wojenD aauaquss au ydeabised =960t 5° Ua: a UNIVERSITY OF MONTENEG! INSTITUTE OF FOREIGN LANGU, BRBRBBBRBRBRBRBRB RE RRRBRHBHBERHEeReHeeeheel elena aaUNIVERSITY OF MONTENEGRO INSTITUTE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES: TRANSLATION STUDIES cc (ONTEMPORARY ENGLISH Iv- LISH IV - ADVANCED \NCED ENGLISH) [79.02 ~~} Conditional sentences (part o: 07.02 Conditional sentences (part two) | [a02 I Review I Introduction into Modals ca4 -—WEBBRBEBEBRBBBRBREAaRBREaBHEEaaeeeaeeeeee ee, DiAqNostic TEST 20 if 1 Right @ or wrong W (in British English)? A. IfTknew her name, Iwould tellyou. — _s B. IfIknewhername, Ishould tell you... C. IfTknew her name, 14 tell you. ua 2 How could you make this question more polite by changing two words? Will it be all right if I bring a friend? 3 Which sounds better: could or might? A. Ifyoubehave yourself,I_____ buy you an ice cream. B. IfThad a bigger car, __. take all four of you to the shops. C. Ifyou asked me nicely, do the washing-up. D. . If [knew where she lived, I retum her phone, which she left on the table. 4 Which is/are possible? Tour Guide: Nowifyou __.. me, we will now visit the Great Hall. A. all follow Qa B. willall follow a C. wouldali follow (] Which sounds most polite: A, BorC? __, 5 Which expression(s) can complete the sentence correctly? He VOuUL EE tEE _. in the area, please come and see me. A. should be a B. would be a C. happen to be a D. shouldhappentobe O 6 Right or wrong? A. T'llwork late tonight ifit’s necessary. \_, B. I'llworklatetonightifmecessary. 1s C. Ifyouarein doubt, askmeforhelp. __1 D. Ifin doubt, ask me for help. eee 7 Right or wrong? A. T'llfinish this report if it takes me all night. wo B. ['llfinish this report asifit takes me allnight. = _y C. I'll finish this report even if ittakes me all night. =. e 3 <Adv 8 Which is closest in meaning: A or B? If 'm angry, it’s because you lied to me. A. The only reason I'm angry is because youlied tome. 0 B. I’mnot sure whether !’m angry but, if] am, it’s because you lied tome. 1) 9 Which of these expressions can replace if in the sentence below? You can have Friday off if you work on Saturday. A. providingthat =O E. aslongas a B. provided that a FE solongas a C. oncondition that O G. onconditionthat D. supposingthat 19 if 1 Right 8 or wrong W? A. I'll give you £100 if I will win the lottery. wo B. I'll give you £100 if it will help you to go onholiday. 1 N Right or wrong? A. IfPeter won't be there this evening, there’s no point in going to. the meeting. B. I'mnot sure ifPeter’s coming this evening. If he won't be there, Tl give the papers to his wife. w What is the best description of this use of will? If you will eat so much, it’s not surprising you feel ill. A. futurity oO B. possibility a C. irritatinghabit O = Right or wrong? A, If gave you my address, would you write to me soon? B. If I were to give you my address, would you write to me soon? C. IfIknew your address, I'd send you a postcard, D. [fT were to know your address, I'd send you a postcard. uw Which two are right? A. Ifithadn’t been for Sue, I don’t know what I would have done. B. Ifthere hadn't been Sue, I don’t know what I would have done. C. IfSue hadn't been, I don’t know what I would have done. D. But for Sue, I don’t know what I would have done. a What do you think about this sentence? ‘You want to get in, you pay like everybody else. ‘A. Normal and correct. Qo B. Correctin an informal style. [1 C. Incorrect. a Baan ya a wou Be Se = Be Fi 5 ma | Be g ee g Es Qo 4 oO &PHOHOHOWDEHe HOH HOEeBeoeOaeeeeaeae eee Discuss mistakes in the past Express dreams Give advice Make apologies gee English conditional sentences contain two clauses: If Ihave any free time, Twill meet with yo | If Thad any free time, I would meet with you. i (Uf had had any free time, _ I would have met yor Here As the examples indicate, there are three types of conditional sentences in English, and each type: 1. expresses a different meaning 2. refers to a different time 3. uses a different combination of tenses PUNCTUATION: In writing, a comma follows an ‘if’ clause when it is at the beginning of a sentence, Do not use a comma when the ‘if’ clause follows the main clause. If Thad time, I would come. T would come if I had time, (OPEN, PROBABLE, REAL CONDITION, In the main clause the future tense is used; in the subordinate clause, any tense except the future tense, may be used. Instead of the future tense, the present tense may be used with future time reference. ‘The imperative is used in the main clause. MEANING? refers to a situation that may or may not happen in the future. (Lmay have some free time, but I'm not sure; however, if I have any I will meet with you.) ‘TIME REFERENCE> future The tense you choose depends on the specific time to which you are referring (if he is studying ...’right now’; if he has been studying...’since the last exam’)@eweene eee eeeeteee ee eee a The modal you choose depends on the specific meaning you want to communicate ‘he will pass the test (there is no doubt in my mind) the might pass the test (I’m not sure, but I think he will) A great many combinations of tenses may be used in open conditions: 1. Present tense in ‘if’ clause Tense in main clause If you are right, I’m wrong. Present If you help me, Twill help you. Future If get this right, I shall have answered every question correctly. Future Perfect If stay till May, I'll have been working here for 20 years. Future Perfect Progressive If he gets the job, he'll be going abroad. Future Progressive | If what you say is right, then what I said | was wrong. Past ‘you should meet Henry, tell him I want o see him. Imperative The form with should is usually used when some course of action is to be envisaged in certain possible future circumstances. It is thus most frequently employed when the main clause is a command or a question. Ifhe should come, please give him this book. If you should be passing, do come, see us. If the train should be late, what will you do? 2, Past tense in ‘if’ clause Tense in main clause | IfTsaid that I apologize, Present | If I said that I was mistaken. Past | If made a mistake, I will try to fix it. Future eee eee Boo EERE eee 3. Present Perfect tense in Tense in main clause If have made a mistake, I will The Future Tense is not used in ‘if’ clauses even when the meaning is future: I shall go for a walk if the rain will stop. (wrong) I shall go for a walk if the rain stops. (right)Will is only possible in such cases if itis used to express willingness: If you will sign this agreement, I will give you the money at once. This could be expressed rather more indirectly, diffidently or politely with would: If you would sign this agreement, I will ... Should can be used in conditional clauses of open condition indicating that fulfillment of the condition is possible but unlikely, it has the meaning of “by any chance” and it indicates greater degree of doubt: If you should be passing, come and see us. The only kind of negative we can form with should is ‘should you not’, otherwise we use Present Simple. If should is followed by the perfect infinitive, then the conditional clause refers to the past time: If he should have passed the exam, he will go to grammar school. They express a condition that is contrary to fact and it also denotes a condition possible but unlikely to be fulfilled. In the subordinate clause we can use the modal past tense or past subjunctive. Should is used only in the first person sing. and pl., but should may be used with other persons to express special ideas, promise, determination, for which shall is used: If were king, you should be queen. Would may be used in any person. The form ‘were’ is used for all persons. In spoken English ‘was’ is used for the first and third person sing. but is not considered grammatically acceptable. The past tense is not used to indicate time at all but rather suppositions implying non-fulfillment or desirability; it indicates that the subordinate clause doesn’t express a fact. This is known as ‘the modal preterit’. In the main clause we can use the forms: should, would, could, might, and present infinitivei | Past Simple would, could, might, should | Modals + main verb ~ Dependent (Subordinate) clause Independent (Main) clause ect . | Past Progressive + main verb MEANING? sth contrary to fact or that condition is possible but unlikely to be fulfilled. Examples: If] were you I would agree with him. He wouldn't go unless he wanted. Supposing I went to see him, what would people say? ‘Would can be used in the ‘if’ clause when the meaning is ‘don’t mind’ not with future time reference: Ifhe would take time to study, he could be an excellent student. Should, could, were to + present infinitive may be used in ‘if’ clauses referring to the future to indicate a greater degree of doubt concerning the fulfillment: If I were to tell you of his adventures, you would never belicoe me. I could go ifhe could go with me. If you should be going past the library, you might bring books for me. Conditional clauses referring to the future can contain a time adverb referring to future time: If you worked hard next term, you would pass the exam. (the fulfillment of condition is possible ). If you should work hard... doubt concerning fulfillment of condition). In the subordinate clause modal past perfect or past perfect subjunctive is used. In the main clause should, might, could, would + perfect infinitive Ishould have never done that work if you hadn't helped me. If you hadn't told me I might have never gone to see it. MIXED TYPES Time reference can be different in two clauses: Ifshe were a true friend, she would have come with me. CI present ref MCI past time ref.) Ifit hadn't been for your advice, I should be in trouble now. (MCI present time ref. SCI past ref.)[INVERSION| Sometimes the subordinator ‘if’ may be omitted when followed by an anomalous finite (by an auxiliary verb) and in that case we have inversion: Should I see him, I should tell him. (instead of: If Ishould see him) rather formal Were it possible, we should do it. (instead of: If it were possible) [IMPLIED CONDITION When we have implied condition the subordinate clause is omitted: I never would have succeeded without your help. (SC if you hadn’t helped me) She ran; otherwise she would have missed her bus. (SC if she hadn't ran) [PROGRESSIVE VERB FORMS, In conditional sentences progressive verb forms are used in progressive situations: Ifit were not raining now, I would go for a walk. (Itis raining now, 60 I will not go for a walk.) [fit hadn't been raining yesterday, I would have gone for a walk. (it was raining yesterday afternoon, so I didn’t go for a walk.) We often use ‘unless’ in past references to introduce an afterthought. The ‘unless clause’ follows the main clause and is usually separated by a dash rather than a comma. I couldn't have got to the meeting on time-unless I had caught an earlier train. (The speaker didn’t get to the meeting) 1 couldn’t have got there if hadn't caught an earlier train. (The speaker did get to the meeting) [FONLY The subordinator ‘if only’ is an intensified equivalent of ‘if, typically used in unreal condition to express a wish: Tf only somebody had told us, we could have woarned you. If only I had enough time! This describes how one event depends on another.If it weren't for Jim, this company would be in a mess. If it hadn’t been for this goalkeeper, United would have lost. This can replace if not. It is used in formal language and must be followed by a noun or a noun phrase. If you hadn't helped us, we would have been in trouble. But for your help, we would have been in trouble. Formally if can mean although, usually as if + adjective. The room was wwell-furnished, if alittle badly decorated. A. Change the following statements into conditional sentences: 1. It’s snowing, so I won't go with you. But. aaa aah Bateleed 2. I'm hungry because I didn’t eat dinner. Sead cguen it sane cae as is sick because she didn’t follow the doctor's orders. See eee seas NG af ca te stg pace etd 7, Fanos yous so did wall othe oak Fore eee But... B, Read the sentences below and identify: a) the conditional clause(s) of real condition b) the conditional clause(s) of unreal condition referring to the present or the future ©) the conditional clause(s) referring to the past 1. Providing you behave yourself, you can come to the party with us. 2. Were you fo question me about the matter, I would deny all knowledge. 3. Had I known that he was a journalist, I would have said nothing. 