Fut. itiirus. — Gerundive, eundum GERUND. SUPINE. eundi, ec. itum, ita. 1, Transitive compounds of e6 admit the full Passive inflection ; as, adeor, adiris, aditur, e/c. DEFECTIVE VERBS. Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The following are the most important: — 183. UsED MaINLy IN THE PerFecr SYSTEM. L have begun. Memint, / remember. Gai, 7 hate. INDICATIVE MOOD, Perf. cospi. memini. od. Plup. coeperam. memineram. oderam. Fut, P.coeperd. meminerd. ders. SUBJUNCTIVE. Perf. coeperim. meminerim. Sderim, Plup. coepissem. meminissem, Sdissem. IMPERATIVE, Sing. mementé ; Plur. mementéte.Defective Verbs. 103 INFINITIVE, Perf. coepisse. meminisse. disse. Fut. coeptiirus esse. dstinus esse. PARTIGIPLE. Perf. coeptus, begun. osus. Fut. coeptiirus. osiirus. 1, When coepf governs a Passive Infinitive it usually takes the form coeptus est; as, amari coeptus est, Ae began to be loved. 2. Note that meminf and 6d¥, though Perfect in form, are Present Similarly the Pluperfect and Future Perfect have the force of the Imperfect and Future; as, memineram, / remembered; daerd, J shall hate. in sense. 194, Inquam, / say (inserted between words of a direct quotation). 135. Pres. Fut. Pres. Imp. INDICATIVE MOOD, SINGULAR, PLURAL. inquam, — inguis, a inguit ; inguiunt. inquiés, — inquiet. —_ Perf. 3d Sing. inquit. Aj8, 7 say. INDICATIVE MOOD, SINGULAR. PLURAL. ait; ajunt. ajébam, ajébamus, ajebas, ajebatis, ajebat; ajebant. Perf. 3d Sing. ait. SUBJUNCTIVE, Pres. 3d Sing. ajat. Nore. — For aisne, do you mean # ain is common104 Inflections. 136. P&L, fo speak. This is inflectec. regularly in the perfect tenses. In the Present System it has— INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL, Pres. — — fatur. = Fut. fabor, = fabitur. a Imp. fare. Inf. far Pres. Partic. fantis, fanti, efe. Gerund, G, fandi; D. and Abl, fando. Gerundive, fandus. Note.—Forms of f8rI are rare. More frequent are its compounds: as,—- affatur, Aeaddresses; — praofémur, we say in advance, 187, OtHer Derective Forms. I. Qued, quire, quivi, da de wble, and nequed, nequire, nequtvi, to be unable, are inflected like e8, but occur chiefly in the Present Tense, sind there only in special forms, 2. Quaes6, /entreat; quaesumus, we entreat. 3. Cedo (2d sing.), cette (2d plu.) ; grve me, tell me. 4. Salva, salvate, fail. Also Infinitive, salvre. 5. Hav (av8), havéte, fail. Also Infinitive, havére, IMPERSONAL VERBS. 138. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, # snows, it seems, etc. They have no personal subject, but may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Neuter Pronoun; as, mB pudet hoc f€cisse, lit. if shamtes me to have done this ; hdc decet, fis ts fitting. Here belong — 1. Verbs denoting operations of the weather as, — fulget fulsit it lightens tonat tonuit it thundersImpersonal Verbs. grandinat — ningit ninxit pluit pluit IL, Special Verbs. paenitet, paenitére paenituit piget pigére piguit pudet pudére puduit taedet tacdére taeduit miseret miserére miseruit tibet libre libuit licet licere licuit oportet oportére oportuit decet decére decuit dédecet dédectre dédecuit réfert réferre rétulit 105 it hails it snows it rains at repents it grieves it causes shame it disgusts it causes pily it pleases it ts lawful it is fitting it is becoming it is unbecoming it concerns III. Verbs Impersonal only in Special Senses. constat praestat juvat apparet placet accédit accidit contingit avenit interest cOnstare cOnstitit it is evident praestare praestitit it is better juvare javit it delights apparére apparuit it appears placere placuit (placitum est) i pleases accédere accessit it is added accidere accidit it happens contingere —_contigit it happens Eventre evenit it turns ont interesse interfuit it concerns IV. The Passive of Intransitive Verbs ; as,— itur curritar ventum est veniendum est pugnari potest lit. # #s gone Jit. it is run lit. i Aas been come Tit. must be come lit. tf cam be fought Ee, some one goes Ze. some one runs fee. some onte has come ie. somebody must come i.e. somebody can fightPart III. — PARTICLES. 139. Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not admit of inflection; vz. