CONSTANTA MARITIME UNIVERSITY SHIP THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION PART 2- SHIP HYDRODYNAMICS Draft Edition Naval Architect and Marine Engineer IORDAN NOVAC Ph.D. CONSTANTA 2013“This page intentionally left blankCHAPTER 1 WATER FLOW, FOILS AND WAVES. SUMMARY er looks at the base physeal properties ffl ow that create the dynamie forces lavotvec in a ship's motion, propulsion and tering. It also describes some base propertis of ner wes and thee propegit ‘We star’by considering how hydrostatic pressure, ating equally in all ection for «| particala depth of water, la converted lta dynamle pressure when water fore. Bernoull's brine for water fow and haw i effects the pressure around an obstacle is deserbed ‘The water properties of surface tension and viscosity ae examined with regard to thelr effect ‘spon wster flow and he transition from laminar to turbulent ow i explained. ‘The efft ofa ow separating asymmetrically around a fllshaped obstacles examined and the smerathn oft and drag forces described. This the bass for understanding the action of Propel and rudders ‘Water vaves are desribed and rdatonshps between wave speed length and period are derived. The elect of water depth on wave sped, direction and behaviour are cuamined andthe ‘hapler ends with a bre description of ho they spread out fom ther source. (The ove Behaviour described heres diet relevant to bth the resistance of driving a ship {hrougthe water and othe maton of hips hey ses) CONTENTS Stati and dynamie pressure of water eroal ound ship's all The frees tha act between moecies Viscosity, and laminar or turbulent Maid ow ‘The flew around xo Defnions of fll measurements ‘The factors effecting the performance ofa fll The end effect of flow around fll al aspect rat, atack angle and tll angle ‘Waterflow around afi! CCompresbilty and density Citation Waterwaves Phase locity af deepwater waves “The shape of the sen surace in dep water ‘The energy fa doap water wave Phase slits af shalow water eaves ‘The effects of shallow water and eurrets on waves ‘The formation of and make up of real sea conatens Wave prediction cures Wave propagation 0 ‘ave group velocity “The oblique wave ely xAnyone wo has played around switnming under wate ina swizming po! wil have flan increase ‘npressras they have swum dwn towards the tom ofthe poo. The presse. the weight of ‘eters wn cheer) ee et option ee a waters Soenselachoutaaeccro ‘worTormaTen coun = ma 8 somarsane=me. tin? se ss rare ny Ma 52 tenes (enc ur ry on w= ton " mee ob orn ‘PRESSURE = pah Nim? ‘The peste under depth of waters mensere ofthe potential energy pr unit volume, othe “energy lens af wate a a ep If we have water sored os age ask, wich then develope avery Sal hoe inthe bot oft de state prosare forces out at of wate andthe potenti nergy is {avert Knesic eneay i the owing wate. The sai rsmre athe hotom of the ank at. uly inal directions bute ec wl only exer pressure inthe dtecton off, which only Aly expsiened by bringing the flow completly fo «top and sof called the ‘sagntin pressure’ POTENTIAL ENERGY @ DEPTH N= KINETIC ENERGY WET mon = mv? Treriow ano araonn as (WATER STREAM OF MASS YF Te raGHATION PRESSURE! [AT ANT INSTANT, THE STATIC PRESSURE poh = Lp V" THE JETS STAGNATION PRESSURE‘BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE “Tag conversion of potatlenrgy to Kinetic energy in the low of us was fst examined bythe 18 Contry Sis sient Danie! Beroul, Ia flow stones, the eneray per cubic mete wt steady low is conserved and consequently Beroulli sated hatin such flow the sum of ‘Stagation su ste presses taken a any pont lng the ow ial constant. rico nM ow is known 5 iscows fretion' an anne be gored nether pumping fu rdving machines ‘hzough them (eich sip trough water er era hough the arospbere). However, Bemus ‘ini expans why theresa drop inthe pressure acting perpendicular oa low when it inst ‘oct clea by pasing the ow trough ede sectional ara Bermeull ory considered the tend flow condions of lige, which re effectively incompressible ands of onan diy. The leaking unk, shown on the cious page, ot te steady ow Suton the pressure of the jet reduces withthe fling water lve the tank I, though, he ble |s very sal compared othe an’ surface ae, i pyoximate a steady ow over shor periods ‘frm ad the ey sll dowaward velocity af tbe water sige the unk an be nore. A xe ‘ospete pcre of Bemoul's principle is given by considering the way in which low meter wor ORT a ‘A CONSTRCTEO LENGTH OF KNOWN CROSS SECTIONAL AREA Ms 18 NSERTED INTO THE PIPE, ‘nc ais PL VLD FO ACCeLGRATE Pu V° TO VME RESULTING ORO Luau DeNsiTY =p! svecwauusraners pam + Sot = pats + Som %0 pathy) = Epcvat-w) 45 THEUDUO 8 NCOUPRESSELETHEVOLIMETRE FLOWRATE = AW © A 80 4% wetin fw(8S 100 consouenny enn = (A) 20 w= [2938 Tarra) ‘avo conseouewny, He voLuMeTmic rLow Rare = a1 [293% Tara) ‘A consti in flow i known a "entra he dopin atic presse that it cases i calla the emt effec ans lso applicable to gases provide tht changes in density with changing Presse re alowe for. The venur fect used in reat variety of eves, fen o mix Wo ot tre is geter. Foam making fie base nrzes have vena od the lial fear ingredient andar ino fhe steam of water fom anormal fie hos to produce fam fr fighting ol based Tes‘Te Bornoul water ow around a ship's bal) We ew apply Bernoulli's picile o water owing pst ship, whether its moving trough sill valerorat anchor in caret, an either situation the ships underwater hulform constr te ow THE BERNOULLI PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER FLOW AROUND A HULL <> STREAMLINES, SHOWNG WATER FLOW AROUNO THE HULL (© STAGNATION POINTS WHERE FLOW VELOCITY 22RO Soseecnencnacrotatatanae a p= waren peNsirY te mmestacnavion pressure = Sov! where = Seep ys teeenre aeranee aie ene aes iia ra owrem eermetecune ete rear Besparep tnt ies Cainnone Soseenn wen Bemis principles, of couse a simplification of reality beaut we anno ignore he ffs of frit acing against the mein of the hl ough water. Although he presure dtibuon prediedby Beroll's principle i ray rs, ctonal resiance to the ll oad motion ase the high presure recovered a the stm which seit th motion fo be less tha th igh pressure a th bw (which reiting th motion). Th ul effect offi ron re ite complex nd we wl Be looking a cher amore dei ater on inthis chapter ad in chapter 2 ‘The Bemolli pressure diferent slang the bl wil increase with the shi’ speed through the water snd sprint in understanding some porta aspect ofthe bbaviouro the hl. When shi ‘movie relatively last in lone proximity to snotervesel or» seabed restriction eich aso shoa) the ‘esting pattem of presi and wan stron wil sean afc the vse teeing. [Asa ship moves into more restricted and shallow water, the vent effec that develops between the ‘owom othe hl nthe seabed amplifies the Boro presure atibuton.lnieasingsecleration ofthe fow under and around the midi region of the bleu giant depression of the ‘waeie ands the vss! bly sinks loser othe seabed. All hose iterscton phenomena can nave contributed o collision nd groundings awl be ‘considered in mre deal n huper 8‘Ths Receul water Now around ship's ll (con) The Berl pesueifferential i so important in ait causes the ships motion wo gener a ptm of water waves that moves long athe same speed asthe sip. Again this wil be discussed ‘or flyin te neat hap bt suffice to say forth moment the pysial popes of the wae andthe lergth of the wave determine the speed at which waves can Fave across the wae sre ‘This pts i effective limit onthe maximum speed at which» displacement ull can move rough the seater (4 iplacmen hls nen whch th estes eight i tonal epporedby the weight of Ahyplaced water a described by Archimedes’ principle. There ational sapor provided ‘hamie If acing on the ship's bottom and generated by the ship's speed) |The gemrtin of toe wave ater las ake ep coe bch the ship ton se provide vo ie soto fom af resintance The flow of water around th hips hl given isc othe veel sing ‘srance rom to ferent phys phenome. 1) ctl resistance betwee the water ad the hl 2} Wavemabing resitance du to cation of wae pater, 3) Resisance duet envronmental fore, sich as waves and wind generate bythe weather. ‘These dient causes of resistance depend upon physical popes of the ullorm and weiter in lereat ways hey are considered sepa. u scr )LECULES ‘Though ths may seem strange th! the movement of 250,00 T deadweight tanker is imped bythe accumulated eet of minuscule fre, tonal resistance very much depen ponte fre Uhataetat x molecular level Thee ae forces of atacton acing tetween ater meses heeses tnd betwen the water molsculs andthe molecules of ay solid uric thats passing hough he liu: Bot of hese intermolecular feces are important © understanding Tacoma reves Surface Tssion We an sta by considering the sinple phenomenon of Surfice Tension which allows many very sal aninss totaly "walk on water This ease sito frm onthe surface of hay of water thas song enough to suport the weight o set, sch as water boatman ft i does require ny speci ale onthe pat ofthe inst They have such age src re for this body weight, ‘hat they cis nome fal tough the surfice tension skin nto the undying boy of water than We ‘an ill ugh he Moor that we re standing on. Surface terion t measured a the force that exists across a ninth of quid suriace (Clean water ‘ny a site tension of75 miro-Newion millet or 7.5 10" Newtons mete) mnidions KK ‘overt mrauance or ronces AcTG ‘B83 enon ProcuceD eee Me © sisca scum THIS CREATES A SKIN EFECT THAT STRONG © wremoR wouecuiEs (ARGE SURFACE AREA TO BODY WEIGHT RATIO +> ariractiveronces42 Tenslon (con Sure eoson sets towards pling a water a iterice into shape with he smalls possible ren ert ole, hence water droplets andr bubbles wibin water ae bth pia. IF we ean somehow tea the water srfice apart. and inser addtnal uta ars, then we ae doing Work 2sisturface tension and the energy expended would incense With he sion suace ae, In ‘oc we ae spreading the body of water further ou, which what mos poope do when they Spread futaspdl of water with a mop. The following diagram shows arabe artical craic of ths in hich te ditional surface are is rectangular in spe to maketh sums easy "THE WORK BONE AGAINST SURFAGE TENSION "Te TOTAL FORCE “FvOUE To SURFACE TENSION Toa MUST OVERCOME 6, Fr=Lx7Sx107 Newtons WORK DONE = Fr x soutes t UxBx7.5x10% Joules AE Rowe REQUIRED 700 TH EQUAL TO POWER = WORK OONE XSPEED Watts DUT Ve L = RATE AT ween Tie SURFACE “VIS THE RATE AT WHICH 1S NEREASING Breas moreasns THE POWER REQUIRED TO CREATE ADOTIONAL WATERIAR SURFACE AREAIS GIVEN AS\- POWER = 7.5% 10% x RATEOF NGREASE I SURFACE AREA wile) Watts ‘ASE ONY CREATES AGOITONAL SURFACE AREA AT A SGNFCANT RATE PENT A ship noving trough til water experiences very small opposing frce on he bow de ose ‘enson ait enzps the water’ surface bur hiss equaled bythe forward ps gains the stem a the water surface 2p’ bck up withthe passing a he ship. However, surtae tensions sgn when {Sips seaming against hay head yeas ad retng spay In these stations the wale sure ot merely beng separated, is being smashed up nto very tiny agent ant consti as tlons f say droplets. Eneray i taken ont ofthe shit motion both oi he weight of sea) ‘te ypino tear and aso ofr te greatly inreased surface re ofthe water when itis, ‘raged in copies of ent abot one mln in diameter. This isresses fe surface area of the wnt affected by about one thousand fl an 0 can pode a considerable force oops the shilsmeon. Isnt suprising tha sip scm o shudder and srl slow down when ue in wave tha eae pit ety spay Surface son in qui i due tote Liquid’ molecules Being atwated to ech ter bat the stacton between the Liquid and slid molecule also sgifent. Water sully wets solid sfces ‘hati cones in contaet with Became thee high atacton betwee he water aed isl molesVises, nd eins or turbulent ald It weal analoet oul immersed plank of wood though te water, the traction betwen water ‘molecules nd those ofthe plank causes the innermost water melecles to atch themselves he lnk. The atached molecules exert a dag on adjacent molecules outboard of them du othe “tracsive fares hetween the water moles themstvex This rests nthe fraton of ger of ‘water moving pat te plank ating speeds. The innermost lye i stationary, relative ote plank Sar we move ouhourd the layer lip are of he plank wth increasing veloc unl we each ‘undisturbed water, whichis passing aster atte phnks speed through the wate. This situation ‘owns laminar flow and overs because atrctive foees er beween the wer moles 0 ‘taser eneny fom the plank motion to the sureunding water. Thi nt, crete arse Sclidboaier moving through water ate flowing pt said rics (uch a pipe lows ec). The penomencn ofthis id rons known as ‘sco A very viscous ids one in which te ‘stemolecar tractive forms re high and consegorly the estance o flows omseable (og treacle or mate, ‘Viscosity na Mid flow is related tothe velocity gradient within the hid he are f contact and he ‘chon fee a shown the following gram. UR agus RENTAL FATES OF AREA AE SEPARATED BY IE STANCE Tig PLATE. SOA VELOCITY GRADIENT IS SET UP AS THE LAYERS OF INTERVENING FLUID SLIDE. vem exeH OTHER THE MONON BETWEEN THE PLATES Ts OFOED BY PRUTIONAL FORGE ARLUO’s DYNAMIC MscOSTTY W'S DEFNED AS THERATIO SEEARSTREES gq yy = EU 50, TEFMCTONALFoREE F = nA ‘Stic spesking, viscosity an he evel of resistance are cto the interaction of the Md with he solid surface aswel as the forces acing etwoen the molecules within the fd ele If water Tchad ike mereuy wenn contact wit ste! plating the con resistance to moving «sip through water would be ver low indeed. Crain plastic costings such a PTFE and Plyetiyen repel mae, bu tis impact nan such nt setingcotings onthe underwater areas of ‘eigoing vee. Roughness of he slid surface als very pot, es ough surface wil dag tore water long wth than a smooth oe. The change frm veted hls oll welded constcton has consdenbly reduced roughness but oth corrosion abd murine growth can sigan icresse ‘The laminar ow station isnot table because, ashe ayers f waterside past sch other their relive vlstis como ochange asthe ine ayers continue to slow down the yes idly ‘utboard of them The mas of inermos wate that iter moving slong wit the pln or neatly so nil ed ores ther long the pak’ length crest lw pressure arn of I te plank Jing enough or moving sien fat tis wl eventual ea to he oer layers tumbling awards inser of ss lhe oud and the ow is hen sd Wo have bese be”Viscosity, an laminar or turbatent fad ow con ‘When ow ums turbulent transfer of icional nergy i no longer via viscous fres between order ayes of uid moving a ferent velois. Thre snow a det exchange of Kinetic eatay beeen fs molar colding with slower nes a they move randomly within the eon of ture fe leo he pank Resitance downstream of the testo er aia o turbulent ‘ow inreats considerably ovary approximately wih de square of he average No veo ‘The regia of disurted Mi Mowing around a solid obstacle is known asthe Boundary ape where Berouls bw does ot apply as energy is being dsiatd trough ition an heat in bth laminar ‘nd urbe flow codons ihn te layer. The boundary ayer canbe considered ana thickening lth seston dimensions th Bem fw comtone exiting besos he ua er ak ‘ot within The steamlne around the downstream end f the obatuction do tally converge 50 ‘Reoteryprestr redced al eit ote flow conssgucnyiereases. Thi own 38 orm ras conser furor is chapter 2 The reranant ofthe boundary lye ls ase ofthe hip ‘bund of enol wate a i Kowa the oe! {VISCOUS FLOW OF WATER AROUND A PARTLY INNERSED PLANK “31 = WATER FLOW VELOCITY RELATIVE TO THE PLANK (MRE = BOUNDARY LATER LamMMAR PLOW — REEEEED> TURBULENT FLOW FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE = VELOGTY'V | FRICTONAL RESISTANCE = (vELOGHTY'V}* [hs UNGAR LAYER AN IF NEREAGES IN OTH AS MOVES PURER ALONE THe LENGTH OP Te LAN PARTICULARLY A? THE TRANGITON PROM LAMINER TO TORBULENT FLOW Laminar ad bales fw canbe iene raion four five le meray alana ow ‘condions, sped of wai inerete in ode sep as we move frm he sow lane tothe fst, lane ut wisn each Lane, the veces move ath sume spend However one bake dow ot Very slow moving vebcle wll at sa Yrbulence' tigger ash wale behind it mst change lane 0 get ‘stand mnt spec Ith nly happens ccesionally rhe af i lal ig the Dow ‘Setles down gin othe laminar copdiion but at very slow moving vehicles besome mre gues ‘rth wfc more das, there is a tendency fr lane changing Wo ints More and more crs ae ‘Speeding up hen slowing downs hey move in Between the nes, mare cers ie Being expended by ‘hose changes of speed andthe Mw is becoming tbl Highway ls and tafe plce, combined ‘ith firamount of driver common sens, prevent rac fom becoming completly cht. Water ‘molecule, however, ck thet amrble consi nd ae different road rages they ost Jo thee ‘own tng A it of random mod al collision beak ot the unary ayer moles ‘move aroun to occupy ay avaible pace nd the flow as len,Veo ae 4 Oud lw (cont “Lamior fw contins have on been sought ae fo high perfomance raft moving hough 2 ‘id, parila which ute tof evelopment has buen carried out on ana flow ‘ings Te U.S avy has alo cared out considerable esearch nt the possilty of maining Jamia ly over submarines and, n parte, opeoes, though laminar ow 3, we wl seater on ismot abnays so advantageous. ‘The ose ofturblencein water fw around the ll canbe delayed if any disturbing ger is removed fe the flow 8 soo asi osu. One way of achieving tis sw suck thecal dstutance ‘nt he ull which a teehnigue tat as been employed in aireraf, The motoray equivalent of this ‘youl be tolmmecitly aii any broken dows vice ef the ead. Ate approach could bo havea fexble spongy coating that allows the hull surface