4. If she joined the tennis club he did too. 5, Ifshe had left earlier she would get home now. 6. If Ltaught this class, I wouldn't give tests.c D. A) cesses b). . Supply the correct form of the verbs: Ithe (have) time, he'll meet with you. . Ifhe had the money, he (pay) you. Ifhe...... sess (have) any sense, he wouldn't have done that . If Tsee your roommate, I : (tell) him to buy sugar. . Had I known you wanted a drink, I (buy) it for you. . Ifsomeone ........ (want) to buy my car, I'll sell it. . If my parents come, I... (have) a party for them. ‘They could come sooner if my mother (not, be) afraid to fly. CP RNAHR EVE If they ......-...--++00.1 (decide) to come by ship, the trip will take 3 weeks. 0: Shes recees (agree) to fly last year if there had not been so many airplane accidents. TL TED cesscssecccs es (hear) it, Lwould have answered it. 12 lf [knew her number, I ...........0.11 (give) it to you. ). Supply the appropriate form of the verbs in parentheses: Peeper . (have) enough money, I will go with you. If] (have) enough money, I would have gone with you . If the weather is nice tomorrow, We -...c...sssseussssssess (G0) to the 200. . If the weather .. . If the weather had been nice yesterday, we ssssssess (G0) to the 200. (be) nice today, we would go to the zoo. 5. Lwould change majors if 1 ......scscessscseee +. (be) you. . It's too bad that Helen isn’t here. If she .. (be) here, she (know) what to do i 8. Fred failed the test because he didn’t study. However, if he «0... sass (Study) for the test, he (pass) it. NOQReNnE 9. You should tel him exactly what happened, TED eecsecceesereeerereeeeenss (6) You, I (tell) him the truth as soon as possible.10. I got wet because I didn’t take my umbrella. However, | (not, get) wet if ..... secsiiiissse(temember) to take my umbrella. E. Supply the appropriate auxiliary verb: 1, [don’t have a pen, butif [............. | would lend it to you. 2. He's busy right now, but if he , he would help us. 3. [didn’t vote in the last election, but if 1 , would have voted for Senator Anderson. 4. [don’t have enough money, but if T..........., I would buy a car. 5, The weather is cold today, but if it ., Lwould go for a swim. 6. She didn’t come, bur if she . she would have met my sister. 7. Ymnota good cook, but if T ., would make all of my meals. 8. [have to go to class this afternoon, but if [sso , Lwould go down town with you. 9. My wife isn’t here yet, but if she ...........,] would invite you over for tea 10. He didn’t go to a doctor, but if he , the cut on his hand wouldn’t have got infected. F. Give an appropriate form of the verbs in brackets. Some of the verbs are in passive. 1. If Tcould speak Japanese, I ...........++++-sss(spend) next year studying in Japan. 2. Had I known Mr. Jung was in hospital, I scsssssss (Send) him a note and some flowers. 3. We will move into our new house next month if it (complete) by then. 4. How old .o..sessecsesssssees (you, be) now if you (be) born in 1900. 5. It’s too bad that it’s snowing. If it . (not, snow), we could go for a drive. 6. Twas very tired. Otherwise, I .......:.:::s1:+ (go) to the party with you last night. 7. Vi broke, but [sss «ss (have) plenty of money now if I cesses (Mot, spend) so much yesterday. 8. That child had a narrow escape. She (hit) by a car if her father (not, pull) her out of the street. 9. I'm glad I have so many friends and such a wonderful family. Life without any friends or family ... (be) lonely for me. 10, My father is no longer alive, but if he .. sees (be), I'm sure he .. sabe) proud of me. 8A. READ THE SENTENCES BELOW AND IDENTIFY: a. the conditional clause(s) of teal condition b. the conditional clause(s) of unreal condition referring to the present/future c. the clause(s) of unreal condition referring to the past You will spoil it if you aren’t careful. Pl help you if I can. Providing you are obedient you can come with us. If my gitlftiend Anna had known English was so difficult, she would never have taken it up. Unless you had booked in advance you wouldn't get a ticket now. You would be ill if you ate too much. IE insulted you, I apologize. I should be pleased if you came. . ‘They would be silly if they did not take this opportunity. 10. We would answer if we could. 11. If [had known that, I should not have made a mistake. 12. You'll succeed if you do as I tell you. 13. If you had left earlier, you would have caught the train, 14. [fits fine, I shall go for a swim. 15. If it rained, I should stay at home. 16. If the rain failed to come, there would be a famine. 17. If you had done as I told you, you would have succeeded. 18. If I were an orange, I should be spherical and juicy. 19. Supposing you wete a millionaire where would you go? 20. Should you be passing by come and see us. Seranawne a a = 2 = = 2 2 a a 3 a a 2 a a 3 2 2 3 3 a a 3 a 3 3 a a a a } A 3MB. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES INTO ENGLISH: 4B 1. Bice velo umomni ako putuja cijele nog. M2. Kad bi sad stigao on bi nam kazao sta da tadimo. Mm 3. Dane pada kiga iSao bih na utakmicu. =: a : mg + Da ste bili na sastanku, vi biste ga vidjeli. 3° 5. Uhvatio bi autobus da je bee ao. 6. Kuda éemo ih voditi ako dodu iduée nedelje? 3 7. Kad bi sad doiao dao bi nam najbolji savjet. B 8. Da ste mi juée kazali odmah bih napisao pismo. a. esses a] 9. Da je padala hika, ja bih otiSao ud. g 10. Da mi nije drago ne bih ih ni pozvao da dodu. 1 Sad ne bi imal nikakvih neprilica da su na vrijeme kupili kate. 12, Da sad idu na more mogli bismo igi zajedno. 315. Da sam na tvom mjestu, ja to ne bih radio. B14. Da ste proditali juderainje novine, znali biste te novosti. G15. Da ste bili padljviji, sada ne biste morali da prolazite kroz sve ovo.@ ©. CHANGE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES INTO CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 1. We missed the train because we were using an out-of-date timetable. % 4. She is not your friend; she didn’t help you when you needed her. eee 5, His father is on the Board. That’s the only reason he got the job. a ly got the j a 6. He doesn’t work overtime; so he doesn’t earn as much as I do. i @ D. FINISH EACH OF THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES IN SUCH A WAY THAT IT IS AS SIMILAR AS POSSIBLE IN MEANING AS THE SENTENCE PRINTED BEFORE IT: Example: 1 don’t know if we're late because I don’t have a watch. If | had a watch, I'd know whether we were late. a Nico’s not very good at maths so he can’t become an accountant. Were b Should anything happen to make you change your mind, let me know. If by © Supposing the world was going to end tomorrow, what would you do tonight? Were .... d Kindly calm down so I can explain what I mean. If you would 5 a e [can't go and work in France because I can’t speak French very well. Bein f think you should complain to the manager. If... & Supposing. we do go ahead with the building, it can’t be before June. If we are h I think not having school on Mondays and having shorter holidays sounds quite a good idea. I think it might be quite nice if1 Complete each sentence giving computer advice using an if-condition, so that it has the same meaning as the first sentence, a Don't press that button on the keyboard, or you'll lose what you've waitten. If you press that button. on the keyboard, You'll lose, what You've. wnitten, b Make a back-up copy of your work or you'll lose it. You won't... ¢ You need virus protection to avoid having problems with your computer. Ifyou don’t He ono Sitting too long at the computer will make your back and arms ache. Your... eee - 7 Don’t tum off the computer before closing all programs, or you could have problems, YOU You'll lose your work unless you save it before closing the word-processing program. I Z i 4g You can save a lot of time by learning the keyboard short cuts If eee ete eee ao fh Running too many programs at the same time will probably make the computer crash, ‘The computer will Choose the correct option, A, B or C, to complete the sentence, a Why don’t you use the Intemet? If you had looked up the information on the net, you.A._. b If Alice. acycle helmet, she might have been seriously injured. ¢ If there wasn’t any water on the Earth, life Luckily I checked my diary. If] that, I would have completely forgotten her birthday e You don't believe in yourself. That's why you failed your driving test. If you were more self confident, I'm sure you. Ifyou travelled to the Sun at the speed of light, you... there in about eight and a half minutes. 9 Ifyou're thinking of having a sun-and-sea holiday, yourself from the sun, fh You can start looking at the next unit if you......... Exercise $. i Its2 lot quicker going by train than by car. And even if you by car, it's impossible to find anywhere to park. i ewe ‘an hour extra every day, we could finish the project a week early. A would kriow the answer —B knew the answer Cwill know the answer b A wasn’t wearing B hadn‘t been wearing —_C isn’t wearing © Awouldn't have begun ——_B will not begin wouldn't Begin d Ahadn't done Bdidn't do would do fe A passed B would have passed will pass f Aamive B would have arrived would arrive 9 Ayou have protected B you should protect, you will protect hh Awould have finished ——_B finished C have finished i Awent B had gone cg i Awork B have worked Chad worked3 choose the correct option, A, B or C, to complete the sentence. ‘a You can start doing Section 2 if you ....€. Section 1. if you've become completely confused, you start again, Could you get me a book from the library if the details, Jf.» moment, Fl see if can find another question paper for you. Til go over the figures again, if you Ifyou .....the instructions, then of course you'll get the answers wrong! Ifyou a dictionary, then make sure you know how to use it! If finish my project on time, 1 a couple of days off! zoereoace a Awill finish B are going to finish Chave finished b Awill B had better Care going to ¢ Agive you B will give you C have given you dA you'll wait B you have waited C you are waiting e Awill think that helps. think that will help. C will think that will help. f Aaren't reading Bread won't read g Awill use B have used Care going to use hy Ahad better take Bam able to take Cam going to take 4 Complete the sentence with a suitable form of the verb in brackets. The Earth after humans [fell the people on Earth a (disappear) iSappeared tomorrow, nature b (begin) _. eee eet to reclaim the planet. For a start, if people no. longer ¢ (pollute) the atmosphere, the air d (soon become) lean again, If there @ (be)... no people to maintain Duildings, they (soon begin) _.- to decay, but more solid parts g (take) .».- thousands of years to disappear. In general, if the 6.5 billion humans no longer h (compete) anne Wit other species on Earth, most species i (benefit) For example, if humans no longer j (catch) of fish worldwide k (eventually increase) .... - . However, if Dbumars | (vanish) from the Earth, endangered species of animals m (not necessarily recover) : as some are already too few in number. Some endangered species n (have) _ greater difficulty surviving if no humans 0 (take) __. the trouble to protect them from other species. Even if ‘we no longer p (poison) the planet, several decades 4 (go by) nun before all dangerous chemicals r (disappear) # . And even if the burning of fossil fuels s (cease) o-oo» tomorow, the oceans t (not absorb). allthe CO, in the atmosphere for thousands of years. In the end, though, ifalien visitors u (land) —- = on the Earth in 100,000 years time, ‘they v (find) no signs that an advanced civilization had fish, the numbersform their negative by being, "lle directly my not; : different shades of meaning: they denote neither actions nor states; but show the speaker's attitude fosward the action or state expressed by the headwoord; they indicate that the action denoted by the headword is posse inpossite, probable obligatory prohibited, necessary adisable, doubtful, uncertain, etc. 1 Can is a defective verb: it only has the present tense form can and the past tense could, which is normally used as a modal past tense, and only occasionally as the past tense of can. = ah = = = = = a a = = zm a = =a = = 2 a =a = Ss = = =a =a =a = = = 1) The missing forms are supplied by the appropriate forms of be able to. Ib) They may be followed by the present or by the perfect infinitive: Can + the present infinitive refers either to present or future time; Can + the perfect infinitive refers to past time. II Could as the past tense of can + the present infinitive refers to the past; TI Could as a modal past tense; a) followed by the present infinitive refers to present or future time; b) followed by the perfect infinitive refers to past time. MEANINGS: (may be used to express) permission; possibility; ability; characteristic; conclusion (deduction); probability; suggestion. THE USES: 1 ea ‘A. Supply the appropriate examples. 