Paper Industry: Resources & Fundamentals Section 1 The Paper Industry 1.1.41 Overview of the Paper Industry 1.1.2 Location of the Paper Industry 11.3 The Paper Industry - International 1.1.4 The Paper Industry - Southern Africa After studying this section a student will be expected to know about the basic processes of the Pulp & Paper Industry, the Terminology of the Paper Industry, the major Paper Making Countries of the World and the products, capacities, processes and raw materials used by each of the Paper Mills in the South African Paper Industry. 144Basis Mass Black Liquor Bleaching Blow Bone or Oven Dry Bowl Break Breaking Length Breast Roll Brightness Brown Stock Bulk Calender Paper Pulp Pulp Pulp Paper/Pulp Paper Paper Paper Paper Pulp/Paper Pulp Paper Paper The mass in grams of one square meter of paper The spent liquor of the alkaline pulping process; called red liquor in sulphite pulping Chemically treating pulp to remove the colouring matter A term used to describe the pressurised removal of pulp from a digester Absolutely dry paper or pulp A calender roll usually made from compressed fibrous material A complete tear or break of the paper web during the manufacturing process Refers to the tensile force at which a piece of paper will break; breaking length refers to the length of a piece of paper which will break itself The breast roll is one of the rolls around which the forming wire is moving; the breast roll is the roll just prior to stock discharge onto the wire Reflectivity of a pulp or paper sample measured under standard conditions; used to indicate the degree of whiteness Chemical Pulp which has not been bleached Inverse of density; the thickness or caliper per unit basis mass of a sheet of paper Assembly of rolls at the dry end of the paper machine improving the finish to.Cross-Direction Crushing Curl De-inking Doctor Draw Dregs Dry End Fibrils Fines Paper Paper Paper Pulp Pulp/Paper Paper Pulp Paper Pulp/Paper Pulp 1.41.5 The direction at right angles to the direction of running a paper machine. Defect in the sheet (usually a thin spot) caused by applying excessive pressure during an early stage of pressing before the sheet is sufficiently de-watered. Tendency of paper by itself to bend or partly wrap around the axis of one of its directions. Removal of ink and other extraneous materials (contraries) from printed, reclaimed papers by mechanical disintegration and chemical treatment, with subsequent washing or flotation separation. Thin metal plate or scraper in contact with a roll along its entire length to keep it free from paper, pulp, size, dirt, ete. Also used in performing creping. Difference in speed between two adjacent sections of a paper machine, The term also is applied to the tension in the sheet caused by the speed differential. Settleable solids which comprise the underflow from the green liquor clarifier. That part of the paper machine where the paper is dried, calendered, and reeled Thread-like elements unravelled from the walls of native cellulose fibres. Very small fibres and fibre fragments that readily pass through a filter wire cloth.Mottle Nip Opacity Open Draw Permanganate Number Pitch Porosity Profile Pulpwood Roe Number Rope Carrier Paper Paper Paper Paper Pulp Pulp/Paper Paper Paper Pulp Pulp Paper 11.7 Non-uniform colour of a paper sheet, whether accidental or intentional. Line of contact between two rolls, such as press or calender rolls. Property of a paper which prevents “show-through" of printing from one side of sheet to the other. Transfer of an unsupported sheet as it passes from one section of the paper machine to the next section. Chemical test performed on pulp to determine the degree of delignification. Resinous materials present in wood that carry over into the pulping and papermaking systems to form insoluble deposits. Property of containing connected air voids. The porosity of paper is evaluated by measuring the air permeability under standardized conditions. weight, moisture content or other property from point to point in a paper web, either in the machine direction or cross-direction. Logs cut and trimmed to size for use by the pulp mill. Generally of poorer quality than sawlogs. Measure of the amount of chlorine required for bleaching pulp. Principal method of sheet threading for the dryer section of a paper machine, by means of two ropes that run in grooves on the front side of the dryer cylinders. The tail is placedStuff Tack Tackle Top side Watermarking Web Wet End White Water Wire Side Wood-Free Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper 14.9 papermaking furnish Papermaking stock as it is ready to be pumped to the headbox Resistance of an ink film to being split between two surfaces, as between blanket and paper for an offset press. Replaceable assembly of bars or disc segments which provide the working surfaces in a refiner. Paper web side that has not been in contact with the wire during manufacture. Design formed among the fibres of a sheet as a result of the wet paper web coming into contact with the pattern of the dandy roll. The paper becomes thinner and more translucent where the fibres are displaced by the raised design. Term applied to the full width of the paper sheet in the process of being formed, pressed, dried, finished, or converted. Portion of the paper machine between the headbox and the dryer section. General term for water removed from a pullp slurry and containing fibre fines and/or additives. On the paper machine, the water that flows through the fourdrinier forming fabric as the ‘sheet is formed. That side of the sheet of paper which was originally in contact with the forming wire of fabric. Pulp furnish without mechanical pulp.lower pH pulping using cheap limestone and sulphur was extensively used; the resultant pulp tended to be weaker than Kraft pulp but it was possible to dispose the waste liquor into large water masses without major environmental damage but the process is very slow. Use of higher pH's leads to quicker pulping and is common in the production of, high yield chemical pulps for packaging papers. Recovery of the waste liquors has been developed where viable. NSSC - neutral sulphite semi-chemical where a mixture of sodium sulphite and sodium carbonate is used at a pH of about 8. The sulphite and Kraft processes are often denoted Si and Sa in the literature. The above processes are covered in Module 5 of the instructional program. Bleaching of Pulp Pulps produced for Papermaking are often not sufficiently white for the requirements of the paper products being produced, especially in the case of Kraft pulps. In order to make them brighter, the pulps are whitened, in the case of Mechanical pulps, and bleached, in the case of Chemical pulps. The above processes are covered in Module 7 of the instructional program. Recycled Fibre Operations There is a trend towards increased recycling of paper products back into paper products, largely due to environmental and cost pressures. Although it is not practical to recycle all products, most countries are involved in paper recycling to some extent, depending on the cost and availability of raw materials, the product range and the quality specifications, The above processes are covered in Module 8 of the instructional program. Papermaking Papermaking is a broad term used to cover the manufacture of a wide range of paper & board products eg Newsprint, Writing Papers, Bond Papers, Tissue, Folding Boxboard, Linerboard Fluting and even higher mass boards for the motor industry for example. A more concise definition of the above products will be shown later in this chapter. 