to contour the ow. This would be Ike ‘nstamlyading and removing rf anes locally on the motorway to suite the tai conditions. ‘an as fen looked toate fr ideas on hw to make things work beter and oa lng tie, ‘twas bleed thatthe fat layer, just beneath the outer ska ofa dolphin, acted as such damper Similar spongy lier have ls ben found just beneath he skin f some sh. However, both sh and spt acheve propulsion by lexing pars of ther bodies so low condition round them ontioually shane. Experiment replete his Gamping effect n ei bodies sch as submarines hve not ee sucessful andthe flow around these anima ot ot aly understood ‘The nature fa ow and in pail, he ference tween laminar ane tubule low, was fist = Low PRESSURE PERPENDICULAR FORCE [Se mow pressune oisTIoUTION 4D = HGH PRESSURE PERPENDICULAR FORCE‘The flow acamd a fl cont) "he greater contain ofthe accelerated low tothe ree can be ater enhance by increasing ‘he face ma ofthe low presse side of fol relative othe high presureside (The elie ove being te presse diflrence maltiliod bythe area) Conseauealy the upper surface of an sireraf wings ore curved tan thundering and the frvard sie of shi’ propellers more ‘ured than 8 af face. These are foi that are generally designed to operate in one decion. Ships ‘adder, on the ote hand, must work equally well pring sideways thsi ether dection So they are bit wih sufces that are a miror image of each te. We woul expect the pressure change and, ence the perpen foe, to be greatest about the "cum sheenes ofthe fox section Inn es! wt i wo be conn at the ath out of aor tat wat symmetrical abuts vere av, as shown Below However, he iseous Foves ina el ad work ora low veleity ast moves further along the sue. This rats the ‘boundary ae tat becomes progresnvely cir as we move downatcars vo the ting bao the Tow prestrside ofthe fContribute to the than we cou expec fom an Wel lo. ‘Censoqunty i el Dui Now, thei free icone forward a he ipa of such fl SSS AA ae SO TS “The asym ofthe ow increases ifthe Now sis the fit ineresingl angles of tack an 0 ‘heli also ceases with the angle ack but oly up wo ceran angle. Atangies of tack grester than ths thew separates and the fl begins to tal Fow onthe fis high presre side oversils fom the Tow wessre surlace soe pressure dierent and nama ose are considerably reac ‘THEANGLE OF ATTAGKAND STALL CONDITIONS Fe an ISLess THAN Faz ar ISGREATER THAN > Fae ‘ merece a Se‘The diagrams blow define fo measurements they apply typical sections used ia marine aders nd proper Note pin thatthe dynamic force perpen the ante flow deco Sil calle the "if fore eves though is predominately horizontal when produced bya reer or propel _TVBCAL PROPELLER BLADE SECTION ‘DWBA AUODER SECTION BrevonmuareLy one DmECTON euT OLAS ZERO CAME HWE THEFLOW ' cal — oom —— "conn, —__} <= NOSE-ALUNE, ——— = CAMBERLUNE, == = cnORO UNE, = FT LE Seno eoge Te, = RARMGEDGE, 7 = MaXMNM CHORD THERESE AMBER IS & MEASURE OF HOW MUCH THE CURVATURE OF THE FOULS SURFACES ARE BUSED {omeouce un oxe recon a 6 MeNCUmED BETWEEN THE CAMBER LNE AKO THE “THE ltt nes aba BETWEEN Te Yor avo LONER SURFACES OFTHE FOL SO FHiSHAVE como CAUSE AND CAN GENERATE A IPT FORGE EQUALLY EFFECTIVELY METER [IRE HON THe SURPAGES ARE STILL CURVED AS THGRNESS VAOES ALONG THE CHORD. "ME PCSITIONS OF MAXIM CHORD THICKNESS LIE ALONG THE CHORO LIME (OR DIREGTAD) ‘The factr effesting the performance fa fl, The noma fret the foil fice produced bythe low ove fil vares withthe following fico: 1) Normal fore is dstionlly proportions othe sue of the Now velocity. 2) Narmal fre approximately poptonl othe angle of tack up tothe tal angle 3). Narmal frees directionally poportnsl othe fl wrac re. 4) Normal fore increases with he fo theknes sith iit. it : I) Aa ‘The pupse of oils sch tna and propels i to mos edly crete the it fee norma o ‘he unis flw rather athe foil surface. ceasing he angle of aac beyond aout 20° sues fem he nw of miishing etwas as the ce has decreasing HR nd inresing rag omponcri Aso erasing the sea ofthe fil othe low velocity cesses te fictional fses in the low. Al thse considerations must be ken ito seraun in the deson of rides ad propels.“The end ffs on low around afi ‘The higher pressure Hid wl also tendo sil ver onto the low pressure surface of olathe tp, This nodes a pil mation nto the flow that becomes ros marked in he rein ofthe tp where ‘teams alos ini The ratio of length to chord with s known sts aipec rao and she oss fi due to pees ‘can beminised by farming he surface area imo long and narrow fl (high spect at a). Alemaiely the frnaton of ip vorex can be reduces by ending he ol with «perpendicular 'ead Piste’ that feos the ow in nd oasis pra flow pater ight up othe ip, Sch end Piss, however, wil eet ext ition dag” FOUL ASPECT RATIO THe Evo PLATE renceswe mee rLow 70 ESP THe STREAMUNES SQUARE TO TE FOL. Jib ler manana menu To Tae PATE UT THERE ISA COSTIM EXTRA BRAGattack angle and sal ana ‘The end esses case the low across lt be dived toward is tp andso the ow velocity gains component ane the pan” ofthe fi A spiraling flow, or verte consequent shed rom the Fo tip andthe lit force is deceased because the angle of atac is efetively reduced. We can se thi ifwelook at the tre mensional gromety ofthe low moving onto the fi Low aspect fis re ofen made with curved taper towards the tp asthe pressure teeta is ‘reduces tars the end pds his ren of he Fo rea fective at proucing i This ea eat {nthe elpial vera wing that was so character ofthe famous Wola War Two fighter plane, ‘he Speman Spite: Hh shea fi ae mae erie generar of i the ae ‘sso end to alma sacar coosant chord wid along most Fhe Spa, ‘gr par oT THAT HE FLOW ACTUALLY FOLLOWS "THe EENDING OF THE FLOW TOWARDS THE TIP EFFECTIVELY NCREASES THE CHORO WIDTH YWHLST REDUCING THE ACTUAL ANGLE OF ATTACK, SO ANGLE IS LESS THAN ANGLE LORCEOSTREUTON —»«LQWASPECTRATIOWMG ——_LETZORCEDIETHAUTON ad EAL me oror0s reouceD LDPPERENTIA: DECREASES ou asPecr RATIO ING Drrerevnal Renan acwosr Bf [Fernarm —p! CONSTANT Pom OST GP HE SPAN <— 3m > THE HOMER ASPECT RATIO FOUL WILL PRODUCE A GREATER OVERALL PRESSURE DIFFERENTAL "THAW Tie LOW ASPECT RATIO FOL, S017 WL PRODUCE TE SAMELIFTFOR LESS FOL AREA ‘The ml high spect aio fis more efficient t generng i han lower aspect to i bat it ‘higher oad (eth presuediterce spre). This presents problems wth fils acting water as te alma othe extent at which presur cat fall on he low presse side bere “vation occurs. Tis is whon the wate ally vaporss and x explained fueron the met page Cevitaton pts alin onthe loading tht hyo ean pert under and is eof he esos wy fos working in water (Ce roddes, propel et) tendo have eatey low aspect ie, Tho oth inci esc beng te limite space avaiable fo the adder and propel the te ofthe ship Althoughlow aspect ato oil ae les cent producing Ti he ffetive reason ofthe ane ‘of atk delay te nse of tl condo so they can operate overs large range of eack gl. Page 186ihstaes hs with respet apenas of besWater ow around fil {Upto mow, allie aspects ffl around a fil that we ave considered apis to all ids. There are, however some important difletencs hetween get ad igus pariulywater Peni Water, unlike i, can be considera a ncomprenible ot density constant in al he fw regions srounls fi Frtormor the density of water very mach grealr than at of ai ands relay Sal changes in water flow veloc cause eonshcrably preter changes in presse than would Be the ‘se forthe tne velocity changes ins alow. Consequealy,s hydrofoil working in eave show ‘ate flows smaller tha an afl roduc a sina io ths fore oma se aw. ane tion of mater es nthe om) Water fw arundel can be locally accelerated 0 sub an extent that the local pressure becomes almost a vacuum andthe wate ais’ (Le changes Sut rm gud water vapour or steam). The “cam mst fora in bubbles and hiss know as evita, which creates sperical wate vapour ‘oundary that wll be bet to sieface tension (ee page & 6) The resulting fore acs to shrink the Subble and so the vapour pres within mst he ale octet the srfceenson a well ashe mbent ow esse ofthe surrounding water. Vaporiaton esi there aaa gas babes [resentintheowat nthe cae neato erated weer. i station, wees vapour Sey ‘Scapes ino existing ai bubles. However ifthe ae not salable, vapour bubbles rit pos rm Sls nothing andtean be sbwa tht balancing tera bubble presse inversely proportional to “cra. Ths mem, paredonclly fa he nial internal pressure of very small vapour tubes ‘must be vey tgh even though the mmedite water pei tht ead to the vaporisatio ery ow [Bunles in such eicunstanes frm sm exionely the high neal pressor une he ble "0 go ray agninstasufice tension force that decreases with eretsing bubble ci Cavitation ins dhe it force as no farther eduction in rssuecan occur onthe lw pressure side of 1 ol one cantaton hs spread though th presse onthe igh pressure side ca sil increase Very low pressures ithe fo ar flea revit Yo a mal ope the ois race nd the vapour bubbles ilo when thy move dwn seam in higher ambient pressures As abubble ai ress Prieto dlarpearing othe itera peste increases py andthe babes colle zinta ‘race wi humane’ implosion wo caus damage apd Vibrato. Extensive cavitation cane 0 ‘he bubbles caescing ino a cotinuous ayer oF wate vapour hts known as ‘sheet cena” Cavitation cane Seen when wate oiled in an ordinary domestic Kee. As he water comes tthe boil bubbles ef xem erupt wii the body ofthe water These are partly olen ithe water ‘has sreay bem boiled once before Rebod wate cosine very ite dated a and there ore so existing butler within te water fr the vapour to combine with ‘SAVITATION: THE FORMATION OF VAPOUR BUBBLES INTHE WATER FLOW EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES W A BUBBLE RADWS = FORCE DUE TO VAPOUR Fonce:Fr ave ro sunrace PRESSURE ‘rexsion Fe"=XSECTIONALAREA Fe Fr Fr MORCUMFERENCE ‘rPnessure ‘SURFACE TENSION T” 50 Free Px ak? so Fre Tx 20k ur Fes Fr so PxR = 27, wence |p = 22 up. f Pi BUBBLE FORMATION aND COLLAPSE SS chr cleaChapter 2 Ocean Surface Waves (Ocean surface waves cause periodic loads on all vorts of man-made structures in the sa Tdoes not matter whether these structures are Sed, floating or sailing and onthe surface Ur deoper in the soa. To understand thewe loads, a good understanding of the physics of ater wave is nowessary ooking ovr the sea one gets the impression that there is an endlesly moving succession Of rregelarhumpe and hollows reeching fom horizon to horizon. Ifthe winds ae light, the ‘fregulartes are smal. If the winds are heary, you may be awed by the resulting gigantic omy sees Since water moves “easily” and flat calms seldom occur, an undisturbod ‘Mater srfice i rarely found at sea, Even when dtifting in glassy calm, one will usually {fad the ocran heaving itself in «long emooth swell whose source a storm which may Ihave ccctrred days before and hundreds of miles awa: (coun vutlace waves are generally distinguished in two states: sea or wind waves, when the wows are being worked on by the wind that raised them and swell, when they have CGuaped the inflame of the generating wind. Sea is usually of shorter period (higher frequency) than swell. As a rule of thumb, a period of about 10 seconds may be taken as pura ea from swel although one mst alow for considerable overlap. Sea is shorter rlougth, steeper, more rugged and tote confsed than swel. Since wind-generated waves ‘Dave their origin ia the wind - which is proverbally changeable they too are changeable, serying bath snsonally and regionally ‘Wind wanes, especialy, are abert crested and very iregular. Even so they can be seen na superpesiion of many simple, regular harmonic wave components, each with its own Smplitude length (or period of frequency) and direction of propagation. Such a concept fan be very bandy in many appliations; it allows one to predict very complex irregular behavior terms of the much simpler theory of regular waves B. Kinsman wrote Wind Waves - Their Generation and Propagation on the Ovean Surface sve be maa Profesor of Oceatogzaphy at The Jobs Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland The book, published in 1963 was complete for its time; the wit scattered ‘hroughost its contents makes is more readable than one might thnk at fret glance First, an introduction to the moet relevant phenomena i ver here fr the ease of regular ‘doop water waves; the (general) shallow water case wil be treated ina next lecture. ‘Then,CHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES the superpmsiton principle wil be used to define the Iegular ocean surface waves 2.1 Regular Waves ‘Figure 2.1 shows a harmonic wave, ¢, as seen from two diferent perspectives: «Figure 2-0 shows what one would observe in a snapshot photo made loking at the side of @ Qrunspareut) wave Bums, the wave profile (with wave amplitude ¢, and ‘wave length A) is sown as a function of distance x along the fume at fixed instant in tine = Caco (2n-F ea) 4 Figure 21-0 is time record of the wave profile (with wave amplitude C, and wave fraquency s) observed at one location along the fume; it lols simile ia many ways to the fint figure, but the angle 2rx/X has been replaced by wt 2) ‘Figure 21: Harmonie Wave Definitions [Notice tht the origin ofthe cocedinnte system is at the sill water level withthe posit “pasts dzeeted upward; most relevant sales of = wil be negative. The still water level s {he ererage water level or the level of the water if no waves were present. The zis is postive inthe direction of wave propagation, The water depth, (8 postive value and Fait hee) is measured between the sea bed (2 = —/h) and the still water level (2 = 0)- "The highest point of the wave fs called its crest and the lowest point on its surface fs the trough, Il the wave is deseibed by a sine wave, then its amplitude C, is the distance fom the ml mater level to the crest or to the trough for that matter. The subscript a denotes ‘amplitude bere. The wave height H = 2C, is messured vertically from wave trough level to the ware crest level it ie the double emplitude. ‘The herimntal tance (measured in the direction of wave propagation) between any two suoeesive wave crests i the wave length, 1. The same distance along the time axis tthe ‘wave peri, 7. Since the distance between any two corresponding points on successive Sine waves is the same, wave legis and periods are usually actually measured between two consecutive upward (or downward) crossings of the stil water lee. Such points are ‘lo called wero-crosings, and are easier to detect in 8 wave root ‘Wave heights are always auch smaller than wave lengths. The rato of wave height to wave length isaften refered to asthe wave stepaess, H/A. When waves became too high, they24, REGULAR WAVES ‘become unstable with a tendency to fall apart at the slightest nuge. One theory - that of Stokes - ses the upper limit at H/= 1/7. Since tine o cosine waves are expressed in terms of angular arguments, the wave length, ‘and period are converted to angles using ar or: ura or: 3) in which kis the wave number (rad/m) and w is the circular wave frequency (rad/s). ‘Govivusly, the wave form moves one wave length during one period so tha its propagation, speed or pase velocity, eis given by: ea) Fortunately, the water pattices themselves do not move with this speed; only the wave oem {wave crests x troughs) mows with this phase velocity & Ifthe weve moves in the postive 2-drection, the wave profile (shape ofthe water surface) can now be expresed as function of both 2 and ¢ as follows tee 5) 2.1.1 Potential Theory ‘A velosty potential, 2(, 9,2), # function - a mathematical expression with space and tone variables which Valid inthe whole Suid domain. This potential function has bee Sefinad in uch a way that it bas ote very important property: in any point inthe fi, the derivaive of this function in a certain direction provides the velocity component of fluid partite in that point in that direction, ‘The wll be explained here by avery simple example. Suppose « uniform fow with a velocity U in the positive x-direction. Then, the velocity potential ofthe uid is # ~ Uz, because the velocity of each fd particle in the z-direction [bu d®/de— U. Por other potential flow elements, such as soures, sinks and vortices, reference i given to lecture notes on fluid dynamics. ‘The velodty potential ofa harmonic osclating fuk in the z-direction is given by = Uz-cosia. ithe magnitude ofthe potential & - the potential vale - willbe doubled, then the velocky component will be doubled too, u= dB de = U -cosut. This follows directly from the definition ofthe phenomenon "potential", so the potential has been deseribed ty # linear fonction. This means also that all potential flow elements (pulsating uiform om, sources, sinks, et.) may be superposed. In order to use the near potential theory fr water waves, it wil be necessary to assume that the water surface slope is very small, This means thatthe wave steepness i s small that tenzs in the equations of motion ofthe waves with a magnitude in the order of the steepneseaquared can be ignoredCHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES ‘Only the final result ofthe derivation ofthe velocity potential of a simple harmonic ware is gven hers A detailed derivation ofthis definition will be treated in a next lecture. Velocity Potential Inorder to se this linear theory with waves, it will e necessary to assume that the water tistae slope is very small. This moans thot the wave steepness is small that terms i the cquttons of the waves with a magnitude inthe order of the steepness-squared can Te igus Ung the linear thoory holds here that harmonic displacements, velocities td accdemstions of the water particles and also the harmonic pressures will havea linear elation wich the wave surface elevation. ‘The profil of @ simple wave with a small stoepness lols like a sine ora cosine and the ‘motion of « water particle in wave depends on the distance below the sil water lve. “This reason why the wave potential written as Bz, 3y8) = Ple) sin hs wt) (28) {in which P{s) is an (as yet) unknown function of z ‘The wlocty potential #.