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc- tions, Interjections, ADVERBS, 140. Adverbs denote manner, place, time, or degree. Most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have become stereotyped by usage. The common adverbial terminations have already been given above (§ 76). The following Tasve oF Correcatives is important ; — ReLaTive AND INTERROGATIVE, Dantoxsreanive, Ivpernare, ubi, where; where? hie, here. alicubt, Aequam, Os- ibl, illfo, istic, there. piam, somewhere, qus, whither 3 whither? hito, hither. aliqué, fo some place. €3, istic, illic, thither. unde, whence; whence? bine, hence. inde, istine, illino, thence. and, wheres where? hac, by this way. efi, istic, iMac, by aliounde, from some- where. aliqua, by some way. that way. oum, wien. une, now. aliquandé, umquam, quand, wien? tum, tune, “en. sometime, ever. quotizns, as often as; totiéns, so often. _—_aliquoti&ns, some how often? number of tines. quam, as much as; how tam, so much. aliquantum, much? somewhat. 106Prepositions. 107 PREPOSITIONS. 141. Prepositions show relations of words. The fol- lowing Prepositions govern the Accusative :— ad, fo. contra, against. post, after. adversus, against. erg’, toward. praeter, fast. adversum, foward, extra, outside. Prope, near. against. Infra, below. propter, 01 account of. ante, before. inter, defween. secundum, after. apud, with, near. intra, within, subter, beneath. cirel, around. jfixta, near. super, over. circiter, abort. Ob, on account of. supra, above. ciroum, around. _penes, in the hands of. trans, across. cls, this side of. per, through. ultra, beyond. citra, (his side of. pone, behind. versus, foward. 1. Usque is often prefixed to ad, in the sense of even; as,— sque ad urbem, ever fo the city. 2. Versus always follows its case; as, — Rémam versus, foward Rome. It may be combined with a preceding Preposition; as,— ad urbem versus, éoward the city. 3 Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Super latives proximus, proximé, sometimes govern the Accusative ; as,— ‘Ubif proxim’ Rb&num incolunt, the Ubii diwell next to the Rhines Propius castra hostium, nearer the canip of the enemy. 142. The following Prepositions govern the Ablative:— A, ab, abs, from, dy. cum, with. pr8, in front of, abaque, without, 8, from, concerning, Sar. dram, in the presence 8, ex, from, out of. sine, without. of. prae, before. tenus, up fo. 1. A, ab, abs. Before vowels or h, ab must be used; before con- sonants we find sometimes &, sometimes ab (the latter usually not before the labials b, p, f, v, m; nor before c, @, q, or t); abs occurs only before t8, and & is admissible even there. 2. B, ex. Before vowels or h, ex must be used; before conso- nants, we find sometimes &, sometimes ex.108 Particles 3+ Tenus regularly follows its case, as pectoribus tenus, up fo the breast, \t sometimes governs the Genitive, as labrérum tenus, as far as the lips. 4 Cum is appended to the Pronouns of the First and Second Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun; usually also to the Relative and Interrogative.. Thus: — mécum nobiscum qudcum or cum qué téeum vobiseam quacum oy cum qua sécum qnibuscum or cum quibus On quicum, see § 89, Footnote 1. 143, Two Prepositions, in, ix, info, and sub, under, gov- ern both the Accusative and the Ablative. With the Ac- cusative they denote motion; with the Ablative, rest ; as, — in urbem, into the city ; in urbe, in the city. 1, Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the Ablative. 144, RELATION OF ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 1. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still retain their adverbial meaning; as. post, afterwards} ante, previ- ously 3 contr3, on the other hand, etc. 2. Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally employed as prepositions; as, — clam, pridié, with the Accusative. procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative. 3. Andstrophe. A Preposition sometimes follows its case. This is called Andstrophe; as,— ef, qués inter erat, those among whom he was. Anastrophe occurs chiefly with dissyllabic prepositions. CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 145. 1. Conjunctions are used to connect ideas, For Coérdinate Conjunctions, see §§ 341 ff. Subordinate Con- junctions are treated in connection with Subordinate Clauses. 2. Interjections express emotion. Thus: — 1. Surprise; as, &n, ecce, 6. 2. Joy; as, id, enoe. 3- Sorrow and Pain; as, heu, Bhou, vae, pr, 4. Calling; as, heus, eho.Parr IV. on ‘WORD-FORMATION. Ss I, DERIVATIVES. 146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain ter- minations called Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or adjectives. A. NOUNS, 1, Nouns derived from Verbs. 