República Bolivariana De Venezuela

Instituto Universitario De San Francisco

San Francisco-Edo Zulia
Carrera: Contaduría
Asignatura: Ingles II

Dictionary

Name:
Carlos Acosta
I.D. 22.124.782

San Francisco, Septiembre 2020

 1. What is a dictionary?

1: a reference source in print or electronic form containing words usually

alphabetically arranged along with information about their
forms, pronunciations, functions, etymologies, meanings, and syntactic and
idiomatic uses.

2: a reference book listing alphabetically terms or names important to a

particular subject or activity along with discussion of their meanings
and applications.

3: a reference book listing alphabetically the words of one language and
showing their meanings or translations in another language.

4: a computerized list (as of items of data or words) used for reference (as for
information retrieval or word processing).

2. Types of dictionary

In a general dictionary, each word may have multiple meanings. Some

dictionaries include each separate meaning in the order of most common usage
while others list definitions in historical order, with the oldest usage first.
In many languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only
the undeclined or unconjugated form appears as the headword in most
dictionaries. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book, but
some newer dictionaries, like StarDict and the New Oxford American
Dictionary are dictionary software running on PDAs or computers. There are
also many online dictionaries accessible via the Internet.

Specialized dictionaries

According to the Manual of Specialized Lexicographies, a specialized

dictionary, also referred to as a technical dictionary, is a dictionary that focuses
upon a specific subject field. Following the description in The Bilingual LSP
Dictionary, lexicographers categorize specialized dictionaries into three types:
A multi-field dictionary broadly covers several subject fields (e.g. a business
dictionary), a single-field dictionary narrowly covers one particular subject field
(e.g. law), and a sub-field dictionary covers a more specialized field (e.g.
constitutional law). For example, the 23-language Inter-Active Terminology for
Europe is a multi-field dictionary, the American National Biography is a single-
field, and the African American National Biography Project is a sub-field
dictionary. In terms of the coverage distinction between "minimizing
dictionaries" and "maximizing dictionaries", multi-field dictionaries tend to
minimize coverage across subject fields (for instance, Oxford Dictionary of
World Religions and Yadgar Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms)
whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to maximize coverage within
a limited subject field (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology).
Another variant is the glossary, an alphabetical list of defined terms in a
specialized field, such as medicine (medical dictionary).
Prescriptive vs. descriptive
 Lexicographers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of
words: prescriptive or descriptive. Noah Webster, intent on forging a distinct
identity for the American language, altered spellings and accentuated
differences in meaning and pronunciation of some words. This is why American
English now uses the spelling color while the rest of the English-speaking world
prefers colour. (Similarly, British English subsequently underwent a few spelling
changes that did not affect American English; see further at American and
British English spelling differences.)

Large 20th-century dictionaries such as the Oxford English

Dictionary (OED) and Webster's Third are descriptive, and attempt to describe
the actual use of words. Most dictionaries of English now apply the descriptive
method to a word's definition, and then, outside of the definition itself, provide
information alerting readers to attitudes which may influence their choices on
words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily
confused. Merriam-Webster is subtle, only adding italicized notations such
as, sometimes offensive or stand (nonstandard). American Heritage goes
further, discussing issues separately in numerous "usage
notes." Encarta provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering
warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many
to be offensive or illiterate, such as, "an offensive term for..." or "a taboo term
meaning...".

Because of the widespread use of dictionaries in schools, and their

acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language
does affect usage to some degree, with even the most descriptive dictionaries
providing conservative continuity. In the long run, however, the meanings of
words in English are primarily determined by usage, and the language is being
changed and created every day. ] As Jorge Luis Borges says in the prologue to
"El otro, el mismo": "It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial
repositories, put together well after the languages they define. The roots of
language are irrational and of a magical nature."

Sometimes the same dictionary can be descriptive in some domains and

prescriptive in others. For example, according to Ghil'ad Zuckermann,
the Oxford English-Hebrew Dictionary is "at war with itself": whereas its
coverage (lexical items) and glosses (definitions) are descriptive and colloquial,
its vocalization is prescriptive. This internal conflict results in absurd sentences
such as hi taharóg otí kshetiré me asíti lamkhonít (she'll tear me apart when she
sees what I've done to the car). Whereas hi taharóg otí, literally 'she will kill me',
is colloquial, me (a variant of ma 'what') is archaic, resulting in a combination
that is unutterable in real life.