(2, 20) of the harmonic waves hns to full some requirements, ‘Mhich willbe treated in detail in enext lecture, The inviscid irotatonal fui supposed to be incampresibl, from which follows the so-called Continuity Condition and Laplace ‘Bauation, The vertical velocity of the fluid particles atthe sea bottom is ero; the bottom i impervious. The pressure atthe surface of the uid is equa to the atmospheric pressure; there ne pressure jump between the fid domain and the air domain. ‘These requrements bed to a more complete expression for the wlocity potential as will bbe explaited in a next lecture: ent es ou SESAME tet an “Waves are dispersive; they run at sponds which depend on their length (and water depth). ‘Thorelatiomip between ¢ and 2 in degp water, or equivalently between w and k, can be ‘tablished fem the condition that Suid partis in the surface ofthe fid remain there {he fui surface i impervious too) as Pa k-g-tanhkh es) “These relations are valld forall water depths, but the fact that they contain hyperbolic fimetions makes the cumbersome to use. Therefore we restrict ourselves in the following to deep water waves. For deep water, h—+ 00, this exprossion for the vlosty potential and the dispersion relation ruc tr pena] ot GEG ae ‘et gn oti vireo te ple ety in nation pee iE em24, REGULAR WAVES ‘Simple and very practical relations betwom the wave length (an) and frequency (rad/s) oF period (e) flow from this: ea eB wat Tesi om ‘Mind you that these relations between the wave length and the wave frequency or the wave period wre valid for regular deep water wares only. They may not be used as relations Between te average values of these phenomena in iregular waves, which are treated in 8 following ction. 2.1.2 Water Particle Kinematics “The kinematiy of a water particle i found from the velocity components in the 2 and ‘edrections, Obtained fram the velocity potential and the dispersion relation. Velocities “The resulting velocity components - in their most general form - can be expressed as: Pee SI oz di a. Ey _ b-3-Fl- An example of velocity eld is given In fgure 2.2 Beneath the eset of a wave the water movement is with the wave. Beneath the trough it ‘again the wave. This can be seen easly by watching a small object, such as a botle, Satin lew inthe water. It will move more or leas with the water particles, ‘Thecombned motions inthe 2-and =}= ree ex) ‘A numerkal example ofthis approach is given in the table below.CHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES ware hee | wave beige | mamber | Requency intervals | average | of waves | quotient (cn) ox) a_| fe Da5075 | 05 15] v.00 075125 | 10 so | 0200 ras | 15 35 | 0367 175295 | 20 a | oo 295275 | 25 a4 | ones. 275335 | 30 9 | o0c0 325375 | 35 5 | 00s 375425 | 40 1_|_ 0007 total Tsp —[ 1.000 “The table shows that, fa =8.25 meter, the probability of finding a wave higher than that threshold sles given by this integral (or in this case) 083+ 0.007 = 0.04 P{i,> 325} =2ot= 008 or Pf fie 225} Significant Wave Height “The sc-ald sigaificant wave height, Hi, defind as the average (centroid) ofthe highest 1/3 ef the waves in the record. ‘Ths, in this case: 2.0-21425-1443.0-9435-5440-1 ee = 251m or from fle}: 20-0:140 + 25-0,009 + $0 01.060 +3.5-0033+ 40-007 7 ts 251m “The sinifcant wave height, Hyay plays an important role in many practical applications cleave satis. Otten there is fair corelation betwoen the slgniicant wave hight and { viualyestimnie wave height. This comes, perhaps, because higher waves make more fmmpreeion on an observer than do the smallest ones. 2.2.2. Superposition Wind waves especially, are very iregular. Ben so, they can be soen as a superposition ‘Gf many dimple, regula: harmonic wave components, each with its own amplitude, length, esd ur fequeney and direction of propagation. Such a concept can be very handy i aan’ apyliations: It allows one to predict very complex regular behavior in terms of auch canals tory of regular waves. This s-called superposition principle, fist introduced in odeedyeamics by (St. Denis and Pierson, 1969), is Mlusrated in gure 2.6cy Pure 26: A Sum of Many Simple Sine Waves Makes an Irregular Sea “This means thatthe regula waves canbe writen ete) = Sas comnt har + 2.2.8 Energy Density Spectrum Suppoce a time history, as given in figure 2.8, ofthe wave devation during a suficent log, se figure 27. ‘The intantanenns ware elevation has a Gonsan dition and sero mean. "The am Phiade can be cbained by a Pours els of heigl However, fren tle Me i the ine story ove yl nde new wie cf pins iy mean square val of, canbe fd: ‘When (an imeplr signal without preva requ, the average ales he to wp, will aot change mich as a function of the frequency; Cis a continuous funetion. ‘Theva of ofthis igual boy to the avenge velo oft aque of hn wave ceraion a=FCHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES Time Domain Measured Wave Recor Figure 2.7: Wave Reed Analysis i 5 Figure 28 Ragbtraton and Sampling of « Wave - yLeoweyee 1 few. and | {Ercmtt mere) x 29 Sen a "The wave amplitude, C,, eam be expres bya wave spect pension: Syun)-aw= Se $0) ex)22, IRREGULAR WAVES where Avis a constant difference between two successive frequencies; se figure 20, Mul tiplied with pg, thi expresion isthe enerey per unit area ofthe waves in the frequancy Interval A, which wil be treatod in detail in a next lecture. nus igure 2. Definition of Spectral Density Letting dw 0, the definition ofthe wave energy spectrum, So), becomes: Sen) atv = 5 ea 36 and the variance, f, of the water surfse elevation is simply equal to the area under the spectrum t= fstoy-ae am ‘Figure 2.7 gives a graphical interpretation of the meaning of a wave spectrum and how it relates to the waves. ‘The irregular wave history, ¢(t), in the time domain at the lower 1a eo ped fro coe in age ec ona ar ema ce itge mre fel nveCopontsch wth wee, gn enh eu domam They wl ape be ater ky ty Bones SON SL. ween ciao nem mapemetta ese: eet ‘wloay te ttl Orbe wer coay vores ich Tle conte, oy Sided eerie tennis En eer oem ioeaaaae ‘Wave Height and Period Relationships with etatistes ean be found from computing the moments of the area wader ‘the spectrum with respect to the vertical axis at = 0. fm denctes a moment of properties of the wave spectrum with respect to the vertical axis tw =0, then mge denotes the ni order moment given inthis case by = for a oxCHAPTER 2, OCEAN SURFACE WAVES ‘This meats that moc isthe area under the spectral curve, mm isthe first order moment (static moment) of this rea and mac isthe second order moment (mement of inertia) of this area. [As has already been indicated, mo; san indication ofthe variance squared, me = 02, of ‘the water surface elevation. OF courte this mac can alo be related to the various wave amplitude and heights: c= RMS= (Root Mean Square of the water surface tlevation) Fee =2 VA] Gefant wave mpi) TEp= Te] iiicant wave height) ez Characteristic wave periods can be defined from the spectral moments: mag = wx-mg with wy & spectral centroid mag = h-migg with wp i spectral radius of inertia em) [i = an (mean centroid wave period) Fm] meen rene) "The meen zero-crosing petiod, T, is sometimes indicated by Tz. One will often find the period asocited with the peak of the spectrum, Ty in the literature as well, 18 follows Rayleigh Distribution Expressed in terms of mag, the Rayleigh distibution i given by: {Hz} crweh asuson) 22) in which rs the variable being studied aod moc i the area under the spectral curve. ‘This distribution can be used for more or less narrow spectra. This is true for normal wave spertras they are not too wide. Generally, its frequencies vary between w = 0.2 and v= 1520, With ‘this distribution, the probability that the wave amplitude, ¢,, exceeds a chosen ‘threshold value, a, can be calculated using: P(>ay = f fe)-de Jools} re) " paar al-22, IRREGULAR WAVES P{.>al {==} oo) ‘The numberof times per hour that the threshold value, a, will be exceeded ty the waves fs this prosablity, P{C, > a}, times the number of osilations per bour, 3600/73 mone ax 2.24 Standard Wave Spectra Investigators have attempted to describe & wave freqienry spectrum in a standard form. ‘Two impertant ones often found in the terature are described here. ‘The mathematical formnlations of these normalized uni-directional wave energy spectra are based on two parameters: the significant wave belght, Hj, and average wave periods T'= T,, Ts or Ty: RO=%, 7e7) em) Nett th deftion meas tha he mya aes ae proportion stn gant ev he cred: in aber node Su) /fin be neon os and oy Bretschreider Wave Spectra Oneof the oldest and most popular wave spectra was given by Bretsthneide, Iti especially suited for open sea arent and mathematically given by tp {=tw} fe Re a ee pare eet rears n 086-Tr oT 72 T JONSWAP Wave Spectra {In 1968 and 1960 on extensive wave measurement program, known as the Joint North ‘Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP) wae carried ont along a ine extending over 100 miles into ‘the North Sea from Spe Island. Analysis of the data yielded a spectral formulation for fetchlimied wind generated as. ‘The follving definition of a Mean JONSWAP wave spectrum is advised by the 17th IPTC in 1984 fr ftch Eimited situations S(e) ae oe on {2 wt}en (2.38)CHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES we 7 = 45 (pate) nen + o{-(&)} os = Ee ey ah = Latin ca a hn = OF tos otto sam ‘ing 152 rt min he Betis er ith in peak period, T,, Sometimes, a third fre parameter is introduced inthe JONSWAP wave spectrum by varying the peakedness factor, For not-runcated wave spectra, other wave period definitions can be used by eubstituting % 20-T, or Ty=1.287-Te Wave Spectra Comparison Figure 2:0 compares the Bretschneider and mean JONSWAP wave spectra fr three sex states with a significant wave height, Hy, of & meters and peak periods, 7 of 6, 8 and 10 moandk, repectively. "The figure shows the more pronounced peak of the JONSWAP spectrum, while the areas under all spoctral density curves are the same. igure 2.10: Comparion of Two Spectral Formulations 2.2.5 Wave Prediction and Climatology 1m 19, the British Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort devised an observation sale for measuring ‘winds at sa, Hie eeale measures winds ly observing tel effets on salling ships and waves22, IRREGULAR WAVES and is still used today by many weather stations. A definition of this Beaufort wind force scale is given in figure 2.1. ‘The pictures in figure 2.12 ive a visual impresion of the sea states in ration to Beauforts scale Short Term Wave Data An oni storm can be characterized by just ten mimhens ona related tthe wae eight ‘nd one to the wave period. It now becomes important to predict thse values from other data such as geographical and meterologkal information. Figure 2.18 for "Open Ocean “Areas” and "North Sea Areas’ gives an indication of an average relationship between the ‘Beaufort wind scale and the significant wave height Hs and the average wave periods 7, ‘nd Ty, defined before. [Notice that these short term or storm wave data are inked here to wind data. ‘Thisis quite ‘common n practice since wind data is often much more available or ean be proicted rather ‘easly ftom other amilable meteorlogial data. Bu, these relations are an indication ony. Fixed relations between wave height and period does not exist; the history and duration ‘of the witd plays an important role. Long Term Wave Data Longer term wave climatology is used to predict the statistical chance that fr instance fa given wavesemitive offshore operation ~ such as lifting a major topside element into place - wil be delayed by sen conditions which are too rough. Sets of characteristic wave ‘lta valu can be grouped and arranged in table such as that given below forall wave ‘directions in the winter season in arose 8,9, 16 and 16 of the North Atlantic coon. A "storm fare is nn arbitrary time period ~ offen of 3 or 6 hours fer which a single pair of values has been collected. The number in ach cell ofthis table indicates the chance that ‘significant wave eight is between the values in the left column and inthe range of wave periods Bited at the top ofthe table ‘These wave seater diagrams canbe wied to determine the log term probability fr storms ‘exceeding certain sea stats, Each ocl inthis table presents the probebilty of occurrence ‘ofits significant wove height and vero-comsing wave period range. ‘This probability ls equalCHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES im gn pt my soem sn a pes ay qd ddagaas esa os hue ‘igure 211: Benufsrt's Wind Force Scale22, IRREGULAR WAVES Figure 2.12 Sea State in Relation to Beaufort Wind Fore Seale22, IRREGULAR WAVES 2.2.6 Numerical Exercises Bxereise 1 “The following histogram of wave heights has been derived from a time history of the surface clevation ofan irregular wave system. ‘wave height | maar yo) | on <0 0 125-075 | 30. ‘075-125 | 0 725-175 | 0. Tro-a25 | a 225-215 | 78 275-325 | 18 325-375 10 315-425 2 >is 7 1. Give a definition of the conception "significant wave height, Hy” and calculate this sales 2, Whatisthe probability in thie storm thatthe double wave amplitude, Hy, will exceed ‘value of 275 metor? 3 What the probability thatthe significant wave height, Hy, wil be exeated? Solutions 2. P{fic> 270m} =010 2. Pffie> mys} w0108 Baers 2 A simplifed wave energy spectrum is given by: oes or os Pa sos @ Dov fore} oss ass [0.12 [0.00 1. Cabalate (by using the trapesold rule) the significant wave height, Hays, and the ‘mean wave periods T, and Ts. Give a physical explanation of each ofthese phenom- 2, Determine the probability, P, of exoeoding a wave height of 4.0 meter inthis wave spectrum by using the Rayleigh probability density function.CHAPTER 2. OCEAN SURFACE WAVES eee oe Figure 214: Simplified Wave Bnergy Spectrum {3 Determine also the mumber of times per hour that this wave height will be exceeded, 4. Beplain the term mo inthe Rayleigh probability density function Which restriction should be kepe in mind when using this probability density func- tion? 5, What is the probability thatthe significant wave height, Hj, wil be exceeded? 6, What ithe disadvantage of the us of 7; when analyzing a measured wave spectrum? Solutions: 1 Hyg 27 mT = 10 sand 2. P=12% ‘8 63 sme pe hour. Note: Use Ts for this and mot 3 4. The magnitude of my i the Rayleigh probability density fonction isthe spectral are ofthe comidered time-dependent arable, This Fayleigh dstebution is valid for or o les narrow spectra 5. P(2,> Hys} =e? 018. 6. The more or lew uncertain or truncated "tai? of the spectrum has larger influence ‘on 7 than it has on 7,Chapter 3 Behavior of Structures in Waves ‘The dynomics of rigid bodies and Muid motions are governed by the combined actions of diferent external foes and moments as well as by the inertia of the bodies themselves. In fluid dynamics theoe forces and moments ean no longor be censidered as acting at & single point or at discrete points of the system. Instead, they must be distributed in = ‘elatively smooth or contimious manner throughout the mass of the fuid particles. The force and moment distributions and the kinematic description of the fu motions are in fact continous, assuming thet the collection of disrete uid molecules can be analyzed ss continuum ‘Two very good and readable books are advised here as a supplement to these Ietures. ARM. Loyd published in 198 his book on ship hydromechanics, Seakeeping, Ship Behaviour in Rough Weather, ISBN 0-7458-0290.3, Elis Horwood Limitad, Market Cross House, Cooper Street, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 IEB England, (OM. False, Profesor of Marine Technology at the Norwegian University of Sdence ‘and Tecnology isthe author of Sea Loads on Ships and Offshore Structures, published in 1900 in the Cambridge University Press Seras on Ooean Technology. 3.1 Behavior in Regular Waves When on board ship looking toward the bow (font end) one is looking forward. The stern is aft at the other end of the ship. As ope looks forward, the starboard side is one's right and the port: sie is to one's let. ‘The motions of a ship, just as for any other rigid body, can be spit into three mutually perpendiclar translations ofthe eater of gravity, G, and three rotations around G: ‘thre translation ofthe ship's center of gravity (CoG or G) in the direction ofthe yond zane ~ surge in the longitudinal 2 direction, positive forwards, = away in the lateral y-direction, postive to port sido, and ~ heave inthe vertical =-divetion, positive upwards.CHAPTER 3, BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURES IN WAVES % Figure 8.1: Definition of Ship Motions in Six Deron of Freedom. ‘thre rotations about thee axe: = roll about the aie, positive right turing, = piteh about the y-axis, postive right turning, and ~ yaw about the axis, positive right turning ‘Thee definitions bave been visualized in figure 3.1. In many cas these motion components will have small amplitudes. Any ship motion is Inald up fom these base motions. For instane, the vertical motion of a bridge wing is mainly build up by heave, pitch and roll motions ‘Another important motion is the vertical relative motion, defined as the vertieal wave ‘elevation minis the local vertical mation of the ship. ‘Thus, this is the motion that one ‘obterves when looking over the ral downwards to the waves. 