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Surveying Made Easy: Karl Zeiske
Surveying Made Easy: Karl Zeiske
Karl Zeiske
Introduction
This booklet will tell you • What are the main The use of levels and total instruments available today
about the basic principles features of these stations is illustrated by a from Leica Geosystems;
of surveying. instruments? series of practical neither does it touch on
examples. In addition, their individual performance
The most important • What needs to be taken applications programs are features. These aspects are
instruments for surveying into account when described; these are covered by the com-
are levels and total stations; measuring with a level or incorporated into the prehensive brochures, by the
they are intended for with a total station? modern total stations technical consultants in the
routine survey tasks. manufactured by Leica Leica Geosystems agencies,
Anyone wishing to know • What are the effects of Geosystems and they solve and by the home pages in
how and where they are instrument errors? survey tasks even more the Internet
used will find the answers easily and elegantly. (www.leica-geosystems.com).
here. • How can such errors be Equipped with the
recognized, determined knowledge in this booklet,
and eliminated? and with the help of the
appropriate user manual,
• How can simple anyone can carry out
surveying jobs be simple survey tasks
performed? confidently and efficiently.
This booklet does not
describe the range of
2
Contents
3
The level
A level essentially
comprises a telescope
rotatable about a vertical
axis; it is used to create
a horizontal line of sight
so that height differences
can be determined
and stakeouts can be
performed.
4
The level • The total station
The total station
A total station consists of a Leica total stations are
theodolite with a built-in supplied with a software
distance meter (distancer), package that enables
and so it can measure most survey tasks to be
angles and distances at the carried out easily, quickly
same time. Today’s and elegantly. The most
electronic total stations all important of these pro-
have an opto-electronic grams are presented in
distance meter (EDM) and the section "Applications
electronic angle scanning. programs".
The coded scales of the
horizontal and vertical Total stations are used
circles are scanned wherever the positions
electronically, and then the and heights of points, or
angles and distances are merely their positions,
displayed digitally. The need to be determined.
horizontal distance, the
height difference and the
coordinates are calculated
automatically and all
measurements and
additional information can
be recorded.
5
Coordinates
y = D sin α D = √y2 + x2 D
x = D cos α sin α = y/D or X
cos α = x/D
α
6
The level • The total station
Measuring angles
7
Setting up Levelling-up the instrument
the instrument
anywhere
After setting up the consists basically of a
instrument, level it up thread-suspended mirror
approximately with the that directs the horizontal
1. Extend the legs of the bull’s-eye bubble. light beam to the centre of
tripod as far as is the crosshair even if there
required and tighten the Turn two of the footscrews is residual tilt in the tele- A B
screws firmly. together in opposite scope (illustration, bottom).
directions. The index finger
2. Set up the tripod so that of your right hand indicates If now you lightly tap a leg C
the tripod plate is as the direction in which the of the tripod, then (pro-
horizontal as possible bubble should move vided the bull’s-eye bubble
and the legs of the (illustration, top right). is centred) you will see how
tripod are firm in the Now use the third footscrew the line of sight swings
ground. to centre the bubble about the staff reading and
(illustration, bottom right). always steadies at the
3. Now, and only now, same point. This is the
place the instrument on To check, rotate the instru- way to test whether or not
the tripod and secure it ment 180°. Afterwards, the the compensator can swing
with the central fixing bubble should remain freely. A B
screw. within the setting circle. If it
does not, then readjustment
is required (refer to the user C
manual).
8
Preparing to measure
Setting up the total station
over a ground point
1. Place the tripod approxi- 5. Centre the bull’s-eye
mately over the ground bubble by adjusting the
point. lengths of the tripod legs
(illustration below).
2. Inspect the tripod from
various sides and correct 6. After accurately levelling
its position so that the up the instrument, re-
tripod plate is roughly lease the central fixing
horizontal and above the screw so that you can
ground point (illustration, displace it on the tripod
top left). plate until the laser dot
is centred precisely over
3. Push the tripod legs the ground point.
firmly into the ground
and use the central fixing 7. Tighten the central fixing
screw to secure the screw again.
instrument on the tripod.
