CHAPTER 9

Rational Action
Rationality is an ancient and notoriously difficult concept. At the same time, rationality is
a real, practical problem. Through reflection and theorization, through improvements in
technique and reforms to institutions, people have strived to act more rationally in science
and engineering, in commerce and industry, in administration, and in everyday life.
Jon Elster, “Rational Choice,” Explaining Social Behavior
Three distinct parts or branches:
1. Humanities 2. The social sciences 3. The natural sciences.
The social sciences can benefit from the biological study of human beings and other
animals...interpretation of works of art and explanation are closely related enterprises
Rational choice theory, also known as choice theory or rational action theory, is a
framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior.
The theory also focuses on the determinants of the individual choices (methodological
individualism). Rational choice theory then assumes that an individual has preferences
among the available choice alternatives that allow them to state which option they prefer.
The rational agent is assumed to take account of available information, probabilities of
events, and potential costs and benefits in determining preferences, and to act
consistently in choosing the self-determined best choice of action. In simpler terms, this
theory dictates that every person, even when carrying out the most mundane of tasks,
perform their own personal cost and benefit analysis in order to determine whether the
action is worth pursuing for the best possible outcome.
Rationality is widely used as an assumption of the behavior of individuals in
microeconomic models and analyses and appears in almost all economics textbook
treatments of human decision-making. It is also used in political science, sociology, and
philosophy.
Gary Becker was an early proponent of applying rational actor models more widely.
A particular version of rationality is instrumental rationality, which involves seeking the
most cost-effective means to achieve a specific goal without reflecting on the worthiness
of that goal.
Rational choice theory has become increasingly employed in social sciences other than
economics, such as sociology, evolutionary theory and political science in recent
decades.
The concept of rationality used in rational choice theory is different from the colloquial
and most philosophical use of the word. Colloquially, "rational" behaviour typically means
"sensible", "predictable", or "in a thoughtful, clear-headed manner." Rational choice
theory uses a narrower definition of rationality. At its most basic level, behavior is rational
if it is goal-oriented, reflective (evaluative), and consistent (across time and different
choice situations). This contrasts with behavior that is random, impulsive, conditioned, or
adopted by (unevaluative) imitation.
Neoclassical economists writing about rational choice, including William Stanley Jevons,
assumed that agents make consumption choices so as to maximize their happiness, or
utility. Contemporary theory bases rational choice on a set of choice axioms that need to
be satisfied, and typically does not specify where the goal (preferences, desires) comes
from.
Bruce Bueno De Mesquita, “Introduction” to The Predictioneer's Game: Using the
Logic of Brazen Self-Interest to See and Shape the Future
Predictioneer's Game?
It teaches us that we can predict how a conflict may be resolved if we carefully consider
the incentives for all parties in the conflict.
Bruce Bueno de Mesquita follows Shakespeare's path and opens a new world. In Bueno
de Mesquita's hands, game theory becomes a fascinating tool for understanding
everything from how to steer the selection of a CEO to great swaths of both the past and
future.
Debra Satz and John Ferejohn, “Rational Choice and Social Theory” is that rational
choice explanations are often best understood as not relying on any claims about
individual psychology. They call this position externalism.
Satz and Ferejohn also make interesting and important claims;
Rational choice theories are most secure and informative when they do not depend on
the idiosyncracies of individual beliefs and preferences, and R.C explanations may be
compatible with “structural” explanations in terms of facts about social structure and
constraints. Rational choice explanation of an action, an individual’s choice is determined
by the individual’s rational preferences among feasible actions. Physical, biological,
social, and psychological factors determine which actions are feasible. Rational choice
explanation thus appear to be psychological explanations. Those who take these
appearances at their face value are called by Satz and Ferejohn internalism.
Esther Duflo, “Poor but rational?”
Insurance
The poor, it is commonly acknowledged, face a very risky environment: the weather is
uncertain, crops fail for all sorts of reasons, prices are volatile, illness strikes often, etc.
Townsend (1994) made this point in a very influential article. Townsend argued that
advantage was fully taken of this possibility. The consumption of all families within a
village move very close together: When someone has a bad year, everybody in the village
suffers a little bit, and the affected family's consumption does not fall behind that of
others.
Agricultural Investment
If agricultural production is efficient, the investment, effort, and production on the land
should not depend on who is tilling it: Whoever is working on the land should extract the
maximum from the land, and these profits should then be shared.
Jon Elster, “Games and Behavior”
Rationality and the Emotions
EMOTIONS
Emotions, like beliefs and desires, can be conceived either as occurrent mental events
or as dispositions for such events to occur. I shall use 'emotions' or 'occurrent emotions'
for the former and 'emotional dispositions' for the latter. Whereas emotions are only to a
small extent under the control of the will, dispositions can to a larger extent be consciously
shaped. A succinct characterisation of the emotions might be that they are the stuff that
keeps us awake at night. More soberly, they go together with physiological arousal of
some sort or other.
EMOTIONS AND SOCIAL NORMS
In Elster (1989a, b) Idefined social norms as injunctions to behaviour that
1. are non-outcome-oriented,
2. apply to others as well as to oneself,
3. are sustained by the sanctions of others, and
4. are sustained by internalised emotions.
As norms are sustained by emotions, emotions and their expression may be regulated
by social norms. To the extent that expression of the emotions is within the control of the
will, they are obvious targets for social norms. There is, for instance, an effective norm
against laughing at funerals. Expressions that are largely involuntary, such as shedding
tears, blushing or fainting, are usually not the target of norms.
RATIONALITY AND THE EMOTIONS
An action is rational if it satisfies three optimality conditions.
First, the action has to be the best means of realising the agent's desires, given his beliefs
about ends-means relationships and other factual matters.
Secondly, these beliefs themselves have to be optimal, given the information available
to the agent. The process of belief formation, that is, must not be distorted by 'cold'
mistakes in information processing or 'hot' mistakes caused by motivational biases.
Thirdly the amount of information, or more accurately the amount of resources spent on
acquiring information, must itself be optimal, given the agent's prior beliefs about the costs
and benefits of information-acquisition and the importance of the decision to him.
First, emotions, being largely involuntary, are not actions. Secondly, only freely chosen
actions can be assessed as rational or irrational. Each premise might be questioned.
Sally Haslanger, “Social Construction: Myth and Reality”
Sally Haslanger’s Resisting Reality: Social Construction and Social Critique is a collection
of 13 essays. The collection is divided into three parts, labelled ‘Social Construction’,
‘Gender and Race’ and ‘Language & Knowledge’.
Gender, according to Haslanger, is the social meaning of sex, while race the social
meaning of (geographical) ancestry (what Haslanger calls ‘color’). While nature divides
us by colour and sex, we divide ourselves by race and gender.
The Construction of Ideas and Concepts
Ian Hacking urges us to distinguish the construction of ideas and the construction of
objects Let's start with “ideas.” What does it mean to say that the concept of gender, or the idea that
females should not be sexually attracted to other females, is socially constructed? Plausibly, the claim is
simply that they are products of a sociohistorical process. However, that would seem to be utterly obvious.
Surely at least most ideas and concepts are only possible within and due to a social context (allowing that
there are also innate cognitive processes and structures that also play a role). Concepts are taught to us
by our parents as we learn language; different cultures have overlapping but also distinct concepts
and ideas; and concepts as well as ideas evolve over time as a result of historical changes,
science, technological advances, etc. Let's (albeit contentiously) call this the "ordinary view" of
concepts and ideas.

Social constructionism is generally offered as an alternative to essentialism; both come

in different forms. Drawing on the link between thought and practice, Alison Stone
(2004) explicitly takes up a genealogical approach to the social construction of gender to
avoid the pitfalls of an essentialism that assumes there is some feature or features that
all women share, by virtue of which they are women. She claims that women always
become women by reworking pre-established cultural interpretations of femininity, so that
they become located—together with all other women—within a history of overlapping
chains of interpretation. Although women do not share any common understanding or
experience of femininity, they nevertheless belong to a distinctive social group in virtue of
being situated within this complex history.
CHAPTER 10
The Historical DEvelopment of the Social Science
The natural sciences, according to Ledoux (2002), are disciplines that focus only
onstudying natural events using scientific methods. The origins of the natural sciences
can be traced back to the Renaissance in Europe, when most intellectuals started using
systematic methods of investigation. Biology, chemistry, physics, geology, and astronomy
are some of the fields that fall under the natural sciences.