8.1.1 Axcis Conventions ‘Three right-handed orthogonal coordinate systems are used to define the ship motions + An earth-bound coordinate system (10, 902) ‘The (to,30)-plane lies in the still water surface, the postive z-axis isin the diction ofthe wave propagation; it can be rotated at a horizontal angle j relative to the translating axis system O(2,y,2) a6 shown in figure 32 ‘The positive 2yaxis is directed upwards + A body-bound coordinate system G(2»; 2) ‘This aystom is eannected to the ship with Its orgin at the ship's center of gravity, G. The dteetons of the positive axes are: zy in the longituinal forward direction, tw fathe lateral port sie direction and #5 upwards. Ifthe ship Is ating upright in still watz, th (2y,14)-plano is parallel to the il water surface.34. BEEAVIOR IN REGULAR WAVES ‘A steadily translating coordinate system O(2, 9,2) ‘This sytem is moving forwerd with e constant ship speed V. Ifthe ship stationary, the directions of the O(2,y,2) axes are the same as those of the G2 yy) x. ‘The (2,y)-plan lies inthe stil water surface with tho origin O at, above or under ‘the time-averaged position ofthe center of gravity G. The ship is supposed to carry ‘at oscillations around this steadily transating,O(z, 2) coordinate system. % Figure 32: Coordinate Systems ‘The harmonie elevation of the wave surface ¢ is defied in the earth-bound coordinate stem by 6 Gocaslt — ko) a) in which: ‘wave amplitude (m) wave number (rad/m) ‘wave length (mn) = cireular wave frequency (rad/s) = time (6) G ‘= an/a g » + 3.1.2 Frequency of Encounter ‘The wave speed c, defined in a direction with an angle (wave direction) relative to the ships spead vector V, follows from: T=) Jem =A] (ooo chapter 2) (2) "The steadily translating coordinate system O(2,y,2) is moving forward at the ship's speod Pet ro)CHAPTER 8. BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURES IN WAVES Figure 33: Froquency of Encounter ‘When a ship moves with a forward speed, the frequency at which it encounters the waves, 2, becomes important, Then the period of encounter, T, soe figure 8.3, is: A a T= Vemeae) en Veme oa) and the crenlarfequency of enomnter, wi, becomes: ope a BELE= VON) «hee _Vewy) oy EO Xx Note that = 0 for following waves. ‘Using k-e= w from oquation 3.2, the relation between the frequency of encounter and the weve frequency becomes: Ee=oW Weed 6) Note that st zero forward speed (V = 0) of in beam waves (1 = 90° oF j= 270") the frequencies and ware identical. In deep water, with the dispersion relation k = u?/g, this frequency relation becomes: 2 ene ZV cosy (ep mater) on Using the frequency relation in uation $6 and equations 3.1 and 33, i follows that the svave elevation can be given by: Ete ropa] (as) 3.1.3 Motions of and about CoG ‘The ship motions in the steally translating Oy, 2) system are defined by three trans- lations ofthe ship's center of gravity (CoG) in the direction of the -, y- and z-axes and ‘threo rotations about thom as given in figure 3.11, BEHAVIOR IN REGULAR WAVES Surge recon(uet + exe) Sway Yecas(uat +646) Heave zycosluct + ig) Roll coat -+ £46) Pitch Be coa(aet + exe) Yow: $= vgcosluat + ee) (9) in which cach of thee vals isa different phase ange ‘Knowing the motions of and about the center of gravity, G, one ean calelate the motions In aty point on the structure ming superposition. ‘The phaoe shifts ofthese motions are related to the harmonic wave elevation atthe origin of the stedily translating O(,y, 2) system, the average position ofthe ship's center of fravty eventhough no wave can be measured there Wave elevation at OorG: ¢ oat) (20) 3.1.4 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration ‘The harmonic velocities and accelerations in the steadily translating O(z,y,2) coordinate system are found by taking the derivatives of the displacements. For roll: Displacement = Bycoslint + eye) Velodty : 6 = —widasinlust + 24g) = wed comlunt +46 +/2) Acceleration : Gm ~uhdgcosluet-+e4e) = hd, combust +ex+n) (811) Figure $4: Harmonic Wave and Roll Signal ‘The phase shift of the roll motion with respect to the wave elevation, cg in figure 3.4, {s positive, here because when the wate elevation passes zoo at a certain instant, the roll matien already has pass zero. ‘Thus, ifthe rol motion, ¢, comes before the wave tlevation,¢, ten the phase shift ec, 8 defined as postive. This convention wil bold for all other responoes as well of couse. Figure 35 shows # skeich of the time histories of the harmonic angular displacements, velocities and secelerations of ro, Note the rautual phase shifis of 7/2 and =CHAPTER 3, BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURES IN WAVES Figure 3.5: Displacement, Acceleration and Velocity 3.1.5 Motions Superposition ‘Knowing the motions of and about the center of gravity, G, one can calculate the motions {in any point onthe structure using sperprition. Absolute Motions Abslute motions are the motions ofthe ship inthe steadily translating coordinate sytem (O(e,y,2). The angles of rotation g, @ and ¥ are assumed to be small (fo instance < 0.1 rd), which i a necesty for linerizations. They must bo expressed in zadiaus, because fn the lneerizaticn itis eesumed that Hee ot Rees @x) For smal angles, the transformation matrix fom the body-bound coordinate system to the steadily translating coordinate eystem is very simple: (GEG) Using this matrix, the components ofthe absolute harmonic motions of certain pont ‘(com 8) on the structure are given by: au) in which =, , % 4, @ and pare the motions of and about the center of gravity, Gof the stmictre ‘As can be seen in equation 3.14, the vertical motion, zp, in a point zy 24) on the floating structure is made up of heave, rall and pitch contributions. When looking more detailed to this motion - iti ealled hare now h(i) for convenient writing ~ it can be found: Alon) = mbt nd3.1. BEHAVIOR IN REGULAR WAVES sscanluct + ex) — mbacosluct + cx) + dy cosluat +4.) {a cosene~ 200889 + Wt cst) cs(ut) Gees sinene— ala sineac+ nd sine} sinft) (15) ‘As this motion h has been obtained by a linear superposition of three harmonie motions, ‘this (renltant) motion must be harmonic as well: Ory are: {hg coneng}-co0(vet) — {he sinenc} sine) (10) ln which yi the motion amplitude and sje the phase lag of the motion with respect to the wa elevation nt G. ‘By equating the terms with cos(u4) in equations 3.15 and 8.16 (wt = 0, so the sin(oet)- terms ae zero) one finds the in-phase term hg cose; eating the terms with sine) in ‘equations 8.15 and 8.16 (ugt = =/2, so the cos(ue)-terms are mro) provides the out-of ‘hase tera hy sineye of the vertical displacement in P: hecoseng = +2.c0sexg ~ mBs conc + Hibs COE sineng = t2sinese —2Bsineac + wo,sinege (an Since the right hand sides of equations 3.17 are known, the amplitude fy and phase shift 4g become: Ihe = (tasinenc)* + (Fa cos en.) exe ne $2] (sas) racose ‘The phase ane exc has tobe determined inthe corect quadrant between 0 and 2x. This arecton (8) ane Fy the xing wane foes a oe odin (8 ‘hi auperpston wil be expliedin more deta fra cua pad, stn nti wat ita cotrIne in the vertal econ as own in eure 3.8, a2)CHAPTER 3, BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURES IN WAVES @y Figure 3.8 Heaving Circular Cylinder Hydromechanical Loads First, a fee decay test in still water will be considered, After vertical diplacement ‘apmads ee 8.8:), the cylinder will be reload and the motions ean die out freely. The vertical notins ofthe cylinder are determined by the sid mas m of the eylinder and the hydremocharical loads on the cylinder. Applying Newton's second law for the heaving cylinder: ‘mi = eum of al forees on the cylinder =P + py — bi aF =P + py ~ 2) Ay be ~ ak (29) With Arehimedks’ law P = pyc, the linear equation ofthe heave motica becomes: (25) In which «is the vertical displacement (im), P = mg is the mass force downwards (N), 1m = pAGT is the solid mass of cylinder (kg), « & the hydrodynamic mass coefcient (N/m = kg), bis the hydrodynamic damping coefcient (N/m = kg/s), = py isthe restoring sping coofcient (N/m = kg/=), Ay = 4D" is the water plane ars (m"), D is the diameter ofthe cylinder (m) and T'is the draft ofthe cylinder at rest (3). ‘The terms af and bare caused by the hydrodynamic rection asa result of the movement ofthe eyinder with respect to the water. The water is assumed to be ideal and thus to Dehave asin potential flow. ‘The vertial oscillations ofthe cylinder wil generate waves which propagate radially fom it Since those waves transport energy, they withdraw energy frum the (ee) buoy's oscil ‘ong its motion willdie out. This so-called wave damping is propertional to the velodity of thecylinder in linear aystem. ‘The coaficient b has the dimension of a mase por uit of (mt o)e biteCHAPTER 3. BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURES IN WAVES ‘The clase thoy of dep water waves yes: wave potential: @ = “Sale sin(ut — he) wove lemtion : (= Ccos(ut ~ kx) 6%) that the pressure, pom the bottom ofthe cylinder (z = —T) fellows ftom the linearized Bernouli equation: oe ae = paket colt ke) = poe pose ost ha) i 0% Asmuming thatthe diameter of the cylinder is small relative tothe wave length (KD ~ 0), to that the pressure distribution on the bottom of the cylinder is essentially uniform, then the pressure becomes: pee ** cos(utt) + pgT (3.30) ‘Then the vertical foe onthe bottom af the end {eae comet) + ot} ED? (a) ‘where Dis the ameter and 7 isthe draft ‘The harmonic part of tis forces the regular harmonic wave force, which willbe considered hee, More or le in the same way’ with the hydromechanical loads (on the oscillating ‘body inal water), this wave force can also be expres as spring coofcontc times a redked cr efetive wave devaion Fre =e-* with: © = pe$b* (opting conf) C= AF Cyecm(ut) (deepwater) (3.22) “This wave fore is ello the Froude-Keiloy force, which flows fram an intogestion of the presses on the body in the undisturbed wave Actually however, a part of the waves wil be dffacted, requiring a correction of this Froude Keilor force. Using the relative motion principle described ealier inthis chapter, ‘one finds ditional force eamponents: one proportional to the vertical acceleration of the ‘water paitcls and one proportional to the vertical vlocty of the water particles. ‘The total wave force can be written ws: Renal +00 + eC" = Reamlut +5.) ax) Jn which the terms af” and Bt” are considered to be corections onthe Froude-Kelo force dw to difraction ofthe waves by the presence ofthe eylinder inthe fui ‘The "redid wave elevation i given by: C= Ge on(ut) “tye Musin(ut) Ge Monet) 3 é ¢CHAPTER S, BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURES IN WAVES 3.1.7 Frequency Characteristics Generally the smpitdes and ple shifts inthe previous section are calle: Ble) mod B16) epelw) and exc(w) ‘The respense amplitude characteristics 3) are alo refered to as Response Amplitude Operator (RAO). ance) eee nomeene yt Figure 3.11: Heave Motions of a Vertical Cylinder Figure 3. shows the feavency characters for heave together with the iafluene of dilation ofthe waves. The anncation "without diffraction” in these figures means that the wave load consist af the Froude Krlor force, only. A phase sift of ~x occurs at ‘the natura frequency. This phase shift is very abrupt here because of the small damping ‘ofthis cylinder. A second phase shift appears at a higher frequency. This is cased by & Diba shi in the wave load. rquation 3.37 and figure 312 show that with repect to the motional behavior of this cinder treo frequency areas can be distinguish 1. thelow frequency are (u? « e/(m-+a)), with motions dominated by the restoring spring tera, 2. thenaturalfenwency area (e/(m-+ a) Su & c/a), with motions dominated by the anping term and 8. thehigh fequencyareaa# > c/a), with motions domintal bythe mass term ‘Ao, equstion 3.37 shows that the vertical motion tends to the wave motion as the fre- (quency deereases to zero. Figure 3.13 shows the speed dependent transfer functions of the rll motions in beam ‘waves and the pitch motions in head waves of container ship. Notice the apposite effect of forward spees on these two angular motions, caused by a with forward speed strougly ‘increasing if-damping of the rll motions.3, BEHAVIOR IN REGULAR WAVES te rie tae neat rene Figure 8.18: RAO's of Rall and Pitch of a Containership Figure 8.14 shows the speed dependent transfer functions of the abwolute and the relative varical bow motions ofa container ship in hoad waves. Note the oppasite characteristics ofthese to motions in very short and in very long wavs. "The resomance frequency of a motion does not necessarily coincides with the natural fre- quency, dear example of this is given by (Hot, 1970), as shown in figure 3.15, for & temi-submersible platform with diferent dimensions of the under water geometry. This geometry has been configured in such a way that the responses are minimal at the natural frequency.(CHAPTER $. BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURES IN WAVES [Figure 3.14: Absolute and Relative Vertical Motions atthe Bow se YY Figure 3.1% Hoave Responses of Somi Submersible Platforms in Waves52, BEEAVIOR IN IRREGULAR WAVES 3.2 Behavior in Irregular Waves When information on the irregular waves is available, now the first order motions can be determined. ‘The wave energy spectrum was defined by: Lea 5a) (6) Sw) eo Analogous to this, the energy spectrum ofthe heave response 2(u,) can be defined by: Sulu) do = [=f = Fer) sco) ae 60) ‘Ths, theheave responce spectrum of « motion canbe found by using the transfer function of the maton and the wave spectrum by: Sl wf a6 oa ‘The pring ofthis tana of wav rey to expen ery i thorn i fre 316 for to bate moto bo onal bre “The eplar wae oy, (blow inthe Ind side he fe - the sum of ‘ange ber of rela ve tech vith i. ovnfaeney, smptae ad {Tan pus sn "The alee $2(0)/o amnted with ch wave component Chowan pte veal ce hy thie wae energy ty Sa). Th par ofthe figure can be and in caper 2 el, them Exch rar roe crmponct can be tater gar hee component by 2m ttiplication with the transfer function 2./¢,(u). The result is given in the right hand side of this figure. The irregular heave history, 2(¢), is obtained by adding up the: eave ‘onpon jit to wes don or he toes on the kt Plting th mle 12()) > ‘of each heave component on the w-axis on the right yields the heave response spectrum, S,(w). ‘he moms ofthe here pons opectram are en by me [© whe with m= 0,12. ax) ‘where n= 0 provides the ares, the spectral curve. ‘The significant ease amplitude can be ealclated fram the spectral density function of, the heave motions, just as was done for waves. ‘This significant heave amplitude, defined athe mean value ofthe highest one-third pat ofthe amplitudes, is: fag = 2-RMS = 2: fon (ass) ‘the fist moment and n = 2 the moment of inertia of42. BERAVIOR IN IRREGULAR WAVES pa tt Figure 3.17: Efe of Wave Period on Heave frequency, As long a8 there is (almost) no wave energy at this frequency, the response spectrum will remain smal Figure 8.8 shows a wave spectrum with sketches of RAO's for heave of three different types of foating structures at cro forward speed: ‘The pontoon has a relatively lage natural frequency and as result of this signii- cant RAO values over a large part ofthe normal wave frequency range. Almost all ‘wave energy wil be transferred into heave motions, which results in a large motion spectrum. An extreme example it the wave bucy, which has (ideally) an RAO of 1D over the whole frequency range. Then the response speetrum becomes identical tw the wave spectrum, which i of course the sim of thie measuring tool. It should follow the water surface like sea gull 4 The ship, wth a lover natural frequency, transfers smaller but still considerable part ofthe wave energy into heave motions. ‘The semi-submerible however, with a very low natural fequency (large mass and smal intersection with the waterline), transfers only a very small part of the wave lenengy very low ist order heave motions will appear; it remains essentially stable in the waves One can conclude thatthe natural frequency is very important phenomenon which dic- tates (to significant extent) the behavior of the structure in waves. Whenever porsble, ‘the natura frequency should be shifted out of the wave frequeney region.