Natural Gas Storage – Introduction

 Natural gas, like most other commodities, can be stored for an

indefinite period of time.
 The exploration, production, and transportation of natural gas
takes time,
 The natural gas that reaches its destination is not always
needed right away,
So it is injected into underground storage facilities.
 These storage facilities can be located near market centers that do
not have a ready supply of locally produced natural gas.
Natural Gas Storage – Introduction
 Traditionally, natural gas has been a seasonal fuel.
 Demand for natural gas is usually higher during the winter, partly
because it is used for heat in residential and commercial settings.
 Stored natural gas plays a vital role in ensuring that any excess
supply delivered during the summer months is available to meet
the increased demand of the winter months.
 Because of natural gas fired electric generation, demand for
natural gas during the summer months is now increasing (due to
the demand for electricity to power air conditioners and the like).
 Natural gas in storage also serves as insurance against any
unforeseen accidents, natural disasters, or other occurrences that
may affect the production or delivery of natural gas.
Natural Gas Storage – Introduction

 Natural gas storage plays a vital role in maintaining the reliability of

supply needed to meet the demands of consumers.
 Natural gas storage is also used by industry participants for
commercial reasons;
 Storing gas when prices are low, and
 Withdrawing and selling it when prices are high, for instance.
 The purpose and use of storage has been closely linked to the
regulatory environment of the time.
 Uses for natural gas in storage
 There are basically two uses for natural gas in storage facilities:
 Meeting base load requirements, and
 Meeting peak load requirements.
 Base Load Storage
 Base load facilities are capable of holding enough natural gas to
satisfy long term seasonal demand requirements.
 Typically, the turn-over rate for natural gas in these facilities is a year;
 Natural gas is generally
 Injected during the summer (non-heating season) - from april
through october,
 Withdrawn during the winter (heating season), - november to
march.
 These reservoirs are larger, but their delivery rates are relatively low,
meaning the natural gas that can be extracted each day is limited.
 Instead, these facilities provide a prolonged, steady supply of natural
gas.
 Depleted gas reservoirs are the most common type of base load
storage facility.
 Peak Load Storage
 Designed to have high-deliverability for short periods of time,
meaning natural gas can be withdrawn from storage quickly should
the need arise.
 Peak load facilities are intended to meet sudden, short-term demand
increases.
 These facilities cannot hold as much natural gas as base load
facilities;
 They can deliver smaller amounts of gas more quickly, and can also
be replenished in a shorter amount of time than base load facilities.
 Turn over rates as short as a few days or weeks.
 Salt caverns are the most common type of peak load storage facility,
although aquifers may be used to meet these demands as well.
 Underground Storage
 Natural gas is usually stored underground, in large storage
reservoirs.
 There are three main types of underground storage:
 Depleted gas reservoirs,
 Aquifers, and
 Salt caverns
 Natural gas can be stored as liquefied natural gas (LNG).
 LNG allows natural gas to be shipped and stored in liquid form,
meaning it takes up much less space than gaseous natural gas.
 Introduction
 During world war II,
 Seasonal demand increase in natural gas
 Pipeline delivery alone could not meet the demand
 Hence, deliverability of pipelines (their size), needed to be
increased dramatically.
 Technology - unattainable and unfeasible to construct such large
pipelines to consuming regions
 Option chosen - underground storage fields

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b413eFvHHfg
Natural Gas Storage – Pressurized gas
container

 Underground storage facility - reconditioned before injection, to

create a sort of storage vessel underground.
 Natural gas is injected into the formation, building up pressure as
more natural gas is added.
 The underground formation becomes a sort of pressurized
natural gas container.
 Physically unrecoverable gas
 Newly drilled wells - the higher the pressure in the storage facility, the
more readily gas be extracted.
 If Pressure drops below that of the wellhead, there is no pressure
differential left to push the natural gas out of the storage facility.
 Hence, in any underground storage facility, there is a certain amount
of gas that may never be extracted.
 This is known as physically unrecoverable gas;
 it is permanently embedded in the formation.
 Cushion Gas
 Underground storage facilities also contain ‘base gas’ or ‘cushion
gas’.
 Volume of gas that must remain in the storage facility to provide the
required pressurization to extract the remaining gas.
 In the normal operation of the storage facility, this cushion gas
remains underground;
 However a portion of it may be extracted using specialized
compression equipment at the wellhead.
 Working Gas
 This is the natural gas that is being stored and withdrawn;
 Volume of natural gas in the storage reservoir that can be extracted
during the normal operation of the storage facility.
 Working gas capacity - capacity of storage facilities
 At the beginning of a withdrawal cycle,
 The pressure inside the storage facility is at its highest;
 Working gas can be withdrawn at a high rate.
 As the volume of gas inside the storage facility drops,
 Pressure in the storage facility also decreases.
 Deliverability also reduces
Working gas
 Depleted Gas Reservoirs - formation
 The first natural gas storage - Weland County, Ontario, Canada, in
1915.
 Used a depleted natural gas well - reconditioned into a storage
field.
 Depleted gas reservoirs –
 The most prominent and common form.
 Those formations already been tapped of all their recoverable
natural gas.
 Leaves an underground formation, geologically capable of
holding natural gas.
Depleted Gas Reservoirs - Advantages
 Already developed reservoir –
 Allows the use of the extraction and distribution equipment left
over from when the field was productive.
 Existing extraction network - reduces the cost of converting a
depleted reservoir into a storage facility.
 Their geological characteristics are already well known.
 Cheapest and easiest to develop, operate, and maintain.
 Depleted Gas Reservoirs – Deciding
Factors
 The factors decide if depleted reservoir will make a suitable storage
facility
 Geographic and Geologic