The social sciences boast of a long and interesting history-one that is shaped by the
individual's inherent desire to find answers to unresolved questions, study the rise andfall
of institutions, and understand the socio-political circumstances of particular
historicalperiods, as well as the people's increasing awareness of the variety of the human
experience
The Need to Explore the World
The ancient Greeks and Romans were the first to expound on the concepts of the
individual, morality, and the state. Plato's The Republic laid down some of the earliest
thoughts on the foundations of an ideal society. Aristotle's Politics marked the first
comprehensive attempt to come up with the most ideal way of distributing power in a
community. Aristotle also laid the foundations of what would later be known as the
scientific method: he proposed that the truths of nature can be discovered through
careful observation of empirical facts and application of reasoning to one's
observations to arrive at the answers to scientific inquiry.
The Rise of Medieval Scholasticism
Say: The works of the Greek philosophers served as the foundation on which the various
forms of rational inquiry. were built. British mathematician and philosopher Alfred North
Whitehead (1861-1947) is often quoted for asserting that "the safest general
characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of
footnotes to Plato." The ideas put forth by these ancient scholars formed the basis for the
development and growth of the various disciplines existing today.
The Rise of Medieval Scholasticism
Peter Lombard and Peter Abelard to adopt Aristotelian reasoning and argumentation
Aristotle's teachings came back into favor among increasing numbers of academics.
Medieval philosopher-theologians saw in Aristotle's metaphysics new ways to logically
argue for the existence of God. One of these ideas was his Prime Mover- there must be
a source of all movement or change in the universe, but which itself remains
unmoved or unchanged.
Aristotle's the marriage of faith and logic. This marriage of reason and religion as a
method of learning is known as scholasticism.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 CE). An Italian Dominican. His most prominent
publication, the Summa Theologica (Theological Summation), is regarded as one of the
greatest works of medieval scholasticism.
Summa Theologica (Theological Summation) - It comprises articles examining various
concepts in the Christian religion, always following
First, it asks a question about Christian doctrine, such as "Is the existence of God self-evident?" Next, it
presents objections against the idea presented in the question and counterarguments against those
objections, often citing Scripture or writings by Church authorities for each point. Aquinas presents his
own position on the topic, dispelling the refutations by way of further citation of authorities and his own
logical arguments. This format exemplifies the scholastic method mastering the ability to examine an idea
from multiple, often contradicting viewpoints, and being capable of defending each side logically.

Avicennism and Averroism, even influenced the works of the scholastics. Of particular note are the
Iranian scholar Al-Biruni (973-1018 CE), whom some consider the first anthropologist," and was among
the first to launch comparative studies of peoples and cultures, focusing on the Mediterranean and South
Asia and the historiographer Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406 CE), whose seminal work, the Muqaddimah,
introduced many of the concepts used in modern sociology and economics.

Science, Secularism, and Society

Renaissance humanist ideals
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) whose approach to art reflected his investigation of the
hidden mechanics of nature.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) whose rejection of the geocentric model of the universe and
affirmation of the heliocentric model angered the Catholic Church.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), whose Baconian method, a systematic way of testing
hypotheses through observation and collection of data, helped develop and refine the
scientific method.
Age of Reason.
The Age of Reason was characterized by the academe moving further away from
theology and faith-based approaches to knowledge in favor of schools of thought such as
rationalism, exemplified by René Descartes (1596-1650), and empiricism, as
represented by John Locke (1632-1704). The rationalists held that a human being's
sense experiences are flawed.
Descartes believed that reality and truth have rational structures which can be
understood through mathematical and logical principles. The empiricists, on the other
hand, believed the opposite that the only way to make deductions about reality is through
observations and sense experiences.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), who postulated that societies are formed when
individuals, motivated solely by self-interests, enter an agreement in which one person or
a group of people exercises power over a larger group of people.
Age of Enlightenment, was both an extension of and a reaction to the Age of Reason.
Voltaire (real name François-Marie Arouet: 1694-1778) of France, whose writings and
advocacy of social reforms influenced important figures in the American and French
revolutions
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) of Germany, who sought to merge the debating schools of
rationalism and empiricism, and Adam Smith 17231790 of Scotland, whose work, The
Wealth of Nations, led many to call him the "Father of Modern Economics."
The Late Modern Period and Disciplinization
Late Modern Period, was a time of much change, featuring a flurry of scientific, social,
artistic, and political developments. The Industrial Revolution and the rise of middle-
class entrepreneurship led to drastic changes in the way wealth was created and
circulated, and in the way society was organized.
Scholars such as Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Herbert Spencer each
asserted their respective visions for a unified social science.
Comte (1798-1857), introduced the theory of Positivism, which asserts that knowledge is
authentic only if it is affirmed through empirical evidence and strict adherence to the
scientific method. In his book, Cours de Philosophie Positive (Course of Positive
Philosophy), Comte described a science which would encompass all other social
sciences. He called it sociology, and asserted that it would examine socio-political
systems and social dynamics in a scientific manner to guide society towards bettering
itself and curing its maladies.
Human beings’ desire to learn about the world they live in was the impetus for the inception and
development of systematized knowledge.The social sciences, humanities, and natural sciences differ in
terms of their function, purpose or end goal, and methodology. While the distinctions are clear, they remain
similar in some aspects of scholarship.
 CHAPTER 11
PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION
First civilization that discovered the practicality and necessity of having only one god—
EL. EL” the beginning and the end of their being. He is a jealous God. The greatest among
the many concepts of god in the history of people. “EL” became the “ELYON” (the great
and powerful god) to “EL SHADDAI” (the god of the mountains) to “YAHWEH” (the Only,
Most Holy, Omnipresent, Omnipotent, and Omniscient God of the many gods) believers
in many gods. “ZEUS” the ruler of universe – both in the heavens and under the heavens-
as a super king.
He is the “glorified One” Hesiod - an early Greek writers wrote a Theogony of books of
the gods.
Socrates. Who sought to develop a more consistent and pure concept of God.
Considered as the destroyer of the gods of the Greeks.
Plato. He thinks of god in the manner as the ordinary citizen of Greeks.
Aristotle. Form and matter. “forms are forces which realizes themselves in the world of
matter.”
Francis Bacon. Natural and revealed theology.
Thomas Hobbes. God gave motion to all things. Pursues the principle that God is body,
a corporeal being.
Rene Descartes. God exists. Creator of all living things.
Blaise Pascal. God only knows through religious feeling, pure spirit and know him only
through spiritual xperience.
Baruch Spinoza. God is the sole independent substance of the universe. God is single,
eternal, infinite, self-caused principle of nature and of all things.
John Locke. God for him is somebody who established certain divine laws which man
may discover through studying or through revelation.
George Berkeley. God is supreme. He is the source of everything in the universe.
David Hume. God is absolute and perfect. He must be the cause of everything.
Immanuel Kant. God is encompassing everything.; the absolute whole.
Freidrich Leibnitz. God is the highest and most perfect.
William James. “Will to Believe” in God, and we must satisfy this “Will.”
John Dewey. God is the source of the universe and the salvation of man.
*the problem of the nature of God: Atheist- don’t believe in God; Monotheist –
believes that there is God.