147. 1. The sufix-tor (-sor), Fem. -trix, denotes “he agent ; 28,— viotor, victrix, victor; aatensor, defender. NOTE. —The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems; as, — gladiBtor, gladiator (from gladius). 2, The suffix -or (originally -88) denotes an activity or @ condi tion 5 a— amor, love} timor, fear Aolor, fain. 3. The suffixes -t13 (-8id), Gen. -6nis, and -tus (-sus), Gen, -fs, denote an action as in process} a%,— VEnatid, hunting; obsessi6, Blockade; gemitus, sighing; cursus, running. Nore. — Rarer endings with the same force arc: — a) -tOra, etre; as,— sepultiira, duria’; mBnstire, méasuring. 4) -lum; as,— gaudlum, rejoicing. c) Add, as,— eupias, desire. 109110 Word-Formation. 4. The suffixes -men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -oulum, denote the means or place of an action; a5, — men (1tic-s-men), light + vooabulum, word ; Srnfmentum, ornaments dooumentum, proofs sepulcrum, graves aratrum, plough 3 vebiculum, carriage. 2, Nouns derived from Nouns. 148, 1. Dimfoutives end in— -ulus, (ula, -ulam) -olus, (ola, -olum), after a vowel soulus, (-cula,— -cnlum) -ellus, (ella, -ellum) illus, Cilla, illum) a8,— nidulus, Kittle nest (nidus); virgula, wand (wirga); oppidulum, —Zil/lefown = (oppidum: fMiolus, little son (filins) 5 opusculum, —ditt/e work (opus); tabella, tablet (tabula); Japillua, pebble (lapis). Nore 1.—It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the gender ‘of the words from which they sre derived, Nove 2.—The endings -etlus, -Mlus contain the primitive form of the diminu- tive suffix, vis, -lo-. ‘Thus agellus,feld, for ager-lus; Jepillus, esse, for lapid-lus, 2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either @ collection of such persons ot their function ; a8, — collégium, @ corporation, body of colleagues (collega); sacerddtium, priestly function (sacerdds). 3. The suffixes -arium, -8tum, le designate a place where objects ave kept or are found in abundance; as,— columbarium, dove-cote (columba) ; olivétum, olive-orchard (olwa) ; ovile, sheepfold (ovis).Nouns. — Adjectives. MI 4. The suffix -atus denotes oficial position or honor ; 93,— cdnsulatus, consulship (consul). 5. The suffix ina appended to nouns denoting persons designates a vocation or the place where it is carried on 3 as)— Aoctrina, leaching (doctor, teacher) ; medicina, the art of healing (medicus, physician); sitrina, cosbler’s shop (siitor, cobbler) 6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of.» « daughter of » . «They have the following suffixes: — @) Masculines: -id8s, -ad8s, 148s; as, Priamid&s, son of Priam; Benead8s, son of Aeneas; P&ld8s, son of Peleus. 4) Feminines: -8is, -is, ian; as, Ner8is, daughter of Nereus; Atlantis, daughter of Atlas; Thaumantias, daughter of Thaumas. 8. Nouns derived from Adjectives. 149. The suffixes -tas (-it&s), -tdd6 (-itd6), -ia, -itia are used for the formation of abstract nouns denoting qualities; as,— bonitas, goodness ; celeritas, swiftness ; magnithds, greatness; auda- cia, doldness ; amioitia, friendship. B. ADJECTIVES. 1, Adjectives derived from Verbs. 150, 1. ‘The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present participle; as, — tremebundus, fremblings _ffloundus (juv5), pleasing. 2. The suffixes -@x and -ulus denote am inclination or tendency, mostly a faulty one; as)— loquax, loquacious ¢ orBdulus, credulous. 3. The suffix -idus denotes @ state; as,— calidus, fof; timidus, timid; oupidus, eager. 4. The suflixes lis and -bilis denote capacity or abitity, usually in a passive sense; as,— fragilis, fragile (#.e. capable of being broken) ; docilis, docile.112 Word-Formation, 2, Adjectives derived from Nouns. 2) From Common Nouns. 151. 1. ‘The suffixes -eus and inus are appended to names of sub- stances or materials; as, — aureus, ofgold: — ferreus, of tron; ‘fginus, of Beech. 2. The suffixes -ius, -lous, -Slis, -Alfs, -Gris, Arius, -nus, -anus, ambi- (amb-), around; dis- (dir-, AT-), apart, asunder por-, forward} rea-(re-), back; s8d- (8-), apart from; vE, without. 4. Adverbs: —~ ‘These are of various types; as, — antea, before; HlicS (in locd), on the spots imprimis, especially 5 obviam inthe way.Parr V. SYNTAX, ss 160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences. Cnarrer I.— Sentences, CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 161. Sentences may be classified as follows :— 1. DECLARATIVE, which state something; a5,— puer serIbit, fhe boy is writing. 