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    Rock Mechanics of Mass Mining at Depth

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    garves007

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    WAGNER, H, Some rock-mechanis aspects of massve-mining methods a depth. MASSMIN 92. Johannesburg, SAIMM, 1992. pp. 49-54, Some Rock-mechanics Aspects of Massive-mining Methods at Depth H. WAGNER Chamber of Mines, Johannesburg, South Africa ‘Massive mineral deposits are classified according to their geometry into truly three-dimensional, tabular, and quasi-linear deposits. The effects of the geometry and size of an excavation on the stresses around stich an excavation are discussed, It is shown that, except in tabular mineral deposits, mining-induced stresses play a subordinate role, and strata-control problems are most likely to be caused by poor rockmass properties and structural defects. In the case of tabular deposits, stress and energy changes resulting from mining are most important. In most cases, itis necessary to apply methods of pa-tial extraction to ensure the safe extraction of wide tabular deposits. The role of pillars in three-dimensional and quasi- linear mineral deposits is to assist in controlling the local strata, rather than in controlling the stress and energy. Similarly, the role of backlill is to assist in the control of the operations and excavation walls, rather than to reduce the energy changes brought about by the mineral extraction. ‘The overcome these. Introduction In Southern Africa, relatively little experience has been gained on the mining of massive ore deposits at depth. Notable exceptions are the mining operations at Tsumeb in Namibia, O’okiep in Namaqualand, and some of De Beer's ddiamond-mining operations. At Western Areas Gold Mine, massive reef bands are being mined on an irregular pattern. Rock-mechanics practice in Southern Africa has been developed mainly for the extraction of tabular orebodies. In the case of the relatively shallow coal seams, well-tested methods of pillar design are in use, and design methods for total-extraction mining under massive dolerite sills are available to the mine operator. In the case of deep gold ‘mines, design criteria have been established and are used ‘widely for the layout of tabular stoping excavations and the siting of off-reef excavations. Rock-engineering concepts such as critical field stress, energy-release rate, and excess- shear stress are used routinely. There is also a wealth of information on backlills for use in the stopes of deep gold In contrast, there is no established body of rock- mechanics expertise for massive orebodies at depth. The limited experience that does exist tends to be site-specific and cannot be readily transferred to other situations. The purpose of this paper is to highlight some of the ‘major rock-engineering differences between tabular and massive orebodies at depth. For the purpose of this discussion, a massive orebody is defined as an orebody with its minimom dimension more than 20 m. The term deep orebody relates to the strength properties of the rock environment and to the primitive or pre-mining rock stresses. By this definition, an orebody is considered deep when the maximum value of the primitive-stress tensor exceeds a value of half the rockmass strength. This condition is usually sufficient for the excavation walls to fal ifficulties in estimating rockmass strength are outlined, and some proposals are made to Strength of the Rockmass A particular problem of rock-mechanics design for massive corebodies is the prediction of rockmass strength. There are a number of reasons for this difficulty. Firstly, the strength properties of rock are normally determined from small samples of intact pieces of rock that are tested under artificial loading conditions. The rock-strength values ‘obtained in this manner are, in most instances, of little value for design purposes since they do not take into account the effects of joints, fissures, and other planes of weakness. One of the more promising approaches that take these defects into account is the empirical failure criterion proposed by Hoek and Brown!: 4 £6, + 4/(maeo,+ $0; where 01, and of are the major and minor principal stresses at failure, 0 is the uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock material, and m and s are constants that depend upon the properties of the rock and upon the extent to which it has been broken before being subjected to stresses (9; and os. For intact rock material, the value of s = 1 and the value of m ranges from 7 t0 25. ‘A source of difficulty is that the rock properties undergo significant changes once the inequality given in [1] has been satisfied. To account for these changes and, in particular, to allow for the reduced