The Elements of Religion

Beliefs. Is a conviction that cannot be proved or disapproved by ordinary means.
Religious beliefs organize an individual’s perception of the world and serve as a guide for
behavior.
Rituals. Stylized enactments of religious beliefs.
Subjective Experience. Range form of belief that one’s life is in hands of DIVINE
POWER.
Cult. Centering around their sacred symbols.
Sects. Do not seek to become established national religion. “Outsider” status in the
society.
The Nature of Religion
-set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe; a universal
and part of cultural system; cannot be segregated from the rest of man’s life.
Religion comes from the Latin word “religare” means “bind together” popularly known as
the belief in God or any spiritual and supernatural being.
Functions of Religion
Important functions
1. gives man assurance
2. offers some practical explanations
3. provides a way of salvation from evil
4. motivates individuals and group of life
5. supports sound morals
Major functions
1. gives persons peace of mind
2. integrates the value system
3.justifies, rationalizes, and supports the sentiments to society
4. it allays fears and anxieties
5. provides norms of behavior
6. performs social activities
7.means of social control
8. greats influence upon personality dev’t
9. allays fear of the unknown
10. supplies the explanations to events or situations.
11. gives man comfort, strength and hope
12. preserves and transmits knowledge, skills, spiritual, cultural values, and practices
13. instrument of change
Some Religious Beliefs and Practice
1. belief in Supreme Being
2. belief in the power of Supreme Being
3. all religions have ceremonies
4. beliefs in spiritual and moral codes
The World’s Religions
Judaism. Latin word “Judaismus” means “ Jews Relligion.” The oldest religion in the
world. Sacred books: Torah She Bi-Khetab (Written Law) and Torah She-Be al Peh
(Oral Law)
Judaism is monotheistic
Hinduism. The word “Hindu” comes from the word “Hind” that represents religion and
social system of India.
-the heart of Hinduism is its caste system introduced by the Aryans to preserve their racial
purity. From highest to lowest, the castes are:
1. Brahmans- priest and intellectuals
2.Kahatriyas- government and military
3. Vaisyas- merchantile and agricultural
4. Sudras- artisans and laborers
5. Servants
Zoroastrianism. Founder is Zoroaster. Ancient religion of Persia, now Iran. Sacred book:
Avesta consists of four chief divisions as follows:
1. Yasna –worship including sacrifice
2. Vispered – supplementary ritual
3. Yashts – hymns to angels
4. Vendidad – account of creation
Shintoism. Shinto is the proper name of Japanese Religion. First Mikado (emperor) had
a direct lineal descent from Sun Goddess (Amaterasu).
Sacred books of Shinto:
1. Ko-ji-ki – records of ancient matters
2. Nihon-gi –chronicles of Japan
Taoism. Tao means way. One of the three officially recognized religion in China.
Founded by Lau-Tzu.
The book of Taoism:
1. Tao-the-King – the canon of reason and virtue
Confucianism. Yu Kiao in Chinese meaning “The System of the Learned”. Founded by
Confucius.
Sacred literature of Confucianism are:
1. Shu King (Book of History)
2. Shih King (Books of Poetry)
3. I King (Book of Changes)
4. Li Ki (Books of Rites )
5. Chun Chiu (Spring and Autumn Annals)
6. Hsiao King (Book of Filial Piety)
Its principle percept “What you do not want done to yourselves, do not do to others.”
Salvation is attained by zeal in meditation and reflection to reach Nirvana. It is
believed that the dead continue to hover around and so sometimes food is offered to
them.
Christianity. Founded by the Apostles of Jesus Christ. The followers convert Christians
after the name of Christ. Under the reign of Emperor Constantine, Christianity became
the official religion of the Rome.
 1. the cross is a profession of God’s existence.
2. the cross is invocation for safety against temptation and danger.
3. the cross has a high place of respect, honor, vernation in Christian Churches.
Buddhism. Founded by Siddhartha Gautama. Tired of his luxurious life. Left his wife and
son and sought salvation through renunciation and meditation.
While meditating under the sacred Bo tree, he received enlightenment. So he was called
Buddha (Enlightened One)
His enlightenment, consisted of four noble truths as follows:
1. that all life is subject to offering.
2. that desire or the will to live is the cause of repeated existence (transmigration or
reincarnation) in which sorrow is inevitable.
3. that only the annihilation of desire (yearning, craving, ambition) can give release.
4. that the way of escape is the Eightfold Path of:
a. right belief e. right life
b. right resolve f. right effort
c. right word g. right thinking
d. right act h. “ meditation
Two sacred scriptures of Buddhism
1. Tripitaka or Three Baskets of Teachings such as: Vinaya Pitaka or Discipline ; Sutta
Pitaka or Teaching ; Abhidhomma Pitaka or Metaphysical
2. Dhammapada , a collection of the sayings of Buddha.
There is no sin against a Divine Being but there are Five Prohibition: do not kill, steal,
commit adultery, lie, or drink in toxicants. Buddhism did not thrive much in India but
was spread widely in Ceylon, Bruma, Thailand, China and Japan.
Sikhism. Founder was Nanak of India. He claimed he was taken in a vision to God’s
presence. He was told, “My name is God, the Prime Brahma, and thru art Divine Guru”
Guru means teacher, the venerable one. After his experience he began proclamation and
preaching he brought with him a Moslem, named Mardan and they travelled widely.
Sikh is discipline in Hindu. He compiled part of the sacred book called Grant Scheb
(Lord Book)
Nanak taught there is only one God whose name is Sat Name (true name). Today,
Sikhism, a militant religion, most of them living in Punjab, there original ancestral Isla.
Islam. Islamic philosophy can be viewed as the work thinkers belonging to a religious
community who relied on the writings of the Koran (Quran). The Koran is the holy or
sacred book of Muslims.
Muslims believed that the word of God or Allah, was revealed to Muhammed by the angel
St. Gabriel.
-Muhammed then was the prophet who described Allah’s will.
-Islamic faith dictates that Muslims believe in no God but Allah. They must pray five time
each day –at sunrise, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and nightfall.
- They must fast between sunrise and sunset during the month of Ramadan. Muslims
are required to perform acts of charity. And they must make a pilgrimage to the holy city
of Mecca at least once in their lives.
-Mohammed married several women at the same time. This is why Muslim can marry
more than one woman at the same time.
CHAPTER 12
POLITICAL AND SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
Political and social philosophy, as a body of knowledge, looks at society, politics and the
people that make it whole.
POLITICS is one of the many types of activity, political, social, economic, cultural and
religious, that characterize a society, and political process and is intertwined with other
social activities and structures. It is affected by these activities; and in turn affects them.”
State, Government, Sovereignty And Related Concepts
State. It is politically unified population occupying a specific area of land and possesses
an element of permanence.
Government. Carries out the rules of action. In short, the government is the aggregate
of society that rule society and its people.
Sovereignty. Expresses the fundamental idea of that supreme authority within the state.
This supreme power has two features.
Therefore, sovereignty is the supreme and independent power of the state to manage its
internal affairs and to be free from external control.
1.Nation
2. Citizen
3. Law
Origin, Basis And Development Of States
Using the existing knowledge as basis, it would appear that the state originated from the family and
subsequently, developed into clan and the tribe. The laws were carried over from the father to the tribal
council of elders. Later, a more formal organization of government with prescribed rules and established
procedures. When population began bigger, it began to outrun the supply of food thus agricultural economy
started to rise.

The Theoretical Basis Of State Origin

Divine Theory. The oldest theory of how the state came into being. They are God’s
agents on earth.
Contract Theory. This theory assumed that there was a time when men lived in a “state
of nature” entered into an agreement to form civil society and organizes themselves into
people.
The Natural or Instinctive Theory. “Men is by nature a political animal” by Aristotle.
Means the political institutions are the results of the instinct of men to bind themselves as
social beings.
Patriarchal or Matriarchal Theory. Attribute the origin of the state to the family.
The Force Theory. The accounts that the state had come to exist through force.. “the
state requires force for the preservation of its unity against disruptive elements.”
Historical or Revolutionary Theory. The state is an outcome of a gradual process or
evolutionary growth and development that has been a part in the whole history of
mankind.
The Evolution And Development Of The State
The Tribal State. This state was the first to appear in the history of mankind. Ruled by
chieftain, and assisted by a council of elders. This tribe either wondered from one place
to another.
The Oriental Empire. Factors that rise of these empires were attributed to fertility of the
soil, climate, abundance of water, land, and culture. The existence of these empires
depended, to a great extent on the strength and ability of the rulers.
The Greek City-State. Smaller than the vast oriental empires. Greeks were able to
organize the city-states which were compact, independent and self-sufficient. The Greek
classical philosophers, once lived and conceived the first idea of political science.
The Roman Imperial Empire. Romulus as founder and first king. Romans were better
off in terms of political genius than the Greeks.
The Feudal State. Was ruled by king, assisted by a loyal noble, his vassal called feudal
baron. This vassal is granted the use of the land and owed allegiance and military service
to his lord, the king.
The National State. They were distinct states, each with its own inhabitants, territory,
culture and sovereignty. Until the world gained the benefits of democracy.
The World State. The growth and development of modern states conceived, to a large
extent, by motives of self-interest, and power politics.