1. Generally speaking, ability may result a) from physical or mental capacity: 2. b) from particular circumstances (it may be paraphrased "be in a position to”): 4.1. Ability in the fue: can, could, sill be able Can is used when the ability is already present or cestain at the moment of speaking: Could implies hesitation or tentative suggestion: .Pg choose the correct option, A, B or C, to complete the sentence. a b « d e f 9 b a b c d e f g h You can start doing Section 2 if you...C.,..._ Section 1. If you've become completely confused, you start again, Could you get me a book from the library, if] the details if_.........a moment, I'l see if can find another question paper for you Til go over the figures again, if you Ifyou the instructions, then of course you'll get the answers wrong! Ifyou . a dictionary, then make sure you know how to use it! If [finish my project on time, 1 8 couple of days off! ‘A will finish B are going to finish C have finished Awill B had better Care going to A give you B will give you C have given you A youl wait B you have waited you are waiting ‘A.will think that helps. B think that will help. will think that will help, aren't reading Bread C won't read Awill use B have used Care going to use Ahad better take Bam able to take Cam going to take 4 Complete the sentence with a suitable form of the verb in brackets, The Earth after humans If-all the people on Earth a (disappear) disappeared tomorrow, nature begin) {0 reclaim the planet. Fora star, if people no longer ¢ (pollute) the atmosphere, the air d {soon become) lean aga I there © (Be) enone people to maintain buildings, they f (soon begin)... to decay, but more solid parts g (tae) -co-wswnon thousands of years to disappear. In general, ifthe 65 billion humans no longer h (compete) other species on Earth, most species i (benefit) For ‘example, if humans no longer j (catch) fish, the numbers of fish worldwide k (eventually increase) However, if “@ humans (vanish) _. from the Earth, endangered species of animals m (not necessarily recover) pee as some are already too few in number. Some endangered species n (have) —vnoonnsn Beater difficulty surviving if no humans o (take) # ~ the trouble to protect them from other species. Even if ‘we no longer p (poison) ——. the planet, several decades 40) before all dangerous ch : And even ifthe burning of fossil fuels s (cease) —-—nsenwnnn COMMOFTOW, the Oceans t (not absorb), ! all the CO, in the atmosphere for thousands of yes. In the ene, though, if alien visitors u (lend) on the Earth in 100,000 years time, they v (find) no signs that an advanced civilization had ever lived here,ibined with an infintioe into a complex verbal pln inite forms; = if pissive nor progressive forms; ‘Ho inflection -s in the third person singular; form their negative by being followed divectly by not; y (©, express different shades of meaning; they denote neither actions nor states; but show the speaker's attitude ‘fotound the action or state expressed by the hendword: they indicate thatthe action denoted by the headword is possible, impossible, probable, obligatory, prohibited, necessary, advisable, doubifi, uncertain, etc. T Cam is a defective verb: it only has the present tense fort cam and the past tense as a modal past tense, and only occasionally as the past tense of can. could, which is normally used 1.2) The missing forms are supplied by the appropriate forms of be able to. 1b) They may be followed by the present or by the perfect infinitive: Can + the present infinitive refers either to present of future time; Can + the perfect infinitive refers to past time. TI Could as the past tense of can + the present infinitive refers to the past; II Could 9s a.m st 2) followed by the present infinitive refers to present or future time; b) followed by the perfect infinitive refers to past time. MEANINGS: (may be used to exptess) Permission; possibility; ability; characteristic; conclusion (deduction); probability; suggestion. THE USES; A. Supply the appropriate examples. 1. Generally speaking, ability may result a) from physical or mental eapacity: 2. ») from particular circumstances (it may be paraphrased "be in a position to"): 14. in the 2 Ca will be able Can is used when the ability is already present or certain at the moment of speaking: Could implies hesitation or tentative suggestion:eee @BS@GSSRBSSRSRSRERBRBKReRE RUB eRe Ree eee eee ee ae ae Will be able to 2) indicates future ability dependent on some other event in the future: ») is used when there is a specific reference to the future: 2 1, 2. Ability in 4) For mete ability in the past could is normally used (was/were able can also be used): .. 'b) When the reference is to successful achievement of something through aby ‘on one particular occasion was/were able to is used (it is more ot less synonymous with "managed to"). . However, this does not apply in the negative and with verbs of the sense: The driver couldn't avoid the acident cond see them through the srindow. 1.3 Could + the perfect infinitive is used to express a past unfulfilled ability or opportunity: Examples: 1. Lcould bave given him a lift in my car. 2. Can yo if this bose? 3.1 ean come on Sunde. 4, Our baby wil be able to walle in a few weeks. 5. L mitsed the bus, but was able to get there by train, 6, She van speak Swedish. 7. You have a good job now. You can earn a lot af money. 8. After be has finished his course, be'll be able to speak German well 9. I could come on Sunday. 10. She could read and write when she was five. oN Can I come tomorrow? Yes, you can. | No, you cant You can smoke now. 2.1 Could is more polite than can: Cowld I see your driving license? B. Supply the appropriate examples from the set below: 2.2 The negative forms cannot and can’t denote: refusal of permiseion:.... ‘or prohibition: 2.3 With the pastime seference could expiesing permission implies: ‘Something habitual in the past: ......... With zeference 1o a single occasion was/were allowed to is used: : 2.4 Could + the perfect infinitive indicates a past permission which was not us Permission is also expressed by may, but the difference is that can belongs to colloquial (everyday English) and may is more formal and official. e.g: May I borrow your book?He -e e eeee eeeeee ee ee eee eee eee er Examples: i You can dance tonight, but you could have danced last night equal. T could go there whenever I wanted. He was allowed to take a long walk for the fist time last week. In English busses you can’t smoke downstairs. Can T have a glass of milk? No, you can’t AYES » 3.1 Can = theoretical possibility: The road can be blocked. (“Itis possible to block the road.") Could = theoretical or factual possibility: The road could be blocked. (“Itis possible to block the road."/ "It is possible that the road is blocked.") 3.2.Could expresses a smaller degree of present and future possibility 3.3.Can and Could normally denote an objective, certain possibility. When doubt ot uncertainty is mixed with possibility, may and might are often used: I may be away from ome tomorrow. ("Itis possible chat/perhaps [ will be away from home tomosrow.") However, can/could and may/might are often interchangeable: You car/ conld/may/ might wal for miles shroxgh the forest without meeting anyone. "It is possible for you to walk for. | 3.4 When we ate guessing or deducing something we use could, might (not) or may (not) and can’t or couldn’t in negative sentences to indicate negative deduction. (Note: Can is not normally used in affiemative sentences of this type and may is seldom wsed in questions of this type.) e.g. A: [wonder where sb i. B: Sie may/ moight/ could be in the kitchen. She may] might/ could stil be sleeping She may / might could have left (Perhaps she isin the kitchen/ she i stil sleeping/she has left) 3,5 With reference to a past possibility can/could + the perfect infinitive are used. Could is heze more common. He can/ could easily have forgotten that he was invited to dinner. Hl could have sent a message. (Implies that he dida’t send it or that we don’t know whether he sent it or not) 35.1 With teference to a habitual past activity could + the present infinitive is used: e.g. AA few years ago, we could bathe in this river. C. Compare and paraphrase: 1. Iecan’'t be true. Itmay not be true.ee ee eee eee 2. ‘The house may not/might not have been sold. ‘The house can't /couldn’t have been sold. D. Supply the appropriate examples from the set below: 1, Both can and could are used in informal requests. Could is mote polite; it suggests a diffident attitude on the part of the speaker. 1 2 1 2. 3 3. Can/Could used to make suggestions 5 2. 3 4. Could used to indicate « reproach /annoyance: 2. Can/Could used to express a characteristic: | 1. They could have let me know they were going to be late D2 They could have helped us. a 3. Could you check these figures? 4, We can eat in a restaurant if you like. D5. Is cam be quite bot in this room when the sun shines. 6. We could sell the bouse and buy two flats. 7. She told ma that er boss could be very rude B 8. Canyon post these etter for me? 9, Fle cam tell anf le. gE: Rewsite the following sentences so that they express the eame basic idea but use can/couldinstead of the words underlined, rearranging the syntax of the sentence where necessary: Mi suggest that you write a letter to the director. @ You 2. How annoying! Why didn’t you tell me that they were coming, too? B You g ®, Dow wonp! Iie portlet they just forgos 0 phone .on’t worry! They. ; 4, Isit possible that he was cheating? 2 gi Serco eases a 5. Ifyou had asked me, I would have been able to check it for you If you had asked me I.--.....-- 5 M6. Iris not pose hat we were told the truth. We. aoe ? oe eeGEG GRRE RRR KR Ree ee eee eae eae aera aa aaa 7. Ieis possible to empty the stadium in four minutes. The stadium...» Seas 8. We were not allowed to wear jeans at work. 9, ethaps the boys are playing football. “The boys... faeries 10, Isn’t it possible that they were hiding in the attic? seveeseeroreretb. ae F. Indicate which meaning is expressed: ‘polite request “6 sttong possibility @) siggestion. 6 ability based on certain conditions _g) characteristic h) reproach/annoyance [a)pastabilty ———-b) permission Can I borrow your books on strange life forms on other planets? ‘My books are outdated, but you cona tall the planetarium and ask for the titles of some recently published books. When I mas in high seboo), T could name all the planets from memory. ‘You could do it again if you reviewed ther. Cad yon give me the number at the planetarium? Instead of calling the planetarium, we can drive out there tomorrow. I haven't been there fora long time That's a good idea, but look at the skys we can have a big snowstorm. Could I turn on your TV and watch the weather report? 1. Sure. was jut thinking about my grandfather. When be was alive, be could predict the weather. 10. Could be predict the weather avcurately? 11. He could do it when and if bis big toe began to hurt. 12.1 think something's wrong with your television. Exerybody bas got green faces. Your picture tube could be lose, it check it, 13. Be careful! Don’t touch anything inside the selevision with wet hands. You cam get electrocuted 14, She told me that ber boss could be very rude. 15, They could have lot me know they were going to be late. May (defective verb) has only two forms: may for the present tense and might for the past tense; the missing forms are supplied by the appropriate forms of be allowed to or be permitted to, Like could, might is only occasionally used as the past tense of may, but more usually as 2 modal past tense. ‘May and might may be followed either by the present or by the perfect infinitive. G. Supply the appropriate examples from the set below: 1 2 3. 4. 5 6. 7 & 9. 1. May/might used to express permission: may is mote formal and more polite than can; might asking for permission indicates some diffidence, hesitation, or special politeness A Permission in the past: a) « form of the verb allow ot permit is used instead of might: ») might 2s the past tense of may is used in zeported speech when the reporting verb is in the past tense:1.2 May not indicates a) refusal of permission or b) prohibition in official notices: 2. mis express possibilit 21 May and might ace used to indicate a possibility with which doubt or uncertainty is mixed; might indicates ‘greater reserve on the patt of the speaker than may; both forms followed by the present infinitive refer to present and/or future time: ‘s 2. 