9
Height difference
between two points
The basic principle of The height difference is
levelling involves calculated from the
determining the height difference between the two
difference between two staff readings for the points
points. A and B respectively.
Reading: 2.521 27
Reading: 1.345
15
26
14
25
13
24
12
23
11
10
Measuring with the level
Measuring distances optically
with the level
The reticle carries two Example:
stadia lines arranged Reading on upper
symmetrically to the stadia line B = 1.829
crosshair. Their spacing is Reading on lower B
such that the distance can stadia line A = 1.603
be derived by multiplying Staff section
the corresponding staff I = B-A = 0.226
section by 100. (This Distance = 100 I = 22.6 m
diagram is a schematic A
representation).
11
Line levelling
1. Set up the instrument The height difference Station Point Backsight R Foresight V Height Remarks
no.
at S1. between A and B is equal A 420.300
to the sum of the backsight S1 A +2.806
2. Set up the staff precisely and the foresight. 1 -1.328 421.778 = height A+R-V
vertically at point B; read S2 1 +0.919
2 -3.376 419.321
off and record the height S3 2 +3.415
(backsight R). B -1.623 421.113
Sum +7.140 -6.327
-6.327 +0.813 = height B – height A
3. Set up the staff at the
∆H +0.813 = height difference AB
turning point 1 (ground
plate or prominent
ground point); read off
and record the height
(foresight V).
12
Measuring with the level
Staking out point heights
V= R - ∆H = 1.305 - (-1.000) 9
9
9
9
9
1. Set up the level so that = 2.305 9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
13
Longitudinal and transverse profiles
(planned height)
Longitudinal and transverse instrument height. First, po- Longitudinal profile
profiles form the basis for sition the staff at a known Terrain
the detailed planning and station point; the instru-
stakeout of communications ment height comprises the
routes (e.g. roads) and also sum of the staff reading
for the calculation of fill and and the station point height.
Roadline
for the best possible accom- Now subtract the staff (planned)
modation of the routes to readings (at the points on 25 m
the topography. First of all the transverse profile) Reference height: 420 m
the longitudinal axis (road- from the instrument height;
line) is staked out and this gives the heights of the
stationed; this means that points involved.
points are established and The distances from the
marked at regular intervals. station point to the various
A longitudinal profile is points in the transverse
then created along the profiles are determined
roadline, the heights of the either with the surveyor’s
station points being deter- tape or optically using the Transverse profile 175
mined by line levelling. At level. When representing a
the station points and at longitudinal profile graphi-
prominent topographic fea- cally, the heights of the
tures, transverse profiles (at station points are expressed
right-angles to the roadline) at a much bigger scale (e.g.
are then recorded. The 10x greater) than that of
ground heights for the the stationing of the longi-
points in the transverse tudinal direction, which is Reference height: 420 m
profile are determined with related to a round reference
the aid of the known height (illustration above).
14
Measuring with the level
The digital level
15
Extrapolating a straight line Polar setting-out of a point
1. Position the instrument 4. Transit the telescope The setting-out elements 3. Rotate the instrument
at point B. again and mark the point (angle and distance) here until a appears in the
C2. Point C, the mid-point relate to a known point A display.
2. Target point A, transit the between C1 and C2, and to a known starting
telescope (i.e. reverse it) corresponds exactly to direction from A to B. 4. Guide the reflector
and mark point C1. the extrapolation of the carrier (person) into and
line AB. 1. Set up the instrument along the line of sight of
3. Turn the instrument 200 at point A and target the the telescope, continually
gon (180°) and target A line-of-sight error is re- point B. measuring the horizontal
point A again. sponsible for the discre- distance until point P is
pancy between C1 and C2. 2. Set the horizontal circle reached.
to zero (refer to the user
Where the line of sight is manual).
inclined, the influence of
the errors is a combination B
of target error, tilting-axis
error and vertical-axis error.