(CHAPTER 3, BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURES IN WAVES eae a Figure 3.18: Effect of Natural Period on Hexve MotionsCHAPTER 4 STEERING AND THE ACTION OF A SHIP'S RUDDER SUMMARY ive small foree on the rudder produces a much eal fre fora ship follow a circular track. Ste brhaviour Bex ca ncuing rit ane pivot points and aaah rit Sxcipdan of type of rade, tering machinery CONTENTS. ‘whats meant by steering ship Circular mation, ‘The action of hips raider “The pve! point ina steady turn “The actin ofthe turning forces si pinot plat Pron stationary vessel using radder force ‘The dynam pivot point Pn steady tare ‘lflorm and directional tbiity ‘Ship's aed sped and directional stability tsa standard steering tests ‘The palloet manoeuvre ‘The Dieudonn spiral manoeuvre The'zieen’ oe "Kempt manoeuvre “The ne couse keeping ral manoeuvre “Te efect of hanging sped a constant helm Storage way Steering asters “The heling effect daring arm Typeset rudaer a Stem skegor'deadnond” High performance rudders Padale whet erer machinery -stering gers ‘Steering controls on» ship's BrideWHAT IS MEANT BY STEERING A SHIP le may scm rather pints question task wha inca by sterng a ship a most of us would ‘hk hate answer obvi buts worth considering Tr a moment When sui 1owing 2 ‘smal dehy (or padding a ence) the be is ying move the boat a stright ie Every a0 and ‘gaa, he checks the dection and if requted, djs itby swinging the boat's bow topo ata now heading However, thi iste boat being peroically amos stopped and manoeutedopoatin a new detonate than being contnaly steve. I's worth noting that ler cred Bots, sch as ‘xan whalers nd cing hs do ot tc ike ths bt hae ims with a aera the stems, ‘Conlable tering of ay vessel eques tht it rotates (swings) about a vertical ais whilst Simaanoualy flowing «curved tsk tht Shanges decom a he sume rats te oats ate of ‘Single aer word, the vessel hasbeen pu it flowing an are of cele in which rate of Sing mich ts angular velosty sound the cele and th egies rg fre dreted to ie ese ofthe del, known ts the emrpetal force’ Like he mom orbiting he earth ship uring in circle mast swing through 360" abou ow vertical axis inthe same time ths Yo complet is rua Sbi o the Same sie ofthe vessel is always facing towards the ec’ ene. ‘METHODS OF CHANGING ABOATS COURSE ‘We Row soar For cen thesceting of ships has een achieved by rotating relatively ral lade in the wae 0 one sd rather of the ese’ ster Unt about S00 yours ao this wan age tering ‘emporrly pivoted about the ship's sen railing (the word arbour com rors werboed) oweverasveses beams large permanent ited pie, that we now ar the dd, was aged sou theceateline an pivoted by along lever, called il Laer il with fare nee ‘essel sa their was replace wih geared ship's wheel But the sie of rude, relative To ship, ‘ermnedlargely unchanged ani the oles soto exe ship desig, ‘The realy sll owward fre ofthe rar tthe str etn a mc leer oad centept forse as well the turing momen fo sing the boas eadCIRCULAR MOTION Before we conse the action of hip adder in turning 8 vessel, itis wor ving a quick revision ofthe base lyse of ccalar motion. A moving objet move in the arco cic when its ‘jected ca sendy force tha remains aright angles fs motion. Te cenpel fore acing yp the objects cenee of rity causes constant scelraton wards the cee of uing cle that ‘inversely proportional wo the eboes mas TTHEFORGE REQUIRED: ik ‘48007 OF MASS tones, ISWOVING ATSPEED'Y m/s "We LNGTHOF ARC BETAEENPOSTIONS 1821S R eRe sores ars AN LENGD mae some pemoo oT SerWeen 82 = BE seconds S wv uso, anaueanveroory ws 3 « X radans second? = ‘ov = 2v8in (0.580), [BUT F WE MOVE POSTTONS 1&2 CLOSE TOGETHER SO THAT 3018 SMALL THEN SINE 80 = 80 IN RADIANS 80, SV = VBA ANO I DRECTED TO THE CRCLE'S CENTRE acceteraTion’s' = 2X mis? were or = 60 s, so acceteranion'a' = ¥ mis? serra ay R of mie wn acorsusnaa miata + SE ATVPICAL TURMING FORCE VALUE FOR A 10m LONG SHB TURNING AT FULL HELM VF TURKING RADIUS’ = 200m, SHIPS SPEED‘ = 6 mis & SHIPSMASS'M' = 12,0008 sen cenrmrevaLronce = T2HB0(6)" y= 440 eh wc s THE EQUNALENT OF 1474 ‘The centripetal ce wil even i iloNowtome ifthe p's masse meni in ome, ne sped in mares/second andthe cca aia in metres. Angular vec) isofen expressed in ‘radians second sone aia isthe angle subtended tthe cent ofthe ele by an af of equal Tengh tothe cc’ rads, Consequnly, 2 radian equals 30° and ne radian equals 7.3" and 38 nga velit of one dre / econ toga t0 0.0174 radians ssond¥OF 4 SHIP'S RUDDER ‘When ships uderis pu vet starboar,itmakes an angle fatack with the water ow and so sa il to generat ideways force opr that ings the ship's head to starboard whi the ship "multansnsty moves holy, o Mf ot to port In doing so, higher pes bls wp agains the Dent sie whit hel deveops an agl of atack. known as theft or yw ano the water Fw. Asymmetria low ten develops withthe ee immersed ulfom ating ns afi to ces an thwartsips resre fleence across the hl sds, which podoses the cenrpetal fore th makes the ship ‘allow acca ack osrbord once TORT ou aT Son ie Bo To STAREOARD. THRE aC THE VESSEL IS FOLLOWING A CRCULAR TRACK. AS NE VESSEL Wes 2004 OU TO PORTAND THE BOW SWINGS To STARGOARD. TE ‘te cenaperasroncs FN TH WLL Acre H@OUGH THE iE UL NOW IS HOUNE PAROLE ME ATER MAKDNG A DRET ANGLE TO TE FaRCE Reine 70 STARBOARD OF THe VESSEL COF THE SH NOW MOVES NA CIRCLE‘TURNING CIRCLES ‘Shipbuides cary out manoeuvring tess as part ofthe pre-delvery tals for anew vessel. Dt ‘escbing nina tuning dirnctrsacoved wid ll bela in diferent cumstances (vig, ‘hip spec draft and water depth etc) must ow be availabe onthe bridge of every merchant ship to {sss pt an ships oicws. The IMO (teratonl Marine Organisation ls seq cerai ‘minimum sapdads of manoeurabiity for mechan ships hat are considered a Appendix Ieshould be apreciated that the hydrodynamic tung force depends upon the underwater are ofthe ship side andthe tio of reo mass decreases sith increasing vesel displacement 0 fhe ting iamcer, eased in ship's lng, tends to ncease with vessel ie Slr singe rightnded sre vessels may show a ia in tuming tighter cle to port han to starboard, ue othe transverse thst effec (See page 115). However, transverse thst fects vary onside frm oe ves to another. depending upon te ow conditions around tester and 2 Sn cae effect ends to Become glen larger ships. Orbe ators, sch 8 is ann pacino deh 6 poge 197) a lye hare ning aig ty "TERIAL TRAGK OF A SHIPS C OF G DURING A TURN OF HARD TO STARBOARD i; enews recmncures —— a! “i DATASHEET ts SHOULD INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING) TRULS SHOULD INVOLVE TURNS TO STARBOARO AND FORT TOREVEAL AVY BUS N THE SMP'S TURNING PERFOMANCE j¢— Aovance Forse" weAoIe cnANCE eum Pur wAR TO sTaRBOARD, aTHE WILLIAMSON TURN ‘This meat is designed to bring the ship back tering a epoca couse down is rial track nds an acepied andard procedure ol when person sen fling overoard. Some ‘THEIMAN OVERBOARD: PROCEDURE AND WILLIAMSON TURN <:YEsgEb av yo stanponno “BERECIROGAL HEADING HEL Is PUT AMIOSHIPS To STEADY Ubon te ReciPRocAL HEADING a ee ee ne |: VESSEL.ON RECIPROCAL HEADING IS'Reoucko m neaowess To RECOVER THE MAN 2: VESSEL ef To STARBOARD OF ORGINAL HEADING LOKGUTS KEEP StOKEFLOATIN SORT {HE 0E74S OF THE PROCEDURE MAY HAVE TOBE ABUUSTED TO ‘anton ce aac ae‘THE EFFECT OF TU} ‘The power formakng str uhimtely comes rom the shi’ propulsion. The drag component ofthe rer force and spree nhl eine nm silanes slows down he sips sped whist increasing load on the propulsion asthe propeller experiences higher sip fr tsrpm ‘THE INGREASE In HULL RESISTANCE AND PROPELLER LOAD DUE TO HELM ACTION APPLYING HELM CHANGES THE THRUST AND SPEED FROM'A'TO IF THE RPMS CONSTANT aya cocks te Sus CPE ‘Aight um can overload the engine at nea its usin power cuts the governor incense fel ‘o mamain rm and the engine exaust tempcatres sour When the sip ul ped ul el ‘ould morally be used only in emergency suc aso swing the ster ler oma pts Who his fallen vertu ‘Te following diagram gives a posible expanatin fa any eillernce in propeler transverse thst port andsteboad rs though the elect varabe apd tend tobe neghihe sarge ven ‘THRUST EFFECT OF AR (TH FOLLOWING VIEWS FROM ABOVE SHOW THRUST WHEN T OPPOSES THE TURN) |ARGE ATTACK ANGLE MAY PRODUCE STALL CONDITIONS SLADE ATTDG.TURNNGTOPORT _-—=BLADEAT BD. TURWNG TO STARBOARD eva SHS TURING 7O PORT, THE PROPELLER IS MOVING TO STARSOARD. BLADES ARE Si i ate worn ude As ner Pros noun 7.6 mes Pe WT ato te Lae. wren unr YALL hls POSTON Tay WL REDUCE THE TRUST ouroncwr onroting THe PROPELLERS SIDEWAYS HOMO ‘TUT COMPONENT RESISTING THE SWIG IS GREATEST ON BLADES AS THEY WOVE Tioveh aib.e mene THEY Ae OPERATING FURTHER AWAY PROM THE HULL Wa ASTER ‘low Th RESULTING ANGLES OF ATTACK ARE SMALLER AND LESS UMELY TO STALL ‘TumlnG RADIUS To Pont THAN To STARBOARD THOUGH "aS WILL VARY CONSIDERABLY ‘FROM ONE VESSEL TO ANOTMER, DEPENDING UPON FLOW CONDITIONS ARGUNE THE STERN‘THE PIVOT POINTIN A STEADY TURN, ‘The ship lata meron outwards, combined with it siltaneously oaing about is vertical ais and {olowitg ular track, produces a rotational movement about a pon orwadof he ent gravy “Thins he mic pvt pond but ten alld spy dhe pivot point by macy mariners a textos Ashi in steady tar conditions develops pater of utward dit angles fr diferent slog its ceneline hats retest at teste, teal decreases to zero atte dynamic pivot Pt thn tr inward and inresse toward th bow The foward pontine dai pivot ot produces ant ouwarl dit ange athe cee of gravity inthe midship region > = TRACK OF THE BOW > = mack oF THE STERN > = rRack oF THE PWT Pow = ANGLE OF ORFF ATTHE BOW = ANGLE OF DRIFT ATTHE STERN [i] - sais or onerarmecore PE = DYNAMICPIOT PONT G = cenTRE oF onary Vs= sus vetocmy “TERE MUST Be AN OUTWARD ORT ANGLE ‘Tins Fone To DEVELOP ON MEHL (ANGLES ARE EXAGGERATED FOR CLARITY) “Us sus umcr (CENTRE OF TURNING CIRCLE ThE BSTANGE GP TWATTHE PGT PONT ANEAD OF THECOFG = RSind metres | WETANE A TYPICAL FULL HELM TURNING RADI OF 2» (HP'S LENGTH) AND ADAM ‘rvOr POWT THATS ABOUT 0381 (SHIPS LENGTH 1) FORWARD OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY, rien weoweranauear’ = sot BIS so we sin! 238 « ANOLE AT‘ FORMOST MERCIA SPS ARE USUAL Ls a ATLL NE “THE PVOT POINTS THE ONLY PONT ON THE SHIPS CENTRELINE WITHA ZERO DRIFT ANGLE trace aetl ae reE Sip hinders use the eston ofthe dynamic pivot poi india how fr the ship wil diol ‘outward when the rae is put oer. Sea ooo must be allowed for his when making couse changes ‘nese waters If possible. a vessel shoul proach a tn na narow canoe sie of he m= ‘hanal wack allo forthe stern swing out aber ha he Bo ae “This perhas all the more important o remember whoa plting vessel wih forward whelbouse simu he abi ia of he ridge and ot of mele ew‘THE ACTION OF THE TURNING FORCES ‘When the mas fa ship is subjected tothe lateral force atthe seit is accelerated in both tera sad rottinal mation, here were no esistance fom te wate to either of these mesons, ten bath Intra ped and rat of tim woul increase sey fora long ste force was applied “The nal Iara! aceon, fora given force, s dependent upon oly the ships mass but rotation scelrtio depends upon te orn fine, wbih is determined by the dstibaion of ms. 2S Z 2 (use Prec os maw roraronaacceueraron = 2828 rane! Soi [MOMENT OF IERTIA''= EMR = MiR\?+MaR”+ MaRo" + MaRa? + MSR + MeRE? stale vot point "Ps on a staionary vessel sing rudder force The belm cn be used ever ona stationary vesel to generate momentary swings ofthe ster by ving Shortbursiof ahead thnst agit he der and thins gual done when manoewrng 2 sp Alongside. We can use the above restinships to determine an extn fore Mate po point Pr Drition wien single fee atthe tr aceon the rer asin shi stopped inthe we, Ae we tillse shy, the sais pivot point ino te same asthe dame pivot pot. o fae x s=ari0' P10" = O51" WATERAL ACCELERATION) YcRe LATERAL ACCELERATION = SE ” £0" = 0.5? ROTATING ACCELARATION) WHERE ROTATING AccELARATION = ZAEE tm ERE metros st = SREB actans 50 orvoNG UF ee weal 2‘Theta pivot point PV, ont) ‘Of coun, once our stationary ship taro eae around its state pivot poi, resistance inthe water ow bus up elimi he speedo ation which depends upon theese hl face area and iss dstrbuion whl the ship wil lo stato move dead. We should ake these fics inf acount ‘ifthe mation extended over a period long enough produce a iia aed speed. However, we ‘an aaue thatthe pvt point emai charge forthe shor ie ero at te manocure ‘ally cared out i ‘The equation onthe previous page demunsates har if vessels moment fini, relative wt ‘mas, reduced the the ial 90t poi position moves casero scene of gravity. This ‘arcally ofthe rudder a the stm ss long way fom the shi’ centre of gravity and so podoces ‘high ening moment. ong hull witha high propoion of ts weight concaratd around he nie cf gravity, wl almost rotate rnd the cent of gravity in reeponse ta lateral tom foe. ‘Silineyacis are the most obvious example of thie pe of ese as aoe Hs of he Bots es nln the led el i situated near to mishipe whilst the many erpy ends of th hl provide ‘ale shape. Consequently stony yc! wil js abou tar on sow midship x. ‘Mass and buoyancy dstibtion mist fil closely machin pe vessel to avo the hl Being subject o excessive bending Sree (Bough fully lauded vessels tend 1 sug because of weg oncentaton amidships whist the oposite swe when the ship in ballast) This ears ha he ‘mos significant factor affecting the mass dsribuon na merchant ship isthe bul’ shape or beck ‘SefcintCi Fora piven dat and dpicement we ca have ete eltively long ear ull ‘stha bw back coeBient fora hgh sence speed or shorter Nl af rater Dea and with high Dock ceticlon a slower more economical spend. The low Hock coefien fine ned all il oneeate mass more nthe midships region than the higher Mock ceficie al boi ese! and $0 Pr wl be closer is cent of ravi. Termuguererverasonnesirs neous every ron nese a A al “Trimalio ates the static pivot poi A ster wim moves the cente of gravity closer herder whilst ircresing the moment of enti as mass in te ow becomes ute ay fom The ‘momento mera is dependent pos the squares ofthe tances of masses fom), Consequently & ‘Hom trn moves" forward clasr ote bow A bee im ends to move'P at omar buf 8 ese nen because alhiouph the rade leverage is imeased moment of inertia is aio increased‘Thedvmamic nso pont Pina stents turn “The outward bodily path ofthe hl, deo the rer force, i eset fr blocking the water Now ‘on the utvard side a he lands causing the flow wo spit asymmetically. This creates the much large inward fre hat provides the centripetal force o pu the ship int a stable cular mason In this the re of course change sound the cele (.e. the angular velocity in radianssecond) ‘matches th rat of swing ofthe ship's head. The ship stars torte about the Sat pivot pot PY in ‘spans appving helm tt centeof gravis will moe a erin tance outa et increases is ourvard lateral velocity, drift rat’ sfficicny obi up the pressure difference hat ‘roaes te necessary centripetal fore Indeng so, the vessel appears tate around another pivot ‘ont which ial bead oft ete of wavy. This isthe dpmame por potn "2. which is shown ‘page 116 ad explained inthe following diagram. Fr the momen, fetus maine an del wate Mow arora hull thats symmetrical for and aft ota the eulting hydrodynamic oce ats rough he exe f gravity andi perpendicular he si’ ahead velo AS THE stp MOVES OUTWAADS AND SWS. SO THE (Ural S68, OF DRIFT RATE NOMEASES AND A DRIFT ANGLE We DEVELOPS AT THE CENTRE OF GRAVIFY. PIVOT POINT DISTANCE FWD OF C* “PuG" = “S'Sinie WHERE e's THE VESSEL'S RESULTANT VELOCITY AT [RNY INSTANT OFTHIS NEN BY THE AREA UNDER AGRA OF Pe LATERAL SPEED CONSIDER TWO SHIPS WHERE SHIP'A'HAS GREATER ‘reread amaonmezatve Toms ROTATION dé a Come eee (0 LATERALSPEED O# DRFTRATE “As THROUGH THE SAME ANGLE do SH 0 WITH THE SMALLER LATERAL ACCELERATION. RELATIVE TOT ROTATIONAL ACCELERATION. Wi HAVE PIVOT POW Py CLOSER TO THE BOW THAN FOR SP" DISTANCE ‘Sa < DISTANCE‘? ‘he dynamic pivot point (P) is farther forward in his with a high rouulonal acceleration, relative ‘olteral acceleration. This the oppose situa tegadig the postion othe ste pivot ‘Poin PY. Tae pion of Pr, though i determined bythe sideways placement ofthe ate of [iy eaive tothe beading chang dering te etablisiment of semi of tr thera the ‘elie eats of lateral and rotational aseleratons. The closer thts the cents of rity, the «asi itso rotate he ship, elatve to moving i Boy sdeways, nthe closer Pio the ow. ‘The dyn pivot poi typically les about 10% 020% ofthe ship's length af ofthe bow in ‘many mertant ship hulls whe tung a fal el However, in some slower tring vessels nay [efron ote tuning hil it he fawn and can sven be hon othe Dow‘The ami pivot point Poon) Iris woth recapping all the uations of cela motion an dienes that we an se how the vot pout Py teats tothe midshipediftangl, centripetal Frc and the ship aus of tam as. flows [RATE OF TURN =u radians /sacond [AMEAD SPEED = "Ve" metas second, onl f ‘CENTRE OF CIRCLE >= sues sreeo ve DYNAM POT POSTION GPE'= RSindo metres ae metros |[ceNTRIPETAL FORCE Fo™= MVE KN moSMPs ORIFT ANGLE ‘de! = Tan’ 42 “ 2 SHPSSPEED Ve'= WR mis ‘de = Se radians || 50 Fo'= mus?R on Fe'= MUSE osu onirr ante & es mu?R on Fe'= MVE yn of] Bes U + oR OOUBLES, THE RATE OF TURN w DOUBLES AND THE TURNING RADIUS 116 HALVED. Le CENTRIPETAL FoRee “Fe Mcwn?Rs & Fore Maun? ER 50 Fors aor ASSUMING THAT THE HYDRODYNAMIC HULL FORCE ACTS THROUGH THE SHIPS C OF @ “This simple elaionsip beween de mishps dof angle, contpetal fre, rat of tir and ening ‘dius umes tht the hs spood remains coatnt a byrodynami bl foes act trough the Sips ete a gravity and o ano tring moment In cali, real wae ow invasably produces ‘nyrodyami ul fre tha acts formar ofthe ceteof erat (ce page 3) she hl farce has ‘turing momen oft on and this has an veriing inftuence on th ship's string Behaviour.