44.4441.2 Figure 1.1.1 Map of the World - size of Country proportional to it's GDP Other aspects of the Paper Industry covered in the program are Environmentand Corrosion (Module 10), various products produced by the industry (Module 13) and Quality Assurance (Module 14). Location of the Pulp & Paper Industry As with most industries, the paper industry is located close to its raw materials, close to its market and close to a source of labour or at least the most economic combination of the above. With regard to market for paper industry products, the market is the product of population numbers and sophistication of economy. For example China has a large population but a relatively unsophisticated economy and hence the paper industry in that country is relatively small. On the other hand Sweden has a highly sophisticated economy and a high population and hence a relatively large paper industry. Figure 1.1.1 shows the relative size of the worlds economies which will determine the paper requirements of the countries. With regard to raw materials, which are largely trees and other fibrous plants such as bagasse, bamboo, straw and kenaf, itis also noticeable that the most treed nations are North America, Scandinavia and the Tropical countries such as Brazil. European paper mills are largely 1.4.131.1.3.2 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 EE Unbleached Kraft EE supphite =e Figure 1.1.3 Tonnages of Different Grades of Pulp Produced for 1980 and 1990 The Paper Industry The paper making capacity of various nations in the world is shown in tables on the following pages and the per capita consumption of paper of some countries is shown in figure 1.1.4. It Is clear that the majority of the 300 million metric tons of paper and board made in the world is made in North America, Scandinavia, Western Europe and Japan. | China \ | Zimbabwe ‘Bil = i Argentina asa South Africa 1] kgs/annum Taiwan E |United Kingdom Japan Ean SL Seer ‘Sweden United States _Sieninnasieias ans RaEameenshiaGS , ' oO 50 100 150 200 250 300 Figure 1.1.4 Per Capita Paper Consumption for Various Countries 1.4.15,THE WORLD'S TOP 30 PRODUCERS AND CONSUMERS 1997 pa 2 Precucton Pup Predation P&B Consumption Senange %chonge % change e077 19079706 107976 Tx wary ae ae eae a7] 7p BO] = [ieran Bias] 33] 2 cna eeso] 20 | 2 | crea Prams | —azeas] a5} Res 3 [era Pes Rp 3 ia: Pepe Rap 7a | a7] 3 [span aap 7 [eared fan feraso| a8 | a [oomany Tere] 27 = [erneny 3nd feo] aa] 5 umes gion | 12200] oa] @ [Finan 3 [ Sveden fazer] 88] a] France ova] 0. Tf Swear 7 [Baar soa] 237 ]my Ts] 93} 7 [France 3 [Raa 3a| a] sro Rept] ama] 20) 3 [Renee Rept 3 [eres aura] Tea] 3 [canada cosa a3] mo Fal Franen zea| as] of east we] 48 fi [rac ra ]eway zee| so] 1 fear som aa fafa eae Fa Soun aea Fe a tan] ha fs [ndeesar ra fone Zuo] ai] 73 i za] —Te9 Fa [raivan Geena Tos] 78] 1 [eerste zeae] aa he [Sean rs faia Teca| 8] 75 fra aera] aa re [ina re Pou “Trea —98| 18 nanarands aa] sa reo 7 are Tes] si] 17 rae var] al heros: DE en] —78| 78 [oat Foer| 0] fa [ Netra |New Zand Tan] 94] 19 [Sete zara] 29 aca roar Sal aa] 20] tata zal 3 fa fase [Pore [07] at fae zu] 23 [rae 7e[ oa | a2 Tote za] a fa ntecnnozan | eas] 34] 0 Juana a Et [Rares op of o[ 45] 2 Sah ter] eal Pa [ratna Pm [sian aa| 9a] 25 erin Ta] Tea fs [ Swine Pha =e] 10] 20 oars Tres] 181 fa_[eeim ast | 123 far [Cmech Rapes | 5 en] a7 [ri 1788 fas [Frey 1248] —127 [25 [exes 7a] 33] 29 ame Tear a_ [argon Tree] — 10) [bao 7a | 0] — 2 [one 12 fe [ronaar “oo ea [sol Tey we] a) a0 roma og Tapa] V1.7Caney or a oe (rac, | “ae fan | Goosen) ota) eB [res nu | cia ‘se ‘oar Pulp (to) PBB Pulp P&B Pulp aa span zal o| of of of os] fof q shan se] ol of ol oof sy} 8] Sat] Bane seacoo| 20] S| ass] zs] 23] as] es] tae eve sel “oof “ol Lota] a] EG] erode vos] oo] of oo} ‘oe] a] Sct Sgt ina Pekes Reo | 120830) <¢| sco| ot ee] torso] 25s) se es] coo] 27a] ara | Cyprus Tee} 8} 0 oO 0 67.9 ‘52 3 0 | a korg orm of of ao] a ame] 1am] a] aa] Inge seeeo| S| 8] bythe resyclablapapes collected by the enrepreneus The certes buy all pes o reyelable matt whieh is sod on, These centres frovidea valuable source of ingame to many people wo oolect and sel wast, aswel as tothe entrepreneur wo sels te waste to resyling opportunites. Mond Recyeling ne has eae aver 2.000 ee jobs as a result of ts various colton naive. OUTSOURCING ACTIVITIES Pamsa memibrsconibue furthest the Informal sctr othe aconemy by cutgutcng actvtes such as ranspratln, leering and catering te enboprenouss and small businestas a mast oftheir operons throughout the country.SUMMING UP _ SOUTH AFRICAN. _- FORESTS PRODUCTS | INDUSTRY SUMMARY. 2000 ‘forested area 13 million ha Value of products [19 bilion Value of exports | Employment Contribution to Manvtacturing GOP 8% Contribution to totai GOP 27% ISSUES. Issues afecting the compebivenass of te indusisy include ‘The impact of HIV/AIDS on etou and sls; he high oes of transport = The anasto and eos fra mares, and * Investment percetins, OPPORTUNITIES The incstry wil grow trough vrcus opportunites which are avalabl, Icing: 1 The avaiabiiy of be tobe covert ito Value aed paparproduns trough + Additional atforstton; + Increased yields through research and evecpment + Inorased ecyeling of used paver and + Avallbiity of bagasse as a bre source. he low speci consumaton of paper znd whi will row as the per capita BOP of the coun an the continent gram * South cas favourable ocation in ica hich eres window to mexise ‘opportuni in Asia, Europe and South ai, Theft that South African pulp and paper ‘af produce fro high-yield, sustaable plantalion forestry lve these products an ‘xtvantage trom an arvronmertat perspective in nenationa! markers — rmatels which are ineeasingly focused en ‘exvitonmenta sues. ufone Sl ste are uae forint wr atts ard unt fo Se Tee Seg hah, Sip ee Sti: Lowe and Sp he Stn Kaz a 25Paper Industry: Resources & Fundamentals Section 2 Paper Industry Raw Materials 1.2.1 Tree species 1.2.2 Forestry operations 1.2.3. Transport of Forest products 1.2.4 Research & Development in the Forest Industry 1.2.5 Sugar cane and bagasse 1.2.6 Other fibrous materials 1.2.7 Other uses of wood After this section a student will be expected to know the different raw materials used by the Pulp and Paper Industry, how they are obtained and transported to the mills and the development of fibre resources for the Paper industry. 