confinement provided by the broken rockmass surrounding a highly stressed excavation, Hoek and Brown! revised their original criterion, equation [1], by introducing a rating value for failed or broken rockmass. In terms of this concept, the values for m and s of the broken rockmass are reduced, depending on the extent of fracturing and jointing that have taken place. These authors suggest that the values of m, and s, for a fractured and jointed rockmass can be estimated a) by use of either the NGI or the CSIR rockmass classification systems. Figure 1 gives the relationship between the CSIR rockmass rating and the factors by which the values of m and s have to be reduced to take the extent of jointing and weathering of the rockmass into account. ‘The Hock-Brown criterion has been employed with a considerable degree of success in the analysis of excavations in deep gold mines. ‘A further important factor is the spacing and orientation of joints and other structural weaknesses in relation to the excavation. This aspect is of particular importancs formations of sedimentary rock. ‘A basic shortcoming of most of the rockmass- classification systems that are in use is that they do not ‘account for the influence of an excavations dimensions”. For massive rock formations, Hoek and Brown! proposed the following strength-size relationship: ot 8,= 94,(50/4) pl where ceso is the uniaxial compressive strength for a rock specimen of 50 mm diameter and d is the rock dimension under consideration. ‘Johnson’ successfully applied the relationship of equation [2] in estimating the extent of fracturing in tunnels with diameters of 2 to 3 m that were developed in massive ‘quartzites (Figure 2). Also shown in this diagram is the Hoek-Brown strength-size relationship. Finally, the effects of layers of different rock strength on the behaviour of the rockmass and the excavation need to be considered. Soft layers influence the behaviour of the excavation in several ways. Firstly, if the soft layer is relatively thick, most of the rock deformation will take 0,001 0.0001 oro, 10—-100 1 000 Figure 1, Relationship between the CSIR and the NGI rockanass ‘ating systems and the values of sand m Sa Fieure 2, Effects of excavation size on rock strength place in this layer. Secondly, because of the low modulus of deformation and the generally high Poisson’s ratio of soft- rock materials, high shear stresses develop at the interface between hard and soft layers if the loading conditions change as they do during the excavation process‘. A. specific feature of soft-rock layers in pillars and excavation walls is that tension is induced in the harder-rock layers, which confine the soft layers and, as a result of this, rockwalls and pillars can fail at much lower stress levels than would be expected from strength tests on the hard layers. Laubscher’ published a nomogram that takes these factors into account, and that allows an estimate of the strength of rock walls comprised of hard and soft layers (Figure 3). The percentage lines in the nomogram relate to the strength of the soft layers as a percentage of the strength of the hard layers. From a design point of view, a realistic assessment of the rock-strength properties is critical since these impact on the safety and operational aspects of the mining method that hhas been chosen for a certain mineral deposit, Factors such as dilution and percentage extraction of ore, as well as the ccost of support measures and the amount of development required to prepare an orebody for extraction, depend on the rock-strength properties. Geometry of Mineral Deposits ‘The geometry of a mineral deposit is of overriding importance to the choice of mining method. Rock- mechanics considerations determine whether a proposed ‘mining method is feasible from the points of view of the ‘operation and economics. ‘Massive mineral deposits can be grouped into one of the following three categories (1) truly three-dimensional deposits: ‘These are deposits with similar dimensions in al directions. Typical examples of truly three dimensional orebodies ate porphyritic coppe deposits (2) Tabular deposits: (4<<42 4). Average 0, a8 % of stFong r90k igure 3. Effect of weak rock bands on the strength ofa stratiie rockmass(afler LaubscherS) ‘These are deposits whose extent in one direction is considerably smaller than that in the other two directions. Typical examples of tabular deposits are sedimentary of vein-type mineral deposits (3). Quasi-linear deposits: (22424): ‘These are deposits whose extent in one direction is, significantly greatér than that in the other two directions. Typical examples of quasi-linear deposits are mineralized pipes. Although each mineral deposit has its own unique features, there are a number of characteristic features that apply to the various