‘THE BALANCE OF FORCES IN A STEADY TURN {the ships at even kee and symmetrical for and af, then we might expet the hydrodynamic fore ‘oat hroxgh the midships point where th cen of gravity would be However, the wate flow Sule ineasing viscous loses nthe boundary lye ast moves af with possible ow separion ‘wound the sierboey (Se pages 13 & 44). Consequely, the efectveess ofthe atrbody seoerainga pressure difference seduced, ela othe forepar ofthe hl, andthe hydrodynamic Fore acs rough a pont, which is usally someway forward of midships andthe exe of iyaviy. Tis means fart assists the turing moment and subsequently, wil increas the ate of a, When he en ily pt ove, the tick angle athe adder age the ude angle. However 3s ‘he sip stato swing and move bly owe the raider angle of wack decrees with the ‘cveloping dei angle th tr nd, comsequey xo doe the adder force. However atthe sam time the in hydrodynamic foros on tells building up with he increasing drift ange a the ‘sone of gaviy ands coatbuting tothe turing moment aswel a providing the centripetal ec. "THE SHIP IN STEADY TURN CONDITIONS = centne or onary Fe © cemperacronce OX THE MILL fn = nonuat ron on nonoen ft (Stenat on ur roner ov avooeR \,, p= sieao nest mom moresien > Foresman ronees y > = waver rLow ono nie RuDoER tly = aopantir OFT ANGLE AT RUDDER ATO TRE RUGOER TO SOME CORTAM EXTENT RUDDER ATTACK ANGLE’ = RUDDER ANGLE i'- APPARENT ORIFT ANGLE ‘la AF RUDDER As the hi ange athe stem develops with he ship's ate of tan so he angle of tack tthe rer creases, hough he sere race to some ete! saighens ot thew, whish mails an angle of ‘ack ont der a the higher tes ota This fet wl ary depending von he ow ‘ondtons round the stem of «parla veel. The errpetl fre Fis the ett force ofthe hydrodyanic hl fore and the tera or component‘ ofthe adr force, However, the futher forward ofthe centre of gravity hati the iter and fhstr the tur lb othe it angle atthe stem increases whit he rer atack angle and fore decease, which ast tring ment em th aro the main al eseDIRECTIONAL STABILITY, A sips sido be rectionaly tbl if som lve of cooling fore irene bythe ae ‘whilst hip i aking tur aay angle ln. Sch a ship wl ts in a saight ine in iat Calm conons withthe rudder amidships easint force momentary swings couse, ‘he vesel wl come toa new seady heading without ay helm ation ance the disturbance as pase. ‘Theswing. though, will nor crete restoring momento retuthe ship tits ign! heading ‘the hydrodynamic hl force produces oly 2 small ning moment (point As reaively close {0 G) fe dectonal sbilty wil be exces, te hei wl be hey ao the ship wl be elutat {Baterenare wall However, nthe al foes sting thr pint cme there hen ‘he hal force provides an increasing proportion of he turning tomcat while roe fore and boy ward acceleration diminish, Control ofthe tip ten hecomes more etatve a wil be {uckerto develop swing on applying elm, bu slower ea oy asthe outward ei ofthe ll Increas, which moves the dynam ot point forward closer othe bow. Tis ay to verter 3 Ship wt minimal ecional salty by aplng excessive couse elm. Overeacton wth ah lend omote excessive ase a the elm and le of ever increasing oslatory rings pot and Surbous Overstccing can pros some embarassing tutions confined waten {the yrodynamic ll force at fin fra to provide bh the centile and the ene tuning moment requed to san the rate of tur then iis salto ac hough the neural point "andthe ships a ave newral directional stabi’. The locaton of No, howeves, “ares with he te of ue sesstincetothe trbulet low around and nde the swinging Pal ill proximately increase wth (rate of tum) while the cent force ony increases wi jt the le ‘tun ‘Ni conequenty moves forward with increasing mateo wands generally abot 1/6 (or 13%) the ship lng bal he bow hen ship itoring at fil peed mith the Bel hard ve ‘Neus diectional stably only likely to our at slr helm angle nd lower rate of tr be "No ilar to mdi. ‘Neural destin stabi ane he uning moment completely fom thee to he min hl force ands the outward coneling path ofthe rer lt Lateral acoso very aw computed othe increased at of tr so the dynamic pivot pin Pi fhe frvard tan fora ‘eel hat retains poste dieesonl sabia the same rate of tm ‘THE CONDITION OF NEUTRAL DIRECTIONAL STABLITY THE BRET ANGLE AT THE STERW PRODUCES A ZERO ANGLE OF ATTACK OW Toe RUDDER THE ATHWART SHS RLOGER FORCE ZERO WITH THE RUDDER REMAINING HARD OVER Neural econ stability only produces zero fre on th ude when the ves isin steady tum nd ee mast be auddr fret tat stop the tum. more ores bla then sped, the di angle atthe ter wl produce a rade foc to ether accelerate sow the tum dow: The hip will, ‘be quik ot faster, sony asl freon the rader wil be required to aes the rate of "Ute rae is cased, hover, th tuning moment ofthe hl ace wil be opposing the Poder foc athe veel wil onseqomy Be very ugh come out of tuninsti insta {A ship Wreclonally unstable ifthe centre of hydrodynamic foes onthe hull, pint ’Ais actually ford ofthe ner ot ‘This wl inerease he aing moment but here sno crease inthe ‘nya ul forse andthe centripetal force rats unchanged. the increasing rt of Sia is lowed develop as atively smal oddr angle thes the ship wll lt aster around is Yer ft thant angular velocity about th cone ofthe turing cil The vessel wll overswng Inunded cular ack and bein to Behave ike a ator cashing’ when ves around a corer 00 ‘ast Te jamie pve point moves forward ofthe bow as the ship develops an increasing sideways ‘componert to mation whist coneuing ffm. This inreases the hyrodjmamie force o the ull, ‘slow own the shi peed whit he rae of tum seventy ied by increasing resin 10 ‘te owing around and under the hl The stp aetueves ao balance to make an cxcepnaly suiek andtigh tam, "DIRECTIONAL STABILITY HULL HYORODYNAMIC FORCE ‘Fi "Fe" + WHERE CENTRIPETAL FORCE ‘Fe" = MwV KN | A SUL BUT SUSTANED ANGLE OF RUDDER IS APPLIED WHEN THE HYDROD MALE FORCE 1S ‘th SH HARES AN EXCEPTIONALLY TOM TURN AS SHOWN BELOW” [CONTROL CAN BE REGAINED BY PUTTING THE HELM AMIOSHIPS AND ALLOWING THE VESSEL ‘ToCouPieTe Aste" Shine BAcx OWTOrTS ORGMAL TRACK. STEERING CAN BE RESUMED ‘WIH SMALLER RUDDER ANGLES APPLIED MORE FREQUENTLY BUT FON SHORTER PERIODS ‘Anincressng numberof nw ships are retionally unstable under ceainconitions ef wim and are ‘ica ser manual. a they will nofollow a ge aus cil rack af smal oer angles. Steady sein is only achieved by continually applying sal shor alemating be actions terse that the mament of swing sno alowed 0 Bud up The rapid Bld poe of ewing with any prolonged action can take the unary very much by suis and contol ofthe steering is easly os, which sometimes can only be regained aerallowing the ship to complete the 360 tasDirections sabityand rate of urn “The moment eid to sing the hl nereases approximately wth (at oft) whilst centripetal fore ineases wih onl the rate of tum so NV moves forward at higher rates of tm and Rude ‘iol ofa deetonlly unstable ships regained at higher rates of um, Thi sometimes describe ‘the sh becoming 'actonally sublet arger heim angle though th erm sued inthis cote misleading, ast fr to the ff of the rad angle nthe hips ate of change of heading aber ‘han the ship oldinga steady heading withthe helm amidships. uname f+ omenichatix—ve— Sinecnowsty ° ue RATEOF TURN = TOTAL TURING MOMENT, — & — = HULLFORCE MOMENTS OF SHI 8" ‘i WILL MANTA CONSTANT RATES OF TURN FOR GIVEN RUDDER ANGLES ONLY IF THE Handing drstionalnstabis, Despte problems, rection nb does allow 2 ship to make tight tars tht an be se advantage providing tha the plot or mare fiae with thesis ohsour and plan an alter ous allow for ths. When helms Fit applic, he ate Of rs tars ould up ikl, bt with the pvotpin so far forward the swings inal a sideways kid. Cansequenty helm mut be plied vel before the sips atthe aller course postion ad there mst be suicientsearoom forthe outward swing ofthe lA the rate of em ncrenses ower, the ering fens 1g tis now important to check the sing cary and so avoid over steering the imended tack, whist. taking ae no ed the oumer helm ay Tong! than neve, "ADIREGTIONALLY UNSTABLE SHIP MAKING ALARGE ALTERATION OF COURSE Tope IS CHECKED AT POSITION BU CARE MUST BE TAKEN TO AVOID AN OSCELATING SANG‘THE FORCE ON A SHIP'S RUDDER IN A TURN ‘The following diagram shows one way thatthe freon the adr during ata canbe estimated if ‘the positon ofthe conte o the al fre, pot td the neta tering pat Nae known. [A= CENTRE OF HULL PRESSURE (te = DRIFT ANGLE AT'G: R= TURNING RADUS im) = Shs sreED (ois) M = SHS 1sPLAcEMENT —() Fe CENTRIPETALFORCE (KN) Fic= HYORODYNAIC FORCE (KN) = RUDDER ANGLE ‘CONSIDER 120001 SHIPTURNING AT FULL ee wale ‘SPEED MTN THE MELA HARD OVER "UW 1s APPRONMATELY 0.50 (SHIPS LENE Sauer ” "LIS APPROXMATELY 0.25 SHIPS LENGTH r= NCRMALFORCE (AN) "Le 18 APPROXMATELY 008 (SHS LENGTH) ee a "8018 APPROOMATELY 10° 2 ‘18 90° CENTRE OF CRRCULAR TRACK ‘ACTING THROUGH THE NEUTRAL STEERING POINT Ne. 80 TARING MOMENTS ABOUT fhaun) + (gEieg + R)LA= (LAs Loe Buri wis SMALL MEN once = 1 vance fR(Ln+LA) = Fo(kx) were Fo = MC %0 icon wyiunetay = MLD een ee ENCE No mroncette = MY, cr raaLrunoerroncesny = Mx Newtons (F WE TAKE THE BXMMPLE GIVEN ON PAGE 108, WHICH IS TYPICAL FOR A 150 LONG MERCHANT [54 oF 20008 Rrmano HA 200m RADIUS AT Or [12 ONOTS) HAO THE RUDGE ATO" THEN Fe’ 440 iN AND, USING THE ESTATES SHOWN ABOVE: S0THE RUDDER FORCE = 1440 x 1 1771N on THE EQUIVALENT OF 184 ieee 7st cose‘Theforceon a ship's mdr ina turn cont) ‘The cazlatons on the previous page rely upon a hie dere of assumption, repading the lations of nts and Nd, which wil be considered inthe following pages. However, the frie and ‘Gagan ale ignore some other fates, which would ace be aea ino account o give amare onplee picture athe oces volved in te turn 1) Thehyérodynamic fers onthe hull, shown in he diagram as", doesnot nude the normal ‘hl resistance, which ners the magnitude of thi force and pve stan aster componen 2) Th combined swing and lateral drift of he ship daring the tam increase the aust of water hat is in motion an ragged pally or whelly along wit the hip. Le, the vessel making a turn ‘omiderbly incense ake Thi ean be regard added mad othe sip wish morons iSetccve, or rma” pacers by up to bout SO% nfl sped tr wt the em hare ‘over This significa inceases the shill sistance, 3) The ships spent intheasamed oe sped rough the war whist itis making steady tn The hp Ioer sped Ysa to decree ax oon asthe bl ep over aad ay aot each a sable level uni the ships heading has swag through about 140 ofr the ina par ofthe tum, ‘heships sped is continually decreasing. Te force onthe radder may wel be higher than ‘stated daring ths slowing down period when also acing sa brake onthe ship sped. The ‘pent redaction deo the farm ir eonsiderabl andthe ship would probly need'o Be moving st ‘bout 1 knots prior opting the elm over fro satin 12 kts daring the ars 4) Thecalulations do ot tke it acount ny envionment forces caused by wave ation an ‘vind These can be considerable th ship has large exposed topside aren and e making 2 ti inderate song winds, ‘The station i more complex than the previous pge suggests and research nto sip hydrodynamics, ‘sng model etal rel stip dt, sed wo the development of ach more sophisticated equations than shown nth previous page. These ae necessary forthe computer modeling techigues that ean be used the design stages of ship to predict the forces on the udder andthe ships string ‘haces I's however, beyond the scope of this bok (or my ables ste auton) to deve 2 fri oto the mathematics OF Us ope “The patie of shipbuilding and design has produced formulas brady based upon principle but wih ‘epic eonstants determined by experince and ecards of fal ship dat Such formule fr the {ove at stable are of he adder are given nthe + etion of Reeds Navel Architecture for [Marie Engineor’ and x work comparing thir ntiate th or example of the revi age ‘FORMULAE FOR ESTMATING RUDDER AREA AND MAXIMUM RUDDER FORCE FACTOR RUDDER FORCE = O.STTAV'SIN‘W" KN, WHERE Y= SPEEDINm/= 0 = RUDDER ANGLE | WE USE OUR EXAUPLEON THE PREVIOUS PAGE WHERE THE 150m LONG SHIP HASA DRAFT ‘FB HETRES, THE RUDDER ANGLES 30° A SPEED OF 8m/s AND FACTOR P= 65 THEN RUDDER AREA‘A’ = 185m" NO MAXIMUM RUDDER FORCE = 192 KN RUDDER AREA'A' = WHERE 60" <70, DEPENDING ON SHS SPEED This eximat ofthe nar force isin quite good agreement wth the previous page but we sould be ‘way alt the precision of iter prediction athe previous page sea show's at sited value of there forces ery sentve othe postions of ots and NI for example, pont A’ were tobemmred 1% ofthe sup length fuer forard then Lx woud eu 07 x (eis length) whilst (Lax) would equal 076 x (sips gt) and he freon the rudder would be reduced about 139640153 EN “The postions of A and" and, cnsequemy, the raer fore and si’ sterng charters spond upon the bllforn aswel asthe rao tum The dove fone though, make no allowance ‘orth hey were probably derive when hie’ lfm ere les ered th hey re toy.EACTORS EFFECTING DIRECTIONAL STABILITY. Nether th cee of the hyoynamic hl force, point’ no the neta serng pont Nar fixed ‘in posit fora single vessel The locaton of NW depens upon he cenpetal force relative tothe ‘uring mament required fr a given ate of tar lfm whist the postion of 4 depends upon the Mw conditions around the inmersed hfs ais fre and af dsributon of face area. The ‘elas between hese various factors andthe resulting ship's Steering charaterstes re complex ‘bu we cat make the fllowing bead generalisations. ‘Trim and diretonal stability Both hea and ste rims inerese he ship's moment of inert about its verical ans, as explaine on ‘age 1185 the required moment fora given rate of tar i inteased by trim and conquer point 'No'ismoved further forward, relative tothe ever kel conn. Mor significa, though is that ‘em aller be fore an aft dtncion of mescd hl surface area and comsequemy he postion of pout'A" Aster rin increases the a merge hla whist decreasing fora whst No “der the ship's tom sao more rence by the deeper arb dao tbe pres ifn aft is reste than i would etherwise be. Both these factors move pint‘ farther af and, ‘consequence directional stabi and increase te minum turing ais (Conversely, head im wil have the oposite efet othe ships ection stability aad taming ‘ads ae-tduced. The high fol, low aft deck vessels common in the ofa industry are ‘lesan operate with head im an thse hie can have particularly sensitive sterng The ead ‘rms necanry for these ships o motte mantmum sesworthy transverse sai enters at hie ‘oui be kt to a minimum when the vessel under plage shld wars ‘DIRECTIONAL STABILITY AND TRIM ‘sTeRN Tew TERT TRE GHPNGEDS ALARGE RELMFORCE TO ONLYA SMALL HELA FORGES NEEDED TO. (Danian THE Tuma THE See NaIeAN te TURN BUT The SP LB SHEXDYUP ouont wnt MacoeIPS Re ‘SLOW TO STEADY UP WITH MOSHIPS HELM A MOVES AFT & STEERING IS WORE STASLE "MOVES FWD & STEERING 6 LESS STABLE Moder high bloc coeficieat ul have 2 elatvely large moment of neta bout the verti ‘xa a0'Ne wl tnd tobe fre forward than fr fier lined ship, However, very al Doied hls, With wide bem forts length, have a large wake (te page $3) with cet of buoyancy forward of midship. These feos rede the effectiveness othe aferbody at generating high pensar in 4 {tum "A "ends to be even further forward thin Ns ad consequently these sip ar kel tobe ection unstable a sal rue anges Direina stably has conkequntyDecame an Increasingly common feat in the maser designs for large bulk arcs and ane.THE FULLER LNES FORWARD AND THE INCREASING THICKNESS OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER AS hosts at? can CAUSE CONSIDERABLE VISCOUS LOSSES ANS POGSLLEPLOW SEMLRATON ‘aie ie etensany ie cee Oe roe 1S FOmaRD OE NEUTEAL "ae SHG OF TE SUP DISTORTS THE BOUNDARY LAYER TO THE EXTENT HAT FLOW IS NOW ‘Ship's ahead sped and direstona stability lncrensiag ships peed fora give rer angle increases the cerita fore ating onthe bl bat the ships espns this to increas tad of tr wt tending to manta constant ae of tur. Te examined farther on age 132 bat fhe rate of tr remains exentially wachanged then there wiles reucon i the leverage reget te creased entpetl fret overcome the ‘morc sistance sd wl ave Ruther af redaction sped wil conesectyfed 10 ‘nhancea ship's detoal subi fora given ade ange, hough i the ship is moving to sl, there wil be insfiient ow fr the udder toe effective athe ship wil lave lost ‘tera wa HULL SCALE STANDARD STEERING TESTS. Many ofthe types of piled vesestha have bee ui over the pan rwenty years oso have ifn ends nthe al desig an handling characterises soa numberof al procedares fave been developed o evaluate te seerng characteristics of new lasses ship. ‘The‘pulloet"manasuere “This mmoeuve measures the chang nthe rat of tum wth time afte ships ei is returned to amidships athe endo tring cle test In cal condos,» econaly stable ship wil ‘rental ete onto a steady Reading bu decionaly unstable vse wil ean aed rae of "um hatcan ony be climate by applying opps hela. "THEPULL-OUT MANOEUVRE FOR DIRECTIONALLY STABLE AND UNSTABLE SHIPS oRanet rasta att ae wae 5 TME(me) s9p-9:8 DRECTIONALLY UNSTABLE $0. ReSioUal Tum RATE MERITS Nereeroeunen. re memmonecien arecrs ‘he Ss STEERING (SEE PAGE 110.‘The-Disnionné spiral manoeuvre ‘The spiral ances involves aplsng el to port or tbat bya pre-dtermind mount ay 25 and thn reorng the steady rte of tr, when this is achieved, the helm is rede by $° and "he new steady rato tun recorded Te elm shen reduced by further S" and, again he sendy ‘aloft ecole btoes futher redation of el sade This process epeted until the beim 25"in reverse direction at which pin. the sequence of helm x reversed nS” wih he seady ‘a of tur being recorded fr ech step ul the bel is returned finial value The hip follows a loubespial wack suc ashe following diagrams iste, though he ia may require more empl: los in each sil tans shown Below if the vse isslow to sete ata seady rae of tun.‘The sza! or Kempf til manoewyre Inthisminoese, he ships moving at constnt speed and a teal heading when the bem is put ‘over predetermined angle and the reversed when the vessels heading has are y a et ardant ‘om original course. This sequence of vente is epested over several yen whit he ine othe ‘rents ad the extent to which the ships swing overshot’ the Hae heading change fle he ela tas beenoveaed re recorded The manoeuvre can be cared Ou for diferent speeds, rader angles nd heading changes t whic he elm is eversed. The 20°20" 2 manoeure shown below apples 20" of tat is evesed every me the ship deviates 20° to port or starboard fom is mil teading se 1 Hoe" ss seu snuarver eaves oe se onus rose ror 0 Sey eerie essere oun te weeny Si er ne Seseae ro alae ECON NEw hae ste te tueeemeceree Se ae ee ares se meron Mg er one Ge eer en Pa eso otc Sal Sas i a ‘Tyg WovesohTeo osITONS INICATE THE POWTS OF HELM ORDERS WHaLST THE RED AND (GREEN ARROWS NDICATE HOW THe SHOPS RATE CF SWING IS CONTINUALLY CHANGING. Sip 1S MORE DIRECTIONALLY STABLE THAN SluP sf TAKES MORE TIME TO RESPOND ‘Tome wet Reversais Avo fs COURSE WADE GOOO OVER THE GROUND MORE CLOSELY FOLLEWS THE CHANGES W THE SHIPS HEADING‘Theie-at oF Kempt wil manoeuvre (cont) ‘The ig-zag manoeuvre tess the ships ove sering characteris ait demonstrates the effetvens othe dr fr bath nating and checking a swing whist navigational data onthe ‘hips track ean be analysed to determin the extent fit tha the Vessel wil avelop fra given sim aston Trials of directionally unable ships on incl the zag menocue cad out a smaller ace angles, which ae then revered ater even aller changes in beading (eg 5°" ‘adifled manoeute) to provide das fr sein up an autopilot o maintain a sexey heading ‘without wig encssve helm, Such deals informatio s booming increasingly portant wh the evelopment of avigatioal cour s)tems tt rive the ship longa presecbe track and ‘stomatal ster around the course alsations in th os: When 3 hip rin mam tering. 