 Geographically –
 Depleted reservoirs must be relatively close to consuming
regions.
 Close to transportation infrastructure, including trunk pipelines
and
 Distribution systems.

 While depleted reservoirs are numerous in the U.S., they are more
abundantly available in producing regions.
 Depleted Gas Reservoirs – Deciding
Factors
 Geologically
 Must have high permeability and porosity.

 Porosity - amount of natural gas that it may hold,

 Permeability - rate at which natural gas flows through the

formation, - determines the rate of injection and withdrawal of
working gas.

 The formation may be stimulated to increase permeability. For

information on well treatment
 Aquifers
 Aquifers are
 Underground porous, permeable rock formations
 Act as natural water reservoirs.
 In certain situations,
 Water containing formations may be reconditioned and
 used as natural gas storage facilities.
 More expensive to develop than depleted reservoirs.
 Used only in areas where there are no nearby depleted reservoirs.
 Facilities are operated with a single winter withdrawal period,
although they may be used to meet peak load requirements as well.
 Aquifers
 Aquifers are the
 Least desirable and
 Most expensive type
Reasons:
 Geological characteristics are not as thoroughly known.
 A significant amount of time and money goes into
 Discovering the geological characteristics of an aquifer, and
 Determining its suitability as storage facility.
 Seismic testing - for the exploration of potential natural gas
formations.
 Other tests:
 The area of the formation,
 The composition and porosity of the formation itself,
 The existing formation pressure
 In addition, the capacity of the reservoir is unknown, and may only be
determined once the formation is further developed.
 Aquifers
 To develop a natural aquifer into an effective natural gas storage
facility, all of the associated infrastructure must also be developed.
 This includes
 Installation of wells,
 Extraction equipment,
 Pipelines,
 Dehydration facilities, and
 Possibly compression equipment.
 Since aquifers are naturally full of water, powerful injection
equipment must be used, to allow sufficient injection pressure to
 push down the resident water and
 replace it with natural gas.
 Aquifers
 Requires further dehydration prior to transportation, which requires
specialized equipment near the wellhead.
 Aquifer formations do not have the same natural gas retention
capabilities as depleted reservoirs.
 Some of the natural gas that is injected escapes from the formation.
 The escaping NG must be gathered and extracted by ‘collector’
wells, specifically designed to pick up gas that may escape from the
primary aquifer formation.
 Aquifers
 Require a great deal more ‘cushion gas’ than do depleted reservoirs.
 Cushion gas requirements can be as high as 80 percent of the total
gas volume.
 No naturally occurring gas in the formation
 to begin with, a certain amount of natural gas that is injected will
ultimately prove physically unrecoverable.
 Aquifers – Environmental regulations
 Aquifer development can take 4 years, which is more than twice the
time it takes to develop depleted reservoirs as storage facilities.
 Cost of aquifer storage, there are also environmental restrictions to
using aquifers as natural gas storage.
 In the early 1980’s the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set
certain rules and restrictions on the use of aquifers as natural gas
storage facilities.
 These restrictions are intended to reduce the possibility of fresh
water contamination.
 Salt Caverns
 Underground salt formations offer another option for natural gas
storage.
 Once formed, allow little injected natural gas to escape from the
formation unless specifically extracted.
 The walls of a salt cavern also have the structural strength of steel,
which makes it very resilient against reservoir degradation over the
life of the storage facility.
 Salt Caverns

 Essentially, salt caverns are formed out of existing salt deposits.