C1
C
A B P
C2
α
D
A
16
Measuring with a total station
Plumbing down from a height point
Plumbing down from a The mid-point between the For work of this type, make
height point, plumbing up points B and C is the exact sure that the total station
from a ground point, and plumbing point. has been levelled up pre-
inspecting a vertical line on cisely, so that the influence
a structure, can be carried The reason why these two of vertical-axis tilt on steep
out exactly in just one tele- points do not coincide can sights is minimized.
scope face, but only if the be a tilting-axis error
telescope describes a pre- and/or an inclined vertical
cisely-vertical plane when axis.
it is tilted. To ascertain
that this is so, proceed as A
follows:
17
Surveys (polar method)
If a coordinate system
already exists, set up the
instrument on a known
point within it and line up
the horizontal circle with
a second known point
(refer to the user manual).
18
Measuring with the total station
Measuring distances
without a reflector
Each of the TCR total The "DISTO" hand-held
stations from Leica laser meter from Leica
Automatic target recognition
Geosystems includes not Geosystems is another
only a conventional infra- simple instrument that
red distancer that measu- uses a visible laser beam
res to prisms, but also an and needs no reflector; it is The TCA total stations from after establishing the initial
integrated laser distancer particularly suitable for Leica Geosystems are contact with the target the
that requires no reflector. indoor measurements to equipped with an automatic instrument locks on to it
You can switch between ascertain spacings, areas target-recognition system and tracks it. The practical
these two distancers. and volumes. ("ATR"). This makes tar- applications of this option
geting faster and easier. It is include the precise
This arrangement brings enough to point the tele- guidance of construction
many advantages where scope approximately at the machinery.
points are accessible only reflector; a touch on a
with difficulty or not at all, button then automatically Advantages of ATR: High
for example during the triggers the fine pointing speed of measurement,
recording of frontages, in and the angle- and distance combined with a constant
positioning pipes and measurements, and records measuring accuracy that
for measurements across all of the values. This is independent of the
gorges or fences. technology also makes it observer.
possible to carry out fully-
The visible red laser dot is automatic measurements
also suitable for marking with the help of a computer.
targets in connection with
the recording of tunnel The ATR can also be
profiles or with indoor switched to a mode in
work. which moving targets can
be followed and measured;
19
Setting out profile boards
During building alignment, 2. Mark the point A at the 6. The points on the profile
it is useful to extrapolate defined distance d from boards are then set out
the sides of the building to the upper boundary; it in a similar manner,
beyond the limits of the ex- will be the first location starting from the points
cavation and there to erect for the total station. A1 to A6 respectively.
profile boards on which the
extensions are marked 3. Using a boning rod, mark If the foundations have not
exactly by hammering in the point B at the end of yet been excavated, you
nails. These can be connec- the baseline. can set out the sides H1H2
ted to strings or wires at and H1H3 of the building
any time during the con- 4. Set up the total station on directly and use them as
struction sequence, indi- point A, target point B, the starting line for
cating the required and set out the points A1, marking the points on the
positions of the walls. A2 and A3 in this align- profile boards.
ment in accordance with
In the following example, the planned length of the For smaller buildings it is
profile boards are to be side of the building. easier to set out the profile
erected parallel to the pro- boards using an optical
posed walls of a large 5. With point B sighted, set square (right-angle prism)
building and at distances of the horizontal circle to and a measuring tape.
a and b respectively from zero, turn the total station
the boundaries (illustration, by 100 gon (90°) and set A building-alignment
left). out the second line AC software program
with the points A4, A5 incorporated into many
1. Establish a baseline AB and A6. Leica total stations enables
parallel to the left-hand profile boards to be set out
boundary and at a freely- directly, starting with any
selectable distance c. instrument station.
20
Measuring with the total station
21
Inspecting the line of sight (two-peg test)
22
Instrument errors
Inspecting the EDM
of the total station
Permanently mark four
runs within the range
typical for the user (e.g.
between 20 m and 200 m).