Elements Of A State
People. The inhabitants of the state; the first and most essential element of state. Without
people, there can be no state.
Territory. A fixed portion of the surface of the earth inhabited by the people of the state.
This constitutes all the land and water within its external boundaries.
Largest state: Union of Soviet Socialist Republic and the smallest state: Vatican
Government. Which is the aggregate of authorities that rule society and must be obeyed
by its people. It may be monarchy, republic, or a dictatorship.
Sovereignty. The supreme and uncontrollable power inherent in a State by which the
State is governed.
Internal. Complete power to rule over the people. External. Freedom from foreign rule.
Functions Of The State
1. To defends man’s basic need or security.
2. To support his quest for natural well-being.
3. To see the administration of justice on a fair basis for all.
4. To help in the education and cultural life of the people.
5. To defend and advance the freedom of the citizens.
Forms Of Government
Monarchy. In which supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single person or
ruler. He is the chief executive, legislator, and judge at the same time. His personal will
is the dominant consideration.
Aristocracy. Means government by an elite of the society that has social status, wealth
and political power. Political powers are entrusted or vested on few persons—the
aristocrats.
Oligarchy. Means government by a minority of the society, a minority that is not
necessarily distinguished by aristocratic title or privilege.
Government By The Few
Authoritarianism. Authoritarian governments are: Monarchies (ruled by one),
aristocracies (ruled by the titled few), oligarchies (ruled by the untitled few) .These
governments are content to the overt behavior of the citizen and to eliminate any sign
organized opposition.
Totalitarianism attempt to control not only the citizen’s behavior but his thoughts as well.
Dictatorship. Absolute power is exercised by a dictator. In this form of gov’t, political
ideas and expressions are suppressed and controlled by means of indoctrination, of
brainwashing, and propaganda.
Democracy. Form of gov’t in which the supreme power is vested in the people and
exercised directly by them. It upholds political equality among citizens.
According to Abraham Lincoln (16th President of the United States of America)
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people, and for the people.”
Democracy is truly a representative form of government.
Right And Reason
Right is a state of mind in accordance with what is good, proper or just. It is in conformity
with fact, reason or some standard principle.Right means something that is straight, not
crooked, in opposition to wrong. Right, or moral power works by appeal to one’s will
through the intellect.
MEANING OF REASON
Reason is a basis or circumstances explaining some belief, action, fact or event. It is also
statement presented in in justification or explanation of a belief or action.Reason is the
mental power concerned with forming conclusions, judgments, or interferences.
Right Reason as a Norm
Reason works out an ethical judgment, and these are:Any moral choice is preceded by
intelligent deliberation a weighing of the reasons for and against the contemplated course
of action.
Habit is said to be second nature. It is characteristic of reason to direct to an end.
Some values are seen to be nobler in intrinsic worth, more inclusive in scope, more
compatible with other values, and more productive of order and harmony in man and his
relations with others.
Conscience It is the intellect itself in a special function, the function of judging the
rightness or wrongness of an individual’s act.
The moral principle of conscience is “DO GOOD AND AVOID EVIL.” and “RESPECT THE
RIGHTS OF OTHERS.” It is the sense of what is right and wrong in one’s conduct or
motives, impelling one toward right action.
It is the ethical and moral principle that control or inhibit the actions or thoughts of an
individual.
Cardinal Virtues It includes prudence, courage, temperance, and justice.
Aristotle centers his ethics on these cardinal virtues, and they have been universally
adopted by Christian writers.
Prudence Is an intellectual virtue by essence; however it enters into the field of the moral
virtues by pointing out the mean and suggesting ways of attaining it. Without prudence,
fortitude becomes boldness, temperance becomes senseless, and justice becomes
harshness. It is the quality of being cautious with regards to one’s interest. It is care,
caution and good judgment.
Courage Is the difficulty of the mind or spirit that enables a person to face difficulty,
danger or pain with firmness and without fear.
Two types of courage: Physical, Moral
It also implies patience, perseverance, constancy and tenacity of purpose.
Aristotle adds two unusual virtues: Magnificence – dare wisely in matter of expense.
Magnanimity – dare wisely in matter of honor.
Justice Is the quality of conforming to principles of reason to generally accepted
standards of right and wrong, and to the stated terms of laws, rules, agreements in
matters affecting persons who could be wronged or unduly favored.
According to Aristotle, justice is divided into two types: General – cover all virtue that
has any social significance. Particular – which is cardinal virtue ;
Aristotle divides into :
1. Distributive – relation between the community and its members. It requires a fair and
proper distribution of benefits and burdens among the members of the community.
2. Corrective or Commutative –basis of contracts.
Temperance Is moderation or self-restraint in action or statement. It regulates the
appetite in the use of sensible pleasure. It moderates one’s drive toward self-preservation.
Happiness Results from the possession or attainment of what one considered good. It is
not a passing feeling or emotion, such as joy or goodness, but it is lasting state of being.
Perfect happiness fully satisfies all men’s desires.
Love The noblest aspiration and the most dynamic force we can have to drive us on
toward whatever good we know.It is justice expanded to the fullest scope of the human
person’s dignity.
Pleasure It is the state or condition of being pleased. It is the enjoyment or satisfaction
derived from what is to one’s liking, gratification and satisfaction.
Hedonism comes from the Greek word pleasure. It is the doctrine that pleasure or
happiness is the highest good. It is a devotion to a pleasure as a way of life.
Pleasure is a very important good. It is stimulates that nature uses to allure us to the
proper use of our abilities.
Responsibility Is the state or fact of being responsible of one’s action and answerable
for the act in so far as he did it.
The Common Good It is which society exists and means towards man’s ultimate goal. It
is to be shared in all by people in the community
CHAPTER 13
Analyzing Structure: Institutionalism, Structural Functionalism, and Marxism
The term INSTITUTION can be defined in various ways.
It could mean an established body of procedures, rules, and formal organizations of
government (Heywood, 2013). A collection of interrelated rules and routines that define
appropriate actions in terms of relations between roles and situations (March e Olsen,
1989). Considering these definitions, institutions could range from formal institutions
hike the local government, the legislature, and the family, to informal institutions such as
habits, norms and traditions.
Institutionalism Institutionalism as an approach believes that institutions matter because
they constrain as well as influence individual behavior and are able to affect political
decisions in a variety of ways. Institutionalism preeminence, however, was challenged
when the behavioral revolution called for a more empirical approach to studying politics.
Behavioralists criticized institutionalism for reducing politics to mere organizational
structures. In the 1980s, same scholars gained renewed interest in institutionalism with
the rise of new institutionalism. Under this renewed movement institutions were analyzed
not just as sets of independent organizations, but also as sets of processes that shape
behavior and are embedded in a socio-historical context.
Strands of New Institutionalism
While the old institutionalism originally emphasized laws and constitutions revolutions, and other aspects
of formal governance as subjects of analysis, new institutionalism studies how political behavior and
identities are shaped by institutions. It expands the concept of institutions by including the informal
conventions of political life. The definition of institutions has become larger, more complex, and more
resourceful, and holistic understanding of such is necessary to explain political outcomes. It also rejects
notion that institutions are neutral to political processes and the outcomes of those processes.