 Exist in two possible forms: salt domes, and salt beds.
 Salt domes - thick formations created from natural salt deposits that,
over time, leach up through overlying sedimentary layers to form
large dome-type structures.
 They can be as large as a mile in diameter, and 30,000 feet in height.
 Typically, salt domes used for natural gas storage are between 6,000
and 1,500 feet beneath the surface.
 Salt cavern leaching
 Once a suitable salt dome or salt bed deposit is discovered, and
deemed suitable for natural gas storage, salt cavern’ is developed
 Using water to dissolve and extract a certain amount of salt from the
deposit, leaving a large empty space in the formation.
 This is done by
 Drilling a well down into the formation, and
 Cycling large amounts of water through the completed well.
 This water will dissolve some of the salt in the deposit, and be cycled
back up the well, leaving a large empty space that the salt used to
occupy.
 This process is known as ‘salt cavern leaching’.
 Salt cavern
 Salt cavern leaching is used to create caverns in both types of salt
deposits, and can be quite expensive.
 Once created, a salt cavern offers an underground natural gas
storage vessel with very high deliverability.
 Cushion gas requirements are the lowest of all three storage types
 33 percent of total gas capacity to be used as cushion gas.
Cylinders, LPG, Pressure Vessels
 LNG Storage
 LNG facilities provide delivery capacity during peak periods when
market demand exceeds pipeline deliverability.
 LNG storage tanks possess a number of advantages over
underground storage.
 As a liquid at approximately −163 °C (−260 °F), it occupies about
600 times less space than gas stored underground.
 It provides high deliverability at very short notice - LNG storage
facilities are generally located close to market and can be trucked to
some customers avoiding pipeline tolls.
 There is no requirement for cushion gas and it allows access to a
global supply.
 LNG facilities are more expensive to build and maintain than
developing new underground storage facilities
 LNG Storage Tanks
 LNG storage tanks are used in
 Liquefaction,
 Regasification and
 LNG processing plants, and also on
 Distribution networks.
 The original metal storage tanks were double walled, spherical
shaped tanks.
 The next generation tanks were cylindrical tanks, located partially or
almost entirely below the ground.
 More recently concrete walls are also constructed to prevent
leakages.
 Pipeline capacity
 Gas can be temporarily stored in the pipeline system itself, through a
process called line packing.
 This is done by packing more gas into the pipeline by an increase in
the pressure.
 During periods of high demand, greater quantities of gas can be
withdrawn from the pipeline in the market area, than is injected at the
production area.
 The process of line packing is usually performed during off peak
times to meet the next day’s peaking demands.
 This method, however, only provides a temporary short-term
substitute for traditional underground storage.
 Pipeline Storage
 Temporary natural gas storage facility.
 Intermediate compression stations enable the pressure in the main
pipeline system to e raised appreciably.
 Minimum – 20 to 25 bar to maximum 60 to 65 bar.
 Gas can be supplied to utilities by lowering the pressure in the pipe
line systems.
 Pressure vessel
 A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids
at a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure.
 Pressure vessels can of any shape - spheres, cylinders, and cones
are usually employed.
 A common design is a cylinder with end caps called heads.
 Head shapes are frequently either hemispherical or dished
(torispherical).
 Pressure Vessel
 A spherical pressure vessel has approximately twice the strength of a
cylindrical pressure vessel with the same wall thickness, and is the
ideal shape to hold internal pressure.
 A spherical shape is difficult to manufacture, and therefore more
expensive, so most pressure vessels are cylindrical.
 Many pressure vessels are made of steel.
 Pressure vessels may be lined with various metals, ceramics, or
polymers to prevent leaking and protect the structure of the vessel
from the contained medium.
 Gasholder
 Gas can be stored above ground in a gasholder (or gasometer),
largely for balancing, not long-term storage.

 They can provide extra gas very quickly at peak times.

 There are two kinds of gasholder — column-guided, which are

guided up by a large frame that is always visible, regardless of the
position of the holder; and spiral-guided, which have no frame and
are guided up by concentric runners in the previous lift.
 Gas cylinder
 A gas cylinder or tank is a pressure vessel used to store gases at
above atmospheric pressure.

 High-pressure gas cylinders are also called bottles.