2.2 When followed by the y indicates that we are still uncertain whether the activity expressed by the perfect infinitive sasfledora Might + perfect infinitive indicates either a) that we are still uncertain whether the activity was fulélled or not: or b) that the activity was not realized: (Note that in reported speech might is used for past time: She said that you might be tight.) 2.3 May is also used to indicate a possibility that arises natusally, or as the result of arrangement. Thete is in this case little or no element of uncertainty. May is replaceable by can or be possible; the negative is always cannot or beimpossible, Copies of these textbooks raqy be obtained on application to thir publishers. 3. Might used to express a reproach or annoyance about sth. that sb. Could d ot could have done. 5. May/might also denote: a) wishes and hopes: 1. 2. ) a.suggestion or a request 1. 2. ©) puxpose: 1... 2... Examples: I think you might at least offer to help! Honesty, you might have told me! Oxford may have changed in recent years, but it's still a beautiful city He stepped aside so that the teacher might enter. Tell hie so that be may know before bis children do. You may| might come with me ‘You might post these letters for me. May yon be bappy! 9. I babe be may sucee. 10. May I go to the cinema tonight? (Yes, you may) SM AKALNS11, You may come if you wish, 12, Might [ use your phone? 13. V'm glad you didn’t drive yesterday; you might have caused a asvident. 14, They might have eft the country. 15. They may have gone fo the cinema. 16. Iwas allowed to go to the party last night. 17, Students ray not use the college park. 18. This coat may be hers. 19. You may be right. 20. You'd better take your raincoat; it might rain before evening. 21. She said that you might be right H. Supply the correct form of the verb in brackets with the appropriate modal: 1. The students next door are laughing, They (play) 4 a game. They (not Ao)e sere a test My brother (sing) beautifully when he was young. ‘A: T spent a year in hospital B: That (not be), 4, A: My pea has gone. I'm sure the cleaner threw it away. very nice, (=I’m sure that wasn’t very nice.) B: Not necessarily. Someone (tak€)...-.sseree000++ it to reception 5, A: [remember there were about twenty doctors in the room. Br There (0t be)...-cssreeesssee +» that many, That's impossible! 6. There’s a knock at the door, Who........ssssseseeessthat (be). se? 7. It’s fine today, but it (rain)... tomorrow. 8 These boys (be). week. 9. Those boys (be)... look difficult .a ptoblem. They broke something last ...a problem, I don’t know them but they I. Rewrite the following sentences so that they express the same basic idea but use MAY/MIGHT/CAN/COULD instead of the words underlined, rearranging the syntax where necessary: [t is possible that it is not true. r mse eee Be your bank manager. Hes Jechaps be ae Je t0 advise you better than I ‘ith he woul'be slide more weal “= lg cid ww b hhe was at least trying to do somehing constructive. 6 vesiapa jou you will find you have made a mistake a You .. ee aa a a a a a a a 4a a eww eWeeeeee eee eeeeeeee es ie : 7. Children of divorced parents can have ) in legal English and in written rules and regulations: 1. Passengers shall not converse with the driver. 2. Members shall enter the names of their gusts in the book provided, 3. Each competitor shall wear a member (in less formal English must ot is (are) + to-infinitive would be used instead of shall in the above sentences.) 6) to express promi at in wit en: 1. You shall have some ice-cream later on. 2. You shan't go 10 the cinema if you don't do your bomework. 5. Shall I / we? may be used in.a pure future sense (and it is interchangeable with will E / we? ) 2) with verbs expressing condition or behaviour not strictly under the speaker's control: 1. Shall ne be late if we alle there? 2. Shall T understand ber? 3. Shall fall il again? ») with verbs in the passive infinitive ( since in this case the speaker is not asking about his own future activities): eg, Shale be given dinner whem beget there?BOGRGGRRRaRRRHHeeeedeeaneeeeeweewaeeeaeeee 5.1 In most cases, however, shalll I /we followed by an active infinitive is a request on the part of the speaker to know the wishes or opinion of the person being addressed. It is used to make offers or suggestions, and to ask ca n or give advice. Altermatives, used in those parts of the English-speaking world where shall is going out of use, are: Do you want me to ...? or Would you lke me to ...? 1, Shall I bring you a cup of coffe? 2, Shall open the window? 3, What shall I wear tothe party? 5.2 Shall he (she, it, they)? asks about he wishes of the person to whom the question, is put: LL. Shall be go? (Do you want bine to go?) 2. Shall they wait for you? G. Identify the meanings expressed by the modal verb shall in the following sentences. Read the comments on the use of shall carefully before you do the exercise. ‘You shall pay for this. Shall I do the washing-up? . Where shall we go for lunch? ‘You've been a good child and when we get home you shall have a sweet...» He shall not come here again. Careers Will you have a drink? What shall it be? Members shall not introduce more than three guests on any day. ‘You shall go to the party. Don't worry. .. No child shall be allowed out of the school during the day unless accompanied by an adult. SRP AARRenE 10. This is an important point, and I shall come back to it 11. What shall we do about this broken window? ...... 12, When shall we expect you? 13. Which one shall I choose? .....cssssssecsssssesissssseessseseee 14, They shall do what I tell them to do. «+... 15. Shall we have dinnes? (Yes, let's) -o..-sssesessseeseeHL Supply the appropriate examples from the set below. 1. Should followed by the present infinitive in main clauses, refers to the present of to the future and often indicates obligation, duty ot advice. In these meanings should is less peremptory and mote tentative than ought to. vaeNe 1.1 Should followed by the present infinitive in subordinate clauses, may refer to past time if the verb in the main clause is in the past tense: 1 2 (Note: Should is used in both sentences to express purpose) 1.2 Should followed by the perfect infinitive refers to the past and indicates that the obligation, duty or the advisable action was not fulfilled. 2 a 1.21 Should not (shouldn't) followed by the perfect infinitive indicates that an action considered undesirable ‘was carried out: 2. Buiaebibeeaktoaokiadktuadeaeak & uw 3. Should is often used in some idiomatic questions and exclamations, especially rhetorical questions. (A rhetorical Y_question is a question that is asked to make a statement and which does not expect an answer. ) 3 Qe veeeeee : 4. Should in that-clauses a ag ‘1 Should is frequently used in shat-clauses expressing a personal feeling or a subjunctive opinion after expressions such as: Itis necessary / advisable / reasonable / essential / important / strange / eutious that 2.145 a Tis right / fair / navural that...... Ie is a pity that ......s.5 Tam fortunate / sotry / surprised / insistent that ..... ete. WD If the adjective is emotive (Le. concerned with attitude) an indicative verb can also be used in these clauses: a 2. fee 3. If the adjective is volitional (Le. expressing indirectly some command) should or a subjunctive verb is used in these clauses: a monsneeeueueie /4.2 Should can also be used after: a) volitional (command, demand, insist, order, recommend, propose, suggest, decide, require, ete) and emotive verbs (deplore, prefer, regret, etc ) 1. cossveenneneneeee 3. and b) after nouns such as: order, request, suggestion, etc. L : 2 Examples: We submitted a request that cars should be banned after midnight. He gave orders that the work should be started immediately. I regret that she should worry about it I proposed that be should admit all applicants. We insisted that be should conve with us, We whispered so that he shouldn't overbear what we were saying, How should I know? (= I couldn't possibly know.) Why shoul it be wrong? I said that so that Tom should be satisfied. 10. It is strange that be should have said that. (... that be said that. ) 11. My dry cleaning should be ready this afternoon, 12, He is angry shat they should be lat, (.. that they are late. ) 13. He was insistent that they showld be present. (... that they be ... ) 14. Lam amazed that be should have got the post. (... that he got ... ) 15. If he started at eight, he should be here by noon. (= I expect hima to be bere by noon. ) 16. I've repaired your car, so it should be all right now. gy 17. | should have written to ber but I haven't bad time. 18. You should have told me the truth earlier, B19, He should have finshed it last week M20. He shouldn't work so much gy 21. You should attend the lectures 22. Children should be taught to speak the sruth, 23. You should see a doctor about it 24. You really should see her new play. gy 25. She shouldn's have done it ee eo ee ee eee ee ee SR NAMASNS a1H. EXPECTATION OR PROBABILITY Rewrite the sentences using should: 1. The Conservatives ate expected to win the next election. 2. There will probably be a lot of people at the meeting. says it will probably be fine tomorrow. 4, Our visitors were expected to arrive long before now, Te probably won’t be too difficult to get over the problem. 1, ADVICE OR RECOMMENDATION Respond to the statements by giving advice or making a recommendation using should: 1. John’s terribly overweight, 2, You's aways late for work. 3. Peter was involved in an accident with his car. 4. We ran out of wine half way through the py 5. Toverslept agin this moming gg J. SHOULD IN THAT CLAUSES a rewrite the sentences, incorporating a clause introduced by that, following the verbs suggested in brackets: 3 1. Factory inspectors wanted new safety rules to be introduced. (recommend) 2. ‘The judge wanted the court to adjourn for lunch, (order) a a 3. ‘The speaker wanted the MP to withdraw his remark. (decide) gy 4. The Colonel wanted his 9ps toattack at dawn. (decide) 5, Teachers wanted more nursery schools to be set up. (advocate) ny P. 2B K. Join the pairs of sentences using the conjunctions given in brackets: 1, He left the leter on the table, He wanted me to be sure of seeing it when T came in, (60 that) 2. ‘The two students talked in undertones. They didn’t want the teacher to overheat wha dhey wete sain (60 that) 3. The police issued a warning, They wanted the public to be aware of the danger (in order th) 5 He keep is wife's jewels in the bank. He feats the house may be bussed (est) weeee1. She needs a new dress, 2. He doesn't need that money, = 3. Doyou need my help? 1. The watch needs mending 2. The watch needs to be mended. be obliged, or be compelled. infinitive and can make question-tags: Need be work so much? / You neean's do that, need you?) money, | Dol need to answer your question? ) 24 ff ive lents ne mc structed Jexic e.g; He needs 10 work harder in future. p 2) with expressions of doubt: I wonder i be need be present Nobody need be afraid You need do no more than +) = 3 Need be go now? / Doesn't he need to go now? WI 2.2.1 The negative forms; (0) He needn't come. (©) He doesn't need to come, sy My have exactly the same meaning: (2) is, however, often used for one particular occasion, and (b) for habitual lack of necessity. a 4) You needn't come tothe lecture today if you don't want to, 2 4) People don's ned tobe ried 0 be happy, -2.2 The interrogative forms: :) Need L work the whale day today? gy) D0 I nsed to bay anything for iameb? = 1. Need may be used as a transitive lexical verb having the meaning followed by an object (a noun) and inflected as a regular verb: Te may also be followed by 2 gerund ot by a passive infinitive as object: 2. Need followed by an infinitive denotes necessity of obligation having the meaning Used in this meaning it is either constructed as a. modal veth (it has only one form; its followed by the bare od struct \s a mod: arb cs us ffirmatively: 4) with adverbs which have negative implications (such as hardly, scarcely, ‘bow mutch I enjoyed the party at your place. | You need never wait for us. 4) With negative determiners and pronouns: No ‘oldie need do it (Non-assestive forms can also be implied: All yow need do io... 3g be in need of, require in this sense it is usually or as.a lexical veth (it is followed by to-infinitve and conjugated ike an ordinary verb: He needs o work more fo make never): I need hardly / scarcely say 2.2 In negative, intertogative and negative-intetrogative sentences need is either constructed asamodal auxiliary or as.alexical verb:Sea 8) shows that the speaker hopes for the answer 0, b) is uncolored by emotion, ic. it does not imply anything about the speaker's feelings. 