excavation geometties. In the case of truly three-dimensional deposits, a distinction has to be made between the final excavation stage and the intermediary stages. From the point of view of the following discussion, the comments refer primarily to the final excavation state. ‘Truly Three-dimensional Mineral Deposits ‘The most basic example of a three-dimensional orebody is, a sphere. Once this orebody is fully developed, it will result, in a spherical cavity of radius a. Obert and Duvall discuss the stress distribution around spherical cavities subjected 10 uniaxial and hydrostatic stress field. Here, only the ‘equations for the hydrostatic stress field are given: omit é a= pds pI where o, -—=—_—Ratial stress Tangential tess 5 Hydrostatic pressure : of spherical cavity 7 = Distance from centre of spherical cavity Figure 4 shows the distribution of the radial tangential stresses around the spherical cavity. The maximum tangential sess at the excavation wall has a low value of 1,5 p, and drops to a value of less than 1,1 p at a distance of one excavation radius into the rock. This low value of tangential stress, together with the rapid bi in radial stress, is an indication that mining-induced fracturing around a three-dimensional excavation is, confined to a relatively small volume of rock around the excavation, Another important feature of three-dimensional excavations is that the magnitude of mining-induced stresses is largely independent of excavation size, and is dependent only on the shape of the excavation and the magnitude of the primitive stresses. However, the tiscussion of rockmass strength has shown that the rack conditions tend to deteriorate with excavation size. Consequently, rock fracturing around large excavations, will tend to be more pronounced than that around smaller excavations. ‘The siting of service excavations around three- dimensional orebodies is relatively non-critical from @ rock-stress point of view, provided these excavations are 3 o Z 10 or os ° Figure 4. Distribution of radial and tangential stresses around a ‘spherical cavity subjected to uniform compression p (after Obert and Duvall) about 0,2 of a radius away from the orebody (Figure 4). Far ‘more important considerations are local geology and the possibility that the walls of the stoping excavation will cave. From a design point of view, it is important that this, possibility is investigated before a final decision is taken on the position ofa service excavation. Truly three-dimensional orebodies are often mined by some form of caving of the orebody and drawing of the ore through a grid of drawpoints. The design of the drawpoints, is critical in two respects. Firstly, if controlled drawing of the ore is to take place, the drawpoints should not be to0 far apart. Secondly, drawpoints should not be too close $0 as 10 minimize the interactions of stresses between these excavations. A discussion on caving and draw mechanisms falls outside the scope of this paper, and interested readers are referred to the fundamental work by Kvapil’ AAs far as the spacing between excavations is concerned, Wagner and Salamon’ have shown that, in most situations, the interactions between adjacent excavations become negligible if they are spaced three excavation diameters apart. However, in the case of a large number of such excavations, the effect of the local extraction percentage on the overall stress level has to be taken into account Strata control of truly three-dimensional mineral deposit primarily concerned with the control ofthe effects of pre- existing weaknesses in the rockmass and the control of loose rock formations. The role of pillars in truly three dimensional mincral deposits is mainly to assist with local strata-control problems, rather than to control stress levels, ‘The same applies to the backfilling of three-dimensional excavations. Finally, the nature of the stress distribution around truly three-dimensional excavations is such that stippage on pre- existing planes of weakness is confined to the immediate of excavation walls, and large-scale fault slippage, such as is frequently observed around deep tabular ‘deposits, can be excluded. Where such movements are observed, they tend to be associated with tectonic stresses, in the rock-mass, ‘Tabular Mineral Deposits A pool of knowledge exists on the extraction of narrow- reef deposits at depth. The basic principles concerning the extraction of such orebodies are summarized in an industry guidel® that was published by the Chamber of Mines Research Organization in 1988. The discussion here ‘concerns a few rock-mechanics principles as they apply to the mining of tabular deposits! In a horizontal parallel-sided extraction panel of span 2 4 the distribution of convergence on the reef level is given by S, where x is the variable, v is Poisson's ratio, q is the vertical component of the primitive stress, and G is the modulus of rigidity (G = E/2U+y): . 