 Introduction
 The efficient and effective movement of NG from producing regions
to consumption regions requires an extensive transportation system.
 In many instances, NG produced from a particular well will have to
travel a great distance to reach its point of use.
 The transportation system for NG consists of a
 Complex network of pipelines, designed to quickly and efficiently
transport NG from its origin, to areas of high natural gas demand.
 Transportation of natural gas is closely linked to its storage:
 If NG not transported immediately required, it can be put
into storage facilities for when it is needed.
 Types
 There are three major types of pipelines along the transportation
route:
 The gathering system,
 The interstate pipeline system, and
 The distribution system.
 The gathering system
 Consists of low pressure, small diameter pipelines that transport raw
natural gas from the wellhead to the processing plant.
 Transportation of sour gas
 A specialized sour gas gathering pipe must be installed for natural
gas from a particular well have high sulfur and carbon dioxide
contents (sour gas).
 Sour gas is corrosive, thus its transportation from the wellhead to
the sweetening plant must be done carefully.
 Other categories
 Pipelines can be characterized as interstate or intrastate.
 Interstate pipelines
 Similar to in the interstate highway system:
 They carry natural gas across state boundaries,
 In some cases across the country.
 Intrastate pipelines
 Transport natural gas within a particular state.
 Interstate natural gas pipeline network
 Transports processed natural gas from processing plants in
producing regions to those areas with high natural gas
requirements, particularly large, populated urban areas.
 The pipeline network extends across the entire country.
 These are the ‘highways’ of natural gas transmission.
 Natural gas that is transported through interstate pipelines travels at
high pressure in the pipeline, at pressures from 200 to 1500 pounds
per square inch (psi).
 This reduces the volume of the natural gas being transported (by up
to 600 times), as well as propelling natural gas through the pipeline.
 Pipeline Components
 Interstate pipelines consist of a number of components that ensure
the efficiency and reliability of a system that delivers such an
important energy source year-round, twenty four hours a day.
 Transmission Pipes
 Most major interstate pipelines are between 24 and 36 inches in
diameter.
 Line pipe:
 The actual pipeline itself
 Consists of a strong carbon steel material,
 Engineered to meet standards set by the american petroleum
institute (API).
 Also covered with a specialized coating to ensure that it does not
corrode once placed in the ground.
 The purpose of the coating is to protect the pipe from moisture,
which causes corrosion and rusting.
 Transmission Pipes
 Transmission pipes can measure anywhere from 6 to 48 inches in
diameter, depending on their function.
 Certain component pipe sections can even consist of small diameter
pipe,
 As small as 0.5 inches in diameter.
 Usually used only in gathering and distribution systems.
 Mainline transmission pipes
 The principle pipeline in a given system,
 Usually between 16 and 48 inches in diameter.
 Lateral pipelines
 deliver natural gas to or from the mainline,
 typically between 6 and 16 inches in diameter.
 The Transmission Grid
 The natural gas mainline is a
 wide-diameter,
 often-times long-distance,
 portion of a natural gas pipeline system,
 excluding laterals,
 located between the gathering system (production area), natural
gas processing plant, other receipt points, and the principal
customer service area(s).
 The lateral, usually of smaller diameter, branches off the mainline
natural gas pipeline to connect with or serve a specific customer or
group of customers.
 The Transmission Grid
Design of Main line system
 A natural gas mainline system will tend to be designed as either a
grid or a trunkline system.
Trunkline system
 A long-distance, wide-diameter pipeline system that generally links a
major supply source with a market area or with a large pipeline
serving a market area.
 Trunklines tend to
 Have fewer receipt points (usually at the beginning of its route),
 Fewer delivery points,
 Interconnections with other pipelines, and
 Associated lateral lines.
 The Transmission Grid
Grid type transmission system
 Characterized by a large number of laterals or branches from the
mainline, which tend to form a network of integrated receipt,
delivery and pipeline interconnections that operate in, and serve
major market areas.
 In form, they are similar to a local distribution company (LDC)
network configuration, but on a much larger scale.
 Transmission Pipes
 Some distribution pipe is made of highly advanced plastic, because
of the need for
 Flexibility,
 Versatility and
 The ease of replacement.
 Compressor Stations
 NG is highly pressurized as it travels through an interstate pipeline.
 To ensure that the natural gas flowing through any one pipeline
remains pressurized, compression of this natural gas is required
periodically along the pipe.
 This is accomplished by compressor stations, usually placed at 40 to
100 mile intervals along the pipeline.
 The natural gas enters the compressor station, where it is
compressed by either a turbine, motor, or engine
 Metering Stations

 Metering stations are placed periodically along interstate natural

gas pipelines.
 These stations allow pipeline companies to monitor the natural
gas in their pipes.
 Measure the flow of gas along the pipeline, and allow pipeline
companies to ‘track’ natural gas as it flows along the pipeline.
 Employ specialized meters to measure the natural gas as it flows
through the pipeline, without impeding its movement.
 Valves
 Interstate pipelines include a great number of valves along their
entire length.
 These valves work like gateways;
 They are usually open and allow natural gas to flow freely, or
 They can be used to stop gas flow along a certain section of pipe.
 There are many reasons why a pipeline may need to restrict gas flow
in certain areas.
 For example,
 If a section of pipe requires replacement or maintenance, valves
on either end of that section of pipe can be closed to allow
engineers and work crews safe access.
 These large valves can be placed every 5 to 20 miles along the
pipeline, and are subject to regulation by safety codes
 Control Stations

 Natural gas pipeline companies have customers on both ends of

the pipeline –
 The producers and
 Processors that input gas into the pipeline, and the
 Consumers and local gas utilities that take gas out of the
pipeline.
Used
 To manage the NG that enters the pipeline, and
 To ensure that all customers receive timely delivery of their
portion of this gas,
 Control Stations