1.24Research in the forest industry in Southem Attica is essentially carried out at four main centres. The large paper companies have forest research departments based in Natal; Sappi in Pietermaritzburg and Mondi at Mitubatuba and Hilton. The Department of Forestry at Stellenbosch carries out research in a number of fields namely Forest Management, Silviculture, Forest Engineering, Wood Science, Pulp & Paper Technology and Conservation. The Forestek section of the CSIR in Pretoria conducts a wide range of research work in all wood and allied products related fields. 1.2.5 Sugar Cane and Bagasse The fibrous waste material from cane sugar production, bagasse, has been used for the manufacture of paper in most countries where sugar cane is. grown and South Africa is no exception. In areas where the bagasse is not converted into papermaking fibres it is combusted in a power boiler to generate steam used for concentrating the suger juice. There is normally an excess of bagasse despite it's relatively low calorific value. The main problem with processing of bagasse for papermaking is the seasonal nature of the sugar industry, which for example in South Africa is only milling cane from May through to December. These months may vary according to the weather and the capacity of the crop. This means ‘that either the bagasse must be stored or the raw materials must be changed. Despite the problems of storing a raw material which is open to fungal attack, it is usually preferably to use bagasse than to incur the paper property changes resulting from a raw material change. The paper making properties of bagasse fibres are very similar to those of hardwood fibres. 1.2.6 Other Fibrous Materials There are many other fibrous materials which can be considered as a raw material for the manufacture of paper and board products. In some countries, which are relatively deficient in trees or do not have soils ‘suitable for growing trees, more than 50% of the fibre for paper making are sourced from non wood origins. The other types can be divided into a number of groups, such as Vegetable, Textile, Animal and Waste Paper Products. Each of these groups will be discussed briefly as to their suitability of purpose below. 12.3Paper Industry: Resources & Fundamentals Section 5 Relationship between fibre and paper properties 1.5.1 Mechanism of polysaccharide interfibre bonding 1.5.2 Effects of water, fibre treatments and humidity on the fibrous bonds 1.5.3. Measurement of the mechanical properties of pulps 1.5.4 Relationship between the mechanical properties of paper pulps(tensile, tear etc.) and the fibrous raw material and its treatment 1.5.5 Theories and correlations of fibre and sheet strength properties 1.5.6 The relationship between fibre types and the surface properties of the sheet After this section a student will be expected to know the mechanism of hydrogen bonding in cellulose, hemicellulose and water, the effect of water and fibre treatments on this bonding mechanism, the measurement of the mechanical properties of pulps, the relationship betwen th pulp, its treatment and the properties of the pulp and the paper produced from it 1.54around the oxygen atom and a small positive charge around the hydrogen atom. These small positive and negative charges are then able to be attracted to the small opposite charges of an adjacent hydroxy! group, be it cellulosic or from water Figure 1.5.1 Nature of hydrogen bonds in cellulose fibres 1.5.2 Effects of Water, Fibre Treatments and humidity on the fibrous bonds Effect of Water As shown in figure 1.5.1 the polar nature of water, where the hydrogen atoms are relatively positively charged and the oxygen negatively charged, enables water to hydrogen bond with cellulose (and hemicellulose) molecules. Water can therefore form bridge bonds between two wood fibres by forming hydrogen bonds with the hydroxyl groups protruding from the fibre surface. The result of these bonds can be observed in the forming section, where the sheet is still able to support itself despite consisting of up to eighty percent water; in the press section where the maximum dryness achievable is in the region of fifty five percent water: and in the drying 1.5.3Clearly a fibre surface which is already full of water cannot accept any more water onto the surface. In addition to the above there is an hysteresis effect when the relative humidity rises or drops; so a paper sheet in contact with air at a certain relative humidity will contain more moisture if the relative humidity is dropping than if itis rising. The control of the actual air humidity in the testing of paper is very important. The paper needs to be conditioned for a fixed period before comparative testing can take place. The humidity of the drier section will also dramatically affect the effectiveness of the drying process. 1.5.3 Measurement of the mechanical properties of pulps The mechanical properties of pulps are determined by measuring the common properties of tear, tensile and burst at varying degrees of beating (refining). alt tesa mest ero wren # awn Stearman Sonam wine " Dien innate emmene i ait n wpa 1S becascn ae 3 snc 10) mi Ne é 1 me a 1062 ™, Quad Se. 94,09 | O58 : cubes | yas Sage a 25 ona g so, \ i a von) s tec ea ah "RED GUN oe oer an 2 ae 0 1 4 80 0 10 wo 10 160 0 200 20 200 Tear factor Fig1.5.2 Tensile-Tear Relationship for various Kraft pulps; Numbers refer to Density and Fibre Length 1.5.5The mechanical properties of Tear, Tensile, Burst and Fold are all increased by the inclusion of softwood fibres. The length of the fibres improves the tensile and burst whereas the tear and fold are improved by the pliability of the softwood fibres. The bulk is decreased by addition of softwood fibres due to the increased ability to bend and shape with other fibres; the inverse of bulk is density. In other words, softwood fibres make a more dense sheet. 1.5.6 The relationship between fibre types and the surface properties of the sheet Softwood fibres will make the paper sheet less opaque due to the pliability of the fibre and the conformity of shape to the next fibre with chemical bonding; this reduces the number of woodfibre to air surfaces within the sheet and reduces light scattering. The stiffness of hardwood fibres will increase opacity, for opposite reasons. The stiffness of hardwood fibres will also allow greater porosity through the sheet and lead to a less smooth surface; however the use of hardwood fibres as a filler within softwood stock will lead to lower porosity, better smoothness and lower opacity. Increase of refining will also increase smoothness whilst reducing opacity and porosity. 1.5.7Paper Industry: Resources & Fundamentals Section 6 Fluid Mechanics and Rheology of pulp suspensions Fibre suspensions, turbulence, flocculation, formation Fibre suspensions in motion, non-newtonian behaviour, friction losses, power Fequitements in pumping 3 Heat and mass transfer in fibre suspensions and fibre matts .4 Mass and Energy Balancing with Pulp Suspensions. 