Historical dictionaries

A historical dictionary is a specific kind of descriptive dictionary which

describes the development of words and senses over time, usually using
citations to original source material to support its conclusions.
Dictionaries for natural language processing
 In contrast to traditional dictionaries, which are designed to be used by
human beings, dictionaries for natural language processing (NLP) are built to be
used by computer programs. The final user is a human being but the direct user
is a program. Such a dictionary does not need to be able to be printed on paper.
The structure of the content is not linear, ordered entry by entry but has the
form of a complex network (see Diathesis alternation). Because most of these
dictionaries are used to control machine translations or cross-lingual information
retrieval (CLIR) the content is usually multilingual and usually of huge size. In
order to allow formalized exchange and merging of dictionaries, an ISO
standard called Lexical Markup Framework (LMF) has been defined and used
among the industrial and academic community.

Further information: Machine-readable dictionary

Other types
 Bilingual dictionary
 Collegiate dictionary (American)
 Learner's dictionary (mostly British)
 Electronic dictionary
 Encyclopedic dictionary
 Monolingual learner's dictionary
o Advanced learner's dictionary
 By sound
o Rhyming dictionary
 Reverse dictionary (Conceptual dictionary)
 Visual dictionary
 Satirical dictionary
 Phonetic dictionary

3. What are entries dictionary?

 The entry is each word defined in a dictionary.

 Many words have only one meaning, but others have more; each of
these meanings is a meaning.
 The set formed by the entry and its meanings is called
a dictionary article .

 What information do the dictionaries provide for each entry?

General dictionaries give a lot of information about each entry.  They can
report on the following aspects:

 morphological data
 meaning or meanings, depending on whether it has one or more
meanings
 examples
 field or specialty in which it is used with that meaning
  indications on its validity (archaism, neologism ...), on the geographical
area, if not general (Aragonese, Americanism ...), on the linguistic level
(colloquial, vulgar, popular) and other marks (ironic, bureaucratic,
childish , derogatory ...)
 synonyms, antonyms, phrases and idioms and meanings of the family
environment.
 etymology or origin of the word.
 
This information is marked with words or abbreviations that help to
understand its meaning.  Example:

4. What are dictionary abbreviations?

 Abbreviations written with a capital letter always appear like this in the
Dictionary (eg Burg., Fórm.). Those written with a lower case initial, on
the other hand, may appear written in this way or with a capital letter
("apoc." / "Apóc.").

 Abbreviations that develop gender-varying words can substitute for both

masculine and feminine (eg, 'it.' Can be equivalent to 'Italian' or 'Italian').

 Any abbreviation that is postponed by - s becomes the same concept,

but expressed in the plural (eg, "exprs." 'Expressions', "locs." 'Phrases',
etc.).

 Some abbreviated forms correspond to two possible developments (eg,

"fr.", Which can mean 'French' or 'phrase'), or, inserted in different
sequences - represented in this list in brackets -, have different meanings
(eg 't.' in 'adv. t.' 'adverb of time ' or in 'utcs' ' also used as a noun'). The
context in which these abbreviations are presented clears any doubt
about their interpretation.

 With very few exceptions, abbreviations and symbols of general use

used in the Dictionary ("etc.", "eg", "km" ...) are not included. This type of
 abbreviations is adequately explained in the Spelling published by the
Royal Spanish