2. INTERROGATIVE, which ask a question; as, — quid puer scribit, what is the boy writing? ge EXCLAMATORY, which are in the form of an exclamation; as,— quot librés scribit, dow many books he writes! 4. Iutperative, which express a command or an admonition; as, — scribe, write! FORM OF INTHRROGATIVE SENTENCES. 162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sen- tence-Questions, 1, Word-Questions, These are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs; such as—auis, qui, qualis, quantus, quot, quotigas, qué, qua, ef, Thus: = quis venit, who comes? quam did man&bit, how long will he stay? 7118 Syntax. 2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced — 2) By ndune implying the answer ‘yes’; as, — nénne vidés, do you not see? 4) By num implying the answer ‘x0? as, — num exspectas, do you expect ? (i.e. you don'l expect, do you ?) 6) By the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which usually stands first), and simply asking for information; as,— vidésne, do you see? A question introduced by -ne may receive a special impli- cation from the context ; as; — sénsistine, did you not perceive? d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of surprise or indignation ; 33,— ta in jadicum cdnspectum venire aud&s, do you dare to come into the presence of the juges? 3. Rhetorical Questions. These are questions mercly in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, who doubts? (= no one doubts). 4. Double Questions. Double Questions are introduced by the following particles : — utrum .., an; one... .. an; — ee an If the second member is negative, anndn (less often neone) is used. Examples: — utrum honestum est an turpe, honestumne est an turpe, |i honorable or base? honestum est an turpe, suntne ai ann6n, are there gods or not ? a. Byan ellipsis of the first member, an sometimes stands alone. Tis force depends upon the context; as, — & rebus gerendis abstrahit senectis, Quibus? An efs quae juventite geruntur et viribus? Old age (if is alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. From what pursuits? Is it not merely from those which are carried on by the strength of youth?Simple and Compound Sentences. 119 5. Answers. a. The answer Yes is expressed by ita, etiam, vérd, s&né, or by repetition of the verb; as, — ‘visne locum mit8mus?? ‘sin.’ ‘Shall we change the place ?? ‘Certainly ‘ontione von légatt?* ‘sumus.’ “Are you envoys ?* ‘Yes. & The answer No is expressed by ndn, minimé, minim’ véré, or by repeating the verb with a negative ; as, — ‘jam ea praeteriit?” ‘nén’ ‘Has it passed?? ‘Noo ‘estne frater intas?’? ‘ndn est.’ ‘/s your brother within? “No? SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 168. The two essential parts of a sentence are the Sus- ject and PREDICATE. The Sunject is that concerning which something is said, asked, etc. The PrepicaTeE is that which ts satd, asked, etc., concerning the SuBJECT. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called Smpre Senrences, those containing more are called Compounp SENTENCES. Thus puer librds legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple Sentence; but puer Mbrés legit et epistulas scribit, the doy reads bovks and writes letters, is a Compound Sentence. The different members of a Compound Sentence are called CLAUSES. 165. CodrpivaTe AND SuBoRDINATE CLAUSES. Clauses which stand upon an equality are called Cooxpixate; a Clause dependent upon another is called SusoxpiwaTe. Thus in puer librds legit et epistuls scrfbit the two clauses are Codrdinate; but in puer librés legit qués pater scribit, the boy reads the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the first.120 Syntax. Cuaprer Il.— Syntax of Nouns, SUBJECT. 166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (ée. any form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nomi- native Case. 1. The Subject may be— @) A Noun or Pronoun; as, — puer soribit, the boy writes hic serfbit, (iis man writes, 4) An Infinitive; as,— decdrum est prd patria morf, £0 aie for one’s country is a noble thing. ¢) A Clause; as, — opportané accidit quod vBnist!, 1 happened opportunely that you arrived. 2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb, and is not separately expressed; as. — soribs, / write; videt, he sees. a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed; as, — ego acr¥bs et th legis, J write, and you read. 3 The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be casily supplicd from the context, especially the auxiliary sum ; as, — r&oté ille (sc. facit), he does rightly; cénsul profectus (sc. est), He consul set out. PREDICATE NOUNS. 