23
Instrument errors in the total station
Ideally, the total station between plumb line and user manual. Vertical-axis tilt Note:
should meet the following vertical axis). does not rate as being an The instrument errors
requirements: instrument error; it arises change with temperature,
The effects of these three because the instrument has as a result of vibration, and
a) Line of sight ZZ perpen-
errors on the measurement not been adequately levelled after long periods of
dicular to tilting axis KK
of horizontal angles increase up, and measuring in both transport. If you want to
b) Tilting axis KK perpen-
with the height difference telescope faces cannot measure in just one face,
dicular to vertical axis VV
between the target points. eliminate it. Its influence on then immediately before
c) Vertical axis VV strictly
the measurement of the the measurements you
vertical
Taking measurements in both horizontal and vertical angles must determine the
d) Vertical-circle reading
telescope faces eliminates is automatically corrected by instrument errors and store
precisely zero at the zenith
line-of-sight errors and means of a two-axis them.
If these conditions are not tilting-axis errors. The line-of- compensator.
met, the following terms are sight error (and, for highly- V
used to describe the precise total stations, also d) Height-index error i (the
particular errors: the tilting-axis error, which is angle between the zenith
generally very small) can direction and the zero K Z
a) Line-of-sight error, or colli- also be determined and reading of the vertical
mation error c (deviation stored. These errors are then circle, i.e. the vertical-
from the right angle bet- taken into consideration circle reading when using
ween the line of sight and automatically whenever an a horizontal line of sight),
the tilting axis) angle is measured, and then is not 100 gon (90°), but Z
b) Tilting-axis error a (devia- it is possible to take mea- 100 gon + i. K
tion from the right angle surements practically free of
between the tilting axis error even using just one By measuring in both faces
and the vertical axis) telescope face. The deter- and then averaging, the
c) Vertical-axis tilt (angle mination of these errors, and index error is eliminated; it
their storage, are described can also be determined and V
in detail in the appropriate stored.
24
Instrument errors
Line-of-sight error (c) Tilting-axis error (a) Vertical-axis tilt Height-index error (i)
(Hz collimation) (V index)
25
Aligning from the mid-point
2
3
4
A E
26
Simple surveying tasks
Measuring slopes
27
Measuring right-angles
The most accurate way to central fixing screw of the an unrestricted view of the
set out a right-angle is to tripod. Then turn the object point. You as the
use a theodolite or a total horizontal circle by hand to observer can position
station. Position the zero in the direction of the yourself in the survey line
instrument on the point survey line or of the (defined by two vertically-
along the survey line from longitudinal profile. Finally, positioned alignment rods)
which the right-angle is to turn the level until the in that you move perpen-
be set out, target the end index of the circle is set to dicularly to the line until
point of the survey line, set 100 gon (90°). you see the images of the
the horizontal circle to zero two rods exactly super-
(see user manual) and turn An optical square is the imposed. Then you move
the total station until the best solution for the yourself along the survey
horizontal circle reading is orthogonal surveying of a line until the object point
100 gon (90°). point on a survey line or and the two images of the
vice versa, and for the alignment rods all coincide.
For setting out a right- setting out at right-angles
angle where the accuracy of a point in the near
requirements are less distance. The beam of light
demanding, e.g. for small from the object point is
buildings or when turned through 90° by a
determining longitudinal pentagonal prism so that it
and transverse profiles, the reaches the observer. The
horizontal circle of a level optical square consists of
can be used. Set up the two superimposed
level over the appropriate pentagonal prisms with
point of the survey line their fields of view facing
with the help of a plumb right and left respectively.
bob suspended from the Between the two prisms is
28
Applications programs
Calculating areas
29
Staking out
30
Applications programs
Remote heights
31
Tie distances
32
Applications programs
Free-station surveys
33
Surveying with GPS
34
Surveying with GPS
GPS Reference Stations
35
Leica Geosystems AG
CH-9435 Heerbrugg
Illustrations, descriptions and technical data are not binding and
(Switzerland)
may be changed. Printed in Switzerland. Phone +41 71 727 31 31
Copyright Leica Geosystems AG, Heerbrugg, Switzerland, 2004
Fax +41 71 727 46 73
722510en – VII.04 – RVA www.leica-geosystems.com