to. tall
TO. Andes Andes area
abl. ablative
abbrev. abbreviation
TO. Caribbea Caribbean area
n
accept. meaning
shortened shortening
acron. acronym
act. active
accuse. accusative
Acús. acoustics
adapt. adaptation
adj. adjective
adv. adverb; adverbial
advers. adversative
Aer. aeronautics; astronautics
affect. affective
afér. aphaeresis
affirmed. affirmation
Agr. farming
TO. Guar. Guaranitic area
aim. Aymara
to the. German
To the. Alava
Alb. Albacete
Alic. Alicante
Alm. Almeria
Alq. alchemy
alterac. disturbance
alus. allusion
A.M. America
amb. ambiguous
Am. Cen. Central America
amer. American
Am. Mer. South America
Anat. anatomy
And. Andalusia
ant. old; outdated; formerly
Ant. Antilles
antonom. antonomasia
Anthrop. anthropology
apl. applied
apoc. apocope
apos. apposition
Ar. Aragon
ar. Arab
arag. Aragonese
Arg. Argentina
TO. R. Silver Rio de la Plata area
Arch. architecture
Archeol. archeology
art. Article
ast. Asturian
Ast. Asturias
Astr. astronomy; astrology
atom. atomic
increase. augmentative
aux. assistant; Auxiliar verb
Av. Avila
b. low
Bad. Badajoz
Bal. Balearic Islands
Barc. Barcelona
berb. Berber
Bil. Bilbao
Biol. biology
Biochem. biochemistry
Bowl. Bolivia
Bot. botany
burg. Burgos
Burg. Burgos
c. how
[adv.] c. [Adverb of quantity
c circa ('around the specified date')
Các. Cáceres
Cad. Cadiz
Dog. Canary Islands
qty quantity
Cantb. Cantabria
Carp. carpentry
cast. Spanish
Cast. Castile
cat. Catalan
Cat. Catalonia
celtolat. celtolatino
cf. confer ('compare, see')
scient. scientific
Cineg. hunting
Cinem. cinematography
classical classic
C. Mex. Mexico City
Cabbage. Colombia
collect. collective
colloq. colloquial
com. common name in terms of gender
Com. Commerce
comp. comparative
completed. completive
compos. compositional
conc. concessive
condition conditional
conj. conjunction
conjug. conjugation
set conjunctive
consec. consecutive
Build building
contracc. contraction
copulate. copulative
Córd. Cordova
correlat. correlative
C. Real Real city
C. Rica Costa Rica
Cronol. chronology
Cuen. Basin
cult. worship
dat. dative
defect. defective; defective verb
deformac. deformation
dem. demonstrative
D.E.P. sports
der. derivative
Right right
desc. unknown
contempt. derogatory
his. outdated
deter. determined
dialect. dialectal
dim. diminutive
disc. discussed
distrib. distributive
disjunct. disjunctive
Ecd. ecdotic
Ecol. ecology
Econ. economy
Ecuad. Ecuador
Electr. electricity; electronics
elem. element
The Salv. The Savior
Equit. horse riding
Esc. sculpture
writing written
Fencing fencing
esp. Spanish
Esp. Spain
Be. statistics
I study student
etym. etymology
euphem. euphemism; euphemistic
eusk. euskera
excl. exclamatory
expr. expression; expressive
ext. extension
Ext. Estremadura
F. female; female name
fest. festive
fig. figurative
Fil. philosophy
Filip. Philippines
Phys. physical
flam. Flemish
Fon. phonetics; phonology
Form. formula
Photogr. Photography
fr. French
fr. sentence
freq. frequentative
fut. future
Gal. Galicia
gall. Galician
gall. port. Galician Portuguese
galolat. galolatin
Gen. genetics
genit. genitive
Geogr. geography
Geol. geology
Geom. geometry
ger. gerund
germ. Germanic
germ. slang
gót. Gothic
gr. Greek
Gram. grammar
Great. Pomegranate
Great Can. Gran Canaria
grecolat. Greco-Latin
Guad. Guadalajara
guar. guarani
Guat. Guatemala
Guin. Equatorial Guinea
Guip. Guipúzcoa
hebr. Hebrew
Heraldry heraldry
hisp. Hispanic
Hist. history
Hond. Honduras
Footprint. Huelva
Hues. Huesca
ilat. illative
imit. imitative
imper. imperative
imperf. imperfect
impers. impersonal; impersonal verb
Print printing
inc. uncertain