2.2.3 Absence of obligation in the past: a) didn't need + to-infinitive: suggests that the action was unnecessary, so probably not done; b) needn't + the perfect infinitive: suggests that the action did in fact take place, but it was necessary; a) Idida's need to pay for the necklace because it was put on my husband's account. 1b). She needn't have come in person - a letter would have been enough. ‘A. Complete the sentences with ‘question phrases’: 1. Tom needs 2 new jacket, > 2, His hair needs cutting, > 3. You needn’t write to him, ? 4. You needn’t sign all the documents, > B. Give answers to these questions: 1, Need he go to Brussels tomorrow? No, he «.. 2. Need we do all the exercises? No, you 3. Need you leave the place so soon? Yes, I C. Insert ‘didn’t need to’ or ‘needn’t have’ according to the sense: LT. ++» (answer) the questions, which would have saved me a lot of trouble. 2. Lssssssessescsssesee 2nswet) the questions, which saved me a lot of trouble. a1. «sso (buy) a new one, so T've brought the old one back. 4. YOU ssesssseeseeseen (spend) all that money; now we've got nothing left. 5. They -..--.++++++--+- (push) it into the comer, because it was thete already. 6. She (fill it so full, then it wouldn’t have spilt. 7. We (open) the drawer, seeing that it was aleeady open. 8 She (open) the drawer, seeing that she found it empty when she did it 9. You sss: (pay) him a penny; he gets more than enough from me. 10.1 sessesseson (pay) for it, because it was put on my father’s account. 11. We... ay) anything at all, which was a great comfort. | 12, You --eeesssse0ssss (G@y) anything, then he would never have known, | 13. [know I (lock) the door after me, but how was I to know you wanted to come out, too? B = sss (lock) the door, because somebody else had alzendy done so.15. We eee -~ (wait) long, for he was back before you could say “Jack Robinson”. 16. We (wait) for her, because she never came at all. 17. You (stay) if you hadn't wanted to. 1B. Deeceecccssssssssssssss (fake) my ink because I knew I should find some there. 19. Deseeesscsssssseecees (tell) him personally, I wrote him a letter: 20. YOO vosessssssssss (tell) me, but since you have, Pll do what I can for you, D. Rewrite the clauses in italics, using ‘needn't’ or a suitable negative form of ‘have to’ or ‘need to’: 1. Isa public holiday tomorrow, so, ore not obliged to go to work. 2. You're notched to take my word for it. You can go and see for yourself. 3. Tewe get orething ready now, we shan’ be bbl rash around doing cresting x the ast minute BB 11. The house had just been decorated, so it pam? meesiary for us to do anything before we moved in, BW 12 They offered him a jab on the seength of his lett, He wan't even crn have an interview. 14. Unless you choose to tell him yourself, iti wnnecessary fr him exer to discover what happened. 15, e's annecessary for you fo be alarmed. SRG Ee ee1. Dare can be used as a regular transitive verb: 1. He dared me to jump over the siram, (= He challenged ....) 2. She dares me to do it again. 3. StrikelT dare you. 4. He will dare any danger. (= He will face...) 2. In the meaning be brave enough to do sth dare can be constructed either as. a modal auxiliary (with bare infinitive and with no inflected -s form) or as lexical verb (followed by an infinitive with or without to and with inflected -s form; the structure with 2 to-infinitive is moze common, and the structure with a bare infinitive is raze) 2.1 The modal verb construction is used especially in negative and intertogative sentences. The lexical verb construction can always be used and is more common than the modal verb construction. 2.1.1 In affirmative sentences the following forms occur: Present Tense Past Tense 1, He dare do it. (rare) 1. He dared doit. (rare) 2, Hie dares to doit. (the usual form) 2. He dared todo it. (the usual form) 3, He dares do it. (rare) 2.1.2 In intetrogative and negative sentences date is constructed either as a modal auxiliary or as a lexical verb: Present Tense 1. Dare be do it? =No, he daren't do it M2. Dees he dare (to) doit? - No, e doesn't dare (to) doit 2 Past Tense 1. Dared be doit? =1No, be dared not doit M2. Did be dare (to) do it? - No, he didn't dare (to) do it. M 2.2 Inthe compound tenses dare + to-infinitive is the usual structure. It is, however, possible to omit fo: a 1. Noone will dare (to) oppose. : 2. I nould almost dare (to) sovar B 23 Uninflected date refers to the past when used after a reporting verb in the past tense: a 1. He told me that be daren't tell the truth, : 2, We wondered if be dare come. Gdioms: Don't you dare (do sth): you must not of I wil be very angey: a €.g. Don't you dare touch the nasn, ‘How dare you, he, she, etc: used to express indignation at the actions of others: 1, How dare you suggest that I copied your notes! 2. How dare he take my bile without even asking ! [dare say: I expect that; itis probable that: 1. You are hungry, I dare say. 2, I dare say, yom are right1. Qught isa defective verb having only this form. It is used to express (moral) obligation, duty, desirability, advice or recommendation. 1.1 Followed by the present infinitive ought refers to the present or the future: 1.Sucb things ought not to bave been allowed 2. She onght to tell ion not to be so rude, 3. You ough ta fight for your country. 4, She aughtn's to work 50 much, 1.2 Bollowed by the perfect infinitive ought refers to the past and indicates that an action considered desirable was not carried out: 1. They ought 10 have given them the money yesterday. 2. Shw ought to have been more tactful 3. You ought to have apologized. 1.3 Ought not + perfect infinitive expresses that an action considered undesirable was cartied out: 1. We oughtn's to have agreed without knowing what i¢ would cost 2. Such things ought not to have been allowed. 3. We aught to be more carl in future 2. The verb ought may also be used to express strong probability: 1. Considering bow much you have studied, ou oughtn't to fil in your examination. 2. Ifyou show the receipt, there ought not to be any difculy getting your money back. 3. He started at nine, s0 be ought 10 bave been there an how ago. 3. In reported speech ought remains unshifted: 1. She said T oughin't 19 worry. (NB Onght and should aze highly synonymous. Ought is more formal, more emphatic and less frequent than should) ideesuggestion reproach * Future ability dependent upon some other event in the fu! t0°(When I complete this course, Iwill be abe to teach ature “be able to"is also used. (In two weeks I will be able to walk again 2 When followed by the perfect infinitive may and might indicate that we are still uncertain whether the activity expressed by the perfect infinitive was fulfilled or not * Permission in the past is expressed by a proper form of the verb allow or permit (She was allowed to go out) ture is expressed by means of modal expression “be able English im primary school). If there is a specific reference to theess (in conditional clauses) refusal (will not) ats | determination or insistence habit/repetition thing typical of a person’s behavi | rules andl regulations (legal English) [offer or suggestion ‘Should followed by the perfect infinitive refers action was not fulfilled: You should have told me to the past and indicates that the obligation, duty or the advisable the truth earlier.weet aektk ieee ee eee eee ee eee Inderline the best form. ‘a Tobe honest, | couldn't /can’t care less whether you come to my party or not! b Its difficult to know whether to stay here, or try and walk. What might /shall we do? ¢ How kind of you to have brought such a lovely present, but you really shouldn't / couldn't havel d- My phone isn’t working very well. The battery needs / won't charging, e Look how much they have charged us for the meal! That won't be /can‘t be right! # Excuse me, do you think you could / shail possibly open the window? 4g Just look at this room! How could / might you make such @ mess? h Don't worry about the washing-up. I'l do it /t needs doing in the morning, i. ‘Try as she could / might, Maria couldn't pull the cork out of the bottle. j Everything is going well with my new job. In fact, things couldn't / won't be better. Complete the sentences famous people did not say, using a modal word or phrase in each gap. a. William Shakespeate, dramatist: ‘To be, of not to be....’No, that can't be. right. Pll have to think of something else, b Nell Amnstrong, first man on the moon: Well, it was a great trip! What. —--now? Any ideas? Genghis Khan: I'm tired of conquering the world. | think I stay at home and relax for a few years. Isaac Newton, sclentist: It was very silly of me to sit under this tre. [ an apple would fall on my head Christopher Columbus, explorer: Excuse me, tell me the way to America? I seem to be lost Emperor Qin Shihuang: ‘you take the wall down, and build it a few more metres in that direction? g_ Ludwig Beethoven, composer: I think this music changing a bit. How about adding some guitars and drums? fh Michelangelo, artist: Paint pictures all over this dome? You. serious! I'l fall and break my neck! Read the description of each situation, and write what you would say. 2 A friend comes to your house and brings you some flowers. Say something polite as you accept the gif. “Thanks, but 4ou.really shouldn’+ have, brought me, Flowers!” bb Your teacher is carrying a pile of heavy books. Offer to help. ¢ A feiend tells you that he / she is thinking of running away from home and joining a circus as a clown. You think this isa silly idea, 4. A friend boasts that they are taller than you, so they are better at basketball. ¢ It is hot in the classroom, and you ask your teacher for permission to open the window. You are having an argument with a friend, and tell him / her that you don’t care what he / she says.BSO@GQeagseuedgaeaeaewaeeweeeeeeueecsewvweuueweeweu «| Modal verbs A. REPHRASE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES USING THE SUITABLE MODAL VERBS INSTEAD OF THE WORDS UNDERLINED. MAKE ANY CHANGES NECESSARY. 1. They ate beautiful costumes perhaps, but they do not fit the period They... ee paceeeigaeeetn st ee : 2. Limagine you have noticed from the lecture how complicated this subject realy is. You 3. Ttwas not necessary for us to do anything at all, which was a great comfort, We 4. She was permitted to go out to dances whenever she wanted to, She... 5. Twas your duty to register the company. YOU eeeeesseee 6. Would she have heen able to do something for me if she had been here? 7. It.was his habit to eat an apple every day. We 9. He refused to do as his parents advised. He...., 10. It's pretty cold. Itis possible that itis snowing in the mountains. ere 8. I suggest writing a letter to the director. | 11. Texpect you to be practicing the piano, young lady. What are you doing here? You... 12. I promise not to tell your secret to anyone. I 15. There is a slight possibility that he will go home duting the next break. 14, You are not allowed to park your car here. You... 15, Ibis possible that a new contract was signed, A new contract ....B, STATE THE MEANINGS INDICATED BY THE MODAL VERBS IN THE FOLLOWING SENETENCES. ‘You should get up eatly if you want to catch a train, ........ He must have forgotten his promise. .... ‘You needn't have bought a ticket for the baby. Tt may not be the true reason. . May I come in? - No, you may not. ‘You could get your mother a scarf for her birthday. .. My doctor should not be very busy today. Call him. .. He won't have his hair cut. ........ Pe AA Re DE It can't have been written by my father. 10. Would you put it down for me, please? .. C. COMPLETE EACH SPACE IN THE TEXT WITH AN APPROPRIATE MODAL VERB. SOME ARE NEGATIVE. Dear Toshie, ‘Thanks for sending back the book I lent you. You .... be the world’s fastest reader! Hope you enjoyed it. ‘Well, the big news is, I decided not to go to Italy to take up my job offer. Basically, moving there «......