20-4, The average vertical stress at the stope face can be expressed as the root-mean-square stress! Op = nf 2% =2,51¢,/2, 51 where his the stoping height. The rate at which energy is released at the stope face ‘owing to the removal of the mineral from a small area, aA, is given by 5, icy mowed 1 2G AU, /AA ‘The most important feature of equations [4], [5], and [6] is thatthe convergence in the mined-out area, the stress at the stope face, and the amount of energy that is released as a result of mining, all increase as the span of mining In the case of narrow tabular deposits, the rate of increase is controlled by the stoping height since the maximum amount of closure in the mined-out area, S,, cannot exceed the stoping height, h ‘The half-span at which total closure occurs is generally referred to asthe critical half-span, 4: LehGIXLvy. m ‘The importance of total closure in the mined-out area for the stress and energy changes resulting from the extraction of tabular orebodies will be discussed briefly ‘The maximum value of the average stress at the stope face occurs when >. In thi om a fete o2800/-% i From a comparison of equations [5] and [8], it follows that the maximum value of the average face stress is only 13 per cent higher than that at the time of total closure. In the case of the energy changes, the energy-release rate atthe point of total closure, #= 4 is AU g/AA = ha, 1] hile the energy-release rate for /—+ 2 is Up / MA =h- (10) ‘The effects of the stope height on the stress and energy changes of a 1 m high tabular excavation situated at a depth of 2000 m below the surface are shown in Figure 5. Of particular significance is the average face stress, which reaches theoretical values of more than 50 q, compared with values of less than 2 q in the case of truly three- dimensional excavations. Extensive fracturing of the rock ahead of stope faces is an unavoidable consequence of the extraction of narrow tabular mineral deposits. In the case of wide tabular deposits, no advantage can be taken of the beneficial effects of total closure since the critical half-span, which increases proportionally with the stope width, equation [7], becomes unrealistically large. While the greater stope width has beneficial effects on the average face stresses, equation [5], the magnitude of these stresses is still sufficient to cause extensive rock fracturing. This, together with the practical difficulties of supporting, rock slabs at high stope faces, causes severe strata-control problems. A practical means of extracting wide tabular deposits at depth is to keep the mining spans relatively small and to adopt a system of partial extraction that is based on a regular system of substantial stability pillars. ‘The design of the stability pillars is crucial to the success of the mining system. The pillar design has to satisfy two criteria. Firstly, the width-to-height ratio of the pillar should be at least 20 to 1 to ensure stable pillar behaviour. Secondly, the average pillar stress, Gp, should not exceed a value 2,5 times the compressive strength of the strata above and below the pillar if foundation failure is to be avoided. It should be noted that the second criterion determines the percentage ratio that can be achieved with such a system, The average pillar stress is given by q °,- > ty where eis the extraction ratio. Further, ) =2.5 12] where oy is the compressive strength of the strata above and below the pillar. ‘When [12] is introduced in [11} [3] he pillar spacing depends on the height of the pillars since the pillar width, Way, should be W=20h, (14) at least 20 times the pillar height, ‘Destn 2 000 m Stope height Tm 8 Ooms aun/aa 2 so ae Ta Ta TIO Halt span (rm) Figure. Changes in stress and energy resulting from the extraction ofa 1 m wide tabular mineral deposit situated at a depth of 2000 m For a given extraction ratio, e, the centre span between pillars, S, can be calculated from W_ _ 20h ‘ ee aes 15] It was mentioned earlier that, even in relatively wide tabular deposits, the average face stress, equation [5], is, sufficiently high to cause extensive fracturing at the stope face. Furthermore, the support of high faces and high stopes. is a major problem and very costly. One way of overcoming these difficulties is to extract the wide tabular orebody in, {wo stages. The first stage would involve the extraction of a narrow slot using conventional gold-mine stoping technology. Once the area has been destressed, the bulk of the orebody can be extracted, and backfill can be introduced. The sequencing of the destressing and massive- mining operations can be critical, and deserves careful investigation. Finally, in the