A number of strands under new institutionalism have emerged, but among these, the
following three are the most prominent: rational choice institutionalism,
sociological institutionalism, and historical institutionalism.

Rational choice institutionalism employs rational choice theory in the analysis of political behavior and
society. Rational choice institutionalists maintain that individuals tend to calculate the costs and benefits of
their choices and actions in an attempt to maximize the utility they receive. However, the choices and
actions are often restricted by the institutions in which these individuals live and operate. The rational choice
school examines these Institutions as systems of rules and incentives which can shape the patterns of
public activity and lead it towards certain outcomes. If members of a society perceive an institution to be
unfavorable to them, they can challenge that institution and modify or even replace it to cater to their
interests. The task of rational choice institutionalism, then, is to examine analyze and develop theories on
how individuals and groups live and operate within the constraints of institutions, or even challenge those
institutions to pursue their respective interests.

Sociological Institutionalism These institutions prescribe a habitual behavior of

appropriateness among the members of a community. That guide people's everyday
interactions with each other and set what is considered socially acceptable behavior.
Historical Institutionalism This strand combines some of the ideas of the other two
strands, but also adds its own. Proponents of historical institutionalism argue that
individuals act according to both cultural rules and norms and their respective self-
interests
Structural functionalism thinks of society as a whole composed of interrelated parts, such
as norms and institutions, performing a variety of functions within that larger whole. Each
part assumes a particular function necessary for the maintenance of order. It seeks to
understand how people live in societies and how they stay together in relative harmony
and stability.
Structure and Agency
Agency is defined as the ability of individuals to act independently, and their capacity to
make their own choices freely. An agential view of society holds that society is constructed
by the aggregated, repeated actions of individuals.
Structure argue that society gives individuals roles to play, and these individuals actions
are determined“ by the choices and roles that society gives them.
Systems Analysis
A system as defined by Anatol Rapoport (1966), is a set of interrelated entities connected
by behavior and history.
Rapoport identified four characteristics of a system:
Systems Analysis
1. a set of identifiable elements
2. identifiable relations among some of the elements.
3. certain relations implying other relations
4. certain complex relations at a given time implying complex relations at a later time.
Society can be viewed as a system with constituent elements that work together to
produce certain results All activities and phenomena in the system are regarded as
products of relationships Between the system and its elements or among elements
An example of the application of systems analysis in socio-political phenomena is David
Easton's systems theory. In his seminal work, A Systems Analysts of Political Life,
Easton (1965) provides an ideal view of how political systems work. He clarified that
political systems are different from other systems because they are concerned with the
authoritative allocation of values within society.
Consensus Perspective vs. Conflict Perspective
Structural functionalists also examine stability and order in society. Both the consensus
and conflict perspectives offer explanations for social order
The consensus perspective states that stability is achieved when there is absence of
conflict, and general agreement among members of the society is ensured. Conflict
perspective, on the other hand, deals with how conflicts and crises arise in society
despite conscious efforts to establish and maintain order.
Thomas Hobbes Leviathan, where his concept of war of all against all encapsulates the
idea of how society falls into a state of conflict and war owing to the self-seeking nature
of individuals.
Social Functions and Dysfunctions
ocial Theory and Social Structure (1949), sociologist Robert Merton introduced manifest
and latent functions and dysfunctions as conceptual tools in structural functionalism.
A social function is a consequence of a social action or institution that contributes to the
maintenance of the institution or of society in general A social dysfunction, conversely,
is a consequence of a social action or institution that leads to instability or even the
breakdown of the institution or of society.
Social functions and dysfunctions can be manifest or latent. Manifest functions are
intended and deliberate; latent functions are unintended, unforeseen or unrecognized.
A manifest dysfunction is an anticipated disruption to an existing social order while a
latent dysfunction is an unexpected disruption to social order
Marx's two most popular works are The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital
(Capital: Critique of Political Economy) (1867). Das Kapital is a three-volume work
written while he went into exile in London, where he spent time reading treatises on
economic theory. The Communist Manifesto was co-written with his friend and long-time
collaborator Friedrich Engels.
CHAPTER 14
Understanding Experience: Hermeneutics, Phenomenology, Postmodernism, and
Psychoanalysis
Hermeneutics originated from biblical studies and is defined as the understanding and
analysis of biblical interpretation. Bible scholars adopt hermeneutics to avoid committing
the mistake misunderstanding and interpreting the holy scripture.
-understand the scriptures by analyzing the historical and social contexts when where passages were
conceptualized and situated. It also involves careful analysis of the text and its structure. Useful in dealing
with non – biblical texts such as poetry, journals, diaries, text message, editorials, caricatures, political
speeches, interpretative dances, protest songs, chants, courtship rituals, and religious rituals, among
others. It provides scholars in the field of qualitative research with a powerful instrument in analyzing and
interpreting texts., documents, and even social actions. Among the renowned proponents of
hermeneutics are Max Weber, Wilhelm Dilthey, Hans – Georg Gadamer, and Martin
Heiddeger.
Hermeneutics and the Writer's Bias
Hermeneutics enables the leader of the test to understand and interpret mutate based
on the therapeutic rhetorical and social contexts. In other words, test History class, say,
short story or political speech can in literature be understood with the cultural and health
in which it was written on when and where to plan. Hermeneutical a transformative
exercise, because the reading and interpretation of texts can be determined and induced
by the reader own personal viewpoints and specific social context. It suggests that
readers are also active agents who are capable of reimagining reproducing and restricting
textual messages, and that they themselves are producers of textual meanings.
Hermeneutic Circle which suggests that comprehending the whole text is determined by
understanding its components.
In the case of interpreting a political speech, one should understand the small details components les
language anecdotes, nuances, invectives, parodies, call to action in the context of the whole (g. speech a
political propaganda), and also analyze the totality in relation to its parts

Phenomenology is a philosophical movement which studies experience and hoe we

perceive reality, which according to its proponents, consists of objects and Phenomena
as perceived by human consciousness. In the phenomenological sense, human
experience includes such as imagination, thought, and feeling.

Similar to interpretivism and social constructivism, phenomenology focuses on how

people attribute meaning to and make sense of their social interactions
Phenomenologists like Edmund Husserl view typical activities in everyday life as
veritable mines of social and cultural information about human consciousness and
humans In fact, social researchers can derive many insights by merely observing how
people behave and interact such as how they met in a job interview, cope with trauma,
deal with stress, buy groceries, converse over the phone, segregate their garbage
arrange their furniture, organize their work desk, prioritize their academic subjects,
prepare their food, or even fall in line Phenomenology, therefore, provides us with detailed
and thick descriptions of society on the micro and personal levels.