1 4 ao Ro After this section a student will be expected to know the nature of fluid mechanics of fibre suspensions, calculation ofpressure loss, power requirements for pumping of fibre suspensions, blending and mixing of fibre suspensions, calculations for blending and standard design practices, simple mass and energy balances of pulp suspensions. The study of this chapter requires a previous knowledge of the unit operations of fluid flow and mixingeffect. Recap on the flow of fluids: The change of energy states in fluid flow is usually described by the Bemoulli Equation which is shown in its expanded state, the constant energy equation, below: v y, weet ee Bt Be 2 2g, e 2g, where ——p - pressure p - density v - velocity z - vertical height W -work done cn the system H,- Loss due to friétion a,b coefficients referring to different positions within the fluid The term H, is the friction loss of the system and is defined by the following equation: 2£Lv? Da, where L - length of pipe v - velocity D - diameter of pipe f - friction factor If SI units are used then the unit of H, will be metres of liquid. In order to convert this term to pressure units, it is necessary to multiply by the density of the liquid and the gravity constant, g,. This value will be equal to the pressure loss due to friction. The additional power required to overcome this pressure loss can be calculated by can be calculated by multiplying by the volumetric flow rate. Calculation of the friction factor, f, is achieved by the use of graphical relationships between the friction factor and the Reynolds Number of the flowing liquid. The Reynolds Number, denoted N,,, is @ dimensionless 163Water is pumped through 30 m of smooth walled stainless steel pipe, 25mm e. The flow rate is 100 litres per minute. Calculate the pressure loss due to friction and the power required to overcome this head loss. SOLUTION Velocity in pipe, V Oa 4 60s (0,025)*m m? = 3,4ms% if density, p = 1000 kg m® and viscosity, w= 1* 10° kg m* s" then Reynolds Number,Na, = D*v* p/p =8,5* 10° using Figure 1.6.1 f = 0,0045 then calculate H, H, =2*eL*v/D*g, = 2* 0,0045 * 30 * 3,4? 0,025 * 9,81 = 12,7 mwater Calculate pressure loss due to friction AP =H,*g.*p = 12,7* 9,81 * 10? Nm? = 1,257 10° Nm? Calculate Power required to overcome Pressure Loss P =AP*Q = 1,25* 10°*0,1/60W 1.6.5= 22,3 mliquid Pressure loss due to friction = 22,3*9,81* 10% = 2,187 * 10° Nm? Power required to overcome additional pressure loss: = 2,187 * 10°* 0,1 /60 =365W Consistency above 1% At higher consistencies the flowing pulp exhibits non-Newtonian properties, ie the viscosity is not directly related to the degree of sheer in the fluid. The flow properties are further complicated by the formation of a turbulent annulus of pulp within which the central plug of pulp flows. As the velocity increases the central plug is reduced in size to become part of the turbulent periphery. A further study of this phenomenon can be achieved by reading appended articles. In most cases, pulps are pumped at relatively slow velocities, typically of the order of 1 ms". increasing the velocity more than 2 m s* will lead to very high head losses, although a higher rate of pulp mixing will be achieved. Although different pulps will have different effects on the flow characteristics of pulp suspensions, the head loss (in metres pipe length per 100 m pipe length) can be estimated from the flow rate, the consistency and the pipe diameter using the following equation: Loss of Head € metres per 100 metres = 0/0121 * [D} 226 % [opt * (9]96 where D - pipe diameter, m C - Consistency, % Q- Flow Rate, m? hr 1.6.7Pumping of Pulps of Higher consistencies Pumping of pulp suspensions in the higher consistency ranges with conventional pumping equipment is not recommended due to suction problems and potential higher power consumptions. MC type pumps and positive displacement pumps are used Mechanical Agitation of Pulp Stocks The mechanical agitation of pulp stocks follows much the same rules as those for pumping pulp suspensions ie for consistencies below 1 % treat the system as Newtonian, at higher consistencies an apparent viscosity must be developed to use in the Reynolds Number / Power Number relationships. Recap on Basi ixing Theory Once again those students who do not have a study background in basic mixing theory should study, using references given at the end of this, module. The mixing of papermaking pulps is usually carried out at fairly low consistencies ie in the range lower than 5 %. For example, prior to pumping the contents of a high density chest, which has a bulk consistency of say 12 %, the stock will be diluted in the dilution zone of the chest to around 4% to make it fairly easy to pump. In most cases, side entry marine type impellers are used for mixing pulp stocks; however in some applications other impellers are used, eg for repulping of dry fibres, where there is a chance of high impact between the pulp and the impeller or the entanglement of binding wire, the impellers tend to be closed and installed against the tank wall or base. In some cases where chemical mixing is required then specially designed impellers and mixing tanks are used eg chlorine mixers Mixing of Newtonian liquids The mixing theory of Newtonian liquids is usually based on the relationship between the Reynolds Number and the Power Number, described below. The important consideration about this method is that the graphical relationships between the numbers is dependent on specific design configurations of the equipment. Reynolds Number of a Mixing Impeller The velocity component of the Reynolds Number for a Mixing Impeller is taken as the product of the Diameter and the Rate of Revolution ie n* D. 1.6.9Example of calculation of power requirements for mixing a caustic soda solution A flat blade turbine, diameter 0,6 m and turning at 90 rpm, is bein used to agitate a tank 1,8 m in diameter and filled to a depth of 1,8 m with a solution of caustic soda having a density of 1500 kg m” and viscosity of 0,012 kg m" s*. Calculate the power absorbed by the turbine. SOLUTION Calculate the Reynolds Number for the turbine Nee = nt D?* p/p (90/60) * 0,6? * 1500 / 0,012 = 67 500 from Figure 7.2.2, itcan be seen that the Power Number is equal to 6 for a flat bladed turbine when Reynolds Number is equal to 67 500. Noo = (P*g)/ (n° * DP* p) = 6 P = 6*1,5°*0,6°* 1500/9,81 = 240,7 kgms" = 24kW These methods are based on standard dimensioned tanks and only calculate the amount of power required to achieve mixing. There is no time function and hence no energy requirement calculated to achieve the mix. The question arises, if standard tank sizes are used for the derivation of the amount of power required to achieve mixing, what is to be done about all the non standard tanks used in industry. Most text books avoid this problem. Mixing of Pulp Suspensions The mixing of pulp suspensions is well covered in Fluid Mixing Technology by JY OLDSHUE, from which appendix 1.13is copied, which is the chapter on mixing of pulp suspensions. The mixing of pulp suspensions can be divided up into a number of different types listed on the next page: 1.6.11STOCK CHEST AGITATOR DESIGN PARAMETERS Approximate Dimensions H=25T1 Impeltor D = 0.3372 T2=0,6T1 c=0,75D Z=0,5 100,772 19 to LOZ Baeleaeel DESIGN of Volume to suit Volume her PULP CHESTS storage | Consistency KC] 12% 4 oa Kt 4 bel = e STORAGE CHEST MIXING CHEST Design Guidelines 1 ak oN o For New Installations, choose a chest configuration to give the following conditions D:T = 0,33:1; Z:T = 0,7:1; Consistency = 4% Consistency has a major influence on power consumption, therefore avoid a consistency over 4,5% Agenerously sized fillet opposite the agitator will promote vertical movement and improve agitation Blending will require more power input than keeping the stock in suspension. Design for adequate retention time (12 - 15 minutes) and ensure a pumping rate that will turn over the stock 5 or more time within the retention time. For large chests, eg low or high density storage and blow tanks, use controlled zone agitation. Treat the controlled zone as a separate vessel with stock entering in a downward plug fiow. Transition slopes between zones should not exceed 30° from vertical. 