2 ‘00d helmsnan develops a Tee or he tenng by obserang ine vests respons oth heim and ‘djusing his helm action accordingly. The design eam of an automated contol system, however, ‘a quant necesary responses 1 such fedhok information wth umber ad egos in fonder to progam a computer to behave ns il manner. ‘The’new course espinal manocuvre “Tis manoesre ito determin the efetve Sx room tha ship requires when altering course at -=pxaL FLOW < “flow F = nest Flow ane ‘THRUST is CREATED BY ROTATING A DSC WITH VERTICAL FOLS ARRANGED AROUND THE ITS GincueEeNce. Te POLS HOWEVER Ate LC~anNCALLY TURNED ON THEIR AXIS BY RID {THE VERTICAL AXS PROPELLER IS LESS EFFICENT THAN A CONVENTIONAL SCREW PROPELLERACTIVE RUDDERS An active ruéder sone hats small propel tse unit built ino it to msitn ow over tat ‘ery low sped I diflers rom he igh perfomance uders, esebed page 137. as an active ruler ‘Shot designed to operate at fll peed. There init the power out ofthe aur thruster ‘nif the ow velo x excesive it wil te diving the thruster’ propeller ater than he the ay ‘and andthe trate propeller is bacKloaded (se page 9). This wil simpy create ext dn, reduce te fw speed over the udder and probably durage the thrusters hye ‘The ae esl that I hve experience of hat was fied with one ofthese rar, was a single screw Cable ship with fl speed of 13 kate. The active nar como was integrated with he lov that it Shu down i he ships oped exceeded 6 knots The ese oul, however, maintain scrape ey ‘down speeds of ls tha | kt in head seas if the rar trster was operating, wheres without in steeage was ost at just under 3 kaos ‘The active nue in the vessel above was incorporated into an integrated contol system, which combined th maiacomrolale pitch propel witha erable amu (Leone hat canbe rotated "rough 360") bow user rer that could be rotated rough 0", however, the rudder ale excodhd 35, th system atomically st the main propeller pitch to ein ode fo prevent ‘xposngtheradder ousting othe force ofthe main abead trust The active rader was pearly ‘tended to acta a som-azmath thruster athe vessel stem fr diate managing at ery low ‘eds during submarine sable repair operations ‘The ship was bul inthe mi 197 an, jg by tds standards the ster was very primitive and under poserel though he ship succssflly operated i the eaivey bose ial and weaer ‘ondtions trandte UK. cet or twenty ive yor. MAST Fi ENT (AS "TED TO A SUBMARINE TELEPHONE CABLE REPAIR SHIP RIS; BULT 1975)‘AUXILIARY THRUSTERS Inthe 154, relatively smal transverse hase unt stared to befited to mercant ships, inary ‘wassstmanoeusing in shetered wate, such as bering alongside. The growth of the ofF-bore il industry inthe Nath Sea brought shout the ned for verses at could old positon i aificult ‘eather sondtons whist working slongside ol plats. This esule ia ships being equipped with ‘incesing umber of powerful trusts ath bow and stor, “The mos commen type i thet thse, which consists of proper wit beng mounted in an yen tanserc tunnel at the bow or stem. The propeller operas in uniform conto of low ad Up clearance so the tad width canbe increased ight out the panded losses around the tip ate "inated Ge page 84). The pow i generally supplied by an electric motor ut hyrlic rv as ts ben employe. Inthe past direction and speed contrel was only possible wit ect current (de) soppy and as this became an inecasingly unpopaar frm of shipboard electrical powe, Thruster were fied with eonroliable pitch propellers driven by cnstant sped aleating cue, or ©, mot However, since the lt 1980's eehnology has developed Myre con, which Sl seed and dream contol to be split. mote. Thi rprovs the tater abi 0 ‘operat ih qual effect either direction. Acimuth raster that on pode thst in any direction re a eatin oun raster. These ‘Se fequnly a propeller unt mouned onthe boom of reracable vera leg hat can be aed, trough 460, as shown onthe previous pag, and looks ait ike an outboard moor. Power i usally Supplied an electric motor made the hal oa verti propeller shaft pases doen hr he le ints gexbor athe bot. As with th tome! hte, speed ad ection contol can ether he sthloved witha ep. propeller or convo ofthe mater. Some vesels actualy repace the convention Screw a nadr arrangement with two or the vty powerful such no-eracable azimuth thrusters inthe ste recess ostering iachieved by otating the str (se pages 152 & 134. ‘These san zits hater tt works uit diferely and is ae iting wit te bl. A ‘eral T shaped tunel is built nto the lo the vee a the bow orem ceteline sad ‘outbl louvered round dis (oil plate) Fed at the btiom. A highspeed pump ited inde the “une! diss water ip ough the hazel zoe tunel atthe tpt Be ocelot trough hes 3k ‘he btm. Tis diets th ust in whaover ection the gil pei Stin. The st stem has 8 ‘downmardcompones aswell aa hizo dvecton so same ofthe power i st,Auuiliay thrusters (cont) ‘Transverse dsr are only ely fective when the ship topped inthe water or moving avery low speeds When te ship moving the ected waterjet increasingly ataches sel othe flow sng the bill downstream ofthe tle aod the ter output decreases This isthe Cand elect {nd could oly be overcome the thnstrtintl extended beyond te boundary ayer around the bl ‘Tess show thr etfecivetster power decreases by 30% 10 40% at speds a low 82 kno ads regligbl ven the ship i roving mh faster han 3 knoe. "SEES ASG ALTER TER ‘VESSEL STOPPED {THE JET FROM THE TRUSTER ELECTED PART OF THE JET ATTACHES ITSELF TO THE FLOW Geinty NTO SHU WATER ALONG THe KLowG Te HL AND $0 THRUST OFCREASES SHPSSCESO MERE SFULL THRUST luARKEDLY With ShP"S SPEED Bow thas ar relatively neffstive at stering «ship ang ase speed is much preter tan thre kos, Its beter to ta bow rae ships tat re regulary steered whist going asters Inger pets, such ay some fern that repslrty have log ter ppoach oa orth ‘The balers cued by water lowing across the tant also mans tha te bul sistance ineeass {a ships euippd wi eral thrasters, though his an be reduced by hiring the leading tans! ees. MULTIPLE SCREW ARRANGEMENTS Many ships ave bec bi with muliple screws tallow fo more propulsion ower ha ight be poste wa single ager sre. nthe pas win sre ships were equa Hed with a single ‘udder ont cexreln, which teh a poor positon, epding flow, tht resus in worse ‘anocurrabity tha sth case of single ace ves A ingle cozeline rer an be efetiv in ‘pe sre ship but wen sere ese que i udder forgo nanocsab [A TRODIONA ARRANGEMENT TDUTWAS ——AWARRANGEMENT EMPLOYED NLARGE RELAIVELY PUORLOWOVER IME RUEDER Posten Tne Cen ne SeREW Ua SROFOORLOW SEED URNOEUVRAGITTY FLOW OVER THE RUDDERTWIN SCREW, TWIN RUDDER MANOEUVRABILITY ‘Turning twin sere shi 7 ‘When uring atin screw, twin ruer vessel shor round, full is pid tthe rade on tbe seo ts ahead ming sre. The rode inthe aster ing flow on he ther sie wl e much Ics effseive an ts poston les etic Hover ore tps ae ited with rues tha an be ‘pli, opted independently nics, bah the aders can be tared inwards “Twin srw arrangements lays coi of ight handed and left handed propels, which ows any ttanevea that on the ster propeller to asi he ship wig when turing chor round. This ‘means tht propels re ounward trun rm the op fr his wit aed ch propels hat must berevere provideaster thr. Inward tuning propellers are fied ifthe ship has cntrlabe pitch propel tt bays tum inthe ume direction - poe LT THE STERN Pee > - orn SERSSE, | Fo seenner Mieke MncsY So ME Su ISLMELY 70 CREED AMEAD DURING SIN FOEDPIIGH PROPELLERS —-«=CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLERS OUIMARDTURDNGSCREWS -»«==SSNWARD TURNING PROPELLERS TRUST EFFECT ASSISTS THE VESGEL TURNING SHORT FOUND. ‘The string abit avin sre ship. on one engine Some win screw vessel ster quite well on ne nie with both maders ating in tan, whist, ‘others in te same station ae poor course eps. Thar are several posible reasons fo this 08 ong thatthe ite ow over tere mmesintely ate ofthe opp poplie.The Could ‘te be ue othe story sre blanking on ofthe nadder of poor flow ound the sem erera Inter ase, the eetve md ara would be deresed‘Te tering ability of twin sre ship on one engine (con) Propeller shi aignment is another fico that wil fect he tering bility om ane engi be sue are lgned to pit slighty outboard the leveraged othe oft ofthe propel wl be ‘edad andthe hydrodynamic force onthe hull produced by alight asymmetrical flow il eae an ‘opposing amet. This willow te ship o mama a steady course on one engine without ‘teessve alder bis bt wil educe the esses ability to swing the ser whist using short ound ‘rmeving Rly sideways 4 fomecrion| [WOMEN THAT SHOULD ALLOW THE SHIP TO STEER GN ONE ENGINE WITHOUT EXCESS RUODER ‘We cantly walk win screw, winder vessel sideways, itis fied with a bow thst. This is achieved blacing the tring mores rods te ort ou noe wih ‘ove bl sueways whi mailing constant heading {ThE Bow THRUSTER Is THRUSTING 7 STARBOARO. THE VESSEL Ts MOVING TO BTARBOARSRUDDER PRO! as pops’ The win rer propel amangement lies azimath trast 3 the ships main propulsion snd so ispenses withthe nd for conventional oder alogtier by sering rh oaing trusts. As Ste peo tiie of propulsion hasbeen employed on soe tops nd ofshore support ‘cls for some ime bas now beng used on increasingly large sip, sucha several athe modem even of urge crise liners nba he advantage of Being sl oc fl effective tt at [gc tke venels fre an af line und so reduces te ship tung radi at sped, evr or 0 than the Hghpefornance rer described on pages 137 and 18. The ship can also be moved ‘aly sicways oredr sound very eatily Hit lofted with bow thers asthe main ‘rpuision canbe wed price ral Power trmsmision tothe amt propellers canbe by a mechanical driven which the shat Gor ‘hetmain engine ives vert eat inside the aim leg uough Devel gears whl sia gear tmrangeret tthe Bot ofthe vertical shal then devs to propel shaft This however, squre omplcr sem, a tims allow conto of bth the power and the rection of tras, othe propeller ‘Sine commonly devon by varia sod elects mote Thi maybe mounted on he op of the ah nit side the hl bt hs arrangement il consis of bevel pears anda vertical sf isi the lees becoming increasingly common to isense with tes y bunting the motor inside the propel iting ot pada the oti ofthe leg This clean 'ec-pod and elecrcal powers [ranma tote utr irugh lip ings on he op of he wits hel whch allows forthe ‘ering stem ort the leg he popller may iter e shrouded bya Kost nozzle as shown on page 84 or eft pen 38 shown in the diagram below digs el ‘TunneL sow THRUSTERS COMANNGELECTRIC MOTORS TOENGURE DIRECTIONAL STABILITY ‘VESSELS STEERED BY ROTATING THE 42/008 TO SWING THE STERN THE REQUIRED Bitction TO PROOUCE TE HAN MULL TURNING PORE AS DESCRIBED IN CHAPTER 4 ‘SLOW SPEED MANOUEVRILITY IS FURTHER ENPANCED BY FITTING BOW TUNNEL THRUSTERS “The vet lg ofthe apd is redo give ita shape simi to that of conventional rade at ths wile the tuning ocean ten to drs te flow squarely into te propeller dis when the ‘hips tuming, The stems also ply ited witha Meg (oe page 136) betwen the power unite to mmproe the shi diction sabity when sering a seed7m INGTI WVERALL THRUST ‘Tho benefit combining the contol ofall the separate thrusters hecane increasingly obvious athe ‘esses wer ited wih an ceasing number of moe powerful sur asters. This et the Srslopmen' of jot sytem that consis af vo contro The mat rus consol eis lly rut ashe vector sum of athwarthips and fore and aft trust whist the aw contl creates 2 diereac between the abwarships has athe Do and the tr to produce taming moments. “Measuring thruster poner by bollard pall Corinna he scprate thru comcos into single system reuires a accurate knowledge of the power ep ofeach trster and bw his changes wih ropeler rn or pth. This achieved in ‘alsa cris of messing the pling force of each hrser when te ship Sevsrd to sone pnt ashore by a long towrope. The Fre or thas, called the bola pull andi generally ‘Beas, omhat incorrect, omnes One tonne of bola pl the uate ofthe weight Sone torse mason ert. 981 loNewtons. The et sould be carol out na water depth "ha ideal a leas 00% the si’ rato minimise ny slow water fet (MEASURING THE BOLLARD PULL OF A SHIP'S MAN PROPELLERS "THE TRAL WILL TEST THE PROPELLER WV RELATIVELY HGH SLIP CONDITIONS <2 ae TAN CONTROLDYNAMIC POSITIONING SYSTEMS Several ofthe ts cared ot by sips in he ohare ol industry require very stable tation keping. Dive suprort vessels work divers from a el lowered through a tunking open othe sain the ships ul imu asa moonpont) and thes suspended close othe diver week site. Te divers breathing ‘mites spl from the ship via he el throh a ub which tees the divers tthe bel Icio tia that el dos ot move mare than about a ae 5 that dive sip sed tobe seared ‘om far aint mooring sytem of anchor This quite lborous process in which an anchor andi grout anchor from each ofthe dive ships four quarters. The anchor wires ae then ‘tersoned upto secure the vest nthe desired pation appeoximatly in the cere ofthe aor pater Apts tom eng ie conuing, the fur pin suring nd cases ilies when the ‘ive ship aso pot sf close tan ofshore platform. The ship can only be cere fom the Dlaform se the nyt ken oysover ts nchors nthe event of dtesoraing weal and The mooring anchors aso ae othe platforms own underatersuctre. “The dsdantges of fou poit moorings provid el commercial iceative to combine the co lint cone o ship thruster wit electronic poston fing o produce a completly ‘Shtomtelcompuseied system which would cmtnsly adjust the overall thst of vessel so that it duu station, Such sytem is known a Dynamic Psidonlg or, nore simply. DP. SUMMER DSPLACEMENT= 000%, POWER DIESEL ELECTRIC DP was develope in te 1960 to hl il ships on sation in deep ocean where anchoring was not posible ets commer application have greatly preted se the eal 190s is elt, Employed in ship operating remetalyconrled underwater vehicles (ROVS)- These submersible “hice ae controle rn the ship an nbc othe vessel ust keep ston with the ‘beri atte long. The base DP ston holding sytem can do thi if positon inp in !macovst racking signal from the ROV bx oes mean fat fe fons serie which can Sop, stand shange dren very Quickly) i contoling the raion of several thousand tons of hip Its bike a ver lage man being take fer a walk by avery excitable small og on sho lead DP gals aed in acuratly laying submarine piplites pd cece cable along specie ous. which feqemly involves towing an undervae plough that buries te cable or ppstine wists ing inon the aed. The stem ast abl to cope with rap varying tow force te plough encounters changing seabed conditions Allthe virious applicton f DP have rele inthe development of sophisticated systems with ap to en difirent operating modes, depending upon wat they ae beng used fe. The flowing pages Toot principles of D? cota but the manufeturers are conn developing thi tcnaogy so thedetald programing ed behaviour o diferent DP set pecan ay considerably, depending ‘ponte maker ad the version of sftwae‘Some bascrincils of antomate contro} ‘We can tart understand sutmated conta mor easily by reusing tothe apie escrito on ‘age 1-142 tose how itmimics the ations of god helms stering a hip underway withthe ‘udder alone. The Relmsman hae cours o ster wit, the seine, be ean se the ships actual ‘sading sob applies cersin amount of helm, depending upon the heading error te diflerence ‘tween tse two vl, As the ship sing ard the cours heading, the elmaman may Fst seduce the Eel, thon pit amidships before ally applying a coutr em to check the sing asthe ‘hip head comes onto the comet course. A goo Nelms who s familiar with he ships stein ‘tuour snl beable to both old a study couse td ter the hp trough couse leans ‘without the ships ead excenivly yang abou the required heading. ewe wants compute to do this proces, hen we must describe it mathematically with euations tat ‘ranma a thi the omy language that computer understand The programe mst stat ‘by defningtne henge na ay that stngisesclery between pot and stad hla ‘sions This is aot as simple ait may tint see, ar ship can be tured eer the shot (shan 180°} or org ante than 180) way round to comets heading end hee are alo complications when ‘he adingpasses thogh the 340" mark, The olsrng equations messi eager from the ‘hip head word the cour io be eered and so pore values ineat starboard eomectve blr, ctl heading) < =480" 0g, -1817 1821-189" et 1360" + (required heading seta! heading) and is ays postive «0° 2 (required heading actual heading) = + 180 ton neading error = (required heading actual heading) and can be postive or negative (required heading - actual heading) > + 180° eg. 11 182% 183° et. than heading error = (requ heading - actsl heading) - 360° andi aiwys nogative We en sow use the heating err inthe following equations to represent the helsman ations 1) ‘Theateount of helm nally apped.