 Sophisticated control systems are required to monitor the gas as

it travels through all sections of a very lengthy pipeline network.
 To accomplish this task of monitoring and controlling the natural
gas that is traveling through the pipeline, centralized gas control
stations
 Collect,
 Assimilate, and
 Manage data
received from monitoring and compressor stations all along the
pipe.
 Pipeline Construction

 As natural gas use increases, the need to have transportation

infrastructure in place to supply the increased demand.
 Constructing natural gas pipelines requires a great deal of
planning and preparation.
 In addition to actually building the pipeline, several permitting and
regulatory processes must be completed.
 Companies also prepare a feasibility analysis to ensure that an
acceptable route for the pipeline exists that provides the least
impact to the environment and public infrastructure already in
place.
 Pipeline Inspection and Safety
 Pipeline companies routinely inspect their pipelines for corrosion
and defects.
 This is done through the use of sophisticated pieces of equipment
known as ‘smart pigs.’
 Smart pigs are intelligent robotic devices that are propelled down
pipelines to evaluate the interior of the pipe.
 Smart pigs can test pipe thickness, and roundness, check for
signs of corrosion, detect minute leaks, and any other defect
along the interior of the pipeline that may either impede the flow
of gas, or pose a potential safety risk to the operation of the
pipeline.
 Sending a smart pig down a pipeline is fittingly known as ‘pigging’
the pipeline.
 Industrial Uses
 Natural gas has a multitude of industrial uses, including providing the
base ingredients for such varied products as plastic, fertilizer, anti-
freeze, and fabrics.
 In fact, industry is the largest consumer of natural gas, accounting for
43 percent of natural gas use across all sectors.
 Natural gas is the second most used energy source in industry,
trailing only electricity.
 Lighting is the main use of energy in the industrial sector, which
accounts for the tremendous electricity requirements of this sector.
 The graph below shows current as well as projected energy
consumption by fuel in the industrial sector.
 Industrial Uses

 Natural gas is consumed primarily in the

 Pulp and paper,
 Metals,
 Chemicals,
 Petroleum refining,
 Glass,
 Plastic, and
 Food processing industries.
 These businesses account for over 84 percent of all industrial natural
gas use.
 Industrial Uses
 Industrial applications for natural gas are many.
 Industrial applications include those same uses found in residential
and commercial settings – heating, cooling, and cooking.
 Natural gas is also used for
 Waste treatment and incineration,
 Metals preheating (particularly for iron and steel),
 Drying and dehumidification,
 Glass melting,
 Fueling industrial boilers.
 Industrial Uses
 Natural gas - feedstock for the manufacturing of a number of
chemicals and products.
 Gases such as
 Butane,
 Ethane, and
 Propane
 may be extracted from natural gas to be used as a feedstock for
such products as fertilizers and pharmaceutical products.
 Methanol Production
 Natural gas – used as building block for methanol, which in turn has
many industrial applications.
 Natural gas is converted to synthesis gas- mixture of hydrogen and
carbon oxides formed through a process known as steam reforming.
 Natural gas is exposed to a catalyst
 Causes oxidization of the natural gas when brought into contact
with steam.
 Methanol Production
Synthesis gas –
 used to produce methanol (or Methyl Alcohol), which is used to
produce such substances as formaldehyde, acetic acid.
 MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) that is used as an additive for
cleaner burning gasoline.
 Methanol may also be used as a fuel source in fuel cells.
 Natural gas desiccant systems
 Used for
 dehumidification, - plastics, pharmaceutical, candy industries.
 In these industries, moisture filled air can lead to damage of the end
product during its manufacture.
 For example, in the plastics industry, moisture can cause cracks
 Adding a natural gas desiccant system to the manufacturing or
drying environment allows industrial users to regulate more closely
the amount of moisture in the air, leading to a more consistent and
high-quality product.
 Direct Contact Water Heaters
 Combustion of natural gas transferred directly from the flame into the
water.
 These systems are incredibly efficient at heating water.
 Normal industrial water heaters operate in the 60 – 70 percent
energy efficiency range.
 However, direct contact water heaters can achieve efficiencies up to
99.7 percent
 Obviously, this leads to tremendous cost savings in industries where
hot water is essential.
Industrial Combined Heat and Power
 Industrial consumers reap great benefits from operating natural gas
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) and Combined Cooling, Heat,
and Power (CCHP) systems.
 For instance, natural gas may be used to generate electricity
needed in a particular industrial setting.
 The excess heat and steam produced from this process can be
harnessed to fulfill other industrial applications, including space
heating, water heating, and powering industrial boilers.
 Since industry is such a heavy user of energy, and particularly
electricity, providing increased efficiency can save a great deal of
money.
 The industrial sector is also subject to regulations regarding harmful
emissions, and the burning attributes of natural gas help industry to
reduce its emissions.
 Industrial Co-firing
 Natural gas co-firing technologies are also helping to increase
industrial energy efficiency, and reduce harmful atmospheric
emissions.
 Co-firing is the process in which natural gas is used as a
supplemental fuel in the combustion of other fuels, such as coal,
wood, and biomass energy.
 For example, a traditional industrial wood boiler would simply burn
wood to generate energy.
 However, in this type of boiler, a significant amount of energy is lost,
and harmful emissions are very high.
 Industrial Co-firing