incoat. inchoative
indef. undefined
indet. indeterminate
indicated. indicative
infant. childish
infinit. infinitive
infl. influenced; influence; influence
Inform. computing
Ingen. engineering
English English
intens. intensive
interj. interjection; interjectional
questioned interrogative
intr. intransitive; Intransitive verb
inus. unusual, unusual
invar. invariable
irl. Irish
irony. ironic
irregular irregular
Item. Italian
jap. Japanese
jerg. jargon; jergal
l. of place
The t. Latin; Latin
leng. language
Lion. leonese
Lev. Spanish lift
Ling. linguistics
loc. locution
m. male; male name
[adv.] m. [adverb of] manner
[u.] m. [used] more
m. or. same origin
Mad. Madrid
Wrong. Malaga
malson. rude
Man. La Mancha
Sea. Marine
Mat. maths
may. capital letter
Mech. mechanics
Med. medicine
mediev. medieval
metapl. metaplasm
metát. metathesis
Meteor. meteorology
Metr. metrics
Mex. Mexico
Thousand. militia
Mit. mythology
mod. modern
Morph. morphology
mozár. mozarabic
Mur. Murcia
Mus. music
n. neutral
n. scient. scientific name
np own name
Naut. nautical
Nav. Navarre
neerl. dutch
neg. denial
negat. negative
Nic. Nicaragua
nom. nominative
nord. Nordic
num. numeral
no. number
Numism. numismatics
occid .; occid. western
onomat. onomatopoeia; onomatopoeic
Opt. optics
or. origin
ord. of order
orient .; orient Oriental
.
Ortogr .; Orth orthography
ogr.
Pal. Palencia
Bread. Panama
Pair. Paraguay
part. participle
country. passive
perf. perfect
pers. person
person. personal
worse. pejorative
Pint. painting
pl. plural
poet. poetic
pop. popular
port. Portuguese
poses. possessive
pref. prefix
prep. preposition
prepos. prepositional
pres. Present
pret. preterite
P. Rico Puerto Rico
priv. privative
prnl. pronominal; pronominal verb
pron. pronoun
pronom. pronominal
prov. Provencal
Psicol. psychology
p. us. little-used
P. Vasco Basque Country
Chem. chemistry
R. Dom. Dominican Republic
reg. regular
[brand] reg. [trademark] registered
came back. regressive
Rel. religion
relat. relative
Ret. rhetoric
rur. rural
s. noun
Salt. Salamanca
sanskrit. Sanskrit
Sec Segovia
sent. sense
Sev. Seville
Symb. symbol
sync. syncopation
sing. singular
Sociol. sociology
Sr. Soria
subj. subjunctive
suf. suffix
His p. superlative
noun noun
t. termination
[adv.] t. [time adverb
[conj.] t. [conjunction] temporal
[u.] t. [used] also
Taurom. bullfighting
Tecnol. technologies
Telec. telecommunication
Ter. Teruel
term. termination
Tol. Toledo
Topogr. topography
tr. transitive; transitive verb
trad. translation
Transp. transportation
TV. TV
or. used
Ur. Uruguay
v. see
Val. Valencia
Vall. Valladolid
var. variant
Come. Venezuela
Veter. veterinary
Vizc. Biscay
vocat. vocative
vulg. vulgar
Zam. Zamora
Czar. Saragossa
Zool. zoology
* Hypothetical form
~ Word sign (see Warnings for the
use of this Dictionary, § 3.4 )
□ Send to a complex form of
another item
(see Warnings for the use of this
Dictionary, §§  4.5 , 5.5 )
¶ Sign indicating the scope of an
information note (see Warnings
for the use of this
Dictionary, § 6.5 )
|| Article blocks separation
(see Warnings for the use of this
Dictionary, §§  4.4 , 5.4 )
|| Separation of meanings of the
same block (see Warnings for the
use of this
Dictionary, §§  4.3 , 5.3 )
( || ) Reference to a meaning of
another article (see Warnings for
the use of this
Dictionary, §  6.2.2 )

Fuente de Investigacion:

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary
 https://www.edistribucion.es/anayaeducacion/8420048/fuentes/diccionari
o.htm
 https://www.rae.es/diccionario-de-la-lengua-espanola/sobre-la-22a-
edicion-2001/abreviaturas-y-signos-empleados