Phenomenology and Language

Phenomenologists believe that words often mean more than their denotative (or
“dictionary”) meaning, and that language itself is a source of meaning. When individuals
of similar socio – cultural and historical backgrounds have a conversation, the words that
they use may have embedded meanings – ones which evoke thoughts or memories of
lived experiences – that would not exist out of their shared context.
Phenomenology and Time Consciousness
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) postulated that time is composed of a series of distinct
separate, absolute, and measurable point which contain things or events, and each of
which we perceive "now". Believed that time exists. However, German philosopher
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) He argued that the concept of Newtonian time is
insufficient, because it does not account for how we perceive the unity of our experiences
over time, or the temporal order of events- we do not perceive past events simply as
uniformly past We retain an understanding of them in the order in which we experienced
them.
Husserl Three Levels to the Perception And Experience of time.
Objective time, Subjective time, Internal time, Conversation Analysis
Phenomenology is conversation analysis where both verbal and non-verbal
communications are coded and examined in order to understand the nature and dynamics
of everyday social interaction. Conversation analysis may reveal an unequal power
relation between actors as shown by their manner of speaking, use of language length of
delivery, and intonation among others.
Basic Process in the Conversation Analysis
Identify a research problem
Gather data by documenting conversation with the use of audio and/or video
technologies. Seek free and prior informed consent (FPIC) from institutions and
individuals before performing the process of gathering data.
Transcribe or encode the entire conversation, including pauses, expressions, and other
nuances.
Observe and identify recurring patterns or trends in the course of conversation.
Derive and develop a model that will explain the dynamics and character of the
conversation.
Postmodernism believe that it is virtually impossible arrive at the absolute truth arguing
that all forms of knowledge and fragmented, incomplete. fluid, and local. They also believe
society in in a permanent state of flux and uncertainty. Postmodernism is a reaction in
modernism and is best understood when we in relation to the latter.
The relativist and subjectivist stance of postmodernism suggests that there are multiple
version of truth and thus, it rejects the use of a single frame of analysis to interpret social
realities. Among the notable postmodernist thinkers are Jean-Francois Lyotard,
Michel Foucault, and Jacques Derrida.
Modernism was a movement, primarily in literature and the arts, which began around the
end of the 19th century and lasted till the mid-20th century. Freud's Interpretation of
Dreams and Einstein's theory of special relativity, a number of scholars and
thinkers rejected the artistic and cultural traditions of the past.
Pre-Modernist World was characterized by the sense of order and stability, adherence
to religion nationalism and a sense of identity, the advent of industrialization and a rapidly
changing society fostered feelings of alienation despair, faithlessness skepticism, and a
confused sense of identity among many scholars and thinkers.
Transition to Postmodernism
First postmodernists tend to dismiss the idea that there is an objective reality or
absolute truth. They believe that such concepts are constructed by language and
scientific practice.
Second, while modernists despaired at the idea of fragmentation and the loss of a stable
sense of identity, postmodernists celebrate subjectivity, contradiction (even self-
contradiction). randomness, uncertainty, hybridity, and ambiguity.
Third, postmodernism questions and challenges the dominant social forces that exercise
authority on determining knowledge and what is considered the truth.
Fourth, postmodernists believe that all systems of human knowledge are subjective and
that all grand narratives must be questioned and challenged.
Grand Narratives vs Mini-narratives
Grand narratives (also known as meta-narratives or master narratives),
postmodernism seek to replace them with mini-narratives Grand narratives propose the
idea that absolute truths derived from science, religion, and ideology can adequately
explain and determine the diverse and complex aspect of human societies.
Mini-Narratives (micro-narratives) are stories that depict events and phenomena on
smaller, local scales, making no claim to universality.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Freudian Structure of Human Personality
Id (it) – pertains to the immature, selfish, and demanding instinct of the personality that
influences the drive to satisfy the bodily and worldly desires of the self, totality unmindful
of societal norms and value systems.
e.g., A student wanted to pass an exam and resorted to cheating

Ego (Self) – pertains to the organized and realistic aspect of the personality that mediates
between the aggressive tendencies of the id and the moral imperatives of superego.
e.g., A student wanted to pass the exam and did not give in to the temptation to cheat.

Super ego (above self) – refers to the critical and moral dimension of the personality
that invokes behavior which society deems acceptable and ethical.
E.g., a student wanted ton pass the exam and avoided cheating. He knows that cheating is morally wrong. He is also
aware that cheating is a form of academic dishonesty.

CHAPTER 15: FILIPINO SOCIAL THOUGHT

Nationalist historian, Renato Constantino, noted that there were Muslim outposts in
some parts of Luzon and Visayas but these were separated by a great distance from the
Muslim communities in Mindanao.
Many native intellectuals and even ordinary citizens sympathized with the Gomburza.
Their unjust execution sparked a nationalist sentiment among the natives and
served as an eye-opener to the glaring racial discrimination against native Filipinos, and
the stark injustices prevailing in society under the Spaniards. It can be said that the death
of Gomburza in 1872 marked the birth of the Filipino national consciousness. Jose Rizal
was one of the youth who were inspired by their plight, and he dedicated his El
Filibusterismo in their memory Likewise, the Katipunan also adopted "Gomburza"
as one of their passwords.
Propaganda Movement
Rizal's novels served as political catalysts that aroused nationalist fervor and mobilized
fellow Filipinos into action Both novels presented and exposed the following socio-political
issues evident during his time:
1. paternalistic relationship between the Spanish friars and the Filipinos
2. blind faith and false consciousness perpetuated by the Spanish friars among the
Filipinos
3. religious dogmatism that suppressed social dissent in the colony
4. racial and ethnic discrimination that stripped Filipinos of their rights and dignity
5. class discrimination that deprived Filipinos of economic opportunities
6. patronage system which promoted the culture of corruption and dependence
7. collaboration of Spanish authorities and local elites that marginalized the Filipino
masses
Marcelo H. Del Pilar wrote parodies that exposed the abusive character of the Spanish
clergy, while Graciano Lopez Jaena authored a tale that featured the character of Fray
Botod (Bored means big-bellied in Hiligaynon) who symbolized the greediness of Spanish
friars.
Revolution and National Liberation
Andres Bonifacio sought the total independence of the Philippines from Spain. In 1892,
he co - founded the Katipunan, a revolutionary organization that aimed to attain national
liberation from Spanish colonialism through armed struggle. Believed that self-
determination was not possible under the Spanish colonial administration.
Political thinker and revolutionary Apolinario Mabini also argued that a national
revolution is justified when people use it to assert their legitimate rights, and when it is
utilized to replace an abusive and repressive government with a just and democratic one.
National Consciousness And Identity
"Identity and Consciousness: Philippines Experience,” Renato Constantino noted that
our country shares similar colonial experience with many of our Asian neighbors.
Constantino argued that the country's regressive national consciousness was brought
about by the long and deep seated experience with colonization (1565 to 1946) and
eventually, no colonization (1946 to the present).
Renato Constantino defined national consciousness as a sense of oneness which
comes from the community of aspirations, response, and action. The lack of national
consciousness manifests in the following tendencies of Filipinos, their western and
eastern ambivalence (cultural identity crisis), their passive engagement in political
activities of national importance (political apathy), and their strong regional affiliation but
weak national commitment (parochialism).
Economic Nationalism
Philippines were reintegrated in the world capitalist system to serve the following roles:
1. as suppliers of raw materials
2. as sources of inexpensive and docile labor force
3. as markets for surplus goods
4. as dumping grounds of hazardous and toxic wastes
5. as hosts of military bases and launching pads for wars of aggression
6. as extensions of spheres of influence through western culture and education
This process of economic imperialism is carried out through the policies of globalization
namely liberalization, deregulation, and privatization.
Filipino Nationalist
1. Isabelo de los Reyes (1864-1938) also known as "Don Belong." sought to expose
the oppression experienced by Filipinos during the Spanish colonial rule through his
progressive writings. Denounced friar ownership of vast tracts of land which
deprived Filipino farmers of lands to till and resources to develop. He advocate of
Philippine independence from Spain. As a journalist, Isabelo delos Reyes criticized
how imperialism relegated the Philippines to a condition of chronic poverty and
underdevelopment. Clarified that Filipino nationalists were not anti-American. He was
also credited with the formation of the first labor union in the Philippines-the Union
Obrera Democratica (UP). Contributions to the development and promotion of
ilocano folklore, culture, and heritage. He also co-founded the Philippine Independent
Church, a religious organization that advocated for social justice and national liberation.
2. Claro M. Recto (1890-1960) advocate of an independent foreign policy. Arguide that
Filipinos never infringed on the sovereign rights of other nations. He also authored the
Rizal Law (Republic Act 1425) which required Philippine schools to study Jose Rizal's
life and works, Rizal's novels, in particular, served as effective eye openers that stirred
the nationalist and revolutionary zeal of the Filipinos during the Spanish colonial regime.
3. Jose W. Diokno (1922-1987) A social activist, believed that denying an individual of
his or her human rights is tantamount to removing his/her dignity as a person.
Encompassed the multidimensional facets of national affairs. He fought against the
presence of American troops and military bases in Philippine territory. Expressed
strong dissatisfaction against the policy impositions of multilateral financial
institutions on the economic affairs of the country that rendered many Filipinos poverty
and underdevelopment. A firm believer of democracy, he fought against the Marcos
dictatorship and the supremacy of military authority over civilians.
4. Lorenzo Tañada (1898-1992) believed that NATIONALISM serves as a precondition
not only for independence but also for economic development. Adopt nationalism and use
it as a force for national development, and not merely as a slogan, tagline, or label. A
forefront of the opposition to the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant based on security,
environmental and ethical considerations. A staunch critic of political and
bureaucratic corruption in the government, arguing that government leaders should
possess the values of integrity, accountability, and uprightness.
Cultural Nationalism
The Philippines is a multicultural and pluralistic society. It is a tapestry of cultures
religions, and ideologies. Cultural nationalists believe that historical and cultural
"brainwashing" by imperial powers were instruments that ensured full control and
compliance among the marginalized. Believe that academic Institutions must hone the
skills of students to become productive members of the community, and instill among
them the deep sense of commitment to contribute to its holistic development. Education
should be fully utilized to serve the end of nation-building and national development. It
loses its noble purpose if it fails to empower Filipinos and bring about sustainable
development for all.
Nationalism is also expressed in the realm of language. Filipino as our national language
must not only be Tagalog-based or Tagalog-oriented. It must include other languages
and dialects in the Philippines, Renato Constantino pointed out that the recognition
and promotion of indigenous languages will result in the development of indigenous
knowledge systems and practices. Language is the medium through which we
communicate our ideas and consciousness (wika bilang daluyan ng kamalayan), hence,
through the use of indigenous language that we will be able to develop and promote our
indigenous wisdom and traditions.
Political Nationalism
The Anti Dictatorship Movement
President Ferdinand Marcos concentrated political power in his hands by abolishing the
legislature and undermining the judiciary. The decrees, directives, and instructions that
emanated from the Office of the President became the laws of the land. He gave
enormous power to the military in order to subvert civilian supremacy. Human rights
violations were committed against social activists and members of the political opposition.
Case of extrajudicial killings, abductions, and tortures were common. Patronage politics and a
spoils system in favor of political allies were the order of the day. Political supporters and cronies were appointed to
key offices and awarded lucrative government deals.