~‘The Helasman wil gnealy apply a udder ange tat is soprximaely proportional othe heading eo, s typical he may ae 15” of oder fr 330° ‘une eration bu ony 2" caret fo 5" heading eee. The ammount fhe pe deg of heading emer sow asthe fai’ and the elnsmans atin can be deseo allows ‘Ther angle" a any instant of time = constant‘ x heading eeor But UR = 30° ‘The conta‘ the in’ ar depends pon thesis characteristics. The ruler ane has ‘maxim init of 30°50 no solution woth above equation hats greater han this alowed. 2) The counter helm action. - Ifthe simsman’s actions simply oheye the above equation then he ‘wou cly pt th ei aise when the heading err was oro and the ship weal one ‘oswing paste requed heading. The ending errand, comsoqucaly. he applied el would Ie revenod ands the ecto of the sip head either side ofthe course wuld continaly ‘gov. A elms avoids this by reversing the hein to chock the swing Bore the ships he ‘Teche he intned course an his judgement on this wl be based pon the rate which tbe Reading eos changing. We therefore must replace tne hove equation withthe lowing “we = 3 xheading error + constant’ x rat of change of heading eror bur ‘Wt = 30 The gin also pends upon the ship's characterises. The rat of change of heading rrr is mgr whan the acing rors deresing Le. ship swinging toward the reured ead ‘The’ and gin athe el nd counter helm stings epectively ane if thy re comedy blanca, he Sum af the two temas wl be nephews the heading eae is sl pate so he qution produces counter helm bear the ship sings onto the roqued heading. Tis wl onl 2 ‘tips sterng but imay stil ue excensive rer movement, hip eur nocko igh course ysher-erm onlay wave fren A hela who respon tant every slight heading eis ely to over the ship as, bythe ne the adie hs moved over to ort the eee ship may aveady be swinging back or course 0 is acon only serves o exaggerate the ‘swing, Good tering conta onsequerly lo require a te delyto changing the heim when he ‘aig errand rate ange of arora small We could repute arable dead ‘band'n hich he system ie psed and wating to ste hw he stustion devel,Motion stsiity and steering contol sstoms ‘The previos chapter considered directional stability pray i tems of ow te ships immersed hallo affects its esponse to being inocked offcourse, witout any caective he action being taken. Iw node an suomated response, such asthe ation of an autopilot, othe ship then We ‘Should ls consider the serng sbi ofthe ship ia conbinaion with its contro system, Del ‘Universityof Technology inte Netherlands considers the difreat evel of mation sbi that include saps couse keeping characteristics and r-efnesthe tem ‘Vieconal sbi asthe ono yes att eur the ship tits et heading air being knocked off course. The hind {nd highes level of muon stability reached I he shi con systom ao has navn inp ‘opt th ese hack ono original ack ae ein temporary spaced by a ansint force. iNERSTYLEN (AS APLIED TO A SHIPS RESPONSE TO EXPERIENCING A TRANSIENT DISTURBING FORCE "Tl THE SHIPS DIRECTIONAL STABILITY WITHOUT ANY CORRECTIVE HELM ACTION <-> canna nnn r - Amat contro and DP Compute sono of DP system wes th sane basi principles dsr om the previous page excep ‘hat ow te programme requis equation 0 conto the owe wari) and urge’. foreand af) motion swells the yaw. The say and surge contol equations wil hve differnt ‘nd ait applied tothe positon errand berate of change of poston eor (i the veloc tron respecte. The este mast acudepouion ina from aviation sensors ination tothe ‘cing nm fo the compass and ee af updated a ular inervals, which can bea shor as ‘ne seind The yaw aod way extions can make conflsing demands on the ahwaships tres ‘the progarime mar also nla an order of poor, which ually Uo main Heading contol ‘ore mying ele ‘The wo-tem contol equation give ca the btm of 153s insuficient to determine the crest thr will aways fever the thst when the ship overdose target poston. Ship sally hold starion aginst a predominant current or sen force other mst ean average as drt Spateam, We woul not pte trust sr he ship asin poston ofeverse when shighly ‘upaream che areas eter case the ship would start eid diting dwnsream The t-te nto equation oul nly hold a steady postion some distance downsteam ofthe yet whore the Toston core siclemly Ire tm rode thst demand ht cout he elec he centAutomated control and DP (cont) ‘This bis in thst drestion lo exists withthe yaw contol when the shi’ head is not dein ine with be wine The bese auoplt described on pages 141 and 142 solve his problem wih a anual ‘opt of permanent elm tro the weather helm sting but DP and adaptive apis use a third term nthe control equation to determin ia in the thant needed to hal position reading, This “imegral term rand tren propor othe accumulative sum af position er x duration of positon oro) The BP keeps runing ol ofthe goon or x ix inter) wales, which “plats at every fx adi in effet te aen under a postion eor time raph extending ight bck ethene tht the DP tok conta. We ca ce ow the integral em works by considering how we would manual hola ship on station {nan nino curent We Sat stop sl he tra when th ship fm poston, a we donot Eno shot the curent. We then ty obo postin by wil and era as we assess the current y increasing Sd desesing tt, wht he ship silts back and forth out he ara postion The ist fe ‘osten eon wil be large aad teraating i diechon but they wil based towards the hip being ‘ownsrem ofthe urge Afi a wile we get an increasing el fo the een and the average {hn ade o counter iaothe postion eros gradually minha the ship more consis olds {othe target The integral term makes the DP have i similar wy a random positon err ance ‘ch othe ous the postion err intgal oly aevmltes the bin the potion emo. the sip ‘vent es statin oa the tage. tbe integral tern would become cnsan to ive a steady ths. |Wenow havea posible equation stable fer onlin DP deus demain oe axis of motion “Trust « (poston eror + B'(velocty erro +c’ poston error integra!) here‘, and are the gain facts the equation sapped to heading ono, the the poten cro becomes the heading error nd the elochyerar becomes th ate of yo erro. “This ype of cnt equation i commonly wd in many other automatically controlled syste ands ‘own 5a 72D" contol, which sands for Proportional negra & Dervative’ conte, asthe ‘i or veloc enor the derivative or dilrent) ofthe positon enor, wih respect ome. The ‘Sng and to erm uations genom page 188 ae own as’ and ’PD eontlles respectively) "The following diagram asta How the nel term a ship's DP contol bis up to produce an verge tr daman, tough the quickness at which he foe and aft poston or gest = is ‘ragga neal, hs would ake much longer than the 36 seconds suggested by the pap AT THE 9 POSITION Ft WTEGRAL TERM » Zyxt ‘Ranmne TOTA. 80 THE TEGRAL TEPAIEGCOMTIUALLY UPDATED Th THREE TERA PD. CONTROL EQUATIONS THEN AS FOLLOWS ‘AT THE "POSTION FX a) “TRUST Tn = aun) + 8 + eX beat [GHING, r= FORE AND AFT POSTION ERROR AND i= FOCINTERVAL [AT TIME ZERO OF WHEN THE DP TANES COWTROL THRUST Tx) = ZEROre P cont, “The DP ee th revere of he vector sum af the igre huss inthe thwarsips nd foe and toon! egos athe ‘environmental force’, whichis displayed on the convo console sere=s. The envionment fore, eat he su ofl the average fres thal the ship x pshing agains, which wl inde tal esistance when the ship moves tough the water nd te tow Tree ship ‘owing an underwater plough on «burial operation, Wind can be weed separa i wind sped and ‘eltive dstion re sontinally inp rom an aemomcter an he DP has da forthe body force ant turing moments de fo he wind acting onthe ship tpside aren over range of wind ‘pede ard relative diestons The contro equation wil cot fourth em tat calculates he ius ‘tions ode o coun the effet ofthe wind spurt. Thins known as rede’ or Jed forwarder a0 lows the DP to resco the win efore allele ship heaang of postbon. “Te thu tions fr cach axe of contol ca he be ween as follows to include the wing ‘Thrust = ‘(position ero +b (velocity error (postion error Integral + (wind speed) heres wind inp, then the bis in position and heading ers wl be greater asthe DP must eam the effet ofthe win upon statlon Keeping. The tus needed to cuter the Wid wl hen ‘edserned by teint erm ands is incrpstod it the envionment arse sap he mst porta pt of passing control ove tthe DP is ensuring that can ata ring ‘he ship to tp, which exer if the ship ei vl and yw ate re low when the DP ssivated The DP, though, abo need estonal stably, a shown on page 136 andthe following ‘pt again show the responses of systems with iferet depress of sabi) Wa single distin force Ie lok at the led pois where the carves ross the 20 pion err axis ofthe graphs, trecan tht he veloc enor the slape af the uve x progrenively educed by sable contol ut inrssed by the usable tytem. A sable s)stem apples counter hast Bore the postion eer ‘reaches 0s he ship's velocy is reducing every tne it pss through te taret poston ad the ‘choc rm gin must be high, lave othe poston ere gain. Aspe is usable velocity nol so weak th th hip iil acceler ever sme pss ough there poston. ‘The ine em also rece poston stability because, although it maint the ships postion ‘more comity over the tage in consan conions, it thst conto siete gain 9 ‘hang sit es cancel eu errs in ene direction by reducing eres inthe oppose dion. ‘he ite contol gin oo high, relative to the velocity conto, dasuring fone eat sat the Ship ‘econ ol boat he pt, a sown by the neal sponse ie i, i oo eee = sa is ame Increasing stability make he ship lew responsive o poston errs ects the system cocentes Cr aichng thesis speed with hat ofthe ret (rich, ofcourse ray be 0) nd mo 30 tee teng sty out of positon. Excessive stay i ot god fo balding ship stationary over ast but some DP modes seit as ‘velocity central” whea te ship's fllowinga specified tack Umble DP is obvouty unable and dangerous though some ships do sur fom neal Sly oe or more fhe motion sex Ths nets that the alan ofthe pin the contol ‘Suton ned ening bythe system makers bu ithe silos fe ole enough oss ‘ext eahps poration, the owner may coos cet the problem. have sae on cle ship tht cotnally surged and fo tough nance of 10 mee or in DP con even when he ‘wether was a hogh the say (swash mete) cool wat pod.Aulomated cntrol and DP con, ‘The gai ales re wuly spe consents (La simple trust emma per mete poston error fpermewe’sicond velocity error) bur some systems may make the gain actually vary withthe ers if {hs improves DP perfomance, particularly in some ofthe ore specalned modes of operation The ‘pert cant he ais ofthe (0) postioneaing und (2) vlocyfaeof yaw ens ty sting igh median low tre goin ‘Ta eecge tres vied fo hip tol! tion aspen sti is cbr Sete bythe nara prevailing physi factors suchas curent wind ee, rears ofthe balance of ins ‘nthe contol equations. the intel em gin seduced, he the actual ner of positon eror ‘vith ie te the re under he potion cor tie graph) that rogue pre he nay {Seraph wil incense: The Conta uation gain be alanced to posace piso was ‘vith elt low ite! engin, soa age umber of biked positon ero mt accurate to Produce the average rst sulicient wo enter the prevaling een or sarface dit The ship tps ‘ute edly ut lose on the get relatively showy. Thaksin do’ pered orally sould berween en ad every manus depeadaig ype the crcunstanes an the eel af poston ero tht 'sacepablefor the ships operon The intel ter similey takes time ora changes inthe ‘vironment fre, Because the previous iain poston evor and consequent average ths demand ‘only appears when the DP has eceived succtpoiion errs inthe eppsite diesion. DP stems should be abl cope with gradual changes witout the ship wandering 00 fr off station but sen changes an rest in ae pston ers that persist wl the previous is Being raul Tooter’ and over-writen by abe bias to mutch dhe change of stunion. Most DP syst Solve this by mw inci ft oar’ option, which amples th poston eer ti added wo the postin vor inerl fra ied perio f time, nt by count dw that appears the ‘pear’ sre afte the command has bee atared. This aceleratesthe rate a which the integral tem is overriten by new positon cor to change the envionment force to elect he ne ‘Suan Fat lear’ ar only been available ios abou 2001 aod 0 ole yt tty not have ~ ee a} ¥. MULTIPLIER por Sap eae] (a) [SR |e Usb (et] fee | Sete ‘Model conte IF the avigaton input fi, hen he DP contol equations wil civ no fuer poston errs and So the poston enor and vel ero tht demands ted to rr. The oly trust Jang tat hen ‘emai nthe postion contol equation wl be the average environments fhe nepal tm ‘ndany fed Seward ust determine bythe wid ppt fom the emomcte, his has esa Selected bef the fire of poston input Heading contra wl be unafested proving tht the DP Is sill ceiving inputs rom the yr, This station i known 8s mode como an toush tinue basi itcanbesupeisingly elective timing the dit of station she ship was previously baling othe tet oti esonablyscady contions, This als applies a moving target provided that the ship veloity was constant) As we wl se the fllowng pages, DP contol oat ‘compares predcieas of thes’ poston eos withthe navigation ip, so model sna ean ‘continue changing he ius demands bed onthe pedi positon errs bt ony ntl the DP thik the ship isback on ston. Model coal ives ships time to ety the ft ba is import otto chang any ofthe DP seins. Selacting an anemometer afer tbe vito, fr ‘example, woud Bea bad is, wind ffs wl already be incuded theese oe,‘ering th inputted position data Most ees should member faking messursmens in schol pyc experiments, suchas the stretch ‘of asprin for differen lad, n which the data was suposed to produce a sbaight line graph but the ‘point neve gute fal nto ine. The eacher would say. Never mid, us draw the best stag ine Trough th seer of oi. he ine ta goes the loset ote ose! points). Drawing the ‘Dos sain totally ters tal to vans in the mesa ta butt vaty risa the “Ssumptons that the experiment resus should acaly give ax trptsine graph and hat the errs inthe pots off th ine are random so conseqerly cance each ake out Sach random ors ae owas hie nde” and fering techniques ty o separ hese out fram the uneryingpater. ‘The DP ln sn the ality af the again an heading input which ke ll measurements Contain randon vations Ifthe DP ses the ship moving ard he eget position, wl respond {othese lange in positon cor, regardless of whether they are real movements ms. The DP wil onsoquen, eats real postin ees a it thst the ship abot to core fo sprios postion ‘srs ducto variations of accuracy inthe navigation data This sunavouabe to a cern extent as ‘eal and spurious movements of te ship are often initnguisabl he positon data, Unwasted ‘haat city though can be reduced bypassing the navigation data through a degre of Filey that ‘ede the ce exten changes poston eror before wing theo contol he ras demands. “Te pric ierng proces tht cow alos niveraly wd to oth i asd on the ‘Kalman {filter sch 2s developed fer he US. space programme to con the pth of space crf bu now ‘as wide range of applicaons. The DP conimaly prec the postion erate next fx from the ‘ht apd the hp and then roles beeen te predic and eased postin ees, 0 tc base cf the rie acer, alain the mt proable exited or lered positon ero ‘The ited portion eror nen ured asthe bai forthe next prediction and put int the conta. Satins odteine the ts densa The ler eguies certain infomation sachs measure ‘lth pecan of ts predicted pstions an of te poston xe the Kalman iter programmes can ‘Bomads continually re-set the pression of ach new apt nd agus the emotion face ‘ssc This pacar process involve complex mathematic snd readers whe lok up Kalman ‘ier website on the Inerc ( Thave done) ar ikl find themselves imncrsod in strange and lien ery However, we need not bacome oo botored by thi, as DP stems ae genealy ‘roped with simple def ierpolaon ctor, which is kbowa asthe "Ralman gd’ ‘A ships pion i obviously expressed in wo-dimensons but a we have sen wth the conto ‘Sous we can rgd th fore and aft and the athwarthip ste opr, which maker explaining the filter acuon a simple. The filerng process x only valid fhe atom vation nposon possibile is stb ‘normally sbout te poston er vale. Normal istbton fs dted maeratally but we an {st ae 0 mean tat the probability ofthe sip Heng somewhere le ae ha given postion ‘iminiss io «parca ay with increasing dimtance fm he tated value This reac = ‘hance el shape raph tha shows the spread of al the possible postion ems andthe ‘robbs of he ship actly being there. High precision postions produce all hn bell shaped lt walt low pression postions ge a shor and wide pe. nec ase bough, the total ara tuner the ure ean a8 represents 100% of he posites. "he Kalmin gain intrpolation factor determines bow fr the predicted poston er sould he ered ‘omarde eer measured ro the xt give the ered postin err. Ifthe DP i oi th ostn fits auch more acct than its predicted pestion thes te Kalman pins high nd ilered Dostion ors are very heavily based of Meighedtowadsthe postion errs measured frm the fixes, Theprecision or accra of the measured poston err ean be represented by the dsttuton ‘ures aval om the coiderable data on the prTomnnces of he arous aviation systems “Tae pred postion eer wil aly be les precise at depends on Both the accuracy a its previous here potion err andthe rebblity of he DP calelton. This applies ner thst (Le {otal hrs mina htt to overcome the enironmena ors) 0th his massa spe ‘xt meson. The D? estimates net thr by puting the poston and eect ro ‘mands tos prosrammed model ofthe thst’ performance bat includes the ue equed othe ‘hrstrs rrp pt give areal vale forthe nt thr ove he tie interval ere Fes