1.6.13The Basic Process Number has been determined for a set conditions; ie the consistency of stock is set at 4%; the chest is vertical cylindrical with the height equal to the diameter; the temperature is 32°C and the retention time is 4 minutes for a batch chest and 12 minutes for a continuous chest. eer In order to deal with differences from these fixed conditions a series of factors are used to modify the Basic Process Number to a Corrected Process Number which is used to calculate the Momentum Number, M. Calculation for the Shape Factor The Shape Factor will be a function of the shape of the chest ie whether it is vertical cylindrical or square or rectangular. The best mixing efficiencies are achieved in vertical cylindrical vessels where the height of fluid is 0,5 to 0,7 times the diameter or slightly less in square chests. Rectangular chests require more and more energy to achieve good mixing as the distortion from square increases. The graph of shape factor gives the shape factor for various shape configurations. Itis not easy to express these lines in mathematical formulae. Dealing with Consistency Variations As the consistency increases so will the power required to achieve mixing increase. This is largely a result of the pulp suspension trying to reform as a “solid” as. shown previously in this module, Only bone dry (BD) consistency is used. CONSISTENCY FACTOR, The consistency factor is 1 at 4% consistency, reduces to about 0,41 at 3% consistency and increases to 2 at 5% consistency. The following formula can be used: Consistency Factor=0,0142 [Consistency]?”” 1.6.15, 2a 2 ene Bea. 32Temperature Effects on Power The effect of temperature of stock on the power requirement is given by the following formuta: 107 - 0,008 Power Ratio, F, = where F, = Power Factor due to Temperature, t°C Graphically it is represented as follows: Ftemp = e(0,107 - 0.0041) 1.05 os | & ‘Temperature Factor 85 20°30 40 50 60 70 80 Temperature The reduction of power requirement as temperature increases is a result of the reduction in viscosity of the water and hence easier movement of the fibres in the suspension. Clearly, as less time becomes available for mixing of the suspension more power will bw required for the effect, Normally, 14 minutes are required for mixing a continuous > pulper (and high density chest). As = the time available becomes less the power required increases according to a power relationship: of Effect of Retention Time. : F me = 3,5 [Retention Time] °° ris ee a ey For batch pulpers, the normal time would be 4 minutes and the relationship is described by: F sme = 2 [Retention Time] °° 1.6.17A high density chest is being used to store unbleached Kraft softwood pulp (Kappa No = 38) for a paper machine consuming this pulp at a rate ‘of 200 OD tons per day. The dimensions of the chest are as follows: Diameter of top section: 50 m Diameter of bottom section: 30 m Angle of conical section to vertical: 30° Height of top section: 10 om Height of bottom section: 20 m Volume of bottom section taken up by filet: 22% The pulp in the top section (temperature - 45°C and consistency 11%) is diluted with machine back water (temperature - 35°C and consistency 0%) prior to pumping to the paper machine at a consistency of 3,5%. Specific heats of water and wood pulp are 4,186 and 2,145 kJ kg'K" respectively. You are required to calculate the volume and temperature of the pumped pulp suspension. (4) Answer: The calculation will give the following results as shown in the table below:: Temperature: 381°C. Volumetric Flow: 0,066 m*s* A Units HC Pulp LC Pulp Water Consistency % 4 35 0 Mass Fraction 0.11 0.035 0 Temperature degC 45.0 38.4(2) 36.0 Mass Pulp kgis 2315 2.315 2.315 Vol Flow cubm/s 0.021 0.066(2) 0.045 Energy kw 3751.41 10358.1 6606.69 Q Specific Heat Water 4.186 Wood Pulp 2.145 Using the data provided, calculate the power required to achieve successful mixing of the suspension prior to pumping. (8) Answer: Calculation of Factors: 1.6.196.3. Heat and Mass Transfer in fibre suspensions and fibre matts and Psychometry of moist Wood Fibres Transfer of Heat into Fibre Suspensions, 0 to 4% Consistency Clearly, from the discussions of the previous sections, the transfer of heat into fibre suspensions will be greatly dependent on the consistency of the suspension and the nature of the flow conditions of the fibre suspension. Heat transfer into a pulp suspension through a pipe wall. The heat transfer coefficient for pulp suspensions was shown by Middis, Duffy and Muller-Steinhagen to be defined by the following equation (Neuf 2) pup = (Nya/ £17 ST Na! £) pater * AY where Ny = Nusselt Number = h*D/k h = heat transfer coefficient, Wm? °K" D = _ Diameter of Pipe, m k = Thermal Conductivity, Wm °K f = Fanning Friction Factor and A is given by A = @ (31323 + vB 0,658) where C = Consistency This formula is valid for Bleached Kraft Pulp at a consistency between 0 and 4%, and bulk flow velocity between 0 and 10 ms. Transfer of heat into higher consistency fibre suspensions Pulp suspensions with a consistency over 8% would normally be heated in a mixer with steam. The amount of steam requires can be calculated from and energy balance as shown in 6.4 1.6.21in the pulp and paper industry, most calculations are not chemical in nature and therefore the use of kg moles is not necessary and mass flow is normally defined using kilograms. Nomenclature Flow streams are normally given an upper case letter of the alphabet to denote the __ stream, for these purposes F will be used to denote a full stream eg a flowing pulp suspension or a water feed etc. In order to differentiate between different streams each stream is given a subscript number which will define the stream, eg F,. Components of the stream will be denoted by a lower case letter; the common letter for mass fractions is x. This letter is also allocated to it's stream by using the same subscript as the stream, eg x; Other fractions can also be used. in these examples, the mass fraction of fibre will be x; but it could be necessary to define long fibre and short fibre fractions; in which case, land