Martial law activists wrote protest songs and poetry to express their strong indignation
against the repressive policies of the government and its forces.
The Anti Military Bases Agreement Movement
The Senate Resolution also rejected the treaty for going against various constitutional
provisions (1) renounce war as a national policy, (2) pursue an independent foreign
policy, and (3) prohibit nuclear weapons in Philippine territory.
Intellectuals, according to political scientist Francisco Nemenzo, must also serve as
social critics. Intellectuals, in this context, include university professors, book writers,
media workers, students and consultants In the course of Philippine history, progressive
intellectuals, in strong alliance with the broad Filipino masses, played a crucial part in
dismantling the Marcos dictatorship and rejecting the extension of the military bases
agreement.
CHAPTER 16
Indigenization Movement in the Social Sciences
The indigenization movement seeks to achieve what Renato Constantino describes as
the "decolonized Filipino." Indigenization is part of decolonization, which seeks to reassert
indigenous identity and national so encompassing the economic, political, and cultural
aspects of our nation.
Indigenization Movement in the Social Sciences
Indigenization (pagsasakatutubo) an academic and socio-cultural movement in the
former colonies in the Third World which seeks to rediscover, relearn, and re apply the
traditional and indigenous cultural forms and systems that are authentic markers of
national identity. Philippines, indigenization addresses the neglect of Philippine
indigenous knowledge and systems and seeks to rediscover, study, appreciate and
practice them. Indigenization a collective process of reflection and reexamination,
contributing to the rediscovery of Filipino indigenous cultural identity. Advocates of indigenous
social science challenge scholars and practitioners to remove their colonial blinders, descend from their "Ivory towers,"
immerse themselves in the community, and contribute to the constructive resolution of social problems.

Sikolohiyang Pilipino (SP) is an academic movement which seeks to indigenize the

theory, method, and practice of psychology. It is a countervailing force to the dominant
western oriented psychology and its strong influence on teaching, research, and practice
in the country. Sikolohiyang Pilipino is considered by many scholars as a form of
postcolonial and liberation psychology. It rejects the tradition of mainstream psychology
to overly rely on quantitative approaches in studying human behavior. Psychology
Rogelia Pe-Pua defined Sikolohiyang Pilipino as an approach anchored on Filipino
thought and experience as understood from a Filipino perspective."
Example "hiya" is loosely translated by foreigners as "Shame" in the specific context in
the Philippines, however, it is translated to “sense of propriety”. The interpretation of
"bahala na" which from the foreign perspective is viewed as a form of fatalism and lack
of concern but when interpreted locally, is viewed as an attitude of determination and a
form of risk-taking.
The core construct of Sikolohiyang Pilipino is kapwa or shared identity. Kapwa
underscores the central importance of collective identity and shared humanity of people.
Kapwa is similar to the Ubuntu philosophy in Africa which means that “I am who l am
because of who we all are.”
Sikolohiyang Pilipino Methodologies And Approaches In Conducting Social
Research:
Pakikipagkuwentuhan - The process of informal storytelling by participants facilitated by
the researcher is expected to bring about observations and insights relevant to the subject
matter of study.
Pagtatanong-tanong - The act of asking questions derived from the participants flow of
conversation about the topic will enable the researcher to identify cultural patterns and
nuances that a structured questionnaire cannot reveal.
Pagdalaw-dalaw - The experience of visiting the respondents' homes will allow the
researcher to understand their actual physical and social environments.
Pakikiramdam - This allows the researcher to feel and empathize with his or her
respondents about their collective and individual emotions, concerns, and aspirations.
Panunuluyan - The practice of immersing in the community and staying with
thehousehold will enable the researcher to develop a deeper sense of relationship with
the participant, thereby allowing him or her to gain a more profound understanding of their
aspirations, experiences, and struggles.

Filipino values related to pakikipagkapwa

Pakikitungo - civility
Pakikisalamuha - ability to adapt
Patikilahok - act cf participating
Pakikibagay - conformity
Pakikisama - being united/being one with
Pakikipagpalagayang-Loob - act of mutual trust
Pakikisangkot - act of joining others
Pagkakaisa - being one
Pakikiramdam - shared inner perception
Kagandahang-Loob - shared humanity
Utang Na Loob - norm of reciprocity

Cultural Subjugation
The Process of Cultural Subjugation
Pantayong Pananaw
Dr Zeus Salazar, forerunner of Pantayong Pananaw (PP), defines this approach in
historyas an internal interrelatedness of values, character, knowledge, wisdom, aspiration
traditions, behavior and experience of a particular culture or civilization as a whole.
Pantayong Pananaw aims to decolonize Philippine historiography (method of writing
history). Filipino historians who subscribe to Pantayong Pananaw seek to write and
explain Philippine history to fellow Filipinos in the language they can understand,
appreciate, and internalize. This is premised on the idea that Philippine history written by
Filipinos for fellow Filipinos is both liberating and empowering. In this manner, history
becomes a unifying thread that binds people with a common culture, language and
heritage.