167. A Prepicare Noun is onc connected with the Sub- ject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb. 168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case; as,— 1 For the Predicate Genitive see §§ 198, 33 203, 5.Predicate Nouns. — Appositives. 121 Cioerd SrAtor fuit, Cicero was an orator ; Numa creatus est r8x, Vuma was elected king. 1. When possible the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Sub- ject in Gender also; as,— philosophia est vitae magistra, philosophy is the guide of life. 2, Besides sum the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predi- cate Noun are — 2) £15, SvadS, exeistd; maned; videor; as,— Croesus n6n semper mansit r8x, Croesus did not always remain king. 4) Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding, efc.; as, creor, appellor, habeor; as,— Rdmulus r8x appellatus est, Romulus was called king; habitus est deus, Ae was regarded as a god. APPOSITIVES, 169. 1. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defin- ing another Noun denoting the same person or thing; as,— Cicerd cBnsul, Cicero, the Consuls urbs Roma, the city Rome. 2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as, — opera Cicerdnis Sr&tdris, the works of Cicero, the orator $ apud Hérodotum, patrem historiae, ‘x te works of Herodotus, the Sather of history. 3+ When possible the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gen- der also; as, — assentatid adjitrix vitidram, flattery, the promoter of evils. 4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with or without a preposition ; as, — Corintht, urbe praecl&ra, or in urbe praeclr&, af Corinth, a famous city. 5. Partitive Aprosition. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by an Appositive denoting a part; as, — militls, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restitérunt, the soldiers, a!? the bravest of them, resisted the enemy.122 Syntax. ‘THE CASES. THE NOMINATIVE. 170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. Sce §§ 166-169. THE VOCATIVE. 171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address; as, — cr&dite mihi, jddic&s, deliewe me, judges. 1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used ior the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose; as, aud ta, populus Albanus, ear ye, Alban people! 2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the Nominative; as, nate, mea magna potentia s6lus, O son, alone the source of my great power. THE ACCUSATIVE. 172, The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object. 173, The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations : — A, The PERSON on THING AFFECTED by theaction; as,— cBnsulem interfecit, He slew the constel 5 legé librum, / read the bovk. . The Resutt Prooucen by the action; as,— Mbrum serfpsi, / wrote a book (i.e. produced one) ; templum struit, he constructs a temple. 174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are TRANSITIVE VERBS. a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used without it. They are then said to be employed absolutely ; as,— rdmor est meum gnatum amare, i is rumored that my son is in love.The Accusative, 123 Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected. 475. 1. This is the most frequent use of the Accu- sative; as in — parentés amamus, we love our parents ; mare aspicit, Ae gazes at the sea. 2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are worthy of note: — @) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposi- tion, become Transitive. Thus: — 1) Compounds of cfroum, praeter, trans; a%)— hontés circumstire, fo surround the enemys urbem praeterire, /o pass by the city; mirés transcendere, fo climb over the walls. 2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub ; as, — adire urbem, fo visit the city 5 peragrare Italiam, /o travel through Italy $ inlre magistratum, fo fake office ; sublre perfoulum, fo undergo danger. 4) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have also a Transitive use; as, — queror fatum, / lament my fate; oles ejus mortem, /grieve at his death s vided tuam stultitiam, / /augh at your folly. So also Miged, maered, mourn; gems, bemoan; horred, shudder, and others. €) The impersonals decet, i# Becomes ; ABAecet, it fs unbecom- ing; juvat, if pleases, take the Accusative of the Person Affected ; as, — mé decet haec Alcere, #f becomes me to say this. ) In poctry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage, are employed as Middles (§ 256, 1; 2), and take the Ac- cusative as Object ; as, — galeam induitur, Ae puts on his helmet ; cinctus tempora hedera, Aaving bound his temples with yt nédé sinfis collBota, Aaving gathered her dress in a knob.124 Syntax. Accusative of the Result Produced, 176. 1, The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions as — librum sertbd, / write a books Gomum aedificd, / duild a house. 2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a Newer Pronoun, ot Adjective, as. an Accusitive of Result. Thus: — 4) A Neuter Pronoun} as, — haec gemébat, he made these moans; Mud glorior, 7 make this boast s eadem peceat, fe makes the same mistakes. 6) A Neuter Adjective, — particularly Adjectives of number or @mourt,—multum, multa, pauca, ef¢.$ also nihil; as, — multa dubit8, 7 Aave many doubts $ pauca studet, he has few interests multum valet, he has great strength; nihil progreditur, he makes no progress. Noe, —~ In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as, — minitantem vine, making vain threats ¢ acorba tuéns, yiving a fierce looks dulce loquentom, sweetly taléing. 3 The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out of this Accusative; as; — multum sunt in venattne, they are much engaged in hunting, @. So also plirimum, very greatly; plérumque, generally; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why? nihil, not at all; ete. 4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of kindred ctymology with the Verb. This is called a Coo NATE Accusative, and is usually modified by an Adjective; as, — sempiternam servititem serviat, lef him serve an everlasting slavery} vitam diam vixl, /Aave lived a hard life. @. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred ety mology, but merely of kindred meaning; as,— stadium currit, Ae runs a race; Olympia vineit, Ae wins an Olympic victory.The Accusative. 125 5- The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of fasting and smelling; as,— piscis mare sapit, the fish tastes of the sea; Srationés antiquitatem redolent, the speeches smack of the past. Two Acousatives— Direct Object and Predicate Accusative. 177. 1. Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Showing, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusa- tive; as,— m6 hr8dem fBcit, he made me heir. Here m6 is Direct Object, h&r8dem Predicate Accusative. So also— eum jddicem c&ptre, fhey Look him as judges urbem Rémam vooavit, he called the city Romes 88 virum praestitit, Ae showed himself a man. 2, The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun; as,— hominés caecds reddit cupiditts, covetousness renders men blind; Apollé Sdcratem sapientissimum jidicavit, Apollo adjudged Soc rates the wisest man. 42, Some Verbs, as reddG, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predie cate Accusative, 3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 168. 2.8) ; as, — urbs Rdma vocata est, “he city was called Rome. 4, Not all Verbs admit the Passive constraction; reddd and effiol®, for example, never take it. Two Accusatives—Person and Thing. 178. 1. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced. Thus:— a) Verbs of reguesting and demanding, as,— Stium dives rogat, he asks the gods for rest m6 duds SrGtidn8s postulas, you demand two speeches of me.126 Syntax. So also 5rd, poscd, reposcd, exposcd, Magid, though some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person; as, — opem & t8 posed, / demand aid of you. 8) Verbs of ‘caching (doced and its compounds) ; as,— t& litter’s doced, / teach you your letters. €) Verbs of inguiring; as, — t8 haec r0gs, / ask you this; t& sententiam rogd, / ask you your opinion. @) Several Special Verbs; vz. moned, admoned, commoned, cbg6, acciisd, argud, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing; as,— t& haec mone, / give you this advice; mé id acciisas, you bring this accusation against mes id cdgit nds ntira, nature compels us (to) this, 2) One Verb of concealing, 818; as,— nOn té célavi serménem, / have not concealed the conver. sation from you. In the Passive construction the Accusal comes the ¢ of the Person be- ubject, and the Accusative of the ‘Thing is retained: as,— omnés artés Edoctus est, he was taught all accomplishments 5 rogatus sum sententiam, / was asked my opinion $ aliquid admonémur, we are given some admonition. a, Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction, Two Accusatives with Compounds, 179. 