 Adding natural gas to the combustion mix can have a two-fold effect.
 Natural gas emits fewer harmful substances into the air than a fuel
such as wood.
 Since the energy needed to power the natural gas boiler remains
constant, adding natural gas to the combustion mix can reduce
harmful emissions.
 This type of co-firing can also be used in the generation of electricity,
whether on-site or in a centralized power plant.
 Introduction
 Natural gas, because of its clean burning nature, has become a
very popular fuel for the generation of electricity.
 In the 1970s and 1980s, the choices for most electric utility
generators were large coal or nuclear powered plants.
 However, due to economic, environmental and technological
changes, natural gas has become the fuel of choice for new
power plants built since the 1990s.
Introduction
 Steam Generation Units
 Natural gas can be used to generate electricity in a variety of ways.
 The most basic natural gas-fired electric generation consists of a
steam generation unit.
 The fossil fuels are burned in a boiler to heat water and produce
steam that then turns a turbine to generate electricity.
 Natural gas may be used for this process, although these basic
steam units are more typical of large coal or nuclear generation
facilities.
 These basic steam generation units have fairly low energy efficiency.
 Typically, only 33 to 35 percent of the thermal energy used to
generate the steam is converted into electrical energy in these types
of units.
 Centralized Gas Turbines
 Gas turbines and combustion engines are also used to generate
electricity.
 In these types of units, instead of heating steam to turn a turbine, hot
gases from burning fossil fuels (particularly natural gas) are used to
turn the turbine and generate electricity.
 Gas turbine and combustion engine plants are traditionally used
primarily for peak-load demands, as it is possible to quickly and
easily turn them on.
 These plants have increased in popularity due to advances in
technology and the availability of natural gas.
 However, they are still traditionally slightly less efficient than large
steam-driven power plants.
 Combined Cycle Units
 Many of the new natural gas fired power plants are known as
‘combined-cycle’ units.
 In these types of generating facilities, there is both a gas turbine and
a steam unit, all in one.
 The gas turbine operates in much the same way as a normal gas
turbine, using the hot gases released from burning natural gas to turn
a turbine and generate electricity.
 In combined-cycle plants, the waste heat from the gas-turbine
process is directed toward generating steam, which is then used to
generate electricity much like a steam unit.
 Because of this efficient use of the heat energy released from the
natural gas, combined-cycle plants are much more efficient than
steam units or gas turbines alone.
 In fact, combined-cycle plants can achieve thermal efficiencies of up
to 50 to 60 percent.
 Distributed generation
 However, with technological advancements, there is a trend towards
what is known as ‘distributed generation’.
 Distributed generation refers to the placement of individual, smaller
sized electric generation units at residential, commercial, and
industrial sites of use.
 These small scale power plants, which are primarily powered by
natural gas, operate with small gas turbine or combustion engine
units, or natural gas fuel cells.
 Distributed generation
 Distributed generation can take many forms, from small, low output
generators used to back up the supply of electricity obtained from the
centralized electric utilities, to larger, independent generators that
supply enough electricity to power an entire factory.
 Distributed generation is attractive because it offers electricity that is
more reliable, more efficient, and cheaper than purchasing power
from a centralized utility.
 Distributed generation also allows for increased local control over the
electricity supply, and cuts down on electricity losses during
transmission.
 Distributed generation
 Natural gas is one of the leading energy sources for distributed
generation.
 Because of the extensive natural gas supply infrastructure and the
environmental benefits of using natural gas, it is one of the leading
choices for on-site power generation.
 There are a number of ways in which natural gas may be used on-
site to generate electricity.
 Fuel cells, gas-fired reciprocating engines, industrial natural gas-fired
turbines, and microturbines are all popular forms of using natural gas
for on-site electricity needs.
 Distributed generation
 Industrial Natural Gas Fired Turbines
 Industrial natural gas-fired turbines operate on the same concept as
the larger centralized gas turbine generators.
 instead of being located in a centralized plant, these turbines are
located in close proximity to where the electricity being generated will
be used.
 Industrial turbines – producing electricity through the use of high
temperature, high pressure gas to turn a turbine that generates a
current – are compact, lightweight, easily started, and simple to
operate.
 This type of distributed generation is commonly used by medium and
large sized establishments, such as universities, hospitals,
commercial buildings and industrial plants, and can achieve
efficiency up to 58 percent.
 Microturbines
 Microturbines are scaled down versions of industrial gas turbines.
 As their name suggests, these generating units are very small, and
typically have a relatively small electric output.
 These types of distributed generation systems have the capacity to
produce from 25 to 500 kilowatts (kW) of electricity.
 Best suited for residential or small scale commercial units.
 Advantages to microturbines include
 A very compact size (about the same size as a refrigerator),
 A small number of moving parts,
 Light-weight, low-cost, and increased efficiency.
 Using new waste heat recovery techniques, microturbines can
achieve energy efficiencies of up to 80 percent
Microturbines
Natural Gas-Fired Reciprocating Engines
 Natural-gas fired reciprocating engines are also used for on-site
electric generation.
 These types of engines are also commonly known as combustion
engines.
 They convert the energy contained in fossil fuels into mechanical
energy, which rotates a piston to generate electricity.
 Natural-gas fired reciprocating engines typically generate from less
than 5 kW, up to 7 megawatts (MW).
 They can be used as a small scale residential backup generator to a
base load generator in industrial settings.
 These engines offer efficiencies from 25 to 45 percent, and can also
be used in a CHP system to increase energy efficiency.
 Fuel Cells
 Fuel cells are becoming an increasingly important technology for the
generation of electricity.
 They are much like rechargeable batteries, except instead of using
an electric recharger, they use a fuel, such as natural gas, to
generate electric power even when they are in use.
Natural Gas – Cost
Cooking
 Cooking