-+ . (mean) a lot of upheaval and frankly I coulda’t face the hassle. Maybe I (go) and been a bit mote adventurous, and for sure, P've got mixed feelings about it, as if part of me wanted to go. Who knows, I . : (met) the man of my deeams! But I dida’t take the decision lightly. I ... (Gpend) several weeks thinking about nothing else. Anyway, what's done is done. My other news concerns my Dad. You remember I was getting very worried because he had been having dizzy spells and feeling all light-headed. Well, I .. (worry) — he has been diagnosed as suffering from low blood pressure so he’s on medication for that. The doctor said it’s possible that his vegetarian diet (set) it off. It’s a pity you weren’t here. You help) Dad, with your interest in holistic medicine. You . aromatherapy treatments. Anyway, hope to see you again before long By the way, guns who's going tated in Jue? Bret I (know) it would be her! It i typical; that giel has all the luck! (read) it already! You must (Give) him some of the bye! Love from, Sue D. SUPPLY THE APPROPRIATE EXAMPLES USING: a) the modal verb will to express determination or insistence: ib) a modal verb to expres absence of obligation is in the past: ©) the modal verb shall to expres suggestion 6) a modal verb to > epres emis ©) a modal verh to express that we are still uncertain whether the activity was faliled or notE_ TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES INTO ENGLISH USING THE MODAL VERBS: 1. Mogao sam doéi da ste me obavjestil, 2. Trebalo je da pognemo taéno u 7. 3. Nije trebalo to da uradi, ako nije htio. 4. Ons jod nije psimila moje pismo. Mora da sam stavio pogreiau adtest 5. Djeéak se ne usudvje da pliva do druge obale. F. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES USING THE VERB IN PARANTHESES WITH AN APPROPRIATE MODAL AUXILIARY. 1. The heating comes on automatically. You cee vv (tutn off). 2. You.. - (tell) the truth but I am still not convinced. 31. (never, play) tennis since I twisted my ancle. (not, sell) the bonds. (imply, forget). You know how busy they were. 4. Maybe you're wrong. The ... 5. I'm sure they will call. They G. COMPARE THE TWO SETS OF SENTENCES AND DISCUSS THE DIFFERENCE THEM IN YOUR OWN WorDs: a) 1. It can’t have been George, 2. It may not have been George b) 1. I needn't have done my homework. 2.1 didn’t need to do my homework, |7 Possessives, personal and reflexive pronouns B_ myself, yourself etc. are used as objects of a verb when the action of the verb returns to the doer, i.e. when subject and object are the same person: Leut myself. He can’t shave himself. Itts not always easy to amuse oneself on holiday, Tom and Ann blamed themselves for the accident. This refrigerator defrosts itself. Note the change of meaning if we replace the reflexive pronoun by the reciprocal pronoun each other: Tom and Ann blamed each other. (Tom blamed Ann and Ann blamed Tom. See 53 C.) C myself, yourself etc. are used similarly after a verb + preposition: He spoke to himself. Did she pay for herself? Look after yourself. Take care of yourselves. I'm annoyed with myself. He sat by himself. (alone) She addressed the envelope to herself. But if the preposition indicates locality, we use the ordinary, not the reflexive, pronouns: Did you take your dog with you? They put the child between them. Haul he/Did he have any money on him? 71 myself, himself, herself etc. used as emphasizing pronouns ‘myself etc, can aso be used to emphasize a noun or pronoun: The King himself gave her the medal. seit is then stressed in speech When used in this way the prono omitted without changing the sens ofthe sentence and is placed afte ‘Anat herself opened the door. Tom himself went, Alternatively it can be placed after the object if there is one: ‘an of door hersely ive ver ef ecb is followed by a preposition + noun, the ‘emphasizing pronoun can be placed after ties nous Tom went io London kimeelfot Tom himself wont to London When it emphasizes another noun iis paced inmedately after Laie Tom himself. T spoke tothe President hansel, She liked the diamond isl but not the seting, ‘WBWore the diterence between, never essential and can be usually emphasizes the subject I did it myself Ut was done by me and not by someone else) and 1 did it by myself (I did it without help), ina ww hws a ob Gaon io pcb Gace Gc a ao 72 73 Relative pronouns and clauses There are three kinds of relative clauses: defining (see 72-7), non- defining (78-81) and connective (82). Defining relative clauses These describe the preceding noun in such a way as to distinguish it from other nouns of the same class. A clause of this kind is essential to the clear understanding of the noun. In the sentence: ‘The man who told me this refused to give me his name “who told me this’ is the relative clause. If we omit this, itis not clear what man we are talking about. Notice that there is no comma between noun and a defining relative clause. Defining relative clauses usually follow the + noun, but they can also be used with a/an + noun, plural nouns without the and the pronouns all, none, anybody, somebody etc. and those. Clauses following a/an + noun, plural nouns without the and ‘somebody/someone/something sometimes define their noun/pronoun only indirectly. The noun/pronoun in these cases is usually the object of a verb or preposi Tmet someone who said he knew 30 The book is about a girl who falls in love with ‘Sometimes these clauses are separated from their noun/pronoua by a word or phrase: There's a man here who wants . . I saw something in the paper which would interest you, But normally relative clauses should be placed directiy after their noun or pronoun: The noise-that he made woke everybody up. She was annoyed by something that I had said, Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses ‘The forms are as follows: Sabject. Object —_—Possessive For persons who twhom/aho whose that hat For things which which whosedof which that that aL PmaPReAeeee Re298 0) nebo 2m gop saBouctL oyp 8 sf unz0} yoe1309 949 SI JEEP ‘s192Igo soN0 Te MLA “Oy ‘uemp jensn ozou sy 3eM ‘9Aoge se “unoU Jadoad © st i29Igo at Loy (Kary 10U) “mvs 7 joy uy, som 3 1EL 20 IN 10U) “3M podjew oyer woz, sven IT asnep aanerar Bunyop + unouoadsunou + 0q + 31 :seouaIUes YI gE ebibuid aa ii “Sppee p09 you ‘syuaps290 sasn9 pony posds 5,31 “sho{qne uocsod-uod royrenen 6 sex (@99q 10U) “pasapuo am soy ausm som j7 ‘sqoape oanejex paleo axe Aum ony UI pesn Ayam pue aay “WOU * SF posnfoa 24 dyes wosve4 ays :yOKUM 305 222I402 Ue SYM Puagknys v190 ky e/a =) axoyee pe704 ay }(@2eid Jo posn) yoryas 3e/ur soeidex wea 994M Panzesn 624} (YOIys UO =) ayo Kop oY, Ke09 soon 2y (HDT UL =) HOU. aDOk 242 (oun Jo posn) yoryss wos aoeKie2 UES UAHA TEIN BION | ‘Ayes ‘asaya “uray :sqzoape aan a S110 ssoj2 yjto sen0y 0 ssOp8 fo apoue asom sypom asoym asnoy D sfensn 920ui st asemyd © + yaya Inq apqussod st asnej9 e+ asoya enissassog ‘1s 03 unBeq uo Burpunss soo J soppoy 24 40 dirs 07 uniaq uo Surpurys som [ poyyyyosue eoppoy out ns 09 unioq Surpicnys som f yom uo s9pp0y aH, Homevore aanejaz ay) Sumymo 30 a8tf) 40 yortaa Buzsn ‘osne|> ayy Jo pus O42 0} uoNISodard ay3 aact 01 jenn a10u S134 3nq “YOR + wonisodaxd si uonannsuod jeuLtoy oy] vonisoderd 2 yo 399140 > “mone T (ays) Jan04 35aq ayy St sty] ‘Bad 049 69 war02 240 of oy sydd oxg sq294 ® Jo 399{G0 ofp Stat “soMoBoye aanelar au sO 20 “veep 950 9m proyeuy “soanetodns Joye 30 ‘OU Jo Spunoduios pur ow ‘ouou ‘you ‘onary ‘Buryssiond ‘tye sayje posn 1949 Ayer) st Hota, Peasy [409 04 20 umop 2y049 peesy [ rousryonyn 409 24] se 8 oanejax ou 20 “ey 20 Ory eae j03900 (CMofaq g ospe 99g) “Kiodkys soygo 240 sop} 4 04 poe sorayyoiyen sats 4, OWUSUDS D Yons PosHD> wHY/yDI4M BEnDAd 2Yf 4 SL sTounso] o20u a st YT “YeU TO Gotta JOU earns Vv SBunp :sosnep eanejor Suugeg gp sasneja pue sunouosd aaneioy @ ‘sy seo.gag afin asoyon Ss 9 znogD St was aK, “poadito weno posios uaag ony spo oscune Pyf0ecr uo} ajaissod suo oun st asousR Dayeassog syne Busvan4s soo 1 pores 24 40 °° pum Bueypaane som J pomyjoyn puss 24] 10 youoasr ayods Bustraaes Some | Moun sas Puots Oy swag pe ySi0g f tre IL 30 * moss ys 14809 [ 7oMy/oyoN wou 2 30 4 0 07 au pon 18 14809 | wow wosf urLU 2H.L AES 07 ayods J uma ay 30 09 2400s J #O43 wow 34 30 07 agods [ woyor/oyen uD aug izes super 20 0 0 vouoo aso ge s1a¢ ang ‘sem q paoerdas tayo et wou) Woy “osneIO aq3 JO PUD aH onteodoid ah nous 1 enen ot 3 aosamoy Nooeds [UO Ul B ayods J moyen of wow 24 sarowm wii0} oun ou Ind 9g uot Jem YON sunouoad aapejax ayy 910;09 paoeyd S| uonIsodazd axa YSBUA FeULIOS Uy f yey 70 woym :uoHIsodazd & CALA + shoyguea ay spd oy, 10 °° Koya 24 poup SAB 94,1 10° + shoqdu oy oye Spd 24.7 20 od says gnogo Supuroyducon stony aut sho (panimuo unouord eane| 40" + mvs | PDH} uDUE IY, 10" * * mS J OYM wOUE LT 30 dvpo} 3209 2utoD 07 Bue Plo} mvs | wow uDWE ay sromaoye ‘unouoad yo0fgo aun RHO 0} uouHOD azoin AS StH pUE “(ON ‘ump pensn e10ur Buleq Eup) Jey 10 yA asn ATEULOU om YSHBU uuoyods uy "TeuLo} A124 paraprsuod st SKp Inq “Moya St L150} 39910 aL WeUR 10 OYA 10 MOYAL :qr8A € JO 399190 “#8 19840] 4909 3% Yoroue oy poyoqom yorg/oun kORENT “uy powy sty nowy poxg/oym aUokiea.y r9s0u7 pue &pogou ‘ou0 ou ‘4poqsroae ‘otoksaAo “8 soIye BaneUIDye aIeIssod ® St eC IN, ond out sy yonoy us 398 as0ayd puapronn ayy aos oye muotu Pro 1s pomoqfD s42m 2oupapD wt 724009 POY o4m as0¥7 KUO. seayyBnop $,s2un0 24g a4 dows 24) ts) 2049s Oyen SpAT 24, "Paysa4s0 1299 SOY HOE Paggo4 OY MDUE OL :pasn Atfeutzou S| owas eM 20 OYA Ad=IaNS suoszod :sasnep eaneyar Sumo. seene[o pue sunward Dane IOY g a ee 78 Relative pronouns and clauses 77 A relative clause replaced by an infinitive or a participle A. Infinitives can be used: 1 After the first/second etc. and after the last/only and sometimes after superlatives: the last man to leave the ship = the last man who left/leaves the ship ‘the only one to understand = subject pronoun + verb. I used to replace an object pronoun + verb. For exarap rst man that we saw could not be replaced by an inf for the first man to see would have a completely different meaning. however, that is the subject of a passive verb, e.g. the first m twas seen, we can replace the clause by & passive infinitive: the frst man to be seen. 2 When there is an idea of purpose or permission: ‘He has a lot of books to read. (books that he can/must read) ‘She had something to do. (Something that she could do/had to do) They need a garden to play in. (a garden they can play in) Note that here the infinitive replaces a verb + relative pronoun be thought that these two uses of the infinitive would lead to confusion but in practice this is very rare as the meaning of the infinitive is made clear by the rest of the sentence. By itself the phrase the first man to see could mean either the first man ‘that we must see (nan is the object) or the first man who saw (man is the subject), but when it is part of a sentence we can see at once which meaning is intended: The first man to see is Tom = The first man that we must see is Tom, while The first man to see me was Tom = The firsi man who saw me was Tom, B__ Present participles can be used: 1 When the verb in the clause is in the continuous tense: People who are/were waiting for the bus often shelter/sheltered in my doorway = People waiting for the bus often shelter/sheltered 2 When the verb in the clause expresses a habitual or continuous action: Passengers who travel/travelled on this bus buy/bought their tickets in books = Passengers travelling .. . Boys who attend/attended this school have/had to wear uniform = Boys attending. . 