Pilipinolohiya is a counter-ideology to colonial and neocolonial education which promote

western ideals and perspectives to the detriment of indigenous knowledge and education.
Argues that indigenous knowledge can contribute to the vast body of knowledge in the
fields of science and the humanities Anthropologist Prospero Covar defined
Pilipinolohiya as the systematic study and understanding of Filipino thought and culture
as they manifest in the realms of language, media, and the arts.
Pilipinolohiya is a critical stance against any form of western hegemony. It seeks to
challenge the intellectual and cultural dependence of local scholars on western models
and methods. It also rejects the prevailing foreign descriptions and interpretations in
examining local realities and conditions, which have led to historical distortion and cultural
misrepresentation of Filipino tradition and way of life.
Dr Ramon Guillermo, a critical scholar, argues that in order to be truly liberating the
process of indigenization must be complemented by structural and class analysis of
Philippine society. Class analysis refers to the evaluation and understanding of the
economic inequality that characterizes the relationship between the rich (eg. landowners)
and the poor (eg. landless farmers), and its implication on access to economic resources
and opportunities Filipino scholarship. Critical social science must not only challenge
unequal power relations among nations, but also confront unjust class structures within
the country. It must not only seek to unmask and debunk traditional notions about society
that reinforce and perpetuate colonial mentality, gender discrimination, and ethnic bias,
but should also address prevailing class inequalities based on income and wealth
disparity such as the relationship between landlords and pleasants, as well as capitalists
and workers.
CHAPTER 17
Addressing Development Issues Using The Social Sciences
Development, or the lack thereof, is an issue that is at the core of the social sciences. In
book Development as Freedom, Amartya Sen (1999) defines development as the
absence of unfreedoms (such as poverty) in society. Development should be the ultimate
goal of public policy and should aim to promote freedom and the end of oppression.
Macro-level perspective, development or underdevelopment can be viewed as a
phenomenon that is shaped or produced by social processes such as social stability and
social change. Micro-level perspective, development or underdevelopment can be seen
as a phenomenon that directly affects individuals or groups in a social setting. It
presupposes that development as a subject of inquiry in the social sciences is dynamic
and multifaceted, as it sheds light on a myriad of relevant factors and processes.
Political development. Dankwart Rustow regarded it as a combination of increasing
levels of national unity and political participation, Samuel Huntington (1968) saw it as
political modernization coupled with political institutionalization.
Gabriel Almond and G. Bingham Powell, Jr. (1966) argued that political development
as a process undergoes four distinct stages: state building, nation building,
participation enlargement (mass democracy), and distribution and expansion
which lead to resource reallocation.
Immanuel Wallerstein. In his World Systems Theory (also known as the core-
periphery model), he described the modern world system as essentially capitalist in
nature. Means the world system is an independent network of states linked by political
and economic competition. Wallerstein asserted that economic modernization placed all
the regions of the world into four categories the core, periphery, semi-periphery and
external areas.
W.W. Rostow (1960), an American economist, formulated an influential theory that
outlines the process that countries undergo in attaining economic development. This
process comprises FIVE STAGES. The first stage is characterized by country
undertaking mary economic activities. The second stage is dominated by
commercialization and increased use of raw materials. The third stage is where foreign
investment comes in and I spent primarily for infrastructural development. The fourth
stage is where the country establishes wide industrial and commercial bases. The final
stage is the acquisition of high per capita incomes and mass consumption
The Asian Development Bank (2009), in its comprehensive analysis of the causes of
poverty in the Philippines, reports the following:
1. Economic growth did not translate into poverty reduction in recent years.
2. Poverty levels vary greatly by region.
3. Poverty remains a mainly rural phenomenon, though urban poverty is on the rise. The
majority of the poor live in rural areas and work in the agriculture sector, mostly as farmers
and fishers. In urban areas such as Metro Manila, they are found in slums and the informal
sector.
4. Poverty levels are strongly linked to educational attainment. In two-thirds of poor
families, the head of the household has at most an elementary-level education.
5. The poor have large families, with six or more members each.
6. Many Filipino households remain vulnerable to shocks and risks. They have no or few
assets and minimal access to credit.
Alexis de Tocqueville, an American political theorist, noted that only when citizens
maximize their collaborative capacities and recognize themselves as rights-bearing
individuals can we say that democracy functions well. The social sciences are not only
limited to the critical analysis of issues. They also deal with offering alternative courses
of action with the end goal of improving human welfare and bringing about social
development. The importance and relevance of the social sciences in both the academe
and civil society make the study of social sciences a promising undertaking.
CHAPTER 18
Humanities and Arts
If you are into humanities and the arts, you might have taken an interest in visiting
museums gallery collections, and art centers. There has been a growing need to research
on archeological and historic sites, and communicating knowledge of these to the public.
Museum directors, otherwise known as curators, supervise the acquisition, storage, and
exhibition of collections. One of their primary duties is to authenticate, evaluate, and
categorize the specimens in a collection. Along with museum technicians or collection
specialists, curators oversee the safeguarding and care of museum collections and
exhibitions. Curators may specialize in a particular field, such as art, history, or botany.
Curators may also direct and assist in conducting research projects and relevant
educational programs.
If you are into history, you might have taken interest in historical documentation. It is
important that we keep and preserve the integrity of essential documents that form the
basis of historical scholarship. These documents and records may come in the form of
manuscripts, photographs, websites, maps, films, and sound recordings, among others.
Archivists specialize in preserving documents and records of historical significance. They
also coordinate educational outreach programs such as tours, workshops, lectures, and
may work with researchers on topics relevant to their collections. Most archivists
specialize in a particular period in history so they have a nuanced understanding of the
records from that period, Conservators, like archivists, keep records of works of art,
artifacts, and to some extent, specimens Being a conservator requires extensive
scientific, historical, and archeological research to formulate an accurate understanding
of the artifact being studied. Some conservators use various laboratory techniques and
equipment like x-ray machines, chemical testing, microscopes, and special lights to
examine objects and analyze their condition. They document their findings to determine
the best way to preserve artifacts and treat items to reduce deterioration, if not restore
them to their original state.
Education and Child Development
Teachers or professors at the tertiary level specialize in a variety of subjects and fields.
Aside from teaching professors often spend their time conducting research, experiments,
or extension work (e.g., serving in college and university wide committees). Publications
are an important feature of life in the academe, Tenured professors are often expected to
do original research and publish their findings in reputable journals or present them at
conferences.
Child development is another field where social science graduates could specialize. This
field may entail working at a preschool or childhood care center. The various tasks
relevant to this field may require a specific set of skills, such as designing a child
educational program and standards, or providing training and development opportunities
for childhood care specialists.
Psychology is the study of human behavior and mental processes Social scientists in
general aim to promote human welfare and development through knowledge gained from
their fields of specialization.
In schools guidance counselors play a vital role in providing guidance and support to
children and young adults, especially when it comes to dealing with personal and
academic pressures.
In organizational settings, human resource management is a viable career path. Human
resource managers coordinate direct, and plan the administrative functions of an
organization or institution. Aside from overseeing an organization's recruitment process
and coordinating employee-related services such as payroll and benefits, human
resource managers are responsible for supervising training and development programs.
They ensure that qualified employees are given jobs which suit them well, ensuring that
their skills are used as efficiently as possible.
Social workers, like social psychologists, are concerned with people's welfare and
helping those in distress. They deliver social welfare and human rights services that
contribute to the development of people's lives. In doing so, they employ research
analysis and data in implementing service projects. Most social workers work with their
clients on an individual basis by helping them solve their problems in daily life, or by using
social knowledge in clinics to help patients.
Communication, Mass Media, and Public Relations
Public relations is the practice of promoting a favorable public image of an organization
they represent, often to multiple audiences such as the general public, shareholders, and
employees. Public relations specialists, sometimes referred to as communications
specialist or media specialists, handle an organization's lines of communication with the
public including consumers and other media specialists. They design media releases to
develop if not increase, awareness of the organization's work and goals. In government,
public relations specialists may find work as press secretaries. In this setting, they are
often in charge of monitoring and addressing various questions and concerns regarding
the organization or institution. Many radio or television special reports, newspaper stories,
and magazine articles start at the desks of public relations specialists.
Public Service, Law, and Politics
The government is mandated to deliver services for citizens and ensure that their needs
are properly and effectively addressed. The provision of public services is a fundamental
task of the government, which is why a large portion of the national budget is allocated to
public services. Therefore, the government needs qualified personnel to carry out its day-
to - day operations.
Aside from public service, many social science graduates also go into law. Lawyers can
be advocates and advisers. As advocates, they represent clients in court, whether civil of
criminal, depending on the nature of the legal dispute; before government agencies, as
well as in private legal matters. They present evidence and argue in support of their client.
As advisers, they counsel their clients on their rights and obligations and recommend
courses of action in legal matters. They also communicate with their clients, colleagues,
judges, and others involved in the case, and prepare and file legal documents, such as
lawsuits, appeals, wills, and contracts. Lawyers also teach and conduct research and
analysis of legal problems. They often oversee the work of support staff, such as
paralegals and legal assistants.