s may be used ete. Mass Balancing ithas already been stated that the basis of mass balancing is that what goes in must come out. In order to do calculations we need to define that streams entering the system are positive and those leaving the system are negative. By definition then EF =0 The total flow of streams in equals the total flow of streams out, And ZF\x=0 The total fractions of a stream in equals the total fractions of a stream out. By example: 1.6.23This is simple case where only three streams are present; more streams can be dealt with by dividing the system up and creating false nodes, where a node is a mixing of only three streams. In the example above, if the feed stream F, had been created by mixing two other streams such that the example became a four stream problem, this can be simplified by reducing it to two three stream problems. By example: if the stream F, had been formed by two other streams a and b; such that F, = 20 kg s.; and x, = 0,04, calculate F, and x, Mass Flow Balance: Fat Fe tCFi)= = 20+F, +(-60) F,=40 Fibre Balance: F,x+F, x +(F, x%;)=0= 0,8 +F,x, + (-0,90) =0 F, x, = 0,1 but F, = 40, therefore x, = 0,1/40 = 0,0025 In the above example the basis has been given the problem statement. The overall flow rate and the mass fraction of the feed were given (F, = 60 kg s* ; x, = 0,015). This is the basis of the equation. If for example, F;, was not given it would have still been possible to calculate the split of the feed to the accepts as percentages or fractions by assuming a basis of F; = 1, the answers to the mass flow of the accepts and rejects would then be given as fractions of 1. F, would be 0,4 and F, would be 0,6. It is offen a simple solution to more complex problems if a basis is selected; this is specially the case when specific data (results per unit of feed or product) are required. Dealing with streams where the data is given as consistency. In mass balancing terms consistency is not nice to deal with. Firstly, itis expressed as a percentage and secondly, the units of consistency are not strictly mass based. The units of consistency are mass of fibre in grams per hundred millilitres of stock or mass in kilograms per meter cubed of stock. The problem is that the units are mass per unit of volume and mass balancing requires mass per unit of mass. In order to deal with this problem it is necessary to convert the denominator unit of volume to units of mass; ie multiply by density. The conversion from consistency to mass fraction is: 1.6.25kJ kg* K*, The specific heat of paper and wood pulps will range from 1,35 to 2,7 depending on the content of the pulp. itis probably wiser to use values around 2,2 for wood and mechanical pulps and then to reduce down closer to 1,4 for fully bleached chemical pulps. In order to calculate the energy of a stream it is necessary to add the energy of the components. As_an example, the pulp in a high density chest is diluted with machine back water before pumping to stock preparation section. The following apply: The stock is stored at 12% consistency and 28°C, the machine back water is at 0,2% consistency and 42°C; if the machine requires 1,40 kg s" of pulp to be drawn from the chest and diluted to 4% consistency, calculate the amount of back water required and the temperature of the pulp sent to the stock preparation section. The Specific Heats of water and fibres are 4,186 kJ kg" K" and 1,918 kJ kg" K" respectively. Mass Balance Fibre Balance 1,40 + F, * 0,002 - F,*0,04=0 Flow Balance 11,667 + F,-Fa= By Matrix Analysis or simultaneous equations: F2 = 24,561 kgs" F3 = 36,228 kgs" Energy Balance Ey Fy “ty * Our" Gy + py * Gy) = 11,667 * 28" ((1 - 0,12) * 4,186 + 0,12 * 1,918) = 1278,558 kW EF, * te * uo" Cy #2" C) = 24,564 * 42 * ((1- {808} 4,186 + 0,002 *4,018) = 4313.439 kW E,+E,-E,=0 Therefore E, = 5591,997 KW 1.6.27Appendix 13 CHAPTER 20 / SECTION F PULP AND PAPER AGITATION INTRODUCTION ‘The evaluation and selection of pulp and paper agitation equipment are very important Gecisions, not only from capital and operating cost points of view but also in ensuring the desired process performance. In other words, performing the function for which the agitator is intended is very crucial in the overall successful operation of a particular stock chest or process system within the mill, Paperstock slurry behaves differently than other fluids. Referring to Fig. 20-40, there is @ certain minimum horsepower required to produce motion throughout the aperstock, If power is reduced below this point, complete motion of the paperstock will not be maintained. Most of the correlations reported here are based on the effect of mixer variables and paperstock variables on the power required to obtain complete motion of paperstock. Associated with motion is blend time. The following sections are intended to aid the mill’s engineering steff during the Process of establishing agitation requirements, system designs and agitator selections AGITATOR SELECTION - When selecting a chest and agitator system to perform a specific operation in a mill, there are a number of parameters to be evaluated. 25 7PULP AND PAPER AGITATION 527 Temperature Effects In general, the higher the stock temperature, the easier it is to agitate. However, the importance of temperature on equipment selection may not be too great if the normal operating conditions result in the possibility of wide temperature variations. For ther- imal mechanical pulp (TMP) ot :efiner groundwood stocks, the temperature is normally high and constant so there is a saving in horsepower (Fig. 20-43). Time {f retention time is too short, the possibility of consistency variation and inadequate blending can partially be compensated for by increasing the ievel of agitation. Howev- cr, many chests require normal retention so that incoming fluctuations, such as free. ness, can be dampened out, For these situations, increasing horsepower will be of litte help. Chest Configuration ‘The optimum chest configuration, with respect to agitator selection, is a vertical- cylindrical chest with a width-to-height ratio slightly less than 1. With rectangular 40 2.0 2.0 5 PROCESS POKER RATIO 2 -1s| a 15 20 3 4 5 678 10 STOCK CONSISTENCY % b.d. Figure 20-41 Effect of stock consistency on process power ratio,PULP AND PAPER AGITATION $29 less power consumption while maintaining effective end results. Possible areas for energy savings are discussed in the following sections. Chest Function Careful planning in the carly design stages can often lead to energy savings. For example, a machine chest requires different agitation than does a broke chest. Surge, holding, blending, storage and latency chests, to mention a few, all have differing agitation requirements. The purpose of each chest should be carefully considered before specifying the agitation requirement. Stock Consistency One of the most critical parameters affecting agitator horsepower is stock consistency. To select an agitator based on a higher than normal operating consistency will lead to excessive power consumption plus the possibility of poor