4 law which forbids/forbade the import = a law forbidding the import 4 notice which warns/warned people = a notice warning people an advertisement which uerges/urged = an advertisement urging 34 738 8 Relative pronouns and clauses Similarly: 4 petition asking a letter ordering/demanding/teliing @ placard protesting placards protesting When a verb in the clause expresses a wis clause is wish, desire, want, hope (but not like) people who wish/wished to go on the tour = people wishing to go on the tour ‘Fans who hope/uoped for a glimpse of the star = ‘Sans hoping for a glimpse of the star A non-defining clause (see 78 below) containing one of the above verbs, or any verb of knowing or thinking, e.g. know, think, believe, expect, can be similarly replaced by a present _ ‘tho thought the journey would take two days, said... = . when the verb in the thinking the journey would take two days, said... who expected to be paid the following week, offered’. . = expecting to be paid the following week, offered. "ho wanted to make an impression on Ann, took her to... = wanting to make an impression on Ann, took her to Non-defining relative clauses Non-defining relative clauses are placed after nouns which are definite already. They do not therefore define the noun, but mevely add something to it by giving some more information about it. Unlike defining relative clauses, they are not essential in the senitence and can bbe omitted without causing confusion, Also unlike defining relatives, they are separated from their noun by commas, The pronoun can never be omitted in a non-dlefining relative clause. The construction is fairly formal and more common in written than in spoken English, Relative pronouns used in non-defining relative clauses: Subject Object Possessive who whom/woho whose | which which whose/of which | Non-defining relative clauses: persons Subject: who No other pronoun is possible. Note the commas: My neighbour, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples ‘this year. Peter, who had been driving all day, suggested stopping at the next town SS eee See eeoe1, mate “40h 000°013 Pied ay yoryer ‘asnoy supp 20 000083 Yu0m mon S ‘090 'OTS PiDd 24 yatHN 4of ‘esnoy SHE] “aaBuoy kun P8040) 9 ust “uBnowg Brsmp 99 1,20 yoryan‘yso4033 umopysy 10-4984} kup P8040] 2 4,us1 “Susausp 29 11,90 yosyon YBnouy “ys2t0 umopysy sosneja ou jo Pus 2a (AeusIONN az0M) 20 ‘yorYas o10}9q SoULOD UORISOMSxE SUD, wontsodozd v Jo 129/49 -doysyo0g kun 70 wary 93 09 nox -paou nok worsorceofr 249 Wo NOK 4083 [11m SH009 V0 30 paot nok uospmeofs 249 10 M06 9038 yx “doysyoog Ku 70 108 ux9 Nok yos4e “sq009 r8ILE Aossay I paring poy ays ‘eaduent sig ane 20093 ou Jo fjoséoy poqrey poy 2ys Yorn “sadn sayp ou 9008 a4 POTINUO 9q JeA0U UED OYA aMh pue ‘azay past '9q pmnow aa yooads uy (ry "wane SF'9 24, suv of ys uo0g sory ‘pping 04 uorreue £5 1509 ¥oI4M “y0I9 IHL 2704 pasn ou Seq ota so9fqns ‘sBump :sesne eanejox Suruyop-uoy, (© * sang fo us} ‘shog fo tf som asnoy 24) searpynyopuae3 wana 4 a400s wsoyos fo uay ‘shag fo inj som senoY on © * Mai fo auos !saddo aug dn powod “pasinug fypng ax0m youyoi fo ewos ‘saydéo omg do patond (© = gam uaa fo poaanas ‘saaqoudejnaf oy) ous 1) “swuapmes Ggsannsin 2490 oy Jo fasana® ‘saoyond jaf ay fate | ( poi082 kitten uo 4 pepunceans o1om Kays ing/puen “tprf azam c22N9 019 fo 190KQ) “pasos kabucn un 44 papunossns 24000 'Iinf Apozszo auam yotyen fo joo “SO5nG 4 (many fo maf ‘ydosd fo dnoid 0 pan jusm 241) (quasa 9 yons 40f addenbs ‘y20es00 24sm moyen fo maf ‘adoad fo dnosd 0 sm jam ogy (420m Geena dn tay But fang png ‘poougo oom st0s toy 190%) ‘yoo ceaaa dr 424 Suse ‘poosgn qsom weoyon fo ysoq “SU0s 194) 359299839 UF Uaaid s1 aua[eambo yeuiop afoul © Yaes 105, “mojeq sejdarexa 99g “sBuya pute 2}doad \yoq +0} posn oq wed wl0} ste orp suroyas + JO + ‘s9 0mT08 ‘[wx9A98 sour ‘stay “YIOq ‘Te + spenejo pue sunouod saneiey g 18 a ee ee ee | | | | | | | “ssn sy Busyoy 99 ho n04 “84005 st se4 + SYS 0F ep fo oops jo ao waspya aay Fs Atgeqoud porn 9m UoReETOAz09 U “Busy 991108 NOE sO) BEOHEN“2BL00D 84 So “gol 18 op acs "kop fo 100408 yo 0 opl4D seo4e "ty ‘Seota ‘oaissossog “om wow 4aunf soe ‘shoprens, to usin stucusy poked | moynjoyn ‘exe 2ut039q pInoo 2 terug s8yyf som *sbopuns uo spuuay poked | MOYER Yj “Aneg =puia axa 28 urewiaz [un sa ‘aoeyd 20 eum yo uoIssardxa ue surEyuoD osnE 3H I] + tual Surquon som 1 Oyen ‘souof Ap OYA JO 200d ‘mp soe Aqfensn tot oa pu ‘wonesroAUO9 ut SuOP AfuOUNUOD 81 SR, Sane]. ou JO PUId aU o7 UoRTSodard ayy enow! 02 a[qissod oAaMOY St 3] squsuuog asyi2a0 snosausd Kean som ‘Fusysoon som f moyen sof 'sau0f AA ogo smOyM 210529 Peoed Aqeuciou st uonysodaud ayy, “paranuo aq youue> unouozd yr, woyas zuonisodard e 3039910 3 poomposnes ays 258 LIP 248 woyeR “qo0l 108 ays ing canusod v so “pong ays woyns “wo pazumh 24g :tionesreau0> uy wournioo axe “umou + uonisodoad v soy 10 qI94 EW aif Jo 299°q0 uo ue J.UPY J HuoYER “Prony Ay 248s 0} Sox 9z0Ut 9q pinom aM “UsHBUg Uaxods uu [ensrun st wontsod sya ut asnepp Burugap-tou e “anoqe Payou Sy “puaaouut 9q 01 po Pawan 'poqredens ruoksoao wower ‘spect ‘wontsreauco uw posn souetaos 8} um, j2noys ‘uL105 oxI09 ax s1 OYA “PaHINO 24 Jour unOUOAd 9H, AMOR “UII nf 81 THON qos monoid “au apisog Buns Som oy “L2yace 04 saa] 49 possod J uowtioo osre oze unow + uorusodaad ® ButwKoTO} sesneID, TOU peo 24) Us S203] OMos “May Papa 20, uonesraauoo uf roureD 24xnb az *@x—A tIBUE 31 JO v29Kqo ‘un oye Sumo sasney> “2 ‘souayuES oyy Ut sOIe] paoeyd sasNeO IM * pasaBBns ay punyos ‘Cop tro Busaup sa0q poy 4210 "Sos pn systuassed Goa st anogysiou Spy 2488 o1 Aon az0U 2q Prom 2m qsqBug woxods uy “ysyug wana UL Aurew puno} are “qraA UreUT ‘2p Jo 2o2Kgns otp sou 4fopEIpoUN ouIc9 YORYA ‘esoyS se YORE SoSMeID sosnep pur stmouord saneiey g8 Relative pronouns and clauses D which with phrasal verbs ‘Combinations such as look after, look forward to, put up with (see chapter 38) should be treated as a unit, ic. the preposition/adverb should not be separated from the verb: This machine, which I have looked after for twenty years, is still working perfect Your ineficiency, which we have put up with far too long, is beginning to annoy our customers. E _ Possessive: whose or of which ‘whose is generally used both for animals and things. of which is possible for things, but is unusual except in very formal English. His house, whose windows were all broken, was a depressing sight. The car, whose handbrake wasn't very reliable, began to slide backwards. 82 Connective relative clauses ‘The pronouns are who, whom, whose, . Commas are used as with non-defining clauses. Connective clauses do not describe their nouns but continue the story. They are usually placed after the object of the main verb: T told Peter, who said it wasn’t his business or after the preposition + nou | | | ‘Sometimes it may be difficult to say whether a clause in this position is non-defining or connective, but there is no need for students to make i this distinction, as the two forms are the same. | More examples of connective clauses: | He drank beer, which made him fat = He drank beer and it made him fat. { We went with Peter, whose car broke down before we were | halfway there ~ i We wont with Peter but his car broke down before we ware | halfway there, We can use one/two etc., few/several/some etc. + of + whom/which ss shown in 80 i T bought a dozen eggs, six of which broke when I dropped the bos. He introduced me to his boys, one of whom offered to go with me. ‘The lorry crashed into a queue of people, several of whom had to have haspital treatment. which can also stand for a whole clause: The clock struck thirteen, which made everyone laugh. ‘He refused to do his share of the chores, which annoyed the others. (His refusal annoyed them.) 28 SRR eRRRRReAaReeReee ea eeem ee eke alee el el elke eleA. Combine the two sentences, Use the second sentence as adjective clause: 1. The giel is happy. She won the race. 2. The students are from China. They sit in font row 3. We'te studying sentences. They contain adjective clause. B. Combine the sentences, using the second sentence as an adj. clause. Give all possible patterns: 1. The book was good. I read it. 2. liked the woman. I met her at the party last night 3. liked the composition. You wrote it. C. Combine the sentences, using the second sentence as an adj. clause. Give all possible patterns: 1. The meeting was interesting. I went to it. 2. The man was wery kind. I talked to him yesterday. 3. The picture was beautiful. She was looking at it. :a Combine the two sentences, using the second one as an adj. clause: a) 1. L apologized to the woman. I spilt het coffee. 2. The man called the police. His waller was stolen, 3. The teacher is excellent. I am taking her course 1. The city was beautiful. We spent our vacation there. 2. That is the restaurant. I will meet you there 3. The town is small. I grew up there 1. 7:05 is the time. My plane artives then. 3. July is the month, The weather is ‘usually the hotest then, E. Add commas whete necessary. Change the adj. clause pronoun to ‘that’ if possible: 1. Only people who speak Russian should apply for the iob 2 Matthew who speaks Russian sppled forthe job. 3. Allen and Jackie who did not come to class yesterday explained theitsibsence tothe torches “The students who did not come to clas yesterday explained their absence to the wacher The geologist who lectuted at Browning Hall lst night predicted another earthquake. Dr. Fields who lectured at Browning Hall last night predicted another earthquake. 7. The tice which we had for dinner last aight was very good. F. Change the adjective clauses to adjective phrases: 1. Do you know the woman who is coming toward us? 2. The © people ‘who ate waiting for tne bus in the aia are “etn wet. 3. Tome from a city which is located ia the southern part ofthe county, 4. The children who attend that school receive a good education.HAPTER FOUR: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES = An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause which modifies a VERB by whee, where, how, for what reason, etc. eg: When we were in NY, we saw several plays adverbial clause y answering questions such as: ‘When an adverbial clause precedes the main clause a comma is used to separate the clauses. When the adverbial clause follows a main cause, no comma is used. There are several types of adverbial clauses depending on the question they answer. IL ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME ‘They answer the question WHEN and they are introduced by: shen, after, before, while, as, by the time (hat, wbenever, since, until, til as soon as, one, as long a, 0 long as, etc. When | arrived, he was talking on the phone, she had graduated, she gota job. While 1 was walking home, it began to rain, As Iwas coming in, the phone rang. By the time be arrived, we bad already left. T haven't seen bin since be lift this morning. I will never speak to hire as long as I five * The Present Simple Tense in the main clause can be followed by any tense in the subordinate clause. “When the verb in the main clause is in a past tense, the verb in the subordinate clause must also be in a past tense (sequence of tenses). “When using ‘since’, the Present Perfect Simple, Present Perfect Continuous ot Past Perfect is used in the main clause, and the Past Simple is used in the ‘since’ clause if the verb refers to an action that started and finished in the past: © My roommate has been in the cafeteria since it opened this morning. main clause subordinate clause TE che verb in the ‘since’ cause refers to an action that started in the past and continues into the present, the Present Perfect is appropriate. ¢g. My roommate has not missed breakfast since he has lived in the dotms. main clause subordinate clauseiG 2 ADVERBIAL CLAUS ‘They answer the question WHERE and they are introduced by: where, wherever, ewenawbere, anywhere She is happier where she is. Wherever they went, they were welcome, Exerywhere they stopped, people gathered around them, T'll go anywhere you suggest, These clauses are introduced by: as, that, stb. .....S, 801. Bee ee ss The question was not such an easy one as I thought. She loves bim more than be deserves. ‘They answer the question HOW and they are introduced by: as, exactly as, just a, as if, as though Please do it exactly as T instructed. She looked as if she had been erying They spoke as if they were angry. 5: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF SULT They answer the question TO WHAT RESULT and they ate introduced by: = $0 that, shat ‘He sat behind me so that I didn’t see him. What has she done that you treat her this way. = sh + adjective + noun + that clause She is in such a happy mood that she has been singing all day. = 0+ adjective + that cause ‘They were so tired that they couldn’t go any further. $0 + adverbial + that clause He spoke so. distinctly that we could understand every word.Eo CLAUSES OF PURPOSE, ‘They answer the question TO WHAT PURPOSE, WHAT FOR and they are introduced by: in order (that), so (that), for the pompose (that), for fear (that) ‘The modal auxiliaries are often used with these clauses. Some people eat so that they may lise Others seem to live in order i peat. He worked hard so that be might nin the prize. He took his shoes off so that I couldn't hear bins * Do not confuse ‘so (that)’ meaning purpose with the conjunction ‘so (that)’ meaning result. T wanted a college education so 1 enrolied at the universisy. (result) I wanted a college education 10.1 could get a better jab, (purpose) REASON ‘They answer the question WHY and they are introduced by: because, since, as, seeing that, now that, on the ground(s) tha, forthe reason that... Because be was sleepy, be went to bed, As itis your fault, you should apologize. Seving that you won't help nie, I must do the job myst B-ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONCESSION ‘These clauses are introduced by: although, though, even though, in spite ofthe fact (thal, despite te fact whateser, whoever, whichever, however, no matter bow. The child managed to avoid the truck although be badn’s sen it. Even though the weather was bad, we went swimming, Whatever be says abous the party, I bought it was terrible, However tired be may have een, be managed 10 doit Whichever read you take, it will lead you to town. No matter bow nervous he was, be didn’t lose bis temper.A. Complete the following. Pay special attention to verb tenses: + Last night I went to bed after I...............my homework, ‘Tonight I will go to bed after 1. -sssu my homework Byer since Iwasa child, Po.......ccc....aftaid of dogs 4. Jane's contact lens popped out while she «............._-basketball Be sure to reread your composition for etrors before you .......ss...... it in to the teacher tomotrow. 