 The best known uses for natural gas around the home are natural
gas heating and cooking.
 Cooking with a natural gas range or oven can provide many benefits,
including
 Easy temperature control,
 Self ignition and self cleaning,
 As well as being approximately one-half the cost of cooking with
an electric range.
 Many of the top chefs prefer natural gas ranges for their quick
heating ability and temperature control.
 Newer generations of natural gas ranges allow for some of the most
efficient, economical, and responsive cooking appliances in
existence.
Residentail heating
 Residential heating
 Natural gas is one of the most popular fuels for residential heating.
According to the American Gas Association, 62 million homes in the
U.S are heated using natural gas.
 As of 2009 this number represented about 56 percent of households
in the United States.
 Approximately 23 percent of the total natural gas consumed
nationwide is used for residential purposes.
 According to the U.S. Census Bureau in its report Annual 2010
Characteristics of New Housing report, 54 percent of new family
homes completed in 2010 used natural gas for heating, followed by
43 percent that use electricity for heating, 1 percent that use oil and 2
percent that use other forms.
 Natural gas powered air conditioning
 Natural gas air conditioning provides most of the air conditioning
requirements of the 1940s and ‘50s.
 Due to new advancements in technology and efficiency, natural gas
air conditioning is experiencing a resurgence in popularity.
 Although natural gas air conditioner units are initially more expensive
than a comparable electric unit, they are considerably more efficient
and require less maintenance.
 Modern residential air conditioner units use close to 30 percent less
energy than in years past, have an expected working life of 20 years
with very little maintenance
 Other applications
 Although many natural gas-powered appliances are initially more
expensive than their electric counterparts, they are commonly much
cheaper to operate, have a longer expected life, and require
relatively low maintenance.
 Other natural gas appliances include space heaters, clothes dryers,
fireplaces, barbecues, garage heaters and outdoor lights.
 All of these appliances offer a safe, efficient, and economical
alternative to electricity or other fuel sources.
 The same natural gas pipes that supply gas to a furnace can be used
to supply energy for all of the appliances listed above, making
installation simple and easy.
Barbecues
Garage heaters
Cloth dryers
 Distributed generation
 Although natural gas has many uses and can supply energy to a vast
number of residential appliances, there are some energy
requirements around the house which cannot be satisfied by natural
gas.
 A television, microwave, for instance, will likely never be powered
directly by natural gas, but will instead require electricity.
 However, natural gas can still power these appliances in the home,
by what is known as ‘distributed generation’.
 Natural gas fuel cells and microturbines both offer the residential
consumer the capacity to disconnect from their local electric
distributor, and generate just enough electricity to meet their needs.
 Introduction
 Natural gas has long been considered an alternative fuel for the
transportation sector. In fact, natural gas has been used to fuel
vehicles since the 1930’s.
 According to the Natural Gas Vehicle Coalition, there are currently
150,000 Natural Gas Vehicles (NGVs) on the road in the United
States today.
 More than 5 million NGVs worldwide.
 In fact, the transportation sector accounts for 3 percent of all natural
gas used in the United States.
 Vehicle Proliferation & Disadvantage of the
fuel
 Technology has improved to allow for a proliferation of natural gas
vehicles, particularly for fuel intensive vehicle fleets, such as taxicabs
and public buses.
 All types of natural gas vehicles are either in production today for
sale to the public or in development, from passenger cars, trucks,
buses, vans, and even heavy-duty utility vehicles.
 Despite these advances, a number of disadvantages of NGVs
prevent their mass-production.
 Limited range, trunk space, higher initial cost, and lack of refueling
infrastructure pose impediments to the future spread of natural gas
vehicles.
A Natural Gas Vehicle of the 1930’s
 Introduction