extraction of wide tabular deposits at ‘moderate depth, the value of the vertical primitive stress, q, is generally low compared with the compressive strength of the orebody and the surrounding strata. This suggests the use of a regular system of support pillars. These can be similar to those used in coal mines, or can be long sttip- pillars The average pillar stress, o, in a system of regular support pillars can be calculated readily from equation [11]. ‘More difficult is the calculation of the pillar strength. As far as coal pillars are concerned, a wealth of information exist. ‘The same cannot be said for hard-rock pillars. Based on the evaluation of pillar-strength formulae, which were developed primarily for coal pillars, Hoek and Brown! proposed the following pillar-strength equation: FE wi, (1s) where Ope is the pillar strength, kis the strength of a cube of rock with side lengths of I'm, and V is the pillar volume (m), Given the uncertainties of the pillar-strength estimate, it is advisable to base the pillar design on a safety factor, SF, of at least 2. The safety factor is defined as the ratio of the pillar strength to the pillar load: bid kG my” vo a-e) ve, kb <9 =e hem 0-8 an sro 7 07) ‘The use of a regular system of pillars isan attractive mining method in tabular orcbodies with a width of less than 4'm situated at a depth of less than 500 m. Such a system allows for easy mechanization, and minimizes the Support cost while in most instances yielding a relatively igh extraction rato. (Quasi-linear Mineral Deposits Mineralized pipes are the most common form of quasi linear deposits. From an overall stress point of view, the stress situation around these orebodies is comparable with that found around shafts and tunnels. Figure 6 shows the variation in principal stresses, 0; and 0, with distance from the sidewall of excavations of different cross-sections While Figure 6 shows the situation around a horizontal, tunnel, the basic principles apply also to vertical vs a 25 so tion (21) Figure 6. Variation in principal stres, and os, with distance {rom the sidewall of elongated excavations of diferent cross- sections excavations. In the case of the latter, the ratio of the two horizontal stresses is a critical factor. While in many situations the horizontal stresses are neafly uniform in all directions, this is not always the case, and significant variations in the magnitude of the horizontal stresses can exist. Such an anomaly exists, for example at O'okiep, and has given rise to unique strata-control problems. The important conclusion that can be drawn from Figure 6 is that, at a distance of about half the excavation width into the rock, the effects of the excavation on the stress conditions in the rock have largely disappeared. The effects, of the excavation geometry on the rock stresses are most pronounced close to the excavation walls. Of importance is the orientation of the excavation relative to the principal stresses, ‘As for truly three-dimensional excavations, the role of pillars in quasi-linear orebodies is confined to local strata control; that is, to limiting the width and height of ‘unsupported rockwalls 50 as to reduce dilution of the ore. Sill pillars are used to provide access to the orebody. The design of these pillars is determined largely by general ‘ground-control considerations, rather than on the basis of a critical stress. Finally, it should be pointed out that the stresses acting at the face of @ quasi-linear excavation that is advanced in a longitudinal direction are considerably less than those that develop in the rockwalls some distance behind the face. ‘The reason for this is that a proportion of the primitive rock stress is carried by the rock ahead of the quasi-linear excavation, De la Cruz and Goodman'® have calculated that the radial convergence behind the end of a circular hole in an elastic rock approaches its final value at a distance of about one diameter from the advancing face. Summary In summary, the strata-control conditions in elongated orebodies are determined by structural factors such as jointing and faulting, rather than by high induced rock stresses. The role of pillars and backfill is to control the behaviour of rockwalls, rather than to control the stresses and energy-release rates, which are generally low!4, Conclusions ‘+ With the exception of wide tabular mineral deposits, ‘most strata-control problems encountered in massive- mining operations are likely to be related to poor rock- ‘mass properties and structural defects. ‘Mining-induced stresses around truly three-dimensional and quasi-linear excavations are generally low, and their ‘effects are confined to the immediate vicinity of the excavation. Stress concentrations around truly three-

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