CHAPTER 1 41.1 Several of the admixtures which may be used in concrete mixes are listed below together with some of the reasons for using them, (a) Aitentrainment admixtures are added to increase concrete’s resistance to freezing and thawing and to promote better resistance to the deteriorating action of de-icing salts (0) Acclerating admitures such as calcium chloride speed up concrete's early strength development. (©) Retarding admotures such as various acids ot sugars or sugar derivatives are used to slow down the setting of concrete and to retard temperature increases. (@ Superplasticizers are admixtures made from organic sulfonates. They are added to ‘concretes to reduce water contents while at the same time increasing slumps and workability (€) Waterproofing additives are generally some type of soap or some type of petroleum as perhaps esphait emulsions. They are sometimes applied to hardened concrete and at other times added to concrete mixtures {The addition of silica furne, which is more than 90% silicon dioxide, will cause increases in the strength and density of concretes. 4.2.When a concrete member is loaded in compression it not only shortens in length but ‘also expands laterally. The ratio of the lateral expansion to the longitudinal shortening is referred to as Poisson's ratio. For the design of most concrete structures no consideration is given to this ratio. is value, however, may be significant in some cases such as in the analysis and design of arch dams, tunnels and some other statically indeterminate structures, 1.3 Some of the factors which affect the creep of concrete are the level of stress in the concrete, the temperature, the humidity, the percentage of water-cement paste in the mix, the ‘presence or lack of reinforcing steel, and the size of members as it affects the volume to surface area ratio. 41.4 Creep in concrete can be lessened by curing the concrete longer, using steam curing, using higher strength concretes, keeping temperatures lower, keeping humidities high, and by Using lower percentages of cement-water paste. 1.5 If the concrete in columns is creeping or that is becoming shorter in length it will tend to get out of the way of the loads and thus more and more of the ioads will be carried by the reinforcing bars which themselves have little creep, 1.8 Silica fume particles hold more water than cement particles. The resulting water/cement ratios are smaller and strengths are higher. The use of silica fume particles in concrete causes increases in the strength and density of the concrete because the ultra fine silica fume particles are dispersed between the cement particles. 4.7 The rolled on deformations on reinforcing bars result in better bonding between the concrete and those bars. 1.8 “Soft metric” reinforcing bars are exactly the same as standard reinforcing bars except ‘they are marked with metric units, Their aumbers, as #22 or #25, represent their diameters rounded to the nearest millimeter.