6. By the time I left my apartment this morning, the mailman ........c.+.s+~ the mail Thave known Jim Bates since he s.ten years old. 8. A black cat ran across the road a8 I .....s.ssss0+0 My €at to schoo! this morning 9. By the time I leave the city, I here for four months. 10. Whenever Math .....scsssssee angry, his nose gets red. HLT sss scssu to the beach whenever the weather was nice, but now I don’t have time to do that because I have to study. 12. We will have a big party when we B, Underline the adverbial clauses of place: 1. She lives where the Browns used to live. 2. Where there’s poverty, there we find discontent and unsest. 3. The place where I live is small. 4 Accidents frequently happen where several roads intersect. 5. The library where Tom used to borrow books was closed. 6. He went into the room where Jane was waiting. 7. Repaits will be made wherever they are necessary. 8. He will work wherever he is sent by his company. 9. We saw the monastery where they wete hiding. 10. I found it where you had left it. C, Join the following sentences so as to form clauses of result: 1. The thief ran very fast: The police did not catch him. 2. Computers are vety useful. We cannot imagine life without them.3, ‘The teacher asked many questions. They did not know the answers. 4. The singer gave a beautiful performance. The audience was in tears 5. He has few friends. He is always lonely. 6. They haven't got much money. They can’t buy a house. 7. Que teacher never had any patience. We didn’t learn much. 8. Ttwas a foggy day. We coulda’t sce the road. 9. He had bad luck. He became extremely depressed. 10. The two families are tied by strong links. They have lots of common interests. D. Form clauses of purpose using so that and making any necessary changes to the second sentence in the pair: 1, He sent her some money. She wanted to buy a new dress 2, The girl accepted the gift. She was affaid he might be offended. 3. Will you look after the children? I want to go shopping. 4, Computers are used in kidney research. Doctors can improve the health of their patients. E, Identify the subordinate clauses in the following sentences as purpose ot result: 1. He fought so hard that he was exhausted at the end of the battle. . Lend me some money so that I can buy a new dress. 2. 3. She saved all her income in order that she might buy her parents a new house. 4. Why don’t you work hard so that you can get a pay raise, too? 5. ‘You are singing extremely loudly so I can’t hear anyone elseSeen eeeaeaaeaneaeeueaReSE REE RHRERER REE HEH KERB eRe jesenesenen F. Combine the two sentences, making a modifying phrase out of the first sentence, if possible: 1. Theard that Judy was in the hospital. I called her family to find out what was wrong 2. The little boy was trying his best not to cry. He swallowed hard and began to speak. 3. I did not want to inconvenience my friend by asking her to drive me to the airport. I decided to take a taxi 4. Iwas sitting on a large rock at the edge of a mountain stream. I felt at piece with the world. 7. Iwas reading the paper last night. I sew an aticle on solar energy. 8. I had not understood what he said. I asked him to repeat the directions. 9. Iwas watching the children fly their kites in the park. Suddenly the wind blew my hat off my head. 10. Ann was convinced that she could never learn to play the piano. She stopped taking lessons. G. Change the adverb clauses to modifying phrases or vice versa, if possible: 1. Before coming to class, I had a cup of coffee. 2. While John was driving to school yesterday, he had an accident. 3. After he (had) finished his homework, he went to bed. 4, While I was watching TV last night, the telephone sang:ag eee ne eater eee rata axe cee eta a lear eae 5, While living in Japan last year, I learned many things about Japanese customs. 6. Before the student came to class, the teacher had already given a quiz. 7. When an American woman meets someone for the first time, she may or may not offer her hand. 8 When left alone, young children can get into all sorts of trouble very quickly. 9. You should always read a contract before signing your name. 10. Having completed / Completing her shopping, she went home. H, Finish each of the sentences so that it means exactly the same as the sentence printed before it, eg. He got into the be and immediately fel fast asleep. The morment br got into bed befell fast asleep. 1, There are bound to be problems whether you adopt the one plan or another. Whichever 2. After the beginning of the opera, latecomers had to wait before taking their seats. Once .. 3. We didn’t complain to the waiter about the food because we didn’t want to embarrass our friends. We te ROR tease eta rast 4, Lexpected the test to be easier than that. ‘The test wasn’t 5, His stammmer was so bad that he decided to undergo special therapy. He suffered from y...ecscscsseeessNOUN CLAUSES ‘Noun clauses are clauses which do the work of a noun. That means that you can replace a noun clause with a noun of a noun phrase and it still makes sense (which is not the case with adverb and adjective clauses). I know that you didn't do it. We could replace the underlined clause with any noun or noun phrase (the truth, her sister, my path...) and the sentence is still complete. (I know the truth. } A.NOUN CLAUSE MAY FUNCTION AS: "THE OBJECT OF A VERB) Jordan explained that she was just trying to help. Ir also may be a ditect or indirect statement or question (and clause still functions as an object in a sentence) She confessed ‘I never eat meat’ He said he had been waiting forages, Myra asked 'Where's the station ? John asked why she hadn't come FERRE SUB) JECT OF A VERB) What amazes me is her sense of humour, How the first prize is still a mystery. " ave 2, was his first question. ject noun clause les averb. [APART OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE] We are not responsible for what you accuse us of, She believes she is good at whatever she initiates. APART OF AN ADJECTIVE PHRASE) Noun clauses may appear after certain adjectives expressing emotion (eg. glad, pleased, relieved, sorry, delighted, sad, angry etc.) of adjectives/patticiples expressing anxiety, confidence etc. (eg. afraid, anxious, aware, certain, confident, conscious, convinced etc.) Jam delighted that you passed the exam. Jam afraid that I can’t come till next week.GRGGHRSRR RRR RRR RRB Ree eee eee A. Underline and identify the noun clauses in the following sentences: 1. Whom) you are dating is none of my business, Function: 2. Itis true that many people are starving. Function: 3. [never think about how I will pay my bills. Function: ..... 4, Linda’s parents felt that she was too young to get mattied. Function: .. 5, Where he goes every night bothers me. Function 6. I’m suse that John cheats on every exam. Function: . 7. Idon't understand why they feel this way. Function: .... 8 ‘They were looking at what the police were doing Function: 9. I'm positive he doesn’t have a conscience. Function: 10. We are all convinced that he will not come. Function: 11. What they have done does not concern me. Function: 12. I cannot ely on what you tell me. Function: Pelee ee blebs 13, She has not decided when she will tell Bob. Function: 14, We are awaze that he thinks nobody secs him. Function: 7 me TILLILLLELLLLELLL LLL DnA. Underline the clauses and state if they are used as noun or adjective: 1. The announcer reported whose name was mentioned as a possible candidate for the presidency. 2, Ted Kennedy was the man whose name was given. 3. The TV announcer said that most Democrats wete in favor of Senator Kennedy. 4. Can you recall what the reporter's name was? 5. believe that Walter Cronkite was the reporter who made the announcement. 6. Heisman whom many people admire. 7. Do you know when Dr. Smith will give the next chemistry exam? 8, No don’t. But the exam will cover Chapter 10, which is very difficult. 9. Thete is the building where most of my classes ate. 10. Where the new chemistry lab will be has not been decided yet 11. [heard that you received good grades on the last two exams. 12, That they were faitly easy helped quite a bit. 13. Why didn’t you tell me the reason why you were upset with your last grade? 14, Isn’t he from Libya, which is on the continent of Africa? 15. He is an excellent student who understands whatever the teacher says.(2) B. Underline the clauses in the following sentences and identify each clause: Yesterday, many students didn’t understand what we were talking about. ‘Yesterday, many students didn’t understand the lesson which was on clauses. Yesterday, many students dida’t understand the lesson because it was subordination. ae ye Dr. Latson, who is our director, visited our class. When he came in, Peter looked at him. What Dr. Larson said about the class was very complimentaty. Although Peter had eaten a big breakfast, he was still hungry during the class. ‘Mark enjoyed what he had eaten for breakfast. yenaw He had had a breakfast that was good and nutritious. 10. This class understood what the instructor had said about the past perfect. 11, When the instructor explained the past perfect, everyone understood. 12, The past perfect was one of the tenses that everyone understood. 13, Ali. went to the library and asked for the book that was on reserve. 14, The librarian, however, didn’t know which book he wanted. 15. Before he could get the book, he had to show her the title of it.C. Combine the following sentences with the indicated clause or clauses: 1, Yesterday, we had a review of clauses. Everyone understood the review. (adj. cl) 2 We had had the seview. Everyone told the teacher this. They felt much better about the clauses. (adv. cL, noun clause / obj.) 3. The class ws finished. All the students looked happier: We had all done very well. (adv. cl, adv. c) 6. Every student understood the review. This made the teacher happy. (noun el. / subject) 7 Jose said this. He had always had trouble with the clauses. He was studying in his country. (noun cl. / object, adv. cl) 8. ‘The teacher wanted to know this. What had been his problem? (noun cl. / object) 8. Now Jose understands very well. This makes him fell more confident. (noun el / subject) 10. Tam not worried abour this. How well will I do on the test? (noun el. / part of prepositional phrase) D. Change the following finite clauses into non-finite and verbless clauses /phrases and state theit type: 1, When he heard the whistle he rushed out. 2. We didn’t want to hear the story again because we had heatd it all before 3. As Ann was the eldest, she had to look after her younger brothers and sisters, 4. Thave come here so that Lcan have a talk with you 5. Since we live near the sea, we enjoy a healthy climate. 6. The solution which had been adopted turned out to be the right one.BEEP EEE ERLE CEE EEE EEE EE EEE EE Eee eH ee reo ee eS ee ee ere oer 7. She is happy that she has found such a nice place to live in. 8 I should be delighted if I could join you. 9. They were delighted when they learned of the arrival of our baby. 10. Although they were exhausted, they went on with their work E, Change the following non-finite and verbless clauses /adjective phrases into finite clauses and state their type: 1, Having seen that her friends were not at home, she left a message 2. Living in the country, we have little opportunity for meeting friends. 3. Tired ous after her long walk, she sat down by the road. 4. Tleft eatly to catch the train. 5. I shall be working late today so as to be free tomorrow. 6. Weare glad to have you with us. 7. She is always the first to arrive, 8 Defeated by all their arguments, he had to withdraw. 9. Though well over 60, he can walk faster than I can, 10. He is working hard 0.38 to make up for his absence yesterday. 11. He was scolded for being lazy. 13. Tes the best film ever made on the subject of mountain climbing.