agitation performance and shorter equipment life (Fig. 20-44), Controlled Zone Agitation A very effective technique that can be employed to save energy is controlled zone agitation. Contrélied zone agitation design is based on the fact that it is not always fk bh PROCESS POHER RATIO = 20 120 160 7200 TEMPERATURE (°F) Figure 20-43 Etfect of temperature on process power ratio. a7 ny 74HPULP AND PAPER AGiTATioN S3I 000 cesT CONFIGURATION Figure 20-45 Normal configuration fer effective use of power in blending. should be evaluated during the agitator evaluation stage. As energy costs climb. it is becoming easier to justify spending more money on the initial cost of the equipment to achieve power savings A second consideration is efficient propeller design. Naturally, not all propellers of equal size perform equally. The propeller efficiency depends on proper design of the hub, blade profile, and pitch setting (Fig. 20-48). LARGE-TANK AGITATION Agitation of large stock tanks provides a real challenge for the engineer. With mill production rates constantly increasing, it is not unusual to be confronted with tanks ) 5 ) \ \ J a DS t S (f z POOR CHEST CONFIGURATION Figure 20-46 (Lefi) Tank that is 100 tall relative to a small diameter for effective use of power. Figure 20-47 (Right) A tank that is too long relative to the liquid level for effective use of power.PULP AND PAPER AGITATION $33 Figure 20-49 Typical flow patter: side-encering mixer, complete motion across the length or diameter of the tank and to a height that will provide the desired amount of blending. The upper part of the chest is not agitated but is designed so that continuous plug flow occurs, preventing any dead areas. By using such a system, the entire contents of the tank are always in motion. ‘The alternative, based on the same principle, is “end zone" agitation, which is typically employed in a longer rectangular chest where the stock can be introduced at one end and a blending zone established at the other. The same design criteria must be PLUG FLOH Figure 20-50 Iustraton of concept of controlled zone agitation with vertical cylindrical tank,PULP AND PAPER AGITATION 535 agitation power is required because the system is set up with the chest consistency higher than the desired downstream set point. Ideally, consistency should be controlted in the chest so that the agitator can provide the desired downstream requirement without pipeline adjustment. One con- sistency control system uses the agitator flow and an ultrasonic sensing device to sense consistency. This arrangement works on the principle that the flow developed by an agitator is very sensitive to slight changes in stock consistency. If the consistency increases, the stock movement within the chest decreases which signals for dilution. The consistency then decreases until the desired set point is reached (Fig. 20-54). ‘The advantages of this system include controlling and adjusting consistency in the chest, obtaining good mixing in the chest (thus not relying on the pipeline to mix), little or no time delays, simple instrumentation, and most significantly, an energy saving, as the consistency in the chest is not higher than the downstream requirement. BLOW TANKS AND HIGH-DENSITY STORAGE In addition to providing a system to sense consistency and control dilution water, itis imperative that these towers have proper agitation desiga in the lower zone. The stock PLUG FLOW ourtet Figure 20-52 Method of splitting incoming feed to achieve beter uniformity.PULP AND PAPER AGITATION 537 in the upper portion of the tower, which could be up to 20% consistency, must travel in plug flow downward and drawn into the agitated zone (Fig. 20-55). The lower portion of the tower is critical and must be designed to have sufficient volume to handle the design production rate and to ensure the high consistency stock is drawn uniformly into the agitaced zone to prevent channeling in the upper portion. _Filleting is frequently used in the bottom zone for the purpose of conserving enecays and providiag more effective resulis. ~~ Dilution water 1s added“in the turbulent area of the impeller to provide a low- density zone of 3.5 to 5%, depending on downstream requirements. Lower consisten- cies require less horsepower, so it is normally desirable to design in the lower con- sistency range. As the low-density stock is pumped out of this zone, high-density stock the zone from above and is reduced in consistency with recycled dilution water entering the zone. Thus, the small diameter in the bottom of the tower results in better control of the agitated zone and uniform pump out, whereas the larger diameter section provides stock capacity. This operation hes the advantage that low-pressure dilution water is added to the suction side of the propeller, eliminating cost and maintenance for high-pressure pumps, dilution rings, and mining nozzles. Aiso, it is not necessary to have inverted ‘cones in the bottom which were traditionally used with the old-style circulator units in downflow bleach towers. IN-LINE MIXING ‘Continuous process pulp and paper operations generally require the blending of che: cals into a stock line or the blending of two stock lines together on a continuous basis. In response to this need, the development of mixers in the pipeline has come about. Lon pressure: OILUTION MATER ‘CONSISTENCY poe SR econcer. CONTROLLER CILUTION VALVE N fee SENSOR stock PuMP Figure 20-55 Schematic of flow diagram for reliabie consistency control on well-agitated paperstock tank.PULP AND PAPER AGITATION 539 Figure 20-57 Impeller-type two-stage in-line mixer, For continuous under-machine pulping, it is important that the system be set up so the pulping unit will not allow the sheet to build up on the surface but to be drawn down rapidly by the pulper. The pulper horsepower, along with the proper location of dilution and shower waters, are the critical items for successful performance. Typ- ically, for couch and couch-press pit operations, the open-type propeller pulper will provide very effective performance (Fig. 20-58). For dry-pulp pulping, either continuous or batch, high-energy attrition-type units are necessary. These generally consist of a tank and a high-intensity, high shear mechanical pulping impeller to disintegrate or defiber while minimizing fiber damage. The puiper consists of a casing bolted to a flange on thé bottom or side of the tank. The casing holds the special pulping impeller designed to create flow throughout the tank along with providing the necessary breaking and defibering action (Fig. 20-59). The pulping impeller also incorporates a pumping unic that will deliver the pulp slurry without the need for a stock pump. BLEACHING In the bleach plant, there are three important areas requiring special consideration for the selection of mixing equipment: 1, Bleach chemical mixing 2. Upflow towers 3. Downflow towersPULP AND PAPER AGITATION SdI stock | must Figure 20-60 Multistage chlorinaor. (Courtesy izing Equipment Co.) The important parameters to be taken into consideration in