 Most natural gas vehicles operate using compressed natural gas

(CNG).
 This compressed gas is stored in similar fashion to a car’s gasoline
tank, attached to the rear, top, or undercarriage of the vehicle in a
tube shaped storage tank.
 A CNG tank can be filled in a similar manner, and in a similar amount
of time, to a gasoline tank.
 Natural Gas Vehicles
 This natural gas fuels a combustion engine similar to engines fueled
by other sources.
 However, in a NGV, several components require modification to allow
the engine to run efficiently on natural gas.
 In addition to using CNG, some natural gas vehicles are fueled by
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
 Some natural gas vehicles that exist today are bi-fuel vehicles,
meaning they can use gasoline or natural gas, allowing for more
flexibility in fuel choice.
 Many of these vehicles, which were originally gasoline only, have
been converted to allow the vehicle to run on either fuel.
 This conversion is costly, and typically results in less efficient use of
natural gas.
 NGVs
 There are many reasons why NGVs are increasing in abundance
and popularity.
 New, stringent federal and state emissions laws require an
improvement in vehicle emissions over the foreseeable future.
 Natural gas, being the cleanest burning alternative transportation fuel
available today, offers an opportunity to meet these stringent
environmental emissions standards.
 In addition, natural gas is very safe.
 Being lighter than air, in the event of an accident natural gas simply
dissipates into the air, instead of forming a dangerous flammable
pool on the ground like other liquid fuels.
 This also prevents the pollution of ground water in the event of a
spill.
 Natural gas fuel storage tanks on current NGVs are stronger and
sturdier than gasoline tanks.
 NGV
 Natural gas is also an economic alternative to gasoline and other
transportation fuels.
 Traditionally, natural gas vehicles have been around 30 percent
cheaper than gasoline vehicles to refuel.
 In many cases the maintenance costs for NGVs is lower than
traditional gasoline vehicles.
 In addition to being economic, many proponents of NGVs argue that
a transportation sector more reliant on domestically abundant natural
gas will decrease the U.S. dependence on foreign oil – allowing for a
more secure, safer energy supply for the country.
 Environmental Benefits of NGVs
 One of the primary reasons for pursuing alternative fueled vehicle
technology is to decrease environmentally harmful emissions.
 It is estimated that vehicles on the road account for 60 percent of
carbon monoxide pollution, 29 percent of hydrocarbon emissions,
and 31 percent of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions in the United
States.
 All of these emissions released into the atmosphere contribute to
smog pollution, and increase the levels of dangerous ground level
ozone.
 Vehicles also account for the emission of over half of all dangerous
air pollutants, and around 30 percent of total carbon emissions in the
U.S., contributing to the presence of ‘greenhouse gases’ in the
atmosphere.
 The environmental effects of NGVs are much less detrimental than
traditionally fueled vehicles.
 NGV

 Natural gas vehicles are much cleaner burning than traditionally

fueled vehicles due to the chemical composition of natural gas.
 While natural gas is primarily methane, gasoline and diesel fuels
contain numerous other harmful compounds that are released into
the environment through vehicle exhaust.
 While natural gas may emit small amounts of ethane, propane, and
butane when used as a vehicular fuel, it does not emit many of the
other, more harmful substances emitted by the combustion of
gasoline or diesel.
 These compounds include volatile organic compounds, sulfur
dioxide, and nitrogen oxides (which combine in the atmosphere to
produce ground level ozone), benzene, arsenic, nickel, and over 40
other substances classified as toxic.
 Reduction in Pollution

 Dedicated NGVs also produce, on average, 70 percent less carbon

monoxide, 87 percent less non-methane organic gas, and 87 percent
less NOx than traditional gasoline powered vehicles
 Uses of NGVs
 Natural gas vehicles as they exist today are best suited for large
fleets of vehicles that drive many miles a day.
 Taxicabs, transit and school buses, airport shuttles, construction
vehicles, garbage trucks, delivery vehicles, and public works vehicles
are all well suited to natural gas fueling.
 Because these vehicles are centrally maintained and fueled, it is
economical and beneficial to convert to natural gas.