1. Transitive compounds of trans may take two Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition; as, — milités flimen traditcit, Ae /eads his soldiers across the river, 2. With other compounds this construction is rare. 3. In the Passive the Accusative depeadent upon the preposition is retained ; as, — milités fliimen tradic&bantur, tHe soldiers were led across the riverThe Accusative. 127 Synecdochical (or Greek) Acousative. 180. 1. The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the part to which an action or quality refers; as,— iterally, he rembles as to Ais limbs, ie. his limbs tremble; 1 bare as to the knee, ie. with knee bare: mans revinctus, lit. tied as to éhe hands, ie. with hands tied, 9, Note that this construction — 4) Is borrowed from the Greek. 4) Is chiefly confined to poetry. 4) Usually refers t0 a part of the body. @) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs. Accusative of Time and Space, 181. 1. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are de- noted by the Accusative ; as, — quadraginta annés vixit, he lived forty years; hfo locus passiis sescents aberat, 1/15 place was six hundyed paces away. arborés quinquaginta pedas altae, érees fifly feet high. abbinc septem annés, seven years ago. 2, Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per; as, per biennium labdravi, / foiled throughout two years, Accusative of Limit of Motion. 18%. 1 The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used — 4) With names of Zowns, Small Islands, and Peninsulas ; a3,— Romam vent, / came to Rome; Athénas profictscitur, Ae sets out for Athensy Délum pervént, /arrived at Delos. 4) With domum, domés, ris; as,— domum revertitur, Ae returns homes ris Tod, / shall go to the country. Nore. —When domus means Aouse (i.¢. building), it takes a prep- osition ; as,— in domum veterem remigrare, fo move back to an old house.128 Syntax. 2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require a Preposition to denote Limit of Motion; as,— ad Italiam vénit, Ae came to /taly. @, The Preposition is also customary with the Accusatives urbem or oppidum when they stand in apposition with the name of a town; as,— Cirtam in urbem, fo the city Cirta; Genavam ad oppidum, ¢o the town Geneva. 4. The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be com- bined with the name of a country or other word dependent upon a preposition ; 28, — ‘Thirids in Italiam pervectus, carried to Thurit in Haly; cum Acén ad exercitum v8nisset, when he had come to the army at Ace. 3. To denote toward, to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of, a& is used; as,— ad Tarentum v8nt, came fo the vicinity of Tarentum ad Cannfis pugna facta est, 2 battle was fought near Cannae. 4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used without a preposition to express the limit of motion; as,— Italiam v&nit, he came to Italy. 5. The goal notion seems to represent the original function of the Accusative Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the phrase Infitias fre, fo deny (lit. £0 go fo a denial), and a few other similar expressions. Accusative in Exclamations. 183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjec- tive, is used in Exclamations; as, — mé miserum, ah, wretched me! © fallacem spem, of, deceptive hope! Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive, 184, The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusa- tive; as, — vided hominem abire, / ste that the man is going away.The Accusative.— The Dative. 129 Other Uses of the Accusative, 185. Here belong — 1. Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives; véa.— id genus, of that kind ; as, homin&s id genus, men of that kind (originally hominés, id genus hominum, men, that kind of men); virtle secus, mulebre secus, of the male sex, of the female sex; meam vicem, tuam vicem, ¢/c., for my part, ele. bonam partem, magnam partem, in large part; maximam partem, for the most part. 2. Some phrases of doubtful origin ; as, — id temporis, af that time; quod 83, but if; id actiltis, af that time cBtora, in other respects. THE DATIVE. 186, The Dative case in general expresses relations which are designated in English by the prepositions to and for, Dative of Indirect Object. 