the selection ofa System are gas dispersion, chemical blending, reaction temperature, retention time, and intensity of mixing. There are two basic mixing devices in use. The first is « ‘multistaged chlorinator as shown in Fig. 20-60, and the second is a motionless mixer. ‘The multistage chlorinator has the advantage that the retention and mixing inten- sity can be designed to provide the right chemical contact. It also allows for fluctua. tons in mass flow resulting from changing tonnage rates and/or consistency and for variations in bleach chemical feed because of sensor response time. This system uses mechanical mixers to produce the high fluid shear necessary for efficient mass transfer, ‘The use of static vanes in a pipeline does not create the same maximum shear levels, and they are very sensitive to changing flow rates. This can lead to improper contact- ing, troublesome gas bubbles causing upsets in the retention tower, excessive cheiical consumption, and higher operating costs, Two important parameters in the selection of a suitable system are retention time and intensity of mixing. For illustration, refer to Figs. 20-61 and 20-62, which show the effects of time and mixing intensity parameters. Note the effect of mixing time and increesed mass transfer resulting in lower chlorine residuals. Naturally, there ere optimums for both these parameters, so that the fibers are not overbleached and there is fo excessive energy consumption, Upfow towers. Figure 20-63 shows the typical upflow tower employing an agitator at the bottom and one at the top to provide uniform retention time and to prevent stock channeling. The side-entering stock agitator near the bottom of the tower provides a uniformly blended zone and establishes a well-defined intecface so that the pulp begins 2 uniform plug flow up the tower. At the top, there is a specially designed agitator which again creates a uniformPULP AND PAPER AGITATION S43 Figure 20-63 Typical upflow chlorination tower. (Courtesy Mixing Equipment Co.) MECHANICAL DESIGN Equally important to the process selection of an agitator is the mechanical design. The total cost of agitation includes not only the initial equipment cost and the efficiency of ‘operation but also the amount of downtime, the cost for maintenance and operating Personnel, 25 well as inconvenience end loss of product when equipment is out of service. Many mill personne! have specific ideas as to the basic type of equipment which is most suitable for their operation: there are two basic models that are available. The integral permanently aligned factory-assembled model and the pillow block field- Vahey Figure 20-64 Typical high-density downflow bleach tower. (Courtesy Mixing Equipment Co.)PULP AND PAPER AGITATION S45 Figure 20-67 Modular design permits fast bearing replacement. (Courtesy Mixing Equipment Co.) . Type of bearings, use of sleeves to prevent shaft damage and ease of on-chest replacesnent (Fig. 20-67) 4, Reliable shutoff device with the ability of changing packing and/or bearings without removing the agitator or draining the chest (Fig. 20-68) 5. Removable stuffing box hub construction to allow easy shaft inspection Figure 20-68 Iiustrating operation of shutoff device. (Courtesy Mixing Equipment Co.)Fig. 11 pee Shear stress-rate curve fora jiber suspension. 10 Reaction products are transported away {tom the fiber surface, when reactants are displaced through the fiber mat. The fiber is thus continuously exposed to. fresh reactants, The driving force remains high and also the overall conversion rate, The practical difference between the used cocurrent and cross-current systems is thus that the cross-current system requires considerably less retention time due toa higher conversion rate, Reaction vessels become smaller The fiber suspension and shear forces Fibers suspended in water show visco-elastic properties which can be expressed as in figure 11 in terms of non-Newtonian flaw engineering, The shear stress-rate diagram indicates that Newtonian properties, that is, the properties ofthe liquid phase are achieved when exceeding a shear stress value (Td) corresponding to complete disruption o' the fiber nenwork structure, This value is dependent on consistency and fiber characteristics like fiber dimensions and stifiness. The consistency dependence of the disruptive shear stress value ior 4 softwood kraft pulp as shows in igure 12, demonstrates that the same basic mechanism is valid over the whole range of consistencies iram below one per cent up to at least fifeen, SHEAR STRESS, T ot RATE OF SHEAR, ¥Although the nerwork of a medium consistency jiber suspension isa fairl rigid structure it will crack along any fine, where the disruptive shear stress value is exceeded. individual fibers can be put into such e turbulent mation, that the suspensions hydrodynamic properties equals that of the submerging liquid whenever the shear siress and rate conditions exceed a certain limit. The mechanism is reversible. It is essential, that equipment utilizing these mechanisms are designed so. that turbulent volumes are minimized in order to avoid excessive energy use. since the shear stress level needed iairly high in the medium consisiency range. Prolonged exposure to the turbulent state involves beating elfects Practical applications MC-mixing, MC-separation, MC-discharging and MC-centriiugal pumping are exampies on ulization of these principe. The internal low patterns is impor- tant in this context. The geometry of turbulence generators is chosen according 10 demand. Centrifugal forces are to be avoided in mixing processes and parti- Cularily those involving gases, while fast rotting bulk motion s necessary, im Separation processes The wall riction ofa c¥lindrical medium consistency down ilow tower or reactor is generally 100 small to break the fiber aensork, while conical and ot hemispherical bottom sections leading tothe point of discharge might generate conditions, where the net effect of friction, acceleration through flow area con- vergence and possible reaction iorces exceeds the disruptive shear siress value This is why areas of flow stagnation are detectable in almost every pulp storage bottom section. The generally small volume ol these siagnant zones is of course dependent on tank geometry, but also on flow velocity, consistency and fiber characteristics. An example of this i shown in figure 13 showing the resulting stagnant stock profile under certain conditions in 3 dows tlow tower with MC~ discharge. The volume will decrease with increasing throughput. itis quite evident that a tower bottom configuration allowing full volume utilization in all situations does not exist, — nature is picking its own ideal design to suit pre- vailing conditions. All pulp mill operators know, that already a smal! hole in a thick stock line or a thick stock tower does result in a flood of stack pouring out virtually as water, The explanation is simply that pressure conditions gives enough shear forces over the hole to disrupt the fiber network and to set the fibers in turbulent motion.