187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the person fo whom something is given, said, or done, Thus: — I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accu- sative; as, — hano peotiniam mihi dat, he gives me this moneys haec nobis dixit, he said this to us. a. Some verbs which take this construction (particularly @5n5 and croumdd) admit also the Accusative of the person along with the Ablative of the thing. Thus: Either Themistoclf mtinera dbnavit, he presented gifts to Themistocles, or Themistoclem mtineribus d3nvit, he presented Themis. tocles with gifts $ urb! miirds circumdat, he builds walls around the city, or urbem mills circumdat, Ae surrounds the city with walls.130 Syntax. IL. With many intransitive verbs ; as, — nal labSrl cedit, he yields Lo no labor. a, Here belong many verbs signifying favor) help, injure, please, displease, trust, distrust, command, obey, serve, resist, indulge, spare, pardon, emy, threaten, be angry, believe, persuade, and the like; as, — Caesar popularibus favet, Caesar favors (ie. is favor- able to) the papular party; amicis cénfidd, / trust (to) my friends ; Orgetorix Helvétiis persuasit, Orgetorix persuaded (made it acceptable 10) the Helvetians $ bonis nocet qui malis parcit, Jie injures (does harm to) the goud, who spares the bad. Note. —It is to be hore in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but sinply because they sare anéransi- five, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same apparent English equivalence ate fransitive and govern the Accusative; as, Juv, laadé, délectd. Thus: audentés deus fuvat, God Aelps she bold; néminem laestt, Ae injured no one. 4. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally ; as, — tibi pareitur, you are spared 5 mihi persuadétur, / am being persuaded ; ef invidatur, Ae is envied. & Some of the foregoing verbs admit also a Direct Object in connection with the Dative; as, — mihi mortem minitatun, Ae Gireatens me with death (hrealens death (0 me). III. With many verbs compounded with the preposi- tions: ad, ante, circum, com-,? in, inter, ob, post, prae, pré, sub, super. These verbs fall into two main classes, — 3. Many simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indirect object become capable of doing so when compounded with a preposi- tion ; as, — affiictis succurrit, he helps the afflicted ; exercitul praefuit, he was in command of the army; intersum cnsilits, / share in the deliberations, 1 Many such verbs were originally intransitive in English also, and once governed the Dative. This was the original form of the preposition cum,The Dative. 131 2. Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become capable, when compounded, of taking a Dative also as indirect object; as, —~ pectiniae puddrem antepdnit, he puts honor before money; inicere spem amfols, fo inspire hope in one's friends ; Labignum exercitul praefécit, Ae put Ladienus in charge of the army. Dative of Reference. 188. 1. The Dative of Reference denotes the person /o whom a statement refers, of whom it is true, or to whom it is of interest ; as, — mihi ante oculds versiris, you hover before my eyes (lit. hover before the eyes tone); AIT sevéritas amdrem ndn déminuit, ix iis case severity did not diminish love (lit. to him severity did not diminish); interclidere hostibus commeatum, fo cut off the supplies of the enemy. a, Note the phrase alicul interdicere aqu& et Ignl, fo interdict one from fire and water, Note. —The Dative of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does ‘not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole. It is often used where, according to the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive; so in the first and third of the above cxamples. 2. Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are— a) Dative of the Local Standpoint. This is regularly a participle; as, — oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Hptrd, ¢he Jirst town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (lit. to those coming from Epirus). Ethical Dative. This name is given to those Dative con structions of the personal pronouns in which the connection of the Dative with the rest of the sentence is of the very slightest sort; as, — t0 mihi istfus audiiciam d8fendis? tell me, do you defend that man's audacity ? quid mihi Celaus agit? what és my